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Annals of Business Administrative Science, 18, 237-249 Annals of Business Administrative Science 18 (2019) 237–249 http://doi.org/10.7880/abas.0191025a Received: October 25, 2019; accepted: November 26, 2019 Published in advance on J-STAGE: December 6, 2019 Strategic Divergence of Keiretsu: Toyota Suppliers and Nissan Suppliers Seungkee MINa) Abstract: Does keiretsu in the Japanese automotive industry vary by company in terms of firm performance and strategic behavior? This paper classifies parts-supply keiretsu into (1) Toyota suppliers and non-Toyota suppliers and (2) Nissan suppliers and non-Nissan suppliers and then conducts a comparative analysis of the suppliers to test differences in (a) firm performance, (b) customer scope, and (c) product diversity. The following results emerge from the analysis: (a) in regard to “firm performance (return on sales),” Toyota suppliers outperformed non-Toyota suppliers, but there was no difference between Nissan suppliers and non-Nissan suppliers; (b) with respect to “customer scope,” both Toyota suppliers and Nissan suppliers outperformed non-Toyota suppliers and non-Nissan suppliers, respectively; (c) as for “product diversity,” Toyota suppliers have less product diversity than non-Toyota suppliers, but there was no difference between Nissan suppliers and non-Nissan suppliers. These results indicate that the strategic behavior of Toyota suppliers differs from that of Nissan suppliers in that Toyota suppliers achieve high profitability by broadening customer scope and simultaneously narrowing product a) Graduate School of Economics, University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, Japan, [email protected] A version of this paper was presented at the ABAS Conference 2019 Autumn (Min, 2019). © 2019 Seungkee Min. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted reuse, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. 237 Min diversity. While prior research on keiretsu has not focused attention on the differences among keiretsu, the finding of this paper provides suggestive evidence that strategic behavior may vary across keiretsu member firms. Keywords: keiretsu, product diversity, customer scope, strategic behavior, Toyota, Nissan Introduction Why has the Japanese automotive industry achieved sustainable competitive advantage for more than half a century? Since the 1990s, researchers have attempted to figure out the source of the Japanese automotive industry’s competitive advantage by focusing on interfirm relations and interfirm networks in regard to this point (Dyer & Singh, 1998; Helper & Sako, 1995; Lincoln, Gerlach, & Takahashi, 1992).1 Particularly, research on keiretsu has provided a meaningful perspective to explicitly explain the above phenomenon (Asanuma, 1985; Dyer, 1996; Lincoln, Gerlach, & Ahmadjian, 1996; McGuire & Dow, 2009). These studies have demonstrated that the source of the competitive advantage results from the long-term, cooperative assembler-supplier relationship and the keiretsu system that is closely intertwined.2 Yet, prior studies on keiretsu have provided detailed analyses such as research on the Toyota keiretsu or the network structures 1 For the detailed arguments on this point, see Kobayashi (2014), which reviews the relational view. For the arguments on the competitive advantage of Toyota, see Fujimoto (2012) and Suh (2017). 2 In fact, empirical research has contended that cooperative relations between Japanese automotive assemblers and parts suppliers have led to efficient and effective product development because such relationships could promote information sharing between assemblers and suppliers (a major study is Dyer & Chu, 2003). 238 Strategic divergence of keiretsu (Brouthers, Gao, & Napshin, 2014; Dyer, 1996; Lincoln et al., 1996; Peng, Lee, & Tan, 2001) but have not paid attention to the differences in strategic behavior among keiretsu, i.e., comparisons between Toyota suppliers and non-Toyota suppliers or between the Toyota keiretsu and the other keiretsu networks (an exception is Takeishi & Noro, 2017). There are two main directions of strategic behavior, which industrial firms within a single industry can take to increase their profits: one direction is to expand product diversity and the other is to expand customer scope (Ansoff, 1957). First of all, as the result of analyzing the data of PIMS database, Kekre and Srinivasan (1990) found that the broader the product line that a firm has, the higher the firm profitability it can achieve. However, when it comes to the relationship between product diversity and profitability, other empirical studies have also shown somewhat different findings. For instance, Li and Greenwood (2004) reported that no significant relationship exists between product diversity and profitability, while Hashai (2015) found an S-shaped relationship between product categories and profitability. Second, with respect to the relationship between customer scope and profitability, Nobeoka, Dyer, and Madhok (2002) empirically demonstrated that superior suppliers with higher profitability have a broad customer scope, rather than transacting only with a single customer.3 It is argued that suppliers with multiple customers take advantage such as by having more learning opportunities and reducing transaction cost (Dyer, 1997; Nishiguchi, 1994; Nobeoka et al., 2002). Recently, Takeishi and Noro (2017) point out diverging behaviors 3 However, according to Min and Song (2017), which are a follow-up work to Nobeoka et al. (2002), analyses for the year 1985 and 1995 both came up with similar findings that having a broader customer scope positively affects firm performance; however, the analysis of 2005 did not show a significant relationship between the two factors. 239 Min within keiretsu with an analysis of the Japanese automotive industry. Observing that the Toyota keiretsu involves not only Toyota but also other customers that are not included in the Toyota group, they refer to this as “open keiretsu.” It means that the strategic behavior of keiretsu may differ for achieving growth and maximizing profits. Thus, this paper classifies Japanese automotive parts suppliers into (1) Toyota suppliers and non-Toyota suppliers and (2) Nissan suppliers and non-Nissan suppliers, conducting a comparative analysis to test the differences in performance and strategic behavior among keiretsu member firms. Research Method The sample in this study consists of auto parts suppliers in the Japanese automotive industry. Prior studies identified keiretsu based on the classifications of Industrial Groupings in Japan (IGJ), issued by Dodwell Marketing Consultants (Brouthers et al., 2014; Kim, Hoskisson, & Wan, 2004; Lincoln et al., 1996; Sambharya & Banerji, 2006). However, scholars such as McGuire and Dow (2009) or Miwa and Ramseyer (2002) see the classification of IGJ as a problem since it uses only the equity ownership ratio to identify keiretsu. In fact, it is conceivable that there are many cases in which companies are benefiting from keiretsu-type alliance even if there is no equity ownership between a supplier and its customer. Therefore, this study identifies keiretsu based on information about whether a supplier transacts with a customer. The data for the analysis were gathered from the Japanese Automotive Parts Industry Association (JAPIA) database for the year 1995 and 2005. The criterion of the sample is based on suppliers that have more than 50% of total sales to auto assemblers, following Nobeoka et al. (2002), in order to limit the sample only to auto parts 240 Strategic divergence of keiretsu manufacturers. This study screened the data to exclude auto parts makers for which data on sales, profits, and supply ratio were missing from the database but left in those firms for which the number of products was unavailable. The sample used in this research consists of 115 firms from the 1995 data and 96 firms from the 2005 data. Note that the data on sales, profits, supply ratio, and the number of products are from each fiscal period for 1994 and 2004. The variables used in this study are as follows. (a) Return on sales, which denotes firm performance, is measured by the profit-sales ratio (percent) dividing each firm’s ordinary income by its sales. (b) Customer scope is measured by the number of customers (automotive assemblers) with which the supplier is transacting among the seven Japanese automotive assemblers.4 (c) Product diversity is defined by the number of product categories that each supplier is manufacturing. The data are based on JAPIA database classifying the products made by Japan’s auto parts makers into 148 product categories. Product diversity is measured by the natural logarithm of the number of product categories to eliminate statistical outliers from the normal distribution. Table 1 shows the mean, standard deviation, minimum value, 4 The seven auto makers are the Toyota Group, Nissan Group, Honda, Mitsubishi, Mazda, Suzuki, and Isuzu. The Toyota Group includes Toyota Motor, Toyota Auto Body, Daihatsu, Hino, and Kanto Auto Works. The Nissan Group includes Nissan Motor, Nissan Shatai, Nissan Diesel Motor, Fuji Heavy Industries, and Aichi Machine Industry. These group classifications are consistent with those of Nobeoka et al. (2002). Note that Nissan Diesel changed its name to UD Trucks in 2010. Toyota became the largest shareholder in Fuji Heavy Industries in October 2005 as Toyota took an 8.7% stake. Fuji Heavy Industries changed its
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