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A SOCIAL and CULTURAL HISTORY of BICYCLE RACING in NEW ZEALAND, 1869-1910 a Thesis

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A SOCIAL and CULTURAL HISTORY of BICYCLE RACING in NEW ZEALAND, 1869-1910 a Thesis AMATEURS, CASH AMATEURS AND PROFESSIONALS: A SOCIAL AND CULTURAL HISTORY OF BICYCLE RACING IN NEW ZEALAND, 1869-1910 A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy At Lincoln University By Michael S. Toohey Lincoln University 2010 ABSTRACT Amateurs, Cash Amateurs and Professionals: A Social And Cultural History of Bicycle Racing in New Zealand, 1869-1910 The thesis explores the early history of bicycle racing in New Zealand, from its introduction in 1869, until the major decline of public interest in bicycle racing on specially constructed oval tracks which was, practically speaking, complete by 1910. Particular attention will be paid to the development of “cash amateur” bicycle racing, which began in Melbourne in 1890, before spreading to New Zealand in 1892. The position will be taken that sport is socially constructed and that the institutions which are grown around it are shaped by, and reflect, broader cultural, political and social norms. It will, therefore, examine the social construction and meaning of the terms “amateur”, “cash amateur” and “professional”. It will contend that while athletes were classified by such behaviours as the acceptance of cash prizes or membership of governing bodies, concepts of race, sex, and class also informed descriptions of these behaviours by stakeholders in the construction process such as the press, bicycle manufacturers, promoters of bicycle racing and by the bicycle racers themselves Focus will be placed on bicycle racing in New Zealand, with comparative reference to Australia, Britain, the United States and Continental Europe (primarily France). A central premise of this thesis is that nineteenth century New Zealand society was highly interconnected with a wider Anglophonic cultural, political and economic world, and that industrialised communication – steam ships, railways and telegraph – enabled and hastened the diffusion of trans-national cultural phenomena such as “velocipede mania” and the “bicycle boom”. Within these broader movements there was, however, room for localised variations. Cash amateurism, it will be argued, was one such local solution to the problem of reconciling the ideologies of amateurism and laissez -faire capitalism, the divergence of which was sharply identifiable in bicycle racing. The overarching thesis is thus one of social and cultural history, exploring the social and institutional organisation of bicycle racing within a broader social and cultural context. It is structured as a narrative with chronological organisation. Within this framework, it explores themes of class, race, sex and identity, amateurism, professionalism and commercialism in sport, cultural construction by the press and modernity as a commercialised commodity. ii CONTENTS ABSTRACT................................................................................................................. ii CONTENTS................................................................................................................ iii FIGURES......................................................................................................................v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS AND DEDICATION ....................................................... vi GLOSSARY............................................................................................................... vii A NOTE ON PRIMARY SOURCES........................................................................... ix Chapter 1 – INTRODUCTION..................................................................................... 1 Aim of this Thesis .................................................................................................... 1 Methodology and Primary Sources ........................................................................... 4 Previous Research ...................................................................................................12 New Zealand Social History ................................................................................12 Cycling History ...................................................................................................15 Sports History......................................................................................................19 Chapter 2 – ANTECEDENTS: VELOCIPEDE MANIA, HOLIDAYS AND RURAL SPORTS MEETINGS .................................................................................................23 Introduction.............................................................................................................23 From Draisienne to Velocipede................................................................................25 Velocipede Racing at Holiday Sports Meetings........................................................30 Virtual Velocipede Mania?.......................................................................................35 Delivering Rational Recreation in a Colonial Environment......................................40 Enclosure ................................................................................................................45 Conclusion ..............................................................................................................49 Chapter 3 – THE BID FOR AMATEUR CONTROL...................................................52 Introduction.............................................................................................................52 The Age of the Ordinary Bicycle .............................................................................54 Amateurism.............................................................................................................56 Australasian Variations ............................................................................................59 The Pioneer Bicycle Club........................................................................................66 Why Form a Club? ..................................................................................................71 Who Joined?............................................................................................................80 The New Zealand Cyclists’ Alliance ........................................................................85 Conclusion ............................................................................................................101 Chapter 4 – CASH AMATEURS ...............................................................................103 Introduction...........................................................................................................103 The Melbourne Bicycle Club and the Austral Wheel Race.....................................104 Trans-Tasman Reaction .........................................................................................107 The Drive for Cash and Amateurism’s Internal Conflict.........................................109 The New Zealand Cash Amateur Bicycle Club ......................................................114 Conclusion ............................................................................................................122 Chapter 5 – THE STRUGGLE FOR CONTROL OF BICYCLE RACING IN NEW ZEALAND................................................................................................................124 Introduction...........................................................................................................124 The Bicycle Boom.................................................................................................125 The Boom’s Effect on Racing................................................................................132 Newspaper Involvement ........................................................................................134 iii Attempted Amalgamation ......................................................................................138 Who Founded the League? The Conundrum of Cash Amateurism..........................161 Amateurism, Sportsmanism or Athleticism? The Modern Gentleman-Knight Versus Foreign Interlopers, Lazy Natives and the Inexorable March of Progress ...............171 Races for “Ladies” and “Natives”: Inclusiveness or Spectacle?..............................176 Conclusion ............................................................................................................183 Chapter 6 – CASH, CORRUPTION AND THE DECLINE OF TRACK RACING....186 Introduction...........................................................................................................186 Decline..................................................................................................................188 Names on Jerseys: Makers’ Amateurs ....................................................................192 Criticism of Industry Support.................................................................................199 Appearance Money................................................................................................205 “Bookies”, Cash and Corruption............................................................................210 Loafing..................................................................................................................219 Pacing ...................................................................................................................224 Spectacle versus Partisanship.................................................................................225 Coda: Bicycle
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