ARCHITECTURAL RESEARCH, Vol. 21, No. 3(September 2019). pp. 79-90 pISSN 1229-6163 eISSN 2383-5575 Past and Present Viable Pavilions Remain in Architecture: Envisioning New Directions for a Better Future Research on pavilions within the history of world fairs, from the mid-19th to the 21st Century

Sodahm Suzanne Shim, Yoonhie Lee and Chaeshin Yoon Ph.D. Candidate, Department of Architecture, Ewha Womans University, Seoul, South Korea Professor, Department of Architecture, Ewha Womans University, Seoul, South Korea Professor, Department of Architecture, Ewha Womans University, Seoul, South Korea

https://doi.org/10.5659/AIKAR.2019.21.3.79

Abstract The ephemeral and temporal nature of pavilions is the underlying motivation that led to the development of this paper. From the beginning of the industrial era through contemporary history, there have been many instances of architects attempting to rethink architectural design in the context of modern social, cultural, and technical imperatives. Today, the leading changes in humanity are accompanied by a revolutionary electronic digital medium. The pavilion has been in an amalgamation of architectural integration since the beginning of human history. World’s Fairs/Expos have, since their establishment, served as international presentations of goods and achievements of particular nations. They became a popular stage wherein potential architectural achievements were showcased through the evocative architecture of pavilions. Due to the pavilion’s “temporary nature,” its coverage includes various perspectives: social, historical, geographical, post-colonial, iconographical, temporal, and ephemeral. It has also served as a receptacle due to its representational value at a given time. The pavilion has offered architectural designers, clients, and visitors a place to use their imaginations. Moreover, the architect’s role in creating pavilions cannot be overestimated. Due to fact that they abound in symbolism, contemporary designs, and innovative solutions, pavilions often mirror modern mankind and plan for the next aesthetic revolutions and ideological architectural theories. To understand and appreciate architects’ original intentions with their pavilions, this paper focuses on noteworthy pavilions that were created from the beginning of industrialization through the present. It explores and discusses the pavilion’s characteristics, highlights the significance of its physical form as generated by a specific theme.

Keywords: Pavilion, Temporality, Transformative, World Fairs, Urban Art-Architecture Installation

th 1. INTRODUCTION: THE INFLUENCE transformed from the early 19 Century (when powerful nations th OF FAIRS’ THEMES ON THE PAVILION used pavilions to promote their imperial propaganda) to the 20 Century (when pavilions were correlated with consumerism Thepavilion 1 was born from a desire for a place to contemplate representing the multinational corporation sector’s eagerness and interact with natural surroundings. Over the course of to advertise products) to the 21st Century (when pavilions were architecture’s long development since the Enlightenment, the created through individual artistic freedom with collaborative pavilion has experienced a radical shift in its usage, which efforts by multiple engineering experts). demonstrates both its amplified form and transformation The pavilion has therefore represented a significant of architecture itself. To understand these shifts, it is helpful architectural type throughout human history. It was one of the to understand the past in order to reveal how the pavilion key components of architecture and art history. In fact, world fairs2 were celebrations of progress, and each fair brought with it architectural innovations and Enlightenment ideas. Historically Corresponding Author : sodahm suzanne shim Department of Architecture, Engineering Building, A304, 52 notable pavilions were mainly showcased at world fairs that Ewhayeodae-Gil, Seodaemun-Gu, Seoul, South Korea had specific purposes and were held in Western countries, and e-mail : [email protected] were an exceptional historical phenomenon. The fairs’ design experiments provided driving forces for the development of This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the technology. Although world fairs are now celebrated events, they Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (http:// originally had a political purpose, and individual entrepreneurs creativecommons. org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/) which permits unrestricted were only allowed to participate at later dates. Following the new non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. millennium, another architectural narrative unfolded with the

©Copyright 2019 Architectural Institute of Korea. 80 Sodahm Suzanne Shim, Yoonhie Lee and Chaeshin Yoon development of the new thematic pavilion. Historical national Each world fairs had an overarching theme, which portrayed pavilions used to signal innovative milestones in construction the current period and provided an outlook on future devel- and engineering for those industries outside the scope of the opments in technology and civilization. Identifying different fairs. The evolving nature of the pavilion has changed, but it will types of pavilions designed during various historical transitions continue to be interesting, instructive, and influential.The pavil- showed the significance and versatility of human culture. Table 1 ion shows the external causes of the evolution of modern human displays the chronological history of the world fairs, highlighting history. It is a multi-layered phenomenon that encompasses eco- specific trends over time. This study aims is to reveal the consis- nomic, political, social, cultural, and ethical issues. Moreover, tent nature of the pavilion and its evolution. Since specific pa- the pavilion is uniquely poised, because it clearly demonstrates vilion type is rooted in architectural production, it is important both the characteristics of its lively, open, aesthetic beauty and its to address why the pavilions were showcased at various world promise of mature, cultural, integrated architectural practice. To fairs, and the specific message displayed with unique visages. fully understand the history of pavilions, it is important to look World fairs signify the temporal, ephemeral, and transformative back in time and location. World fairs, as amalgams of industrial nature of pavilions. Through examining modern-day pavilions, arts displays, were milestones at that time in history. this study aims to understand the present circumstances of the Kenneth Luckhurst (1951)3 explained that exhibitions were architectural profession, which has seen a shift toward the com- similar to fairs, but were quite different in one aspect: exhibi- mercial sector, rather than toward design for sustainability. tions were used solely to display or exhibit goods, while fairs The cohesive thesis of this research is that pavilions are interest- connoted commerce. Exposition (or expo) was a word that ety- ing because of their resilient transformations and temporal nature. mologically bridged the gap between fair and exhibition. It was We will gain inspiration by absorbing ideas for aesthetically sus- first used in 1649 to denote displaying something at a show.4 It tainable and resilient design, and substantial architectural knowl- is therefore important to distinguish between fairs and exposi- edge by examining the historical transformation of pavilions. tions (expos), because they are well-known for their large scale and merit, and were highly influential in the past. The interna- 2. FOUNDATIONAL STUDY MEASURES: tional events described commonly called world fairs, reflecting TRACKING THE FULL POTENTIAL OF PAVILIONS TO the spirit of their times, seems a relevant medium to analyze INFLUENCE ARCHITECTURAL DESIGNS this shifting paradigm in history. Especially, those were held in following list of table in reference, the premise is the power of 2.1 Review of the Literature Section nation can be further subcategorized into two distinctive criteria Previous studies on pavilions were limited and focused on the notable cities and the notable architects. classifying and identifying major terminologies in this field of Researchers began focusing on world fairs to understand the research. As displayed in Table 2, this study used a qualitative historical evolution of pavilions. comparison approach. First, interpretation of world fairs is divided into two phases: recognizing the specific exhibit, and Table 1. Notable World Fair and Expo Themes identifying the exhibition’s main theme. Second, selecting differ- ent pavilion types depends on not only the exhibition’s character LOCATIONS/YEARS OFFICIAL MAIN THEMES but also the exhibitor’s intentions. Third, every pavilion on exhi- The Great Exhibition of various London, England: 1851 bition must be recognizable for its temporality. industry works from all nations The study will explore pavilions to gather architectural prec- Centennial International Exhibitions edents. The pavilion played a critical role in the history of an international exhibition of soil/ Philadelphia, USA: 1876 mine arts, manufactured goods and architecture and helped architects design the most fascinating products freestanding objects for public display. This study of pavilions is offered as a contribution to the history of architecture as nor- Paris, France: 1889 Exposition Universelle internationale mally understood, and was produced by fairly conventional Deutscher Werkbund promote modes of researching architectural history articles. Cologne, Germany: 1914 modern German industrial design in the global marketplace Given that a fair’s success was measured by its architectural works, pavilions were important because they signaled new tech- Exposition Internationale des Arts Paris, France: 1925 Décoratifs et Industriels Modernes nological achievements and revolutionary designs. Furthermore, pavilions highlighted the particular architect’s role as a major Brussels, Belgium: 1958 A World View–A New Humanism decision maker, and the structures served as interpretations of the New York, USA: 1964 Peace Through Understanding environment. Findling and Pelle’s (2008) widely cited book En- Osaka, Japan: 1970 Progress and Harmony for Mankind cyclopedia of world’s fairs and expositions focuses on pavilions Hanover, Germany: 2000 Humankind–Nature–Technology and exposition fairs, and it identifies pavilions’ names and titles. Yverdon-les-Bains, Considered as the bible of pavilion study, it illustrates key points I and the Universe Switzerland: 2002 by describing national projects in large cities. Based on the pavil- Milan, Italy: 2015 Feeding the Planet, Energy for Life ion examples in the book, we extrapolated that pavilion as a medi- um implied a particular purpose and a self-portrait of society. Past and Present Viable Pavilions Remain in Architecture: Envisioning New Directions for a Better Future 81 Research on pavilions within the history of world fairs, from the mid-19th to the 21st Century An artistic and creative pavilion is an essential element in most The following aspects describe the main hierarchal and urban environments. Regrettably, professional and scholarly architectural pavilion elements used to verify each pavilion literature have focused primarily on the development of expo- according to the analytical methodology: the level of the or- sitions and fairs. Small, individual, and unique pavilions were ganizing body commission used to create such pavilions, the neglected in favor of the mega events. Therefore, we explored major characteristics of the fairs, and an understanding of the the key problems and significant differences between the devel- contemporary circumstances as an entire social cultural as- opment of expos and fairs, as well as the importance of public pect. In summary, organizing a concrete framework (see Table displays for all, such as outdoor art-museums. For generations, 2) shows which changes were made and addresses the relevant pavilions in urban settings served as traditional gathering places. topic accordingly. This labeling reveals the paradigm regarding Perhaps most importantly, the very identity of a small pavilion human history. is intertwined with the image projected by its surrounding envi- As mentioned, the pavilion played the role of the main ronment, which happens to an even greater extent than in large transmitter in illustrating an exposition’s main issue and pavilions. Despite the importance, most professional and schol- influential ideas. There were many pavilion types (national, arly literature have neglected the role of small-pavilions. commercial/corporate, propaganda, thematic, etc.), and the pavilion’s significance was extraordinary for its temporal 2.2 Comprehensive Methodology Section character. It was a special type of building, designed for In this phase, we based the study on a national world fairs sur- specific circumstances and during a time of potential ex- vey with research covering eight countries and 15 pavilion case ploitation and manipulation by political regimes to display studies. Each of these 15 pavilions played a critical role in the his- power and authority. The evolution of pavilions is defined tory of architectural practice and in the realizations of most fasci- by the five stages of the transitional era:5 pre-modern, early nating freestanding installations. These pavilions were explicitly modern, late modern, post-new millennium modern, and showcased at world fairs, with specific themes and purposes. contemporary (see Table 2). Expo6 organizers applied certain We used various internet research engines for photographs and principles to direct and program the pavilions’ main themes. maps and detailed essential informational descriptions regard- The criteria used to select the pavilions were as follows: his- ing each world fair, individual architects, and specific pavilions, torical uniqueness, sufficiently influential on communal so- accordingly. Architecture can be understood through the gen- ciety, notable size in scale, and temporal, (i.e., short-lived and eral introduction to technology and construction displayed in no longer exists). However, there were a few unusual cases a pavilion’s exhibitions. Thus, the original introductions to the that occurred in which a pavilion either remained after the present paper recognizes the pavilion’s potential by understand- expo or was rebuilt at a different time and in a different loca- ing a crucial change in the relationship of world fairs, architects/ tion. This study investigates the gradual evolution of the idea designers, and exhibition types. These predisposing causes were of installing exhibition pavilions. The following architectural 19th Century origin, and categorized under five headings. pavilions (Table 2) are important to understanding this topic. We identify and clearly outline the different pavilion types. Table 2. Shifting paradigm in notable pavilions (created by architects/design firms/ By showcasing and referencing the transition of these pavil- artists). Evolution of pavilion appearances over architectural history timeline ions were a medium for transferring information and culture Architect Pavilions Year to the world. I - Pre-modern/Industrialization Joseph Paxton Crystal Palace 1851 Hermann J. Women’s Pavilion 1876 Schwarzmann 3. CASE STUDIES OF PAVILIONS SHOWCASED AT Ferdinand Dutert Machinery Pavilion 1889 PREVIOUS WORLD FAIRS (EXPOS) II – Early Modern/Cultural Exchange Bruno Taut Tra¨ger-Kontor Pavilion 1910 Various descriptions of pavilions from a wide range Monument to Iron Pavilion 1913 of literature highlight the pavilions’ ideas and the fairs’ main statements. The pavilion architects’ bold movements Glass Pavilion 1914 introduced these designs into world fairs, which ultimately Le Corbusier L’Esprit Nouveau Pavilion 1925 changed today’s architectural design. This was an III – Late Modern/Diversely Dual Exchange Le Corbusier Philips Pavilion 1958 unprecedented celebration of culture. Under world fairs’ Charles/Ray Eames IBM Pavilion 1964 exhibition themes, these architects brought a new type of Renzo Piano Italian Industry Pavilion 1970 architectural climate, which led to both individual architecture IV – Post-New Millennium Modern/Nation Branding and collaborative artistic visions using their signature designs. MVRDV Dutch Pavilion 2000 They strictly followed the fairs’ ground rules and showcased Diller Scofidio Renfro Media Pavilion 2002 the designated designer’s abilities and the architect’s role. Wolfgang Buttress UK Pavilion 2015 V – Contemporary Thereby, one aim of this study is to demonstrate an advanced Escobedo Soliz Studio MoMA PS1 2016 understanding of the pavilion’s styles and the pertinent issues Bjarke Ingels Group Serpentine Gallery Pavilion 2016–19 arising in design decision-making. 82 Sodahm Suzanne Shim, Yoonhie Lee and Chaeshin Yoon

3.1 Pre-Modern/Industrialization: The 19th Century feats 3.1.2 Hermann J. Schwarzmann: Women’s Pavilion 3.1.1 Joseph Paxton and Charles Fox: Crystal Palace (1851)- (1876)- Showcasing women’s industrial achievements Powerful nations on display in the age of great engineering

Figure 2. Women’s Pavilion, 1876- Exterior (Left) and Interior (Right) views of exhibits (sources: Wikipedia, 1876 and Corn, 2011) Figure 1. Crystal Palace, 1851 Exterior transept (Left) and Interior (Right) views (sources: duke.edu and archdaily, 2013) The Centennial International Exhibition of 1876, announced by President Grant11 in 1874, was the first world fair held in An imperial commission organized the very first world expo- the US and it opened after 10 years of planning. The exhibi- sition (The Great Exhibition), with Britain and France among tion was meant to be transparent and systematic in that there the driving forces behind this event. The Great Exhibition was was order in the arrangement of displays, which meant that housed in the Crystal Palace in Hyde Park.7 This world expo de- the dual system naturally suggested a grid.12 The order of the livered a powerful message in not only Britain but also abroad, previous world fairs was adopted and this 1876 fair used the bringing change to many countries. This event coincided with 1851 London and 1867 Paris fairs’ classification system for the “take off” of the continent’s industrialization for the past the centennial by combining features. The grid was a figure of two decades.8 The earlier Expos from 1851 to the mid-20th enlightenment rationality,13 and the dual system used gridded Century were strongly influenced by the industrial revolution displays. Historians claim that the showcased industrialized and the colonial ambition of the time. During this “age of mass-products transformed the global image of the US. The progress” coined by Walter Benjamin, material progress based 1876 fair demonstrates the success of the founding principles on technological innovation was at the heart of the exhibitions.9 of the US, the first republic. It provided a powerful vision for Paxton joined with Fox and Henderson’s structural ironwork what humanity could achieve. By its very definition, those re- expertise, which led them to build the Crystal Palace for the publican principles are universal to all nations and peoples.14 Great Exhibition of 1851. Due to its innovative modular design Herman J. Schwarzmann,15 the fair’s chief planner, individually and construction techniques, it was ready in nine months. With designed 34 out of 249 exhibition buildings, including the support from structural engineer Charles Fox, Joseph Paxton Women’s Pavilion (see Figure 2). He adopted the ideas of all designed a cast-iron and plate-glass structure. Its dimensions previous world fairs: for the first time, the exhibits were not were impressive; the main nave was 19.5 m high and the cross to be presented in one single, central building, according to nave was 41 m high. The Great Exhibition is a symbol and pri- thematic groups. The fair’s organizer dedicatedly managed the mary source for High Victorian design. commission16 and followed the official specifications and gen- The exhibition committee wanted to design a building that eral instructions with specific programs.17 This first official fair could be dismantled, created by several construction firms. building, which was devoted to women’s work, was exclusively The committee made extensive use of prefabricated parts seri- planned, funded, and managed by the women of Philadelphia. ally manufactured and assembled at the building site.10 By the The Women’s Pavilion provided over 3,720 m2 of exhibition 1850s, the great engineering and technological inventions doc- space for the work of nearly 1,500 women from at least 13 umented an artistic patrimony in a nation-building climate, countries. which led to the remarkable achievements of an early genera- This 1876 fair marked the creation of the thematic pavilions tion of architectural typology. The Crystal Palace (see Figure 1) that showcased the US’s leading industrial power by displaying by Paxton was an iconic national pavilion, demonstrating Brit- impressive exhibits. A principal characteristic of the architect’s ain’s political strength and power at that time. It was a singular, statement was the slightly sculptural, over-scaled detailing em- enormously scaled pavilion, housed along with all kinds of na- bodied in the Women’s pavilion. The intention was to facilitate tional industrial productions in Hyde Park. Its representation women’s productivity and the US’s industrial development. This was aggressively engaged by national hierarchy and British pavilion allowed for an expression of the architect’s values and bureaucracy; dual legacies joined together leading to the great became a medium for illustrating the fair’s theme. success of the first official world fair in 1851. The particular feature’s intention was to express both aspects of powerful, na- 3.1.3 Ferdinand Dutert and Victor Contamin: Machinery tional aspirations and the architect’s design statement, as well Pavilion (1889)- Balancing act between technical as a close collaborative partnership with an engineering and engineering achievements and architectural aesthetic construction company. retooling Past and Present Viable Pavilions Remain in Architecture: Envisioning New Directions for a Better Future 83 Research on pavilions within the history of world fairs, from the mid-19th to the 21st Century

Figure 3. Machinery Pavilion, 1889 – Exterior (Left) and Interior Figure 4. Tra¨ger-Kontor Pavilion, 1910 (Left) and Monument to Iron (Right) view of exhibits from balcony (source: www.loc.gov ) Pavilion, 1913 (Right) (sources: Gutschow, 2006 and Nielsen, 2012)

At the 1889 Universelle Internationale exposition in Paris, The very first German Work Federation Labour League or the there were fewer national pavilions than that at the 1878 exposi- Deutscher Werkbund,21 exhibition was held in July 1914 at Rhe- tion due to the absence of official exhibits from most of Europe’s inpark in Cologne. It was closed ahead of schedule due to WWI. monarchies.18 Republican president Jules Grévy’s administration Bruno Taut’s two earlier pavilions (see Figure 4) were symmet- organized this event. The Machinery Pavilion was a huge space rical; the 1910 “Tra¨-ger-Kontor” (steel pavilion) in Berlin and with steel arches, which was achieved by the development of the 1913 ‘‘Monument to Iron’’ in Leipzig both used the material industrial technologies and steel production processes. With a that he had been hired to advertise in order to create an abstract, height of 41 m and grand span of 111 m, it was the longest inte- geometric, and exposed steel construction. rior space in the world then, which marked a milestone in the technological development of iron structures (see Figure 3). It used a system of hinged arches made of iron to frame the struc- ture. The structure gave the 1889 exposition a unique way of en- closing an area that was larger than any previous building. It was reused at the 1900 exposition and was then destroyed in 1910. The construction benefited from the combined knowledge of both field engineers and architects. Figure 5. Glass Pavilion, 1914, Plan (Left) and Exterior (Right) view In 1889, the use of a three-hinged arch for decks with a large (sources: Nielsen, 2012 and Gutschow, 2006) span was widely used for a building’s principal use. However, The Glass Pavilion structure was placed on a concrete plinth the building of the Galerie des Machines encouraged an exten- 22 sive, rather than temporal, use of the three-hinged arch.19 The and gave the pavilion a temple-like quality. quantity of the wrought iron used in the building was 96.5%.20 Various ranges of glass products and processing methods were displayed in the German glass industry’s exhibition. This It was a wrought iron pavilion, not a steel building; reasons 23 for not using steel in construction was its relative novelty and colorful effect was later reconstructed in 1993. limited knowledge of its structural application. Located on the Taut intended the Glashaus (see Figure 5) to be more of an Champs de Mars, French architect Ferdinand Dutert designed experimental “object installation” than a functional building. Taut set the tone for this interpretation when he stated in the visitor’s and executed the Machinery Pavilion, with French structural 24 engineer Victor Contamin’s expertise on the strengths of iron guide, “The Glashaus has no other purpose than to be beautiful.” and steel. Dutert won the Grand Prize for Architecture in One of the significant factors in its design was the interests of the client. The Luxfer Prism Company wanted a prototype at the 1869. Contamin was responsible for the technical design of 25 the huge steel structure, including calculations used to ensure exhibition in order to best showcase its products. the structural integrity of the immense arches. The pavilion The Glass Pavilion (1914), the “Tra¨-ger-Kontor” steel pavilion combined two complementary objectives of an aesthetic (1910), and the ‘‘Monument to Iron’’ pavilion (1913) presented appearance with engineering function. After the 1851 Crystal Taut’s intention of free artistic will. Palace’s construction, each World Fair in Paris brought archi- In short, his pavilions were not representations of German tectural innovations in which new building types utilized new nationalism but instead represented a specific industrial group. mediums. This pavilion represented an unprecedented archi- Taut’s work revealed symbiotic, iconic modern pavilions. His glass tectural achievement and marked a milestone in the spans pavilion had a definite use of a temporary marketing pavilion for achieved. The intention was to facilitate industrial productions the glass industry at an exposition full of new products and ideas. and to identify France as a powerful nation. This glass pavilion’s purpose was to be an ephemeral exhibition building. In this era, the alliance between design and industry rose 3.2 Early Modern/New Age of Exchange: to an unprecedented level with the cooperation between mass The 20th Century, Post-WWI feats production and domestic industries (e.g., steel and glass). 3.2.1 Bruno Taut: Pavilions (1910, 1913, and 1914)- Taut explored modern expressionism in his work, and he was Unifying client measure - From object to object exhibit a forerunner in modern architecture through developing strong messages and elevating architecture’s stature. 84 Sodahm Suzanne Shim, Yoonhie Lee and Chaeshin Yoon

3.2.2 Le Corbusier: Pavilion de l’Esprit Nouveau (1925)- nature and embodied the essence of an artwork that could be Examining Art and Design repeatedly reconstructed anywhere.28 In 1921, Le Corbusier illustrated provocative architectural Since pavilions reflect the spirit of their specific time periods, fairs and urban ideas originally developed with his cousin Pierre are an appropriate medium through which to analyze this complex Jeanneret, who was renowned for developing the “Domino phase in history. This type of ephemeral architecture polarized frame system.” In 1925, Le Corbusier’s five points described the public, while it satisfied Le Corbusier’s original intention of the new style of the international movement: envisage urban showcasing modern ideas and technology. He placed systems of housing, a house (cellular unit), reinforced concrete and steel, harmony and proportion at the center of his philosophy. a machine for living in, standardized mass-production during the purist period, and the concept of truth in the vision of 3.3 Late Modern/New Cultural Exchange: 20th Century, modernist urban city planning. Le Corbusier expressed a re- Post-WWII Feats invention of the house in the magazine “L’Esprit Nouveau” as a 3.3.1 Le Corbusier and Xenakis: Philips Pavilion (1958)- “machine for living in.” For him, the only conceivable basis for Marketing focus on audiovisual high-techs and credentials architecture that corresponds to the precise world of machines The direction of the 1958 fair held in Brussels, as set by the was geometry using prisms, cubes, cylinders, pyramids, and Expo’s architect-in-chief, determined that the main exhibit halls spheres as “pure volumes.”26 In this new in­dus­trial spirit, he would be designed along modernist lines. The expo’s promoters con­tributed to a new jour­nal that ad­vo­cated the use of mod­ern tried to provide a balanced demonstration of the modern world. in­dus­trial tech­niques and strate­gies to trans­form so­ci­ety into a The fair’s dominant note was optimistic and upbeat.29 more ef­fi­cient en­viron­ ment­ with a higher stan­dard of living­ on After WWII, technology was still the central focus; however, all socioe­ co­ nomic­ levels.­ it was no longer seen as an end in itself but instead viewed as a The Pavillon de l’Esprit Nouveau was built for the 1925 means for human development (i.e., “progress and mankind”).30 Exposition Internationale des Arts Décoratifs et Industriels Modernes, Paris, France. The pavilion was destroyed in 1926 as Le Corbusier’s ideas were considered as too avant-garde for the time. In 1977, an exact replica was built in Bologna, Italy.

Figure 7. Philips Pavilion, 1958, Plan (Left) and Exterior (Right) view (sources: Wikipedia, 1958 and Clarke, 2012) Figure 6. L’Esprit Nouveau Pavilion, 1925, Plan (Left) and Exterior view (Right) (sources: ncmodernist.org and fondationlecorbusier.fr) Philips is an electronics company based in the Netherlands, and therefore the Philips Pavilion housed a multimedia spectacle The pavilion consisted of four floors (mezzanines are counted) that celebrated postwar technological progress. and was 16 m high. This two-story living space with a sleeping The project management was assigned to Xenakis, an experimental gallery was furnished with “standard” container elements and composer, and his design was influenced by his composition was designed by him. The Pavilion de l’Esprit Nouveau was Metastasis. His office designed the program of the pavilion to be intended to be a “prototype” for villa apartment blocks. All the simple, “Visitors would traverse a short entrance corridor, enter a ideas used were quite unusual at a time when Art Nouveau was darkened interior to witness an eight-minute multimedia montage considered primarily as a decorative art (Art Deco); therefore, about human history, and exit out the other side.”31 there were hostile reactions to this project. In fact, the exhibition Le Corbusier viewed the concept of the pavilion as a mere organizers were insulted and hid the pavilion before the container for this spectacle. At first, he suggested that the opening. It was withdrawn by the Minister of Beaux-Arts at the exterior be nothing more than scaffolding, a total negation of opening of the exhibition. architectural form, possibly with a fabric membrane like his European countries were engaged in catastrophic battles during 1937 Pavilion. However, he ultimately proposed a curved plan WWI and WWII. From a political vantage point, the fair was a to efficiently usher masses of people in and out, like a stomach.32 vehicle of nationalistic propaganda, while the expos’ promoters The two designers’ drawings for the Philips Pavilion (see Figure attempted to reconcile art and industrial ideas. Many countries 7) revealed distinct forms of architectural thinking with a well- had been pushing nationalist propaganda at the previous fairs, leveled balancing act. Working closely with Philips’ technicians, and this continued even later, at the London fair in 1851.27 and composer Edgard Vare`se, Xenakis settled on a cluster of The pavilion acquired its permanency through its ephemeral nine hyperbolic paraboloids constructed in pre-stressed concrete Past and Present Viable Pavilions Remain in Architecture: Envisioning New Directions for a Better Future 85 Research on pavilions within the history of world fairs, from the mid-19th to the 21st Century in a site-specific work. This fundamental concept, approved world economy at the time, held world fairs. Unlike Europe, by Philips, proposed a synthesis that integrated architecture, where nationalism was popular, the US functioned with music, and visual arts, all under a geometrically complex surface. commercialism and profit motives, and therefore, architects’ The pavilion was a specific form that arose by combining statements specifically matched the corporate sector at US fairs. popularizing information about ideas and statements matching Although the architect’s signature design was downplayed, the the corporate sector. This commercial pavilion consisted of overall exhibition was conducted by the Eames. Relying on the ideas that Philips wanted to represent to the world. This is an architect’s intervention, the pavilion specifically accomplished exemplary work of an architect’s signature design having been IBM’s advertising needs. combined with interesting, collaborative teamwork. 3.3.3 Renzo Piano: Italian Industry Pavilion (1970)- Utilize 3.3.2 Charles and Ray Eames: IBM Pavilion and modulate a system of optimizing the greater efficiency (1964)-Dynamic age of domestic electronics, The world exposition in Osaka positioned itself as a huge spectaculars entertainment center and theme park with no intention of This was the third major world’s fair to be held in New York providing useful information. Critics described it as a “mega- City. The theme was dedicated to “Man’s Achievement on a show with a Disneyworld appeal.”35 Shrinking Globe in an Expanding Universe.” American compa- The architecture of Expo 70 was spectacular in terms of its nies dominated the exposition as exhibitors. visual appeal.36 The organization committee had given no The fair encouraged effective intercultural communication for restrictions regarding the construction of individual pavilions. the exchange of innovations.

Figure 8. IBM Pavilion, 1964, -Exterior (Left), Close-up (Right) and Selectric Typewriters Figure 9. Italian Industry Pavilion, 1970, -Axonometric plan (Left) (sources: Domus 424, nywf64 and http://mytypewriter.com/ibmselectrics.aspx) and Exterior (Right) view (source: rpbw, 1970)

Laissez-Faire (i.e., something for everyone) meant that this They asked designers and architects to construct pavilions that fair aimed to keep a majority of the contemptuous art and were as “individualistic, expressionistic, and colorful as possi- architecture on display. One standout was the International ble.” Many countries chose rather abstract themes, establishing Business Machine (IBM) pavilion designed by Eero Saarinen a “corporate image” through artistic means and “infotainment” and Associates together with Charles and Ray Eames (see Figure presentations. Italian designer Renzo Piano won the competi- 8). tion. Piano’s brother Ermanno constructed the Italian Industry The fair was a showcase for future technologies, and the Pavilion. technological cultural aspirations on display were fundamentally The basic premise of the open plan offered an extraordinary oriented toward the past.33 range of applications. For instance, the light, modular structure, The main feature of the Eames’ IBM pavilion was its, like the Italian Industry Pavilion, was designed according to an suspended theatre, an ovoid mass raised above the forest of steel open plan. It utilized a steel tension structure with reinforced tree-like structures that supported the translucent roof over the polyester cladding and roofing panels. open-air exhibits.34 Piano graduated in 1964 with a dissertation on modular co- At its epicenter was the 27 m ellipsoidal-shaped theater, ordination, supervised by Giuseppe Ciribini. He succeeded and emblazoned with thousands of I-B-M letters resembling the was clearly inspired by 20th century engineering figures, such as rapidly rotating ball that was the heart of IBM’s new “Selectric Buckminster Fuller, Robert Le Ricolais, Zygmunt Makowski, typewriters” that were IBM’s feature fair presentation (a film and Frei Otto. Renzo’s Pavilion (see Figure 9), developed for the produced by Charles and Ray Eames). Osaka Expo, was tangible proof of his exploration of light mate- In short, the IBM pavilion represents a corporate exhibit rials, tensile structures, and non-Euclidean forms.37 pavilion. The decision-making authority on this pavilion’s design This national pavilion was a unique mixture of an iconic fell on the corporate executives of IBM’s commercial sector. theme and an architect’s ideas of national image and identity. These decisions were largely made for marketing advertisements. The pavilion enabled him to experiment with his ideas freely During the 20th Century, the US, which was an emerging using temporary construction methods and materials. 86 Sodahm Suzanne Shim, Yoonhie Lee and Chaeshin Yoon

3.4 Post-New Millennium Modern/21st Century: reflected a specific form of sustainable ecology system that spe- Achieving the Sustainability of a New Design Paradigm cifically demonstrated the expo’s thematic sector. The architect’s Branding the new feats evolved mega-events focused on signature design combined the original intent with national the public pride. The expo reflected the future, material mastery, and work- 3.4.1 MVRDV: Dutch pavilion (2000) Hanover, Man, ing with eco-friendly and highly aesthetic materials. Nature and Technology- A sustainable ecological system and innovative national inspirational landscapes 3.4.2 Diller Scofidio+Renfro: Media Pavilion/The Blur (2002)- At the turn of the new millennium, the world participated Postmodernist machines encourage sensory stimulation in an unprecedented celebration of culture. Expos took on In 2002, the sixth Swiss national exposition proclaimed that it a significant role in raising awareness on the importance of had five different themes at different locations as follows: “Nature sustainable development and addressing the crucial challenges and Artifice” in Neuchâtel; “I and the Universe” in Yverdon- of our time. By providing a unique space for discussions, Expo les-Bains; “Instants and Eternity” in Murten/Morat; “Power 2000 aimed at being an efficient instrument for progress in and Freedom” in Biel/Bienne; and “Sense and Movement” on a all sustainable and human development areas, such as the mobile platform. environment, energy, health, and education.38 In 1994, the city of Hanover, in Germany adopted the Agenda 21 principles.

Figure 11. The Blur Media Pavilion, 2002 Exterior views (sources: archdaily and arcspace, 2002)

The Blur was a media pavilion in Yverdon-les-Bains for Expo 2002 constructed from a tensegrity system of rectilinear struts Figure 10. Dutch Pavilion, Present day exterior views and rods cantilevered out over the lake. Pedestrian walkways (sources: wikiarquitectura, 2000 and report 2012) weaved through its system; its unique form based on the work of Buckminster Fuller. Expo 2000 planned to invite the entire world to participate in The pavilion was made of filtered lake water shot as a fine mist demonstrating how mankind could thrive while simultaneously through 13,000 fog nozzles creating an artificial cloud that mea- protecting the environment.39 sured 91 m wide by 61 m deep by 20 m high. MVRDV (Netherland-based innovative, adventurous Astonishingly, the public approached Blur via a 122 m ramped architecture and urban design firm found in 1992; the name is an bridge (see Figure 11). Due to the lack of a program allowing acronym for the founding members; Winy Maas, Jacob van Rijs, DS+Renfro to bridge the worlds of high-art, installing practice and Nathalie de Vries) was commissioned by the Netherlands to continues. Visual and acoustical references were erased along design the most popular national pavilion, and the firm created the journey toward the fog, leaving only an optical “white-out” a 36 m high building, the fair’s tallest, with the slogan “Holland and the “white-noise” of pulsing water nozzles. The Blur was a Creates Space.” Six Holland eco-system landscapes were stacked barometer of early 21st century sentiment or a neutral response to showcase how a country could make the most out of a small to the conditions of the site. space. The objectives were to achieve visions for the future, find The sound of the building was perpetually remade through a balance among man, nature, and technology, and develop 30,000 high-pressure fog nozzles. Blur41 was the result of noth- solutions for the coexistence of billions of people on our planet. ing: no program, no functional requirements, no size definition, The inventive MVRDV included a distilled landscape, which no site mandates, and no occupancy targets or public flow rates. incorporated a vision that incisively executed the expo’s spirit. However, DS+Renfro’s blurred genres remade a new paradigm.42 With its optimistic fusion of tectonic and greenery landscaping The event was understood as a shift from the space of monument the pavilion characterized a microcosmic ecosystem, suggesting to the behavioral space of the viewer. Blur was pressing down- intriguing paradigms for the future.40 ward toward no art, a mutual sense of psychologically indifferent MVRDV developed building types based on the juxtaposition decoration, a neutral pleasure of seeing known to everyone. and combination of different elements and has since continued According to Dan Flavin (1966), the event conformed to cen- to use them. This Dutch pavilion (see Figure 10) was supposed tral tendencies in neo-avant-garde practice, toward the anti-au- to be both a national and a thematic pavilion. It is noteworthy ratic, the anti-symbolic, the indifferent and the neutral, toward that this pavilion still stands at its original site, although it has a zero degree of art.43 The dramatic architectural proposal stood deteriorated and is now covered with graffiti. The pavilion itself for a postmodernist fusion of art and architecture with visual Past and Present Viable Pavilions Remain in Architecture: Envisioning New Directions for a Better Future 87 Research on pavilions within the history of world fairs, from the mid-19th to the 21st Century and performing arts. The pavilion itself was a specific form of life were showcased with this pavilion. The pavilion was also a experiencing individual memory that conveyed a unique sense type of education program, informing people about feeding the of freedom: architect’s idea matched with the expo’s theme. planet. The intention was to provide educational and productive tools necessary for an instructive, thematic pavilion. Such 3.4.3 Artist Wolfgang Buttress: UK Pavilion (2015) at forward-looking applications require architects to possess “the the Expo in Milan, The Beehive- Sustainable National new metal equipment that handles their new environment,” as Aspiration and Exploring Food Culture in Bee Colonies said in 1960 by architectural critic, Reyner Banham. The UK showcased its culture of innovation at the 2015 Expo in Milan with its pavilion inspired by the honeybee’s essential 3.5 Elements of Pavilions’ Measures: Multi Spectrum of work in the food production process. UK’s theme “Grown the Conventional Field of Academic Architecture in Britain,” was encapsulated how it contributes to the global To convey the full scope of the argument, it is important challenge of feeding the growing population. to clarify how art installments and architectural objects are displayed at the major world fairs. In this context, the pre- modern/Industrialization exhibitions, the 1851 Crystal Palace in London, the 1876 Women’s Pavilion in Philadelphia, and the 1889 Machinery Pavilion in Paris, were originally manifested with political aims to show the superiority of these advanced countries and highlight their colonial expansions under imperialism. Next, along with the rise of modernity and Early and Late- Modern/Post-Industrialization, these world fairs at the time became markets for modern consumers and the corporate Figure 12. 2015 UK Pavilion, Exterior views (source: dezeen, 2015) industry sector, where newly manufactured goods could be advertised to new audiences. Participation at world fairs around This pavilion demonstrated the country’s strengths in science this time period was capitalistic in that participators aimed and technology, its talented agri-tech research base, world to eagerly sell their newly introduced products for economic leadership in international development, and its dynamic profits. In doing so, the clients who commissioned the project food and drinks industry that drives a culture of innovation. to the particular architects were intentionally well-known, Wolfgang Buttress worked with internationally recognized advertising their products. Taut, Le Corbusier, Eames, and construction engineer teams Stage One and Rise, and with Renzo Piano represent these exemplary exhibitions. architect BDP, to produce a concept that fused high-end design Since the post-modern age, the contemporary interpretation and strong ecological credentials with cutting edge science has been complicated. For example, MVRDV and DS+Renfro and advanced engineering (see Figure 12). He was inspired both developed architectural projects, which can be categorized by Dr. Martin Benscik’s research on bees. The pavilion was a as Post-New Millennium Modern designs influenced by 14 m high cube with an abstracted honeycomb analog with Postmodernism. As shown with the pavilions, the norms which a lattice structure was made from 169,300 aluminum of modern architecture were simplicity, consistency, and and steel pieces. An internal void at its center allowed for a straightforwardness in maximizing efficiency for functional visitor space, lined with 1000 LED lights that were responsive purposes. Thus, this study aims to carefully analyze how the to true beehive conditions. This sculpture was the antithesis characteristics of these pavilions, situated at various locations of the typical pavilion. The original concept was drawn from in different time periods, affected the expos’ participants and Nottingham Trent University research and new technological designers. The multivalent and socio-cultural homogeneous developments that are better able to monitor the health of hives, mixture of scenes caused the designers to develop creative, providing vital information that might help beekeepers around optimistic, and transcendental designs that were combined with the world to better protect the bee population. Given that bees pragmatic and specific informality. Environmentally, the weather, are a crucial part of food production, it was necessary to bring pollution, and hostile urban conditions resulted in defensive the landscaping, art, and architecture together to highlight the attitudes for the pavilion designers in handling landscapes and importance of bees. This visual expression was complemented public urban spaces. The pavilions’ mobility and temporality by an immersive soundscape, recorded as a kind of symphony also influenced the designers, because these factors gave the between bee and human. The artist’s statements specifically perception of ephemeral pavilions. Therefore, the designers remarked the thematic national representation sector. The tried to emphasize the unique, contextual values of their designs. artist solely created the signature design and was supported by Indeed, an interpretation of post-modern contemporary collaborative engineering teamwork. architecture is quite complex. It is unreasonable to use a singular Metals in the 21st century become lighter, stronger and viewpoint to explain a contemporary sense of values. Architects smarter, as evident in the UK Pavilion’s aluminum-lattice hive. have been vital for developing the expos’ pavilions and have The principles of the slow food movement44 and a slow pace of influenced the pavilions with their unique characters. 88 Sodahm Suzanne Shim, Yoonhie Lee and Chaeshin Yoon

4. A CONTEMPORARY CASE STUDY: 4.2 Serpentine Gallery Pavilion (2016) Expanding new PAVILIONS AS INDIVIDUAL BRANDING DESIGNS capabilities utilizing a specific manufacturer’s product Another current exemplary project is the Serpentine Pavilion 4.1 MoMA PS1 (2016) Relating to a site-specific design, in London, which is one of the top-ten most visited architectural building a relationship between the people and the and design exhibitions in the world. It was established in 1970 community, expanding new capabilities utilizing and, since 2000, temporary summer pavilions have been urbanity commissioned with a leading architect. The most recent events have allowed for pavilions that explicitly The selection of architects, chosen for consistently extending follow the architect’s style, working with site-specific materials architectural boundaries, is led by the Serpentine’s core curator that were selected solely by the architect for design purposes. and introduces contemporary artists and architects to a wider audience. The Bjarke Ingels Group (BIG, Danish firm) was selected to show the pavilion (see Figure 14a). The “Unzipped- wall” pavilion is a wall of translucent blocks that creates a curving, cavernous interior. The structure was situated outside the Gallery in London’s Kensington Gardens.

Figure 13. MOMA PS1, 2016- Exterior views (source: http://momaps1.org/yap/view/20)

Manhattan’s Museum of Modern Art (MoMa) and Long Island City’s ultra-hip P.S.1 Contemporary Art Center merged in 2010. The Young Architects Program (YAP) is an annual competition hosted by MoMA PS1, which invites young architects to submit Figure 14a. Serpentine Gallery Pavilion, 2016-Day views in original design proposals for a summer courtyard. Escobedo Soliz location at Kensington Gardens (sources: archeyes and dezeen, 2016) Studio was the winner in 2016, and MoMa PS1 has committed to offering emerging architectural talent with the opportunity to design and present innovative projects, challenging each winner to develop creative designs for a temporary, outdoor installation that provides shade, seating, and water. The 2016 project was described as “neither an object nor a sculpture standing in the courtyard, but a series of simple, powerful actions that generates new and different atmospheres.”45 The project (see Figure 13) opened in Long Island in early June 2016. The Mexico City- Figure 14b. Serpentine Gallery Pavilion, 2019-Exterior views at the new based team developed a deep sense of site-specificity and locations in Vancouver(Left) and Toronto(Right) described architecture as not only registering a product, but also (sources: archdaily and Azure, 2019) as a catalyst that can improve a given territory where restrictions become opportunities and preexistent conditions of site, climate, It was created with translucent fiberglass frames, stacked on and locality should encourage new and practical solutions. This top of each other in a typical brickwork pattern. This “modular team illustrated a diversity of approaches and refreshing ideas monument” creates a void inside and consists of approximately for architecture today. They imaginatively merged public and 1,900 hollow fiberglass blocks. The manufactured products are private spaces. Their project, “Weaving the Courtyard,” was a arranged in a “lay line” design used with three different types socially and environmentally responsive structure. Held by of thickness: 10 mm at the bottom, 6 mm at the middle, and 3 tension within the courtyard walls, their project turned visitors mm at the top boxes. The materials used include wooden floors into participants who then interacted with its responsiveness to and extruded Fiberline profiles, providing every surface with a temperature, sunlight, and movement. It sensitively combined warm glow and a linear texture from the mesh of woven glass these elements with an exuberant collection of “zones and fibers to the undulating lines of the wood grain. The resulting atmospheres,” as mentioned by MOMA’s curator.46 The architects’ complex three-dimensional environment can be explored intention was to facilitate a wide-open connection between and experienced in various manners, inside and outside.47 The the public and the artist. This current, contemporary pavilion Serpentine Galleries’ most successful installations to date offer showcases a specific design brand and mediates prevailing inspirations at every scale of architecture, as evidenced by the contextual themes. It created a specific public space for people 2018 showcase in Toronto (see Figure 14b). Gillespie, a founder to socialize and contemplate within a gathering place. It has of Westbank, purchased the Pavilion as a natural extension essentially localized the global model in a way. of the partnership with BIG. The modular, lightweight Lego Past and Present Viable Pavilions Remain in Architecture: Envisioning New Directions for a Better Future 89 Research on pavilions within the history of world fairs, from the mid-19th to the 21st Century structure is to be transported and re-located in Vancouver, Furthermore, major transformation pertains to sustainable where it will become another example of a corporation’s design, and manufacturing innovations concern lightweight dedication to diversifying a city’s contemporary features. fabrication. The study shows that pavilions have been dematerialized as objects containing data (resourceful nature). 5. CONCLUSIONS: The highlight is their envisioning of the future ahead and how PAVILIONS AS EXPRESSION OF ARCHITECTURAL to better understand the world. By encouraging research in ASPIRATIONS AND PREVAILING PREFERENCES this area, we may create a much-needed body of sustainability resources and an awareness of standards required to address The quest to develop pavilions demonstrates the idea of the architectural and urban needs of everyday people in general engaging the present while looking forward to the future. By populations. engaging the rich history of pavilions, it is possible to observe We can extrapolate the following conclusions from the that pavilions returned to their etymological origins after trying abovementioned information. The current status of the pavilion to recuperate a presence, and the designers unleashed their remains true to its original nature (see Table 2). As Durand imaginations to take on the future.48 In this study, the case study reflects in a passage on architecture’s double nature of art and pavilions that were reviewed were mainly selected from existing science: “Architecture is a science and an art all at the same time: studies. As noted in Tables 1 and 2, each pavilion focused on the like art, it requires talent.”49 This highlights the dual nature of challenges and opportunities of its time with influential wisdom architecture, just as the pavilion’s typology places it between that helped society to further prepare for the future. architecture and art. There are exemplary projects that seek their This study offers new findings. To completely understand way out of this coexistence, without a bias to either architecture pavilion trend, we argue that the study of pavilions follows new or art. Architectural talents have observed the “Serpentine deftness in dual disciplines, exploring the overlap between Gallery Pavilion” and the “MoMA PS1,” and successfully create architects and artists, and that expanded architects’ roles and structures that allow people to experience synthetic spaces. responsibilities (due diligence) matter in design-oriented decision- The shifting role of architects and designers in the 21st Century making, which is a critical factor for controlling the final product. pavilions (now as fields for experimentation) has created entire Therefore, we conclude several observations. First, the pavilion’s new venues for synthetic experiences. In this sense, we will obvious physical appearance is getting smaller by scale and face the two major global sustainability issues and the new volumetric size, while the number of showcased pavilion types digital media world. There is no time like the present to obtain is becoming more versatile. Second, depending on the party in resourceful assistance on the path to develop architecture. charge of commissioning the pavilion, the intentions are becoming Conclusively, this study will contribute to the scope of a “new more diverse. Third, the pavilion participants have broadened to hybrid pavilion (NHP)” and will provide new insights into the include various fields, encouraging teamwork and collaborative architectural field. Since some professionals might be skeptical efforts. Fourth, branding a new design by retooling a sophisticated of this outcome, integrating these relevant learning systems is a technology to become a simpler, low-tech mechanism is a very difficult task that will raise many systematic complications. sculptural visual medium of responsive architecture. Finally, NHPs offer quite valuable elements that an ordinary pavilion the pavilion designers transformed specific ideas of their times cannot, such as abundant resources. Utilizing these advantages and contemplated the exposition themes. The architect’s role, will help NHPs with formalizing the system for design characteristics, and world fairs all changed throughout history. criteria, diversification, modularity, mobility, utilizing genuine Now there is evidence that technology is undergoing yet expertise with a smart division of labor, and realizing the status another major shift with profound consequences for future design quo. Accordingly, NHPs induce positive impacts on public and construction in architecture. The earlier world fairs and expos agendas and provide opportunities for sustainability for cities continue to have ephemerality and the essence of the pavilion throughout the world. In this paper, the findings obtained by and its zeitgeist sustains as always. The earlier world fairs (under reviewing the evolution of pavilions suggest that future research one big-tent of historical exhibitions) sustain as characteristics on pavilions should focus on the sustainability of pavilions at of pavilions collectively grouped together. Evidently, significant any location in any time period. There are some other alarming change has occurred from the vernacular to the global. The areas, such as the introduction of electronic digital media former temporal reality of traditional regional settlements and technology, which have engendered profound changes in the historical pavilions opened in grandeur nationally. The latter, nature of contemporary pavilions. The new type of digital media today’s contemporary museums and galleries’ pavilions are held accelerates social lifestyle changes. Therefore, it is important in quite site-specific localized urban settings. to fully understand NHPs in this unprecedented territory. The Contemporary pavilions are more global than all previous next steps, which will be taken in a future study, will focus on historical world fairs’ pavilions. Indeed, they held annual events the digital media world. In these terms of “convergence,”50 there designed on a small scale in comparison, and with a site-specific is no longer only a technological process, but instead there are program within the cityscape. Another key issue is that the gap ongoing social, cultural, and economic changes happening between art and architecture is closing and represents a natural today. In short, temporality, an essential aspect of the pavilion, concomitant phenomenon of public empathy in sustainability. maintains its integrity throughout human history. 90 Sodahm Suzanne Shim, Yoonhie Lee and Chaeshin Yoon

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Palais des Machines of 1889, Historical-structural reflections. 2 Detailed account of the execution, wikipedia.org/world’sfairs Universidade da Coruña, VLC arquitectura v2(2): 1-30. 3 He clarifiesworld fairs, Findling and Pelle (2008): 5 and 7. 4 Clarke, Joseph (2012). Iannis Xenakis and the Philips Pavilion. Refer to the first usage of the word,“ exposition” Ibid., 8. 5 Types of differing history of expos, SeeKirchgeorg, Dornscheidt, Giese The Journal of Architecture, 17:2, 213-229. and Stoeck, GABLER (2004): 908. Coles, Alex (2007). Art, design, architecture: PAVILIONS. Whi- 6 Mega events, Linden and Creighton, The Expo Book (2008). techapel and MIT Press, Art Monthly / 308. 7 Noted insightful descriptions on London 1851 Crystal Palace, Findling Corn, Wanda M. (2011). Women Building History: Public Art at and Pelle (2008): 14, by Davis- London, 1851. 8 the 1893 Columbia Exposition. University of California Press. He argues dual aspects, in London 1851, Kretschmer (1999). 9 New era on cultural exchange, Past Expos: bie-paris.org. Drew, Philip (2006). A CONUNDRUM IN TIME: Medieval and 10 Detailed Crystal Palace, Gossel and Leuthauser (1991): 21. Modern Pavilions. Architectural Theory Review, 11:2, 53-65. 11 Philadelpia, 1876, Findling and Pelle (2008): 55, by Heller. Foster, Hal (2011). Art-Architecture Complex. Verso, London. 12 Committees intention, Giberti (2002): Preface x, 16. 13 Findling, John E. and Pelle, Kimberly D. (2008). Encyclopedia of See the meaning a grid of displays, Ibid., 20 and 23. 14 View on republican knowledge, Calney (2006): 11. World’s Fairs and Expositions. McFarland & Company, Inc., 15 Capacity of fair, Findling and Pelle (2008): 53, by Heller. Jefferson, North Carolina and London. 16 Committee used London and Paris fairs, Giberti (2002): 22. Giberti, Bruno (2002). Designing the Centennial. The Universi- 17 See specific commission directed, Ibid., 16. 18 ty Press of Kentucky, Lexington. State-government, Findling and Pelle (2008): 105, by Swift. 19 Structural description, 1889, Paris, Stamper (1989): 339. Gossel, Peter and Leuthauser, Gabriele (2012). Architecture in 20 th Balancing act on 1889, Cimadevilaa and Césarb (2015): 20. the 20 Century. Taschen. 21 Moonan on 1907, Encyclopedia of Art and Design (2007). Gutschow, Kai K. (2006). From Object to Installation in Bruno 22 “Temple of Beauty” Gutschow (2006): 66, Nielsen (2012): 7. 23 Taut’s Exhibit Pavilions. Carnegie Mellon University, Journal Glass firm on Glasshaus, Gossel and Leuthauser (2012):167. 24 Noted, his intention Glasshaus, 1914, Gutschow (2006): 68. of Architectural Education, 63-70. 25 Glass firm syndicated, Nielsen and Kumarasuriyar (2014): 5. Jodidio, Philip (2005). Piano Complete Works. TASCHEN. 26 See note on Gossel and Leuthauser (1991): 165. Kaltenbach, Frank (2015). Expo Milano 2015-Superficial 27 Dominant ideas, ideologies of Expo, Findling and Pelle (2008): 290 Entertainment or Global Think Tank. DETAIL, n5. and 294, by Chandler and Whalen: Paris, 1937. 28 Kretschmer, Winfried (1999). History of World Expositions. Frankfurt. Pavilion as artwork, Udovicki-Selb (1997): 58. 29 See the dominant trait as capitalism and mass-consumerism, Findling Linden, Gorden and Creighton, Paul (2008). The Expo Book. and Pelle (2008): 322, by Rydell; Brussels, 1958. Gordon Linden. 30 Thematic influences Past Expos: Brussels 1958,bie-paris.org Madrazo, Leandro (1994). Durand and the Science of 31 See Visitor guides, Clake (2012): 213. 32 Architecture. Journal of Architectural Education 48(1). See also designer’s architectural thinking process, Ibid., 217. 33 NY 1964, Findling and Pelle (2008): 331-332, by Uroskie. Nielsen, David and Kumarasuriyar, Anoma (2014). The lily, 34 Ovoid shape tree trunk structure, Domus 424 (1965): 2. client and measure of Bruno Taut’s Glashaus. Architectural 35 Kretschmer argues aspect on Expos (1999): 256. Also, History of me- Research Quarterly, 18(3), 257-266. ga-events, World expositions, GABLER (2004): 908. 36 Nielsen, David (2012). Client intentions and Bruno Taut’s 1970s Expo’s, Findling and Pelle (2008): 346, by Anderson. 37 See further on Renzo Piano’s revelation, Jodidio (2005): 29. Glashaus. Queensland University of Technology. 38 Sustainable notions, Past Expos: Hannover 2000, bie-paris. Nightingale, Virginia and Dwyer, Tim (2007). New Media 39 Expo 2000, Findling and Pelle (2008): 394, by Maloney. World-Challenges for Convergence. Oxford University. 40 Ibid., 67. 41 Stamper, John W. (1989). The Galerie des Machines of the 1889 In post-modern design strategies “Blur”, Foster (2011): 100. 42 See also for addressing a key observation, Ibid., 99. Paris World’s Fair. Technology & Culture, 30(2). 43 The blur, corresponding the new way of built object,Ibid., 204. Udovicki-Selb, Danilo (1997). Le Corbusier and the Paris Exhibition 44 Noted specific thematic sink into expo: www.slowfood.com of 1937. Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, 56(1). 45 See https://www.moma.org/artists/49574 Moonan, Wendy (2007). German Design for an Industrial Age. 46 Statement by the Architect: momaps1.org 47 The New York Times Company. Statement by the Architects: www.serpentinegalleries.org 48 This article gives a perspective YAP, Bergdoll (2013): 572. Unknown Author (2000). Architectural Review, Hanover 2000. 49 Note on duality, Madrazo (1994): 20, Durand, Precis, vol2, 1. EMAP Construct, v208, n1243, 42-81. 50 See insightful “convergence” Nightingale and Dwyer (2007): Part1,1. Further references Jenkins (2006): 282 and 345. FURTHER EXTERNAL LINKS (Received May. 13, 2019/Revised Jun. 20, 2019/Accepted Jun. 20, 2019)