CUAJ 2 Modern Society Would Most Likely Dis- Luther and His Followers

1 DIVINE AND DEMONIC: THE PORTRAYAL OF FEMALE POSSESSION IN COUNTER- REFORMATION ART

BY MARIA OGNJANOVICH BA2 ART HISTORY STUDENT AT THE COURTAULD AND CO-FOUNDER of CUAJ 2 Modern society would most likely dis- Luther and his followers. What followed miss the possibility of demonic posses- was the systematic reform of the Cath- sion, attributing its symptoms to a med- olic Church, with the renewed canon ical or psychiatric illness rather than to being spread across the world through the devil. However, in the early modern overseas missions, as well as in the tra- period few doubted the ability for a ditional strongholds of Catholicism in Eu- demon to enter a human body. During rope.1 This exorcism in Laon, occurring the time of the Counter-Reformation, during the French Wars of Religion, was the Catholic Church used images of hailed as a miracle by the Counter-Ref- exorcism as a testimonial to the glory ormation forces, while the Protestant of Catholicism, as seen in The Miracles side labeled it a hoax. The exorcism it- of St Ignatius of Loyola by Rubens and self, while difficult to immediately find in the engraving of a possessed woman such a cluttered image, is dominated by by Jacques Callot. Whether there was the Church itself. The overbearing struc- truly an increase in demonic possessions ture reflected the reality of the time, as during this period cannot be verified, the Roman Church dictated the general but women especially were more likely positions and attitudes of all types of to be shown in the paintings of exor- ritualistic and artistic expression. cism. In this essay I will explore how female stereotypes fed the notion that women were more prone to possession, Demonic possession was a significant and how the ambiguity of divine and subject for the Catholic Church during demonic intervention is expressed in the this period because of the Post-Refor- art of the period. I will also touch upon mation controversy about the efficacy how different depictions were made for and validity of miracles. Miracles were different audiences, as well as the simi- an important propaganda tool, as they larities. verified the claim of true faith, as well as the power of Catholic belief, in a The exorcism of Nicole Aubry (fig. setting of hostility or resistance. The 1), in the French city of Laon in 1566, Protestant Church had launched an is an example of the Catholic Church’s attack on “beliefs and practices bearing response through art to the pressurised on the relations between matter and climate of the Counter-Reformation, spirit”, for example transubstantiation which was prompted by the Protestant and ritual practices.2. An example of Reformation of the sixteenth century. ritual practices was the ritual of exor- Incited by the new split in the Church, cism. Protestants protested exorcism, the Council of Trent was held, lasting as they believed that it had no basis in from 1545 to 1563, to try to reconcile scripture, and that it “emphasized the the Reformers with the Church in Rome. human power of the exorcist rather than During this time, the Catholic authorities appealing to the deity, that it was essen- addressed the new heresies of Martin tially magical and superstitious, and that

1. Alexandra Bamji, Geert H Janssen and Mary Laven, The Ashgate Research Companion To The Count- er-Reformation, 1st ed. (London: Routledge, 2016), 379. 2. Ibid, 255. 3

FIG. 1 4 its purpose was to perform a miracle in An example of this can be seen in the an age when they had ceased.”3 engraving of a possessed woman by Jacques Callot (fig. 2). It is one of forty The visual arts had the important role of engravings made for the second edition teaching and exciting Catholic viewers of a book of miracles ascribed to the with the glory of the Roman Church. shrine of Our Lady of the Annunciation Paintings and sculpture were used as in Florence between 1252 and 1613, visual cues for a largely illiterate au- named Scelta d’alcuni miracoli e grazie dience, and therefore acted as both della santissima nunziata di Firenze. It instructional devices and memory signs. was commissioned by the Servite Con- The style was characterised by rhetoric vent of Florence in 1612, and contains and drama, creating a persuasive me- eighty miraculous tales written by one dium for the Catholic Church. It created of the friars, Giovanni Angelo Lottini. a static theatricality, “adopting the dra- The engravings were made by Jacques matics, gesture and illusionistic perspec- Callot, living in Florence at the time, tive of the stage” in order to confirm and reproduced the paintings of the chi- the congregation’s teachings that the ostro grande by other artists.6 The ven- only true path to eternal salvation was eration of saints had increased in the through Catholicism.4 For Catholics, Counter-Reformation period, creating demonic possession was separated from a competitive marketplace for shrines other supernatural occurrences or mir- and their orders. The Servite Convent acles by its relatability. The subject and felt this acutely, and in order to increase its subsequent paintings not only have the reputation of the Annunciation, the a very real human dimension to them, book was created for the international but they also have a morally instructive elite market. Its first edition had fea- role.5 To the ordinary layperson, these tured far more rudimentary woodcuts, images would have been both frighten- and the decision to move to the more ing and awe-inspiring, perfectly working sophisticated medium of engraving sig- towards Catholicism’s goal of bringing naled the Convent’s wish to expand its people back into its Church. range of influence outside the city limits of Florence.7 In the engraving illustrat- Specific sects and groups, for their own ing possession, a writhing woman is particular doctrine or agenda, com- pinned down to a bed by four members missioned religious paintings, and in of her family. Her eyes roll back in her the Counter-Reformation period, these head while above her three small de- paintings were used to transmit the mons fly away. In the upper left corner, identity and reputation of the particular an image of the Annunciation is shown, convent or shrine past its normal limits. suggesting that the afflicted woman is

3. Brian P. Levack, The Devil Within: Possession And Exorcism In The Christian West (New Hav- en, CT: Yale University Press, 2013), 21. 4. Gauvin Alexander Bailey, Baroque And Rococo, 1st ed. (London: Phaidon, 2012), 4. 5. Levack, The Devil Within, 2. 6. Sara F. Matthews‐Grieco, “Media, Memory And The Miracoli Della SS. Annunziata”, Word & Image 25, no. 3 (2009): 272-292, doi:10.1080/02666280802489970, 281. 7. Ibid, 285. 5

FIG. 2 FIG. 3

fi nally freed from her torment through the devils? Is it only us, the chosen audi- the intercession of this miraculous im- ence, or can the fi gures in the scene see age. The domestic setting increases the them as well? These demons are essen- pathos of the scene, and also makes the tially unportrayable due to their exis- intercession of the Virgin Mary more tence being rooted in belief, and hence, wondrous, as the image demonstrates if only the viewer can see them, the that her reach is not limited to within the viewer becomes a voyeur, a one-sided walls of her shrine. The “propagandist gaze at the suffering of the demoniac. emotionalism” of this piece was used to While artists like Callot tried to show the further spread the miracles of the An- physical manifestation of wrestling with nunciata, in order to cement the reputa- one’s faith in the writhing ecstasy of the tion and future of the Order.8 female demoniac, this style was similar to depictions of divine ecstasy, which Images such as this of exorcism, that also represents an inner expression of include the shadowy fi gures of escap- faith outwardly.9 This showcases the ing demons, raise the question of sight thin line between the portrayals of divin- and viewership. Who exactly can see ity and demonic possession. Both share

8. Willibald Sauerländer, The Catholic Rubens: Saints And Martyrs, 1st ed. (Los Angeles: Getty Research Institute, 2014), 79. 9. Bamji, Janssen and Laven, The Ashgate Research Companion To The Counter-Reformation, 373. 6 similar propensities, including trances, of interior vision”, although her imagi- ecstasies, and visions, and saints, espe- nation was not always believed.12 Her cially female ones, were often depicted superiors and confessors believed that in flights of divine ecstasy, as for exam- her visions, because of their intensity, ple St Teresa of Jesus.10 St Teresa was a were a product of the devil rather than Spanish Carmelite reformer and mystic, God - “they told me, as they often did, living in the sixteenth century, and was that I was being deceived by the devil known for her intense visions, which and that it was all the work of my imag- she wrote about extensively. What ination.”13 This possible lack of faith characterized her experiences was her showcases the potential risks that were assertion that her heightened vision was believed to be associated with visions, linked with a loss of bodily control. and their supposed ability to lead one astray. The control of bodily senses was This can be seen in the engraving St key to self-awareness and preserva- Teresa’s Vision of the Forty Jesuit Mar- tion.14 tyrs, by Francois Spierre, ca. 1660 (fig. 3). The saint’s twisted body and turned head lean back towards the riotous cha- According to Catholic doctrine, posses- os of the violence behind her. Her lack sion by the devil relates to original sin. of sensory control is highlighted by the The ancestral shame that one inherits as fact that she does not look at the vision a result of Adam and Eve’s rebellion is itself, but seems instead consumed and the source of one’s ‘fallen’ nature, and surrounded by it. This print was made at therefore allows one to be manipulated the same time as the trial to decide the by the devil. There are a number of case of martyrdom for the Jesuits in the instances in the Bible relating to demon- vision, and it was intended as proof of ic activity, most famously in the Book of the miraculous deeds of the men behind Job. However this is an example of de- her. Just as demons are essentially un- monic obsession, in which the demon or portrayable, the vision also constitutes spirit taunts and injures the person from the “dialectic between absence and without, rather than possession, which presence”.11 St Teresa herself under- occurs from within. Possession is charac- stood the bridge needed between paint- terised by the infiltration of the body by ing and the “incomprehensible aspects an evil spirit, although, according to the

10. Hillaire Kallendorf, “Demonic Possession: The Devil In Art”, (Lecture, University College London, 2014). 11. Kallendorf, “Demonic Possession: The Devil In Art”. 12. Rose Marie San Juan, “Dizzying Visions. St Teresa Of Jesus And The Embodied Visual Image”, in Unseen Spirits: The Representation Of Subtle Bodies In Early Modern European Cul- ture, 1st ed. (Leiden, Boston: Brill, 2008), 252. 13. St. Teresa and E. Allison Peers, The Complete Works Of St. Teresa Of Jesus, 1st ed. (Lon- don: Sheed and Ward, 1978), 184. 14. W. de Boer, The Conquest Of The Soul. Confessions, Discipline, And Public Order In Count- er-Reformation Milan, 1st ed. (Leiden: Brill, 2001), 112-115. 15. M O’Donnell, “CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Demonic Possession”, 2012, http://www. newadvent.org/cathen/12315a.htm. 7 Church, the soul itself can never be truly controlled.16

During this period, when faith was being renewed and transformed, the Church attempted to reform the convent system. This was done by modifying the existing convents, as well as by starting a number of new religious orders specif- ically for women, and by increasing the religious education for younger girls.17 The Church still did not allow women to hold any form of high ecclesiastical offi ce, but they did have large roles as the heads of convents and asylums, as nuns, and as saints that were looked to as role models of piety and sanctity. Many of these female saints were depicted in paintings in the ritual of exor- FIG. 4 cism, including Francesco Vanni’s Saint Catherine exorcises a possessed woman, Cappella di Santa Caterina, Basil- ica di San Domenico, c.1526 (fi g. 4). Here there is a complete juxtaposition between the virtue of St Catherine and the depravity of the female demoniac. One sees St Catherine with her white veil, the pinnacle of Catholic woman- hood, healing a literally fallen woman. This increased focus on female spirituality led many nuns and women to seek sainthood. However this came with the added price of increased pressure on these women, and this burden, according to Levack, ironically became one of the main reasons in the escalation in possessions in these years.18

Catholic demonologists of the time spread the idea that the devil and his demons could attack anyone, but would FIG. 5

16. Ibid. 17. Sherrin Marshall, Women In Reformation And Counter-Reformation Europe, 1st ed. (Bloom- ington [u.a.]: Indiana Univ. Press, 1991), 166. 18. Levack, The Devil Within, 173. 8 assault with more force and persever- “painful reminder of the earthly realities ance those who were actively seeking they sought to transcend”.21 a path to sanctity and spiritual perfection.19 This created the understanding After the Reformation strict self-restraint and expectation that nuns would inev- was reemphasized, with the tradition itably deal with some type of demonic of patriarchy within the Church exem- temptation, and along with the severe plified in the Malleus Maleficarum and environment of the convent that was other witch-hunting texts of the fifteenth new to many of the inductees, religious and sixteenth centuries.22 According to anxiety to achieve perfection may have the authors of the treatise, women were been triggered, in some novices, man- more credulous and impressionable ifesting itself as a belief that they had than men, but most importantly, wom- been possessed. It did not alleviate mat- en were thought to have an insatiable ters that many of the ‘symptoms’ of de- libido compared to men, and were monic possession were actively encour- feared for the damage they would do aged by the convents, including fasting if left unsupervised.23 This can be rele- and supernatural visions. This can be gated back to the Christian theological illustrated in the case of Margaret Mos- story of Eve being created out of Ad- tyn, or Margaret of Jesus as she chose am’s spare rib. Female sexuality is an to be called, in 1644 in England. In her important aspect of the possession nar- journey towards sanctity as a Carmelite rative due to its links between the body nun, she began to feel self-doubt, and and sanctity. Sexual anxiety and shame “spiritual despair”.20 She soon became proliferated in young women during unable to pray, hence believing this the Counter Reformation, as they were was due to the devil’s intervention. This forced to preserve their virtue in order made her anguish worse, which led to to either find a good husband or reach symptoms that are shared by demoni- high levels of sanctity, otherwise risking acs – vomiting, suicidal thoughts, and the disgrace of their family and commu- violent convulsions. Margaret’s story nity. When women became possessed, demonstrates how the pressure of the their sexual tendencies were criticized new female spirituality could be inter- over those of male demoniacs, for vio- preted as one being possessed by the lating Christian standards of modesty.24 devil. By taking one’s eternal life into Not only this, but sexual metaphors one’s own hands, after being denied it were often used by authors of demonic for so long, the physical body came to possession texts, especially the demonic be seen as an obstacle to that end, a ‘penetration’ of the female body.25 A

19. Ibid, 174. 20. Ibid, 173. 21. Rudolph M Bell, Holy Anorexia, 1st ed. (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 1985), 149. 22. Ioan P. Culianu, “A Corpus For The Body”, The Journal Of Modern History 63, no. 1 (1991): 63. 23. Ibid, 71, Heinrich Institoris and Christopher S Mackay, Malleus Maleficarum, 1st ed. (Cam- bridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012), 101. 24. Levack, The Devil Within, 175. 25. Levack, The Devil Within, 175. 9 female demoniac was in a vulnerable position: the spectacle of the exorcism The rhetoric surrounding demonic pos- ritual had a sexual dimension in itself, session only worked to confirm women’s as it granted the exorcist and the view- attitudes towards their own bodies as of- er physical intimacy to the woman, in fensive and lewd. Possession by a spirit which the demoniac was submissive to was a reminder of the indecency that their eye and touch. Not only was she their body exuded. Catholicism placed shamed for being sexual, but she was virginity as the closest state to God, and exposed physically. this superiority was practiced in mon- asteries and convents. However, nuns The Miracles of St Francis of Paola, were given a label that was both ma- 1627-28 (fig. 5), by Rubens, was paint- ternal and sexual; the bride of Christ. ed at a time of violent fighting in the While holding this vaunted symbolic southern Netherlands, and this is re- position, the nun was also expected to flected in the teeming figures and the remain chaste, a seemingly ambiguous theatrical power of the painting. Rubens request. The pressure of this role was not only had to create a piece of evi- further complicated by the close role dence for the trial of canonization of many nuns had with their priests, who St Francis, but also had to produce a were both their confessor and spiritual persuasive substantiation on the glory advisor. When a sexual attraction or of the Roman Church and Catholicism. relationship was started, consensually He achieved this by featuring the saint or not, the shame and guilt that these performing miracles. Here the saint women may have experienced may floats above the other figures, emanat- have become manifest physiologically, ing a soft, golden light, while a number leading to a diagnosis of possession.26 of demoniacs twist below him. The fe- A sexual relationship between demoni- male demoniac seems to be convulsing, ac and priest, or at least a rumour of resulting in her head tipped back and one, is featured in many of the stories of her dress falling off her body. Her fig- nuns becoming possessed, including the ure is presented to the saint who raises possessions of Loudun, Aix-en-Provence, his hand in blessing. Not only do the and Louviers. surrounding figures in the painting have ample view of her body, but so do A behaviour that was encouraged by the viewers of the painting. The male the convent system to overcome this gaze strips the demoniac of identity, physical obstacle was extreme fasting. and instead presents her as simply a Fasting in the medieval period was vulnerable body on show. This paint- seen as a holy act, and especially in ing juxtaposes the spiritual glory of the female mystics, a ‘holy anorexia’ was saints, and the despair and suffering of seen as righteous. However, after the the people below afflicted by the devil. Reformation, the abstention from food Viewers would have been able to look became an act subscribed to demonic at the saint and aspire to rise above the possession. According to Bell, this was misery as he has. in order for male authorities to control

26. Levack, The Devil Within, 177. 10 women’s bodies and spirituality, making mystics into witches.27 Catherine of Siena, as well as other saints who took part in spiritual anorexia, for example Colomba da Rieti, were sus- pected of being possessed because of this behaviour. In an earlier time, their extreme fasting would have signaled their holiness immediately, but in the Counter-Reformation, these women were doubted as weak or possessed. Interestingly, both these women wrote of their obsession by demons, who tried to taunt them and make stray them from their belief. This links back to the doubt placed upon St Teresa and her visions.

Another example of an artistic work de- picting St Teresa is The Ecstasy of Saint Teresa by Bernini, 1647-1652 (fi g. 6). FIG. 6 It can be found in the Cornaro Chapel, Santa Maria della Vittoria, in Rome, and highlights the lack of bodily control that was so feared in the righteous behaviour of sacred visions. The chapel combines architectural and sculptural qualities, with the sculpture of St Teresa being the main focal point. The fi gure of the saint lies on a bed of rock, while above her rays of Divine Light shine down upon the angel piercing her with his arrow of Divine Love. She collapses backwards, her hands and feet hanging helplessly, while simultaneously being lifted forwards and upwards. Mieke Bal has described the body as at once held in place and decentred by the force of the vision.28 Her eyes are just visible under her heavy eyelids, while her mouth opens in an involuntary moan of ecstasy. Bernini utilised natural light to reveal the Angel and the Saint “as if by reve- FIG. 7

27. Bell, Holy Anorexia, 161. 28. Mieke Bal, “Ecstatic Aesthetics: Metaphoring Bernini”, in Compelling Visuality: The Work Of Art In And Out Of History, 1st ed. (University of Minnesota Press, 2003), 15. 11 lation”, as he, a fervent Catholic, saw ers with their children, while behind this sculpture as a prime opportunity to him, further members of his order stand excite and stimulate the congregation.29 in their monks’ habits. This includes St This is further exaggerated by the sculp- Francis Xavier, whose altarpiece was tures of the Cornaro family surround- also designed for the same church. ing the ecstatic Saint, who seem to be Rays of light seem to shine out of St Ig- discussing and meditating the ecstasy natius’ head while cherubs float above before them.30 This visualisation of a him. These putti contrast with the shad- hallucinatory experience is defined by owy, smoke-like demons that are being the “coexistence of opposites” inherent banished from the woman writhing within it; presence and absence, real below. To the viewers of this painting, and imaginary, static and dynamic.31 the naturalism of the demoniac’s violent expressions and movements would have Comparing the expression of the visually informed them of the dangers ecstatic body with the possessed body of straying from the Church, as well as reveals a common “state of intense of the possibility that they could be sub- experience while simultaneously moving ject to demonic temptation themselves. beyond their physicality and self-awareness”.32 The female demoniac in The Both paintings by Rubens feature Miracles of St Ignatius Loyola (fig. 7) by the jarring juxtaposition between the Rubens demonstrates this commonality twisting suffering of the crowd and the in iconography, as well as the differen- glorious sanctity of the saint above tiation. Like St Teresa, the woman has them. Within this contrast is the meaning lost control of her self and senses, her of the paintings: to aspire to rise above head rolling back as she falls back onto the suffering of mortality and achieve the crown behind her. However her spiritual immortality.33 Compare these body is more violent in its posture than two images, however, to the engraving that of the saint, with her arms ripping by Callot, and superficial differences away her clothing and her face contort- between these images can be attribut- ed in mania. The painting for the altar- ed to the differing intended audiences. piece of the Jesuit Church of Antwerp While the Rubens’ were made for an shows the viewer that only the calm, ecclesiastical setting, with its large scale centered Loyola can cure the hysterical and powerful use of colour and posture, woman in the foreground. St Ignatius the Callot was made for a book for the stands resplendent on a raised platform, international elite. The small scale and resting his one hand on the altar, while the domestic setting of the scene would the other is in the position of blessing. have appealed more to the empathy of Below him, figures gather around, moth- the wealthy buyers at home, while the

29. Howard Hibbard, Bernini, 1st ed. (London: Penguin, 1965), 130. 30. Ibid. 31. Giovanni Careri, Bernini, Flights Of Love, The Art Of Devotion, 1st ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995), 271. 32. Ibid. 33. Sauerländer, The Catholic Rubens, 86. 12 choice of engraving allowed the Servite and promoting its doctrine in an in- Convent to reproduce Callot’s work in creasingly competitive marketplace. The order to increase their reputation and fear of what women could do if they revenue. revolted from their set gender roles was so great that women lived in a world Social order relied on the conformity of where obedience to the Church was all members of society, and it is in the the only path forward other than losing visionary state of the possessed and the one’s virtue and joining the devil, and it ecstatic that can be found the symbol of is within the similarities between the two the Counter-Reformation endeavor for separate figures, one affected by divine self-awareness and control. The edicts of intervention and the other afflicted by the Council of Trent presented a unique demonic interference, the Virgin Mary opportunity for the Catholic Church to and Mary Magdalene, that can be reach an even larger Christian audience found the thin line between divinity and through the use of Art, spreading the the devil. propaganda of the validity of miracles, 13 BIBLIOGRAPHY

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IMAGES

Figure 1 – The Exorcism Of Nicole Aubry By A Bishop At The Cathedral Of Notre-Dame Of Laon, France, C. 1566. Copy of an engraving by Jean Boulaese. New York: The Granger Collection, 1575. From: Granger Historical Picture Archive, https://www.granger.com/results.asp?image=0094257&screenwidth=1265 (accessed April 17, 2017).

Figure 2 - Callot, Jacques. A Possessed Woman. Engraving on paper for Scelta d’alcuni miracoli e grazie della santissima nunziata di Firenze. London: British Museum, 1611-1619. From: British Museum, http://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?objec- tId=1555821&partId=1&searchText=Scelta+d%27alcuni+miracoli+e+grazie+della+santissima+nunziata+di+Firenze&page=1 (accessed April 26, 2017).

Figure 3 – Spierre, Francois, St Teresa’s Vision of the 40 Jesuit Martyrs, engraving, ca. 1660, in Rose Marie San Juan, “Dizzying Visions. St Teresa Of Jesus And The Embodied Visual Image”. In Unseen Spirits: The Representation Of Subtle Bodies In Early Modern European Culture, 245-267. Christine Gottler and Wolfgang Neuber, figure 1, 1st ed. Leiden, Boston: Brill, 2008.

Figure 4 - Vanni, Francesco. Saint Catherine Exorcises A Possessed Woman. Siena: Cappella di Santa Ca- terina, Basilica di San Domenico, 1593-1596. From: http://www.sienaguidavirtuale.it/accessible/eng/ geo_sandomenico.html (accessed April 17, 2017).

Figure 5 - Rubens, Peter Paul. The Miracles Of St Francis Of Paola. Oil on panel. Los Angeles: J.Paul Getty Museum, 1627. From: J. Paul Getty Museum, http://www.getty.edu/art/collection/objects/839/peter- paul-rubens-the-miracles-of-saint-francis-of-paola-flemish-about-1627-1628/ (accessed April 17, 2017).

Figure 6 - Bernini, Gian Lorenzo. The Ecstasy Of St. Teresa. Marble. Rome: Cornaro Chapel, Santa Maria della Vittoria, 1647. From: Web Gallery of Art, http://www.wga.hu/index1.html (accessed April 17, 2017).

Figure 7 – Rubens, Peter Paul. The Miracles Of St Ignatius Of Loyola. Vienna: Kunsthistorisches Museum, 1617. From: Kunsthistorisches Museum, http://www.khm.at/Archiv/Ausstellungen/rubens/_E/frame- 02bh_E.html (accessed April 17 2017).