현대영어영문학 제60권 3호 Modern Studies in English Language & Literature (2016년 8월) 111-28 http://dx.doi.org/10.17754/MESK.60.3.111
Lightning Stroke Twice on Kirk and Picard: Star Trek Ⅶ: Generations* 1
Lee, Geon-Geun (Chosun University)
Lee, Geon-geun. “Lightning Stroke Twice on Kirk and Picard: Star Trek Ⅶ: Generations.” Modern Studies in English Language & Literature 60.3 (2016): 111-28. An American sci-fi series, Star Trek would have ended with its Original Series nearly in the middle of the whole history. However, despite the concern over weariness from the long-lasting Star Trek effect, Star Trek Ⅶ: Generations, the first movie of the Next Generation received great reviews from the critics and audiences, leading to producing five more films up to now. The reason for the success is mostly on its consistent ideas, not to mention the development of motion-picture arts. This article aims at introducing the crucial themes of the six works of the Original Series one by one and discussing the common philosophy that the captains of the two series, Kirk and Picard, share in this film with the help of Schopenhauer’s will-oriented metaphysics. Through this analysis, the original themes, such as the sympathy with machines, the double-sidedness of logicality and illogicality, non-teleology, and pacifism are developed soundly to the next cinematic generation as the warning against the excessive will of life and narcissism, and the emphasis of self-sacrifice for humans. (Chosun University)
Key Words: Star Trek Ⅶ: Generations, Original Series, the Next Generation, Schopenhauer, logicality and illogicality
I
The Star Trek series including TV, films, and games are worthy of studying as a cultural phenomenon as well as a unique entertainment product around the world, not to mention the mainland America, in that
* Some parts of this paper were presented at the Spring Conference of the Modern English Society of Korea that was held at Hannam University on May 21, 2016. 112 Lee, Geon-Geun their popularity has continued for half a century since 1966. Indeed, it is remarkable that these commercial film series have survived the vast diversity and changeability of which the modern film fictions are distinctive, attracting the audience ceaselessly, and leading to the topic of many film theories and even doctoral theses.1 However, most of the Korean research papers are no less neglectful of the real analysis of the texts themselves, furthermore, in the critical stance against the films: American chauvinism, racism, and commercialism.2 Meanwhile, the Original Series of Star Trek were produced at the Paramount Studio and went on the air as a TV show on NBC from 1966 to 1974. After this period, the films started from Star Trek Ⅰ: The Motion Picture (henceforth Motion) in 1979 and ended up with Star Trek Ⅵ: The Undiscovered Country in 1991. In the process, the second series named The Next Generations showed themselves as a TV drama in 1987 prior to Star Trek Ⅴ: The Final Frontier (1989) of the Original Series, and then came on as the second film series with Star Trek Ⅶ: Generations (1994), continuing up to Star Trek Ⅹ: Nemesis (2002) with their four works.
1 The examples of the doctoral theses are de Gaia, Susan Jean. Unity and Diversity: Star Trek's Vision of Transcendence. U of Southern California, 2003; Faber, Liz W. From “Star Trek” to Siri: (Dis)embodied Gender and the Acousmatic Computer in Science Fiction Film and Television. Southern Illinois U at Carbondale Mass Communication and Media Arts, 2013; Olivier, Gwendolyn Marie. A Critical Examination of the Mythological and Symbolic Elements of Two Modern Science Fiction Series: Star Trek and Doctor Who. Louisiana State University, 1987; Leslie, Christopher S. Social Science Fiction. City University of New York English, 2007; and Salinas, Chema. Trickster Dialogics: A Method For Articulating Cultural Archetypes From ‘Q’ To Performance Art. Arizona State University Communication Studies. 2 Hwang, Joon-Ho. “Star Trek and the Myth of the National Identity of the United States.” In/Outside 27 (2009): 245-72; Jun, Joon-Taek. “American Popular Films Cite Hamlet: The Limits of Appropriation from Star Trek Ⅵ to The Superman Returns.” Shakespeare Review 43.2 (2007): 349-74; and Kim, Ki-Tai. “Gene Roddenberry`s Utopia: Star Trek and White Hegemony.” The Jungang Journal of English Language and Literature 56.3 (2014): 21-38. Lightning Stroke Twice on Kirk and Picard: Star Trek Ⅶ: Generations 113
Notably, in Generations, Kirk, and Picard, the heroes of the two series achieved the succession process: Kirk dies while saving the solar system including the Earth, and Picard inherits the challenge spirit and humanism of the Original Series. In fact, this story was looked upon as miraculous because most experts at that time, including its creator Gene Roddenberry, did not think that the extension of these sci-fi film series was possible with all the twenty-eight years of running the same structure: the Enterprise spaceship, warp-speed drive, fighting with evil aliens, which deserves to be analogous with the probability of being struck by lightning twice at one sitting. The new generation was more famous and not worse than its predecessor in the box-office and critical review, opening the way to the third generation of the 21st century, causing me to write this paper. To the development of the technique of film construction is this success said to be ascribed, but it is more significant that their consistently maintained ideas have been transferred to the follow-ups for more than fifty years, at least the next cinematic generation. Interestingly, such attitudes can be understood in Schopenhauerian fashion that the intellect is just phenomenal and restricts the will, which is assumed as the elementary factor in human life. This article aims at discussing the common philosophy Kirk and Picard share by observing the text of Star Trek Ⅶ: Generations as a bridge between the first and second series with the help of Schopenhauer’s philosophy after introducing the crucial themes of the Original Series. Through this analysis, it is revealed that the will as a broad aspect of feeling influences the human life more than the reason that is based mostly on the logic and calculation of gains and losses. Moreover, the pursuit of the excessive will should be controlled with sympathy with the sufferings of other entities, similar to Schopenhauer’s view in his will-oriented metaphysics. Additionally, this fact is meaningful to answering the question of what has caused Star Trek series to live long 114 Lee, Geon-Geun and prosper for such a long time, worthy of teaching a useful lesson to other countries’ movie industries.
II
Star Trek has a dramatic story. The works as a TV show, before the tremendous success of the film series, did not start as a great hit. From 1966 to 1969, Star Trek received such poor ratings that NBC (National Broadcasting Company) would have pulled the plug. Only after some local television stations in the U. S. began re-running them outside of prime time, Star Trek series attracted significant attention from the American audiences, leading to the launching of its film debut, Motion in 1979. That is, it took virtually more than ten years for these sci-fi series to be recognized as a vast cultural phenomenon. To this fact, TV executive producer Herbert Solow said this:
It’s important to understand that. . . . Star Trek was not created or developed as a critical study of truth, life’s fundamental principles, or concepts of reasoned doctrines. We just wanted a hit series. The basic Star Trek philosophy was developed by its producers and writers during its production. However, a profound and metaphysical overlay was superimposed over the years as popularity begat popularity and viewers saw and defined a subjective something that validated and increased their appreciation of the show. (Solow and Justman 431)
Indeed, the five TV series (The Original Series, The Next Generation, Deep Space Nine, Voyager, and Enterprise) focused on their functions as a trans-media by satisfying and delivering the viewers’ sympathy and public interest until 2005. Lightning Stroke Twice on Kirk and Picard: Star Trek Ⅶ: Generations 115
On the contrary, the films of Star Trek kept up their historical and critical values and held on to their unique ideas so much and long as to appeal to media study researchers and students. Now, I introduce the particular themes of the Original Series transferred to Star Trek Ⅶ, Generations. First, the first film Motion struggles to redefine the right relationship between human beings and machines by personifying a three-hundred-year-old probe V’Ger, which turns out to be Voyager Six launched by NASA. Commander Decker finds out, “[This machine] was designed to collect data and transmit them back to Earth, and disappeared into a black hole” (Motion). After learning all the information with the help of its similar inhabitants, V’Ger wishes to be connected to its creator, humans. However, owing to the time gap of three hundred years, its signal has not been responded by humans. V’Ger, a sort of machine kid, demands that a human body reconnect the disconnected electric wire as an act of reconciliation or relief and threatens to destroy the Earth by its impressive power. At this threat, Deck sacrifices his body to save the others and also stay with Ilia, a doppelganger of his woman by letting himself another machine. Spock, with all his heartless Vulcan blood, weeps at V’Ger’s loneliness and agony after finding out this fact: “the symbolic message might be that Voyager realizes the limit of the universe and others’ existence through its experience and feels it should touch its creator so that it can know who it really is” (Lee, Initiation 107). As seen above, the role of Spock has one of the most remarkably philosophical aspects of these series. In academical terms, Spock deserves to be considered as a co-star with Kirk. Constance Markey says that Spock represents logicality and infallibility (zero-defects) while Kirk’s illogicality and sensitivity based on human emotions (21). Also, the scenes where they come into conflict and cooperation seem to be intended to 116 Lee, Geon-Geun show human double-sidedness (Lee, Meyer’s 123). From this viewpoint, Star Trek Ⅱ, Ⅲ, and Ⅳ are worthy of being called Spock Trilogy. Of the three films, the first The Wrath of Kahn (henceforth Kahn) emphasizes Spock’s logical decision by his sublime sacrifice; the second The Search for Spock (henceforth Search) features the beneficiary members’ seemingly illogical acts by reviving Spock in compensation; and in the third The Voyage Home (henceforth Home), these two personalities are well harmonized to achieve the purpose of saving the Earth (Lee, Duet 25). That is, the dichotomy between logicality and illogicality is more faded than the previous works, and also humans are delineated as arrogant species about alien intelligence (Greenberger 126). Interestingly, Kahn and Search ceaselessly treat the relationship between human logicality and illogicality. In the first work, Khan, a former leader of Earth’s Eugenic Wars, and his artificially produced followers revolt against Kirk, who banished them into Ceti Alpha Ⅴ, a barren penal colony. On the other hand, in the second, the disrupters are the superior office of the Starfleet (the Earth), not to mention the mean enemy Klingon Captain Kruge. The head office does not allow the Enterprise crew to restore Spock’s dead body abandoned on the Genesis planet. Nevertheless, like the characters of other entertaining sci-fi films, the heroes take up the challenges and win the most valuable honor as space warriors. The last scenes of the two films connote such a theme actually. First, in Khan, Spock says to Kirk dying from the radioactive contamination after fixing the broken warp drive equipment in the engine room of the Enterprise: “In any case, were I to invoke logic, logic clearly dictates that the needs of the many outweigh the needs of the few. Or the one. . . . You are also my friend. I have been and always shall be yours” (Khan). Without his sacrifice, the other members would die because Kirk activated the fatal device, Genesis, before his death. His act is interpreted as logical Lightning Stroke Twice on Kirk and Picard: Star Trek Ⅶ: Generations 117 and humanitarian from the utilitarianism, which “is given mythical significance thanks to the archetypal doubling motifs found in Western literature” (Geraghty 56). Second, in Search, after the successful ritual of fal-tor-pan, where Spock’s soul called katra is melded with his new body, the resuscitated Vulcan (half human) asks Kirk a question of why the crew risked their lives to save him. The captain says, “[Sometimes] the needs of the few or the one outweigh the needs of the many” (Search). Lastly, the fifth film The Final Contact (henceforth Final) has non-teleology against the excessive will of life as its central idea. Larry Kreitzer points that Final deliberately raises the existence of God and Eden (140), and is blamed for being “almost always illusory and deadened” (Schultes). However, this work reveals its uniqueness in that the characters meet God and check what the deity is. Its theme seems to be in line with Friedrich Nietzsche’s body philosophy, where the philosopher ridicules “any attempts to solve the ultimate problem of the universe” based on “the conviction that there [are] no ultimates to be known” (Dolson 243). This idea is like Schopenhauer’s because the two men emphasize the frailty of the reason as a metaphysical reality. The God in Final shows “One voice, many faces” to the religious character Sybok and the other three (Kirk, Spock, and McCoy). The persons realize that “the God cannot get out of there and does not know the men’s identities; it is mean enough to punish humans because they doubt the God” (Lee, Non-teleology 326). Also, this last scene of Final explains that the excessive form of human will or desire might be another self-created restraint (not a real theism) considering Sybok’s misunderstanding that “the human beings should obey their Creator [merely] with emotional judgement, not with reasonable criticism or doubt” (Lee, Non-teleology 324). The religion of the Original Series is the pacifism in the level of space beyond the Earth, which seems to be against centrism or narcissism based 118 Lee, Geon-Geun on planets and species in the sixth film The Undiscovered Country (henceforth UC). The stiff-necked characters such as Chang and Valeris deny the newer condition caused by changing world, but Kirk can accept it despite the captain’s old sentiment that the Klingons are the criminal who killed his son (Lee, Meyer’s 124). This way of breaking through incongruity and the courage of not dwelling on the past are transferred to the next film Generations with the previously themes of the Original Series. The following treats the appearances in detail by the help of Schopenhauer’s philosophy.
III
Like the Original Series, Star Trek Ⅶ: Generations refers to human perception assigned to the information received by our senses. Indeed, our sight, besides the optical function like cameras, cannot help being affected by the knowledge already existing in our minds. The schemata, the units of knowledge, are already related to certain objects, situations, events, actions, and their sequences. For example, after seeing one ambiguous figure, we could understand it as a number, alphabet, or drawing. The object might be meaningless to a new-born baby because s/he does not know numbers or letters. The information acquired and stored from the state of tabula rasa seems to lead to human reason. However, this structural attitude cannot explain all the understandings and experiences humans have. As to this fact, Schopenhauer insists that the will or what we expect to see is more responsible for our consciousness, making us check new information against the phenomena we understand as realities. Also, this film introduces the Nexus, which means a new world all the entities can see and have anything as they wish. Lightning Stroke Twice on Kirk and Picard: Star Trek Ⅶ: Generations 119
Before entering the epistemic discussion of it, I introduce the film Star Trek Ⅶ: Generations. The time background is the last 23rd century. A new spaceship, the USS Enterprise-NCC-1701-B goes on the maiden voyage, which is controlled by inexperienced Captain John Harriman and his novice crew, accompanied by the older members of the Original Series —retired Captain Kirk, Commander Chekov, and Captain Scotty. However, this vessel and its operating team are not structurally and functionally unprepared yet. Receiving a distress call about a mysterious energy ribbon that tears apart two El-Aurian ships, the Enterprise struggles to save the refugees by beaming them aboard, including Dr. Soran and Guinan. At this time, curiously enough, Dr. Soran keeps crying, “Let me go back,” and Guinan helps to give a hint of his intention later. Kirk instinctively goes below deck to work on the deflector relays to minimize the damage caused by this unexpected incident. However, unfortunately, he has become missing owing to the strike of the ribbon. After this, seventy-eight years later, in the next generation, another Enterprise (the USS Enterprise-NCC-1701-D) has new crew: Captain Jean-Luc Picard, Commander William T. Riker, Klingon Officer Lieut. Worf, and others. They answer a distress call from the Amargosa solar observatory and find two Romulans and five other survivors. Interestingly, previously stated Dr. Soran is saved again, and now the two Androids of the new Enterprise, Data, and Geordi LaForge search the scientific lab, finding the highly unstable and dangerous material, trilithium, which is personally concealed by the old man Soran. In fact, he secretly set up a launch pad, where a trilithium-containing solar probe will detonate the Amargosa star, causing a tremendous shockwave and a supernova, and attracting the energy ribbon. In the process, Dr. Soran attacks Data and LaForge and goes over to the planet Veridian III to shoot another missile probe. Picard comes to learn from Guinan that Dr. 120 Lee, Geon-Geun
Soran has the only obsessive goal of going back to the Nexus, his fantastic destination and that the ribbon is the doorway to the addicting world. However, once achieved, his plan would destroy the planet Veridian Ⅳ inhabited by 230 million. Finally, Dr. Soran succeeds in shooting at the Veridian star, and also Picard following him gets into the Nexus world, where the captain comes to enjoy his imaginary and happy situation: He enjoys Christmas with his family—his dead nephew Renee, but soon realizes that it is just an unreality by remembering Guinan’s advice. Moreover, he discovers Captain Kirk, who is reliving his past after being drawn into this world. Picard awakens and convinces him to help stop the mad scientist Soran from killing millions of lives. Therefore, they materialize back on Veridian III by coming out of their unreal world and destroy Dr. Soran’s missile, rightly called time travel to the past. However, in this situation, the original hero Kirk is severely injured, saying his last words: “(The) least I could do . . . for the captain of the Enterprise. It was fun.” In the next scene, Picard is picked up by a vessel and reunited with his crew members. Also, he says to Riker, “Someone once said that time was a predator that stalked us all our lives, but I rather believe that time is a companion that goes with us on the journey, and reminds us to cherish every moment because they'll never come again. . . . What we leave behind is not as important as how we lived.” Now, I introduce the characteristics of Schopenhauer’s will relating to the movie Generations by referring to its relationship with the human reason helped by his cannon, The World as Will and Representation (1818). The philosopher believes that the will is likely to attain individuality and cause its phenomenal world where humans exist. To his eyes, the permanence affirmed by the will is not perceived automatically because “the will is never a cause” (Ⅰ 140). As George Berkley says, Lightning Stroke Twice on Kirk and Picard: Star Trek Ⅶ: Generations 121
“To be is to be perceived” (Wind and Fly), Schopenhauer insists that “man alone can bring [the will] into reflective, abstract consciousness” so as to discern it philosophically by saying, “The world is my representation” (Ⅰ 3). This will-oriented attitude is against the optimistic idea that German Idealists such as Johann Gottlieb Fichte, Friedrich W. Schelling, and G. W. F. Hegel have. Schopenhauer is said to have disagreed with the established authority by refuting Hegel’s claim that what is rational is real and what is real is rational. Schopenhauer shows that the will as a blind desire to live lies in various ways at the place of the reason as thing-in-itself in terms of metaphysics, which is only inadequately comprehended by intelligible concepts. The perceptions organized by the reason are considered as producing nothing, only valid within the sensory world beneath which utterly non-reasonable reality acts, meaning the finitude of cognition. He says, “The truth is that on the path of the representation we can never get beyond the representation; it is a closed whole” (Ⅰ 502). In this sense, the human body in action shows itself as the embodied will as well as its representation governed by the principle of sufficient reason (Ⅰ 286). However, the will does not mean self-conscious volition and is not explained by the subject-object dichotomy because he denies that bodily motion is caused by humans’ subjective willing. In this sense, Robert Wicks concludes, “[Schopenhauer’s] will is unconscious, uncaring, unknowing, amoral, and fundamentally goalless” (4). On balance, I discuss the linking factors between Schopenhauer’s ideas and Star Trek Ⅶ: Generations, which deserve to bring together the ten works of the first and second series. First, they are analogous in that the cause of human unhappiness lies in the excessive will of life. Schopenhauer says, “The world is just a hell and in it human beings are the tortured souls on the one hand, and the devils on the other” (Peters 122 Lee, Geon-Geun
207). This statement means that the full vitality brought about out of the body, and the mind tends to force the human being as an owner of his or her body to stay in the pleasure that the memory has. For example, Dr. Soran has the obsession that he should meet his dead family in the Nexus, an imaginary world, but, however, Guinan is wise and rational enough to know its illusion by saying, “It’s a place that I’ve tried very, very hard to forget,” and warns Picard about its unreality: “If you go, you're not going to care about anything. Not this ship, Soran, nothing. All you'll want is to stay in the Nexus. And you're not going to want to come back.” As stated, humans are seen to perceive what they want even though it may be far from reality. If so, the illusionary heavens are in persons’ mind, not in a larger space. The significant problem or defect of this thinking is that the unlimited world where everything is yours cannot exist in you, a limited entity. That is, such a self-hypnotized man as Dr. Soran seems to be overwhelmed by mental and physical joy, feeling of triumph or love, but this condition is naturally temporary. However, Schopenhauer advises that we should keep ourselves from the self-created utopia. To this phenomenon, Donald Burt says that our time continues to pass with us and is attracted irresistibly to our future, predicting that we cannot help facing the destructive destiny of fantasy caused by our desire (“Loving a Hidden God”). Second, this movie teaches that the delusion in the Nexus is characteristic of narcissism, and the only way to get out of it is to abandon our desire and face our death. In the imaginary planet, Kirk recognizes that his circumstances are fabricated by saying to Picard, “I must have jumped [the obstacle while riding a horse] fifty times. Scared the hell out of me. Except this time. . . . It is not real.” Schopenhauer points that we humans have the instinct to strengthen our physical feelings by the energy created based on the principle of self-sufficiency. This Lightning Stroke Twice on Kirk and Picard: Star Trek Ⅶ: Generations 123 tendency seems to give us a condition of life and also entail the suffering and sadness out of too much desire, and the incarnation of the will of life leads to delusion. Our virtual image, called Maya’s veil Schopenhauer introduces as an aspect of the sensuous and physical world, prevents us from understanding what the real happiness is. That is, the way to overcome the burden of life depends on how much we can escape from our desires, and in the same context, Picard says, “It is our mortality that defines us. It is part of the truth of our existence.” However, the poor man, Dr. Soran, pursues his own imaginary immortality despite its risk of destroying 230 million people and even always shows a compulsive behavior by saying, “I do not want to be late.” In fact, Schopenhauer suggests that we should distinguish our authenticity from the false representations and insists that the proper method is considering the moment of our death. Nevertheless, according to him, humans do not accept the mortality because he wishes to be in the condition of the unlimited existence, which is a substantial evidence of his will-oriented metaphysics. Despite the fact that we come to be dying from the time of our birth, the elan vital of our body increases ceaselessly, making us believe that our possessions are the nutriment to enrich our lives and the best solution of the problems originating from our inborn desire. Therefore, we may try to imagine our immortality at any expense, increasing the will of life. However, Schopenhauer says, “Everything lingers only for a moment, and hurries on to death” (Ⅱ 479), meaning that death seems to suppress the efforts to extend our lifespan. Similarly, Saint Augustine insists that our lives are led in the area of mortality rather than in the place out of mortality, and the fundamental solution of the fear of death is to control and endure ourselves (57). Lastly, Star Trek: Generations teaches that self-sacrifice is one important aspect of liberating humans from their individual desire. The scene of 124 Lee, Geon-Geun
Kirk’s dying shows his belief that his role as a warrior of Star Fleet is saving the Earth and other people’s lives. His heroic act is in line with the altruism shown in the films of the Original Series as an important connecting point between the two generations: In Motion, Decker’s decision to leave with Ilia as V’Ger wishes as a kind of naturalized entity in another space so as to save the other crew and the Earth (Lee, Initiation 106); Spock’s humanitarian suicide and then the Enterprise crew’s falling into outlaws owing to helping picking up Spock’s body despite the charge of contumacy in Kahn and Search; and Sybok’s fighting with the God to give his entourage a little more time to run away from Sha Ka Ree. Meanwhile, Schopenhauer, in his youth, learned “Buddahood” from the Oriental philosophy: The idea belongs to the individual principle that is derived from the negation of the phenomenon caused by the will, and going through the pains of our existence is supposed to attract performing penance voluntarily called “sanctum sanctorum.” In short, the resignation or refusal of excessive will of life means being released from the shackles of human inner side. To this part, the philosopher writes, “The inner nature of holiness [. . .] of mortification of one's own will [. . .] is the denial of the will to live” (Schopenhauer, Ⅰ 383).
IV
Generations is an excellent middle reliever between the Original and the Next Generation Series of Star Trek. In the sight of film history, it might be virtually impossible that the sci-fi movie series are descended with all the similar organization such as characters, setting, and even plot. For example, Generations, like the Original Series, shows how to tell humanity from inhumanity. In the early part, Android Data complains emotion chips Lightning Stroke Twice on Kirk and Picard: Star Trek Ⅶ: Generations 125 being inserted into his brain: “I no longer want these emotions! Deactivating me is the only viable solution.” To these words, Picard responds, “Part of having feelings is learning to integrate them into your life, Data, learning to live with them.” Comparably, Kirk is distinctive of emotional behavior—a sense of adventure and flexibility high enough to violate rules when needed. One example is that Kirk has passed the Kobayashi Maru test, a no-win scenario where no Starfleet officers have made it. His secret way of success in the supposedly impossible game is only to change its computer program in advance, but he is praised, not blamed by the audience. Although Picard appears to be relatively calmer and more rational than his predecessor, his seemingly cold and sensible reason is also filled with a lot of hotheaded emotion, which often gives him many troubles. For instance, in Generations, he weeps before his family picture, actively longing for his dead relatives. Moreover, Picard is sometimes described to be indecisive at the crossroads of both reason and emotion notably after his experience of having been assimilated by the mean machine-being, Borg. To sum up, by the two captains’ behaviors, Star Trek teaches that humans are not immaculate at least during a crucial moment. More importantly, the miraculous succession of the two series is attributed to the characters’ consistent tendency, emotion-oriented style, which may be the real human condition. Besides, the main ideas of the Original Series, such as the sympathy with machines, the duality and harmony of logicality and illogicality, non-teleological thinking method, and space pacifism, are transferred to the second film generation in Generations. Kirk’s ill-prepared performance of death might be condonable considering the level of his contribution to the whole Star Trek cultural industry. 126 Lee, Geon-Geun
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June, 2016.
Lee, Geon-Geun Address: 309 Pilmun-daero, Dong-gu, Gwangju 61452, Korea E-mail: [email protected]
Received: 2016. 07. 02 / Reviewed: 2016. 07. 30 / Accepted: 2016. 08. 08