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International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 51 (2008) 4599–4613 www.elsevier.com/locate/ijhmt

Frontiers in transport phenomena research and education: Energy systems, biological systems, security, information technology and nanotechnology

T.L. Bergman a,*, A. Faghri a, R. Viskanta b

a Department of Mechanical Engineering, The University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269-3139, USA b School of Mechanical Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907-2088, USA

Received 3 January 2008; received in revised form 24 January 2008 Available online 7 April 2008

Abstract

A US National Science Foundation-sponsored workshop entitled ‘‘Frontiers in Transport Phenomena Research and Education: Energy Systems, Biological Systems, Security, Information Technology, and Nanotechnology” was held in May of 2007 at the University of Connecticut. The workshop provided a venue for researchers, educators and policy-makers to identify frontier challenges and asso- ciated opportunities in heat and mass transfer. Approximately 300 invited participants from academia, business and government from the US and abroad attended. Based upon the final recommendations on the topical matter of the workshop, several trends become apparent. A strong interest in sustainable energy is evident. A continued need to understand the coupling between broad length (and time) scales persists, but the emerging need to better understand transport phenomena at the macro/mega scale has evolved. The need to develop new metrology techniques to collect and archive reliable property data persists. Societal sustainability received major atten- tion in two of the reports. Matters involving innovation, entrepreneurship, and globalization of the engineering profession have emerged, and the responsibility to improve the technical literacy of the public-at-large is discussed. Integration of research thrusts and education activities is highlighted throughout. Specific recommendations, made by the panelists with input from the international heat transfer community and directed to the National Science Foundation, are included in several reports. Ó 2008 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Keywords: Heat transfer; Energy; Biological; Security; Information; Nanotechnology; Education

1. Introduction sponsored workshop was held on May 17–18, 2007 at the University of Connecticut. Similar related workshops have Advances in the sciences and in engineering continually been convened from time-to-time in order to identify trans- fuel new technologies and pose new challenges to the engi- port phenomena challenges and opportunities. The most neering profession including the heat transfer community. recent workshop to deal with broad-based transport phe- Continuous evolution of fundamental knowledge, along nomena issues was held April 19–21, 1991 [1]. The 1991 with new technologies that enable instantaneous global workshop was also funded by NSF, and was attended by communication, will cause radical changes in the way 140 individuals, almost all from the United States. The new products and systems are developed and manufac- 1991 workshop report focused on several ‘‘critical technical tured, as well as the way engineers work. areas vital to the economic success of the US”, as shown in To assess the evolving role of the transport phenomena Table 1 [1]. A cursory examination of the table reveals the community, a US National Science Foundation (NSF)- need to re-assess where the transport phenomena commu- nity is today, and where we may be headed in the future. * Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 860 486 2345. And, if one assumes the number of contributors to each E-mail address: [email protected] (T.L. Bergman). area of the 1991 Chicago Workshop Report was a gage

0017-9310/$ - see front matter Ó 2008 Published by Elsevier Ltd. doi:10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2008.01.024 4600 T.L. Bergman et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 51 (2008) 4599–4613

Table 1 may be argued that information technology and nanotech- ‘‘Critical technologies” and the number of contributing individuals to the nology are broad topics that are becoming somewhat 1991 Chicago Heat Transfer Workshop Report [1] mature areas of research, information- and nanotechnol- Critical technology area Contributors to report (from ogy continue to pose technological challenges for the ther- Academia)1 mal sciences community, while simultaneously providing Manufacturing 65 (38) huge economic opportunities that will affect the daily lives Heat exchanger technology 59 (18) of citizens throughout the world (e.g., [18]). Materials processing 47 (28) Energy 42 (25) Regardless of the technical or scientific topic of the 2007 Aerospace technologies 30 (13) Workshop, integration of current research into the class- Environmental issues 25 (17) room has yet to be achieved on a widespread basis. What Digital data processing 16 (9) are the consequences of instantaneous global communica- Bioengineering and 13 (6) tion that is now available to individuals worldwide? What biotechnology Nano- and microtechnology 6 (6) are the roadblocks regarding dissemination of transport phenomena research? Are there lessons to be learned from the past, or from other scientific communities that have taken aim at educating a much broader constituency of overall interest in a particular topic, it can be argued including the general public (e.g., [19,20])? that the transport phenomena community has very success- fully addressed challenges related to many of the topics of 2. Workshop organization Table 1, but is now addressing other issues that received sparse attention just 15 years ago. No mention of ‘‘educa- An executive committee (Appendix A) was formed in tion” can be found in the 240-page Chicago Workshop February of 2006 in order to nominate keynote speakers, Report. identify participants and panel leaders in each topic, and When the 2007 workshop was proposed (in 2005), to strive for a balanced, yet in-depth coverage of the research in sustainable energy systems had been dormant focus areas. Subsequently, a plenary speaker (Dr. William for nearly two decades and was just beginning to recapture Wulf, President of the US National Academy of Engi- major attention. Clearly, the technological advances over neering), six keynote speakers (Appendix B), panel chairs, the last two decades now provide multi-disciplinary oppor- co-chairs, and panelists (Appendix C) were identified and tunities in which thermal engineering will play an impor- invited. Rather than presenting a traditional technical tant and perhaps leading role in terms of bringing new paper, panelists were urged to begin by stating the socie- sources of energy online, developing cleaner traditional tal impact of their topic, and to subsequently provide a sources with reduced net emissions of greenhouse gases brief overview of the technical principles involved, a or in harvesting thermal energy that is currently wasted, review of the state-of-the-art, a delineation of barriers and otherwise improving energy conservation effectiveness hindering progress, and specific recommendations. Copies (see, for example, [2–6]). The world’s demand for energy is of their presentations are available elsewhere [21]. To expected to grow by over 50% in the next 25 years. Satisfy- engage as many individuals as possible, invitations to ing that demand in an economical and environmentally attend the workshop were delivered to several hundred acceptable manner is one of the most significant challenges people, concurrent with several informational e-mail mes- facing society. In spite of this expectation, there appears to sages that were broadcast to thousands of members of be no urgent discussion of how some common and interre- the international transport phenomena community. The lated societal needs will be met. For example, a growing broadcast e-mails included a mechanism to request a per- global population, the demands of energy production sonal invitation to the workshop. To facilitate open dis- (i.e., from biofuels), the depletion of aquifers, contamina- cussion, working lunches were held during the tion and other issues are affecting the world’s supply of workshop to ensure that all attendees were given the drinking water and availability of water for agriculture. opportunity to express their opinions, with preliminary Although transport phenomena in biological systems are position statements drafted by topic leaders and pre- of obvious relevance, thermal science research has sented to the entire assembly, again with the opportunity traditionally dealt with biomedical applications and ther- to debate key points. Subsequently, draft reports were mal-based treatments and therapies. Today, there are generated and posted for approximately one month on new biotechnology and bioengineering challenges that the workshop web site, and e-mails to several thousand would benefit from the contributions of, or would be individuals in the international transport phenomena enabled by the thermal science community (e.g., [7–14]). community were sent, soliciting comments on the draft In the last several years, increased attention has been reports. All comments that were received from the inter- paid to security, with large investments being made both national community were forwarded to the authors of the by governments and the private sector. What are the chal- draft reports (panel chairs and co-chairs and several oth- lenges, and what is the role of the thermal science commu- ers) and final position statements (Section 4) were devel- nity in addressing the challenges (e.g., [15–17])? Although it oped by the authors. T.L. Bergman et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 51 (2008) 4599–4613 4601

3. Assessment of interest in topical areas 3.3. Community feedback on preliminary reports

In addition to the deliberative process described above, As described in Section 2, comments were solicited from several methodologies were employed in an effort to gage, the international transport phenomena community in to the extent possible, the transport phenomena communi- response to preliminary reports that were posted on the ties’ relative interest in the topical areas of the workshop. workshop web site. This open solicitation of comments resulted in feedback that was heavily weighted toward 3.1. Registrant survey the energy (approximately 55% of comments) and biologi- cal systems (approximately 30% of comments) reports, As part of the online workshop registration process, with the remaining comments distributed among the other each workshop attendee was asked to complete a brief sur- topics of the workshop. vey, indicating the topic(s) of their interest. The results are Although we will let the reader draw their own conclu- shown in Table 2. (Note that the sum of interested individ- sion regarding the levels of interest expressed in the specific uals exceeds the number of registrants because individuals technical topics, the strong interest in education is deemed often identified multiple topics of interest.) Determination to be important and encouraging. of the size and number of panels (two each in Energy, Bio- logical Systems, and Nanotechnology; one each in Educa- 3.4. Over-arching themes tion, Information Technology and Security) was made in large part based upon the registrants’ interest, as indicated Based upon the final reports (Section 4), several over- in Table 2. arching themes evolve. First, a continued need to under- stand the coupling between broad length (and time) scales 3.2. Keyword count is mentioned in all the technical reports, repeating a point that is stressed in the 1991 Workshop report [1]. One report Each final report (Section 4) was examined for use of (Energy) points out the need to better understand transport keywords directly related to the other five topics of the phenomena at the macro/mega scale, as was also noted in workshop. Keywords related to the topic of the report in the 1991 Workshop report. The need to develop new which they were used were not counted (for example, refer- metrology techniques and collect as well as archive reliable ence to ‘‘energy” in the energy report was not counted). property data is a recurring theme (Biotechnology, Infor- Although this is a somewhat subjective method to gage mation Technology, Nanotechnology, and Security) that the community’s interest, judgment was exercised during was also discussed extensively in the 1991 Workshop. the keyword count to put the word usage into a proper New to the discussion is the broad issue of societal sustain- context (see Table 3). ability that receives major attention in two of the reports (Energy and Education). Also new are matters relating innovation, entrepreneurship, and globalization of the engineering profession, as discussed in the Education report. Similarly, the responsibility to improve the techni- Table 2 cal literacy of the public-at-large is stressed and/or dis- Self-identified topics of interest by workshop attendees cussed in three reports (Education, Energy and Topic Interested individuals Nanotechnology). Finally, specific recommendations direc- Energy systems 167 ted to the National Science Foundation are included in the Nanotechnology 129 reports on Biological Systems, Energy, and Education. Education 111 Biological systems 94 Information technology 44 4. Topical reports Security 44 4.1. Biotechnology

The following biotechnology report was generated by Table 3 Dr. Edward M. Carapezza (Chair, DARPA), Prof. Don Keyword usage in final reports P. Giddens (Georgia Institute of Technology), Prof. John Keyword Keyword R. Howell (The University of Texas at Austin), and Prof. count Michael J. Pikal (University of Connecticut). Energy 15 Education 10 Biology (or ‘‘medicine”)94.1.1. Introduction (biotechnology) Nanotechnology (or ‘‘molecular scale,” or ‘‘very small 7 Enormous investments have been made in basic research scale”) into molecular biology by Federal agencies, particularly the Security 7 National Institutes of Health (NIH) which enjoyed a recent Information technology 3 doubling of its budget, as well as the private sector. Results 4602 T.L. Bergman et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 51 (2008) 4599–4613 of these endeavors should be viewed by the engineering There is a unique opportunity to address the challenges community as an opportunity to contribute to the solutions of infusing an agenda for transport phenomena into of problems of global significance that will impact all of impacting understanding of biological systems. There is humanity. Engineering has the responsibility to bring to a great base of knowledge in both engineering and biol- bear our quantitative approaches and strengths in modeling ogy upon which we can build a formidable research upon biological discoveries so that biological systems can agenda. be described, modeled, predicted and manipulated. Appli- cations range from understanding phenomena at the molec- ular, cellular, tissue, organ and systems levels, whether these 4.1.3. Recommendations (biotechnology) be in health, energy or environmentally related domains. Our panel offers the following recommendations, with And we hypothesize that no other field can achieve these several examples of each: translations into societal impact like engineering. 1. Invest in research programs that integrate single and Transport phenomena will be ubiquitous in all such coupled transport processes with biological processes domains. Each endothelial cell lining a blood vessel is a over multiple length and time scales: minute factory that is subject to external mechanical and Models for intracellular function. electrical stimuli, can adapt to its environment and regulate  A model of the circulation from the heart through vessel function of the vessel wall, contribute to the develop-  capillaries. ment of arterial disease – each lives and dies in synchrony A model of the central nervous system. with its neighbors. The transport processes that govern  Multi-scale modeling cell to tissue to organ.  each cell’s function are beginning to be understood and 2. Characterize and manipulate physical and transport are subject to modeling from an engineering perspective. properties of biological materials: Similar analogies can be made for entire ecosystems of Biopreservation of molecules, cells (e.g., proteins, vac- the environment – transport processes are the means  cines, embryonic stem cells), tissues and organs. through which these systems function, adapt or become Properties of pathological cells and tissues (e.g., can- pathologic. The science of Biology cannot, in its present  cer, ischemic tissue). state, do much more than describe these processes qualita- Transport properties of new biological materials, tively. Engineering is required to describe processes and  including materials that dynamically adapt to their system interactions in quantitative ways, thus enabling environments. greater understanding and introducing the ability to pre- Variation in physical properties of materials such as dict and control. However, barriers to progress exist.  arterial walls (e.g., Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio). 4.1.2. Barriers (biotechnology) 3. Develop models for the analysis, correlation, and pre- These include: diction of transport phenomena across individual enti- ties (e.g., cells, animal models, humans): 1. Separation between disciplines – the language, perspec- Model cell–cell interactions, cell–matrix interactions. tives, approaches, and even funding agencies are differ-  Model transport processes that control cell and tissue ent; this is especially obvious in the biomedical arena.  injury. 2. Despite the great advances in biological knowledge, Learn how to interpret variability among individuals there remain gaps – biologists are still uncovering basic  within populations (cells, animals, people). mechanisms through which elements of a system inter- Multi-physics modeling (fluid–wall interaction in act, and hence phenomenological models are needed to  arteries and the effect on solute transport). enable applications. Employ non-invasive methods to model biological 3. Tackling problems of societal impact often requires inte-  function, e.g., MRI coupled with CFD to model gration of scales in space and time that span several blood flow in an individual. orders of magnitude, and new models and ways of thinking are needed to accomplish this integration. 4. Develop engineered biosensors and actuation/transport 4. Education, curricula and learning are typically orga- methods: Nano and micro-scale material transport – how to get nized through silos that are impediments to progress  and innovation; while strength and rigor in disciplines enough fluids/particles to the targeted cells. Implanted biosensors for monitoring health and are critical (‘‘fundamentals” are fundamental), new  approaches to interdisciplinary education and to engag- departures from health. Biosensors for field and laboratory work (flu detec- ing students collaboratively in multi-disciplinary teams  must be developed. tion, chemical weapons, detection and quantification 5. Interdisciplinary funding is sorely needed; federal agen- of biological markers). cies each have core missions, and there is inadequate col- 5. Develop system approaches to study complex biological laborative funding that will bridge engineering with the processes: Single cell regulation and transduction processes. biomedical/biological sciences.  T.L. Bergman et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 51 (2008) 4599–4613 4603

How does the brain control behavior, e.g., physical good leverage for both agencies and also insure good  tasks, sensing. multi-disciplinary interaction. Develop tools that advance measurement and under-  standing of biological processes. 4.2. Energy Improve spatial and temporal resolution at all  scales. The report below was generated by Prof. George P. Pet- Develop simulation and visualization tools, including  erson (Chair, University of Colorado), Prof. Fazle Hussain validation. (University of Houston), Prof. Laura A. Schaefer (Univer- Create data bases of biological systems, e.g., proper-  sity of Pittsburgh), Prof. William A. Sirignano (University ties, variability. of California, Irvine), and Prof. Ralph L. Webb (The Penn- Develop a simulation based environment to enable sylvania State University).  representation of complex biological systems and the prediction of operation and performance characteris- 4.2.1. Introduction (energy) tics across scales from molecular, cellular, tissue, This report is divided into two portions. The back- and organ. ground of the formal presentations and the topics raised Develop tools for inverse analysis of transport phe- for discussion will be summarized in the first section. Then,  nomena for individual or patient specific process the major recommendations are outlined in the second design. section. NSF can fund research that builds methodological foun- dations that can be employed in various applications. NSF 4.2.1.1. Presentations and topics for discussion and evalua- can fund methodologies (motivated by ultimate applica- tion. The assembly of energy scientists and engineers bene- tions) that may not be funded by other agencies. fited from overview presentations by many leaders in the NSF-funded research might be looked at as developing field. Widely varying, important issues were highlighted methodologies that could be applied to NIH-funded that allowed for an ultimate integration and evaluation domains e.g., cancer, neuron, cardio, etc. (The creation of the needs. The panelists and their presentations are of the National Institute of Bioimaging and Bioengineering included in [21]. (NIBIB) and the NIH Roadmap have helped improve the In the several rounds of discussion and evaluation, 27 status of engineers, but the major focus in funding remains suggestions or areas for emphasis received substantial with hypothesis-driven research. The NIBIB budget is only support. These are divided below into the 10 best-sup- about $300M per year.) ported suggestions/areas and then 17 well-supported sug- Having said this, NSF can also support domain research gestions/areas. The best-supported suggestions/areas are as that is so engineering-based that other agencies would pass follows: up. An example might be characterizing the mechanical properties of a cell or tissue. Such a study might be viewed 1. Using a multi-agency approach, with NSF as the lead as too methodological for NIH to support, unless it is tied and input from academia, industry and government, directly to a particular clinical need or hypothesis-driven create a ‘‘National Energy Agenda” (i.e., Apollo type project. program to provide a path forward). Transport processes are critical in understanding a 2. Examine novel concepts directed at conservation and host of biological/biomedical phenomena and to energy efficiency research. addressing issues of health and disease. Many applica- 3. Expand fundamental research in carbon neutral energy tions will be of interest to NIH and both NSF and sources. NIH should support research in transport processes. 4. Conduct studies of advanced energy storage However, these agencies do have different missions and technologies. thus should coordinate funding to some degree in order 5. Invest in research for near-term renewable energy to make a bigger impact. technologies. On the educational front, NIH supports some engineer- 6. Examine energy harvesting (e.g., waste heat energy ing research/education efforts. NIH also focuses on recovery and utilization). post-doctoral training, with some activity on pre-doctoral 7. Expand and better publicize the existing NSF structure training. There is a need for bioengineering-specific train- to increase the focus on sustainability. ing and educational programs, and NSF is the best agency 8. Fundamental research in greenhouse gas control and for supporting such efforts. carbon sequestration. One interesting approach might be for NSF to coordi- 9. Distributed energy systems, including cascading energy nate with one or more of the NIH Institutes, such as systems. NIBIB, in a call for proposals in certain areas. There might 10. Require interdisciplinary as well as disciplinary be a requirement that there be co-PI’s, one of whom is an research which incorporates all aspects of engineer and the other a life scientist. This might provide sustainability. 4604 T.L. Bergman et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 51 (2008) 4599–4613

Distributed energy systems (including cascading and The other 17 well-supported suggestions/areas are listed  below: flexible energy systems).

1. Develop international initiatives on sustainability that All of these research areas have the potential to have a should include what is being done elsewhere. wide-ranging impact on energy sources, storage, transport, 2. Educate the public along with our Engineering and conversion. Additionally, a focus on these areas fur- students. thers NSF’s mission to keep the US at the leading edge 3. New generation of heat exchangers should be devel- of discovery while supporting high-risk ideas and novel col- oped using recent technological advancements. laborations. For example, by funding research into the 4. Engineers define lifestyle that will reduce energy development of near-term renewable energy technologies, consumption. NSF can develop the needed resources for practical and 5. Thermal chemical conversion of syngas to liquid fuel. rapid adoption of renewable energy while still supporting 6. Give high priority to high power and safe energy the cutting-edge research innovations that are required to systems. advance the state-of-the-art. In all of these areas, it is 7. Expand current laws to drive the issue, along with important to look across length and time scales – for interest and economics. instance, to consider not only the science of nanotube 8. Expand educational topics. creation for energy storage, but also the integration of that 9. Configurations at macro/mega scales. storage within energy conversion systems, and the utiliza- 10. Design of the human/environment interfaces. tion of those systems in more efficient configurations and 11. Continue fundamental research in efficient water usage with alternative fuel sources. To reach these goals, in addi- and management. tion to funding the traditional disciplinary research, it is 12. Incorporate ‘‘policy” ramifications in technical RFP’s. essential to require interdisciplinary efforts that incorporate 13. The US Department of Energy (DOE) must take lead- a variety of perspectives and multiple aspects of ership position with respect to sustainability. sustainability. 14. Energy research for sustainable non-energy systems Furthermore, beyond the intellectual merit of this and processes. research, NSF must continue to consider the broader 15. Flexible energy systems. impacts of sustainable energy. Some of these impacts are 16. Organize energy research into focus areas (i.e., sources, obvious, such as controlling greenhouse gas emissions storage, transport, conversion and environmental through both reductions and sequestration. Others are more impact). challenging, such as educating not only engineering (or even 17. Energy conversion devices. general university) students, but also the public about the need for and ways to achieve a sustainable energy future. 4.2.1.2. Sustainable energy roadmap: summary and recom- Innovative techniques for describing both the problem mendations. The National Science Foundation is well and the solution (the aforementioned research) on a general, placed to take on a prominent role in guiding the direction but not ‘‘dumbed-down,” level must be developed. Mecha- of science and engineering research into sustainable energy nisms for incorporating policy ramifications into technical both in the near future and from a long-term perspective. RFPs should also be explored, as well as a bi-directional The existing work being done by DOE is important, but approach to international education and collaboration. there is currently an opportunity available to broaden that We are at a unique point in history, balancing public work to include many fundamental and groundbreaking awareness of the need for sustainable energy with the issues that must be addressed in the creation and imple- opportunity to have a substantial impact. NSF must take mentation of sustainable energy technology. NSF should the lead in shaping this research in order to create truly sus- work toward the creation of a National Energy Agenda tainable and innovative energy solutions. to help in providing a path forward, and should both expand and better publicize the existing NSF sustainability 4.3. Information technology programs. In the creation of the National Energy Agenda, NSF The following report was generated by Prof. Bahgat should focus on the following areas: Sammakia (Chair, SUNY Binghamton), Dr. Ravi Prasher (Intel Corporation), Dr. Roger R. Schmidt (IBM), and Dr. Novel concepts directed at conservation and energy effi- Mark S. Spector (US Office of Naval Research).  ciency research. Fundamental research into carbon neutral energy 4.3.1. Introduction (information technology)  sources. This panel dealt with a number of issues related to the Advanced energy storage technologies. thermal management of electronics. The panelists [21]  Near-term renewable energy technologies. addressed issues related to applications in the military, con-  Energy harvesting (e.g., waste heat energy recovery and sumer electronics, telecommunications and computers.  utilization). While the specific challenges, needs, gaps and recommen- T.L. Bergman et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 51 (2008) 4599–4613 4605 dations varied depending on the application area, there 4.3.4. Recommendations (information technology) were many areas of common interest. The panelists also The panel identified five general areas of research that identified the challenges in the area of information technol- are of interest to the IT community with respect to thermal ogy with respect to thermal management and transport management and transport. issues. The challenges are based on the existing roadmaps for the IT industry as well as the known historical progres- 1. Energy efficient electronics sion in the different application areas. This summary repre- Architecture (performance-power compromise) sents all of the application areas identified by the panel.  Functional–thermal–mechanical co-design approach.  Energy recovery/harvesting. 4.3.2. Challenges (information technology)  Dynamic re-configurability. Continuous power increase (application and technology  Revolutionary cooling approaches.   driven). 2. Multi-scale system level thermal management Ultra high heat flux. Data center level.  Low allowable temperature difference.   Rack-box-board-module levels. Localized high heat flux (hot spots).  Alternative electronic system (macro-electronics,  Temperature uniformity requirements (LED, Space   implantable, pervasive electronics, portable, applications). embedded). Demand for low weight, small scale (military and other).  Micro-scale level. Integration and small scale.  Acoustic issues from flow and system.  Multi-scale problem ranging from nanometers at the   3. Materials tools and processes research transistor level to tens of meters at the data center level. Fundamental transport physics at interfaces (solid– Stacking (results in higher power density and thermal   solid and solid–liquid–vapor). resistances). TIM (new materials, characterization techniques, Demand for low cost thermal solutions.  models (interfaces)).  Demand for high reliability for very aggressive applica-  Transport physics of new device concepts. tion conditions such as mobile systems and military  Ultra high thermal conductivity electrical insulators applications.  and conductors (with matched CTE). Increasing energy cost. 4. Modeling and design tools  Environmental impact of high energy consumption.  Multi-scale models.  4.3.3. Barriers and gaps (information technology) Reduced order models.  Combined electrical–thermal design tools and design The panel identified the following four key barriers and  gaps in the area of information technology with respect to automation. thermal management and transport issues. Two phase flow models.  Two phase phenomena on extended surfaces such as 1. Modeling  Multi-scale and multi-physics and multi-disciplinary nanostructures.  models are often needed but are too complex or 5. Experimental techniques and diagnostics cumbersome. Interfacial measurements.  Measurements at the very small scale. Methodology for establishing a multi-scale model   hierarchy. Precise in situ material property measurements.  Data center level measurements of flow and Simple yet accurate design tools are needed for   industry. temperature. Two phase systems.  Turbulence modeling.  4.4. Nanotechnology 2. Experimental validation Measurements at the very small scale.  The nanotechnology report was generated by Prof. Material properties in situ. Roop Mahajan (Chair, Virginia Tech), Prof. Ranga Pitc-  Interfacial measurements.  humani (University of Connecticut), Prof. Dimos Poulika- 3. Characterization techniques kos (Swiss Federal Institute of Technology), and Prof. Interfacial properties particularly for thermal inter- Raymond Viskanta (Purdue University).  face materials. 4. Material limitations in areas such as thermal interface 4.4.1. Introduction (nanotechnology) materials, materials for two phase systems, adhesives, Hailed as the next industrial revolution, nanotechnol- barrier layers, coatings and dielectrics. ogy (NT) is poised to usher in a new age of develop- 5. The lack of disseminated effective energy efficient design ments that may impact countless aspects of our lives, systems, and the lack of disseminated energy harvesting including healthcare, communication, national security, and recovery systems. consumer products, and transportation, to name just a 4606 T.L. Bergman et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 51 (2008) 4599–4613 few. At the nanoscale, materials exhibit properties that 3. Nano-to-macro integration: There is a genuine need in are not possible at the bulk scale, and for the first time understanding coupling across spatial and temporal in the history of humankind, we have engineering sys- scales. To this end, numerical, theoretical and experi- tems that are at the same scale as the basic units of life. mental approaches across scales and disciplines, includ- Therefore, new opportunities have arisen to understand ing design and manufacturing of systems and devices life at its basic cellular level and to optimize engineering should be developed. systems based on the remarkable capabilities of cells to 4. Scalable manufacturing of products: An engineering pri- organize and self-assemble in response to external stim- ority is to provide a basic understanding of transport uli. Not unexpectedly, transport phenomena at the nano- phenomena needed for developing tools and processes scale play an important role in implementation of that will enable high-volume, low cost manufacture of nanotechnology. However, there are a number of scien- nanoelements and structures, with due consideration tific and engineering challenges at the nanoscale energy to environmental, health, and ethical issues. transport that must be addressed by the heat transfer community. The major among them in realization of Meeting these challenges and developing solutions will the following vision and goals are addressed in Section impact many applications including Nano-enabled Energy 4.4.2. Storage, Conversion and Conservation; Materials Process- ing and Manufacturing; Sensors; Biological and Health Vision: Widespread use of nanotechnology in key areas Care; and Water Treatment. such as energy, health care, security, and environment. Finally, it is noted that to enable widespread use of the Goals: To develop the fundamental transport phenom- developed knowledge base and technologies, the commu- ena knowledge base that will enable innovation and nity must engage with other technical, business, and pol- implementation of nanotechnology for the benefit of icy-making communities. Apart from creating human society. capital, the public-at-large in understanding the benefits and risks of nanotechnology must be engaged. 4.4.2. Scientific and engineering challenges (nanotechnology) 4.5. Security 1. Science issues: Interfacial phenomena, Size and dimen- The security report was generated by Prof. Peter G. sion effects, Multi-physics and computational models, Simpkins, (Chair, Syracuse University), Prof. C. Thomas and Model validation topped the list. Avedisian (co-Chair, Cornell University), Dr. Mehmet It is recognized that the nanoscale energy and mass Arik (GE Global Research Center) and Mr. John G.  transport at different interfaces (metal–metal, hard– Voeller (Black & Veatch). soft matter, solid–fluid, and metal–non-metal) is rich in scientific and engineering content but has not been fully explored. Our understanding of electron–pho- 4.5.1. Introduction (security) non coupling in metal–non-metal interfaces is also Transport phenomena are intimately coupled to inadequate. national security issues through dispersion and detection Electron energies are quantized in a nanoscale struc- of toxic gases or particulates, development of rapid  ture, leading to novel effects. These effects, known as response biological and chemical sensors, and infrastruc- quantum size effect, depend on the size, the shape ture protection. The challenges are not only in research and/or the boundary conditions, and lead to unusual and development but also in commercialization. Outlined mass transport behaviors. below is a draft of the material presented by the Panel on There is a need for the development of multi-physics Security at the Workshop [21].  and computational models that can address the molecular and electronic structure and physical and 4.5.2. Summary (security) chemical dynamics of nanoscale structures. For these The field of ‘‘security” as it relates to transport processes models to gain legitimacy and acceptance, they must largely concerns sensing, detection, data analysis, preven- be validated. tion and response protocols associated with creation of 2. Metrology/measurement techniques: To exploit the hazardous conditions. It includes a broad array of technol- promise of nanotechnology and to gain full understand- ogy areas and engineering disciplines such as micro-fluidics ing of the transport phenomena involved at the nano- for sensor detection (e.g., lab-on-chip sensors), real-time scale, there is a need for state-of-the-art tools to monitoring of air quality in the atmosphere and building measure dimensions, characterize materials, and exam- enclosures, fire dynamics, and development and validation ine structures of novel materials at the nanoscale. Devel- of predictive tools. The education of a new generation of oping standards and testing platforms for verification of engineers and scientists is also an essential ingredient to techniques is an equally important part of developing meet the challenges that loom in the international security capacity in metrology at the nanoscale. picture. Here the lack of programs that specifically target T.L. Bergman et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 51 (2008) 4599–4613 4607 security issues involving transport phenomena must be The physics incorporated into predictive capabilities addressed.  require benchmark data for validation (e.g., development of standards for validation) and high fidelity diagnostics. 4.5.3. Background (security) Creation of ‘‘smart” systems that can react and adapt Since 9/11 we have become more aware of dangers asso-  rapidly (e.g., adaptable material or building structures ciated with chemical and biological agents in the atmo- that would allow them to respond to change), and new sphere as well as the hazards associated with fires as an materials that offer improved fire protection, adhesion outcome of deliberate intent. These dangers have empha- to building structures, and suppression capabilities sized the importance of developing new capabilities for should be developed. improved situational awareness through sensing and detec- Micro sensors will require development of both analyti- tion with a view to prevention and corrective action. Heat  cal methods and components for operation (micro- and mass transport plays a critical role in this new world pumps, valves etc), plus improved small-scale (on-chip) security dynamic through the importance it occupies in and large-scale (networked) integration; new concepts development of new sensor technologies that rely on for MEMS-based sensing (e.g., proteomic circuitry for micro-fluidic and MEMS-based systems, models for fire sensing in biosystems) which are robust and can survive dynamics, coupling between transport and chemical kinet- many cycles of detection are needed. ics, scaling laws to bridge bench-scale to realistic condi- Novel concepts to influence the transport and distribution tions, development of new diagnostics for detection,  of hazardous agents are necessary to mitigate associated creation of ‘‘smart” building structures with adaptability, threats (e.g., electromagnetic flow control; transport and data processing algorithms to coordinate information and chemistry of contaminants in water and food; distri- from integrated sensor networks. bution of reactive plumes in the environment (e.g., rang- 4.5.4. Barriers (security) ing from chlorine to organic acids and biocatalysts)). There are significant barriers in our understanding of the enabling technologies for developing detection and pre- In addition to the technological issues listed above, the vention networks which motivate investments in this area. panel also articulated needs in the education of a new gen- These include the following: algorithms to track and coor- eration of engineers with and expertise and/or improved dinate in real-time transport of chemical agents in net- understanding of security issues. This goal could be works of building interiors and over diverse geographical achieved by incorporating relevant concepts in existing terrain; prediction of flashover associated with fires; mate- courses (e.g., which discuss fluid flow, combustion, heat rial property databases for input to simulations; bridging transfer) that bring in application areas relevant to secu- length scales; and sensor technologies which are often defi- rity, class demonstrations, or field trips. cient in their ability to discriminate among different chem- ical species. For example, the diverse nature of biological 4.6. Education and chemical agents make it difficult to develop general- purpose detectors (i.e., ‘‘one size fits all”). In development This report was generated by Prof. Richard S. Figliola of micro-scale sensing systems, the requirement to move (Chair, Clemson University), Prof. Theodore L. Bergman fluids in lab-on-chip designs also poses requirements on (University of Connecticut), Prof. John H. Lienhard V pumping, valving and filtering that affect reliability. (Massachusetts Institute of Technology) and Prof. John R. Lloyd (Michigan State University). 4.5.5. Recommendations (security) The recommendations for future work include, but are 4.6.1. Summary (education) not limited to, the following: Sustainability of our planet is the single most impor- tant issue currently facing humanity. Problems dealing Fire suppression remains an important concern and with energy availability, environmental and global warm-  approaches that either build on existing concepts (e.g., ing, medical technologies to improve health and high sprinkler technology) or develop improved chemical quality longevity, security and information technology agents for suppression are needed. are the critical issues of our day. Yet the typical US citi- Bridging of small and large length scales in security sys- zen is technically illiterate on the fundamental concepts  tem analysis poses significant computational challenges related to these issues. Transport processes, in particular, and efficient algorithms are needed to improve computa- are central to the current critical technology challenges we tional time. face, but most citizens have no knowledge of even the Algorithms are required for networking among sensors most elementary principles of the subject. Citizens are  at different physical locations (e.g., through a central therefore unable to make logically sound personal or pub- command installation) to provide improved situational lic policy decisions that will shape the future direction for awareness and real-time monitoring, and better sub- themselves, their families, this nation and our planet. Fur- models should be developed for predicting large-scale ther perpetuating this ignorance, our K-12 education sys- burning of solids and assemblies. tem currently lacks formal introductions to the most basic 4608 T.L. Bergman et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 51 (2008) 4599–4613 concepts of engineering technology or to concepts related ever, the engineering community must also take a lead to sustainability in everyday life practice, concepts that role in the sustainability problem facing our planet and would establish the basis for life-long learning for in decisions that relate to new technologies, such as energy, informed decisions. medicine, security and the environment. For this we need The Panel on Education believes that it is the responsi- to modify the way that engineers are educated and also bility of engineering educators, in partnership with govern- the way we educate non-engineers and the public. ment and industry, to make all of our public more This Panel stresses the need for a change in the definition technically knowledgeable. This would be accomplished of engineering research, such that peer-reviewed innova- through, for example, the development and introduction tions in engineering education, both within and outside of of pertinent modules of educational material targeted at formal degree programs, will be considered a strong various appropriate education levels and appropriate com- research area. NSF and other funding agencies, both in munity groups from K-16 education to community-wide partnership with industry and in cooperation with education for those beyond formal education years. These academia, must support further advances in engineering peer-reviewed technical modules must make use of the lat- education with materials that will: (1) have a profound est state-of-the-art visualization and entertainment meth- impact on the ability of our citizenry to engage in informed ods, including interactive approaches, to introduce in debate regarding the huge technological issues challenging simple, common-sense terms and visually stimulating all of humanity; (2) inspire a broader range of our young examples, the concepts and alternatives for everyday life population towards technical professions; and (3) improve practice. These would range from simple to advanced con- teaching and learning in undergraduate engineering cepts in scope. The modules should be highly produced curricula. drawing from the best talents and resources available. The Grand Challenge: Ensure Technical Literacy and The requirement of peer-review by the engineering commu- Global Leadership in Subjects of Sustainability, Energy, nity will prevent the uninformed, concerned citizen from Medicine, Security and Other Relevant Areas among Engi- offering technically unsound or incorrect statements. The neers and Society-at-Large. goal is a better educated public with which to shape informed public policy. Concurrently, engineering education is squeezed by two 4.6.2. Recommendations (education) competing policy pressures: (1) the pressure to reduce the 1. Supply meaningful funding in transport processes to formal four-year engineering curriculum; and (2) the pres- educate all citizens (K – Life) in innovative and exciting sure to educate our graduates in an expanding range of ways: Peer-reviewed modules (e.g., Energy, Biological Sys- interdisciplinary technology topics, including innovation  and globalization. We are presently in the midst of a merge tems, Security, Information Technology, and Nano- of the boundaries of traditional engineering education as it technology) for flexible learning and at audience absorbs rapidly-evolving areas of science, so that the his- appropriate (K-12; advanced; technical; community) torical engineering disciplines no longer provide clear levels. Peer-reviewed videos with animations. delineations of content. Transport processes of current  technical importance now include biological and chemical Interactive software.  Modularized Curriculum for easy and dynamic struc- processes from the macro-scales down to the nano- and  molecular-scales and the physical transport differences turing towards an audience. Modern version of public ‘‘newsreel” and Reality for- these scales may introduce. The four-year degree can  hardly hold so much information, and some decision must mats for dissemination of engineering challenges and be made to which topics to place at the Bachelor’s degree accomplishments through local media, cable-TV and level, which topics to place at the Master’s degree level, web-based sites. and which topics must remain the province of advanced 2. Identify core graduate and undergraduate engineering research. In essence, our engineering education community curricula that are truly core: must decide what curriculum is truly important so that new Increased biology, chemistry, and solid-state physics  and critical topics can be included in a newly defined core content. curriculum, and simultaneously determine which tradi- Awareness of Globalization Challenges among  tional core topics can be de-emphasized. At the same time, students. we must clearly define ‘‘what we are good at” and we must Introduction to the Concepts of Innovation and  continue to invest our time and efforts effectively and effi- Entrepreneurship. ciently at that. Eliminate overstuffing in curriculum.  This NSF Panel on Education believes that undergradu- Emphasize master’s level education as the appropriate  ate engineering education must: (1) maintain strength in step for careers in advanced energy technologies. the core fundamentals of transport processes; (2) provide Need to understand how to measure learning and  employable engineers to industry; and (3) prepare gradu- assess effectiveness of various different methods of ates to value the benefits of life-long learning. Now, how- teaching. T.L. Bergman et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 51 (2008) 4599–4613 4609

3. Improve public and non-engineering student perception 3. Subsequent workshops might include a focus on univer- of engineering: sity–industry–government interaction, including aspects Develop well produced education modules and infor- of technology transfer and commercialization.  mation for K-12 levels. 4. The heat transfer community must not only respond Promotion of engineering and technical accomplish- to technical needs of the society but also take a pro-  ments and challenges through videos targeted to local active stance in setting the national research agenda and cable media outlets and internet sites. regarding large efforts (grand challenges) in technical Promotion of engineering and science at the highest areas where our community has demonstrated leader-  levels of government. ship and has great credibility, such as in sustainable 4. Build a roadmap: energy. Develop Short- and Long-Term Objectives with Prior- 5. The heat transfer community must take a proactive  ity on Sustainability of the Planet. stance in leading a national discussion including the 5. Re-Prioritize Faculty and Student Time: involvement of the non-engineering community, in Increased responsibility and expanded content must be understanding the societal implications associated with  offset by elimination of current inefficient and outdated the technical areas of the workshop. practices. 6. Important common interests of researchers working on Shift some emphasis to educational service to the com- sustainable energy and clean water developments inter-  munity on sustainability and energy issues. sect and provide a pressing motivation for interdisciplin- Expand research on pedagogical delivery and content ary workshops in the future as energy and water head  with assessment. the list of humanity’s top 10 problems [22] and 21st Cen- Partnerships with industry, government, and other aca- tury innovations topics [23].  demic systems around the globe to enable the curriculum Additional specific suggestions regarding the role the US To expand opportunities for student creative inquiry National Science Foundation should play have been  as an integral part of technical learning. offered in the detailed reports included here. To increase global competitiveness of US engineers in  the world market as the professionals best capable to Acknowledgement make technically challenging decisions. Encourage alternatives to lecture/problem-set format The authors gratefully acknowledge support of this  of engineering education. workshop by NSF Grant 0617456. 4.7. Summary and conclusions Appendix A. Executive committee members Based upon the involvement of, and input from a signif- icant portion of the international heat and mass transfer C. Thomas Avedisian community, important challenges and opportunities have Professor of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, been identified in the areas of sustainable energy systems, Cornell University biological systems, security, information technology, nano- Adrian Bejan technology and education. It is hoped that this document, J.A. Jones Professor of Mechanical Engineering, along with the detailed information in the workshop pro- Duke University ceedings [21] will trigger action within our technical com- Arthur E. Bergles munity, and prove to be useful among the sponsors of Emeritus Dean, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute our research and supporters of various education activities. Theodore Bergman In short, we hope that this workshop will assist the Professor of Mechanical Engineering, The University National Science Foundation in setting future funding pri- of Connecticut orities. Several broad-based suggestions follow. Dennis Bushnell Chief Scientist, NASA Langley 1. Workshops of this type need to occur on a more fre- Jean Colpin quent basis in recognition of the rapidly-evolving Director, United Technologies Research Center changes in research thrusts, education initiatives, and Thomas Cruse national policies. A frequency of once every three or Chief Technologist, Air Force Research Laboratory four years would be appropriate. Ashley Emery 2. Subsequent workshops should direct more attention to Professor of Mechanical Engineering, University of the impact of globalization made possible by today’s Washington capability for instantaneous communication ability Amir Faghri among researchers, educators, and policy-makers UTC Chair Professor of Thermal-Fluids Engineering, worldwide. The University of Connecticut 4610 T.L. Bergman et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 51 (2008) 4599–4613

Richard Goldstein Security: John Voeller, Senior Vice President, Chief Regents’ Professor of Mechanical Engineering, The Knowledge Officer, Chief Technology Officer, Black & University of Minnesota Veatch Michael Hartnett Nanotechnology: Alain Kaloyeros, Vice President and Chairman and CEO, RBC Chief Administrative Officer, College of Nanoscale Steve Heath Science & Engineering, University of Albany, State Emeritus President, Pratt & Whitney Commercial University of New York Engines Education: G.P. ‘‘Bud” Peterson, Chancellor, The John R. Howell University of Colorado at Boulder Ernest Cockrell Jr. Memorial Chair and Baker Hughes Incorporated Centennial Professor, The Uni- versity of Texas at Austin Appendix C. Panel chairs, co-chairs, and panelists John Krenicki President and CEO, GE Energy Biotechnology I: Chung K. Law Robert H. Goddard Professor of Mechanical and Chair: Don P. Giddens, Georgia Institute of Technology Aerospace Engineering, Princeton University Co-Chair: Ed Carapezza, DARPA Robert Leheny Panelists: Deputy Director, DARPA John C. Bischof, The University of Minnesota Alfonso Ortega ‘‘Multi-Scale Challenges in Biological Transport James R. Birle Professor of Energy Technology, Villa- Application” nova University Sung Kwon Cho, University of Pittsburgh George P. (Bud) Peterson ‘‘Issues in Micro Droplets and Bubbles for Bio- Chancellor, The University of Colorado at Boulder Applications” Patrick E. Phelan Eric R. Dufresne, Yale University Program Director Thermal Transport, The National ‘‘Transport Phenomena in Cell Biology” Science Foundation Anubhav Tripathi, Brown University Ranga Pitchumani ‘‘Biological Systems and Biotechnology: Its Role in Professor of Mechanical Engineering, The University Translational Science and Education” of Connecticut John G. Georgiadis, University of Illinois at Urbana- Dimos Poulikakos Champaign Vice President for Research, ETH Zurich ‘‘Transport Phenomena in the Human Central William A. Sirignano Nervous & Musculatory Systems” Henry Samueli Endowed Chair in Engineering, Uni- versity of California, Irvine Biotechnology II: Mark Spector Office of Naval Research Chair: John R. Howell, The University of Texas at Bengt Sunden Austin Head of Energy Sciences, Lund Universitet Co-Chair: Michael J. Pikal, The University of Raymond Viskanta Connecticut W.F.M. Goss Distinguished Professor of Engineer- Panelists: ing, Purdue University Sangtae Kim, Purdue University William Wulf ‘‘Pharmaceutical Informatics and the Pathway to President, National Academy of Engineering Personalized Medicines” M. Michael Yovanovich Michael Ladisch, Purdue University Emeritus Professor, University of Waterloo ‘‘Process Engineering of Renewable Resources: Transport Phenomena in Cellulose Conversion” Samir Mitragotri, University of California, Santa Appendix B. Keynote speakers Barbara ‘‘Multi-Scale Transport in Biological Systems: Energy: Dennis Bushnell, Chief Scientist, NASA Role in Drug Delivery and Biomedicine” Langley Michael H. Peters, Virginia Commonwealth Biotechnology: Kenneth R. Diller, Robert M. and Pru- University die Leibrock Endowed Professor, The University of ‘‘Multiscale Analysis in Cellular Systems” Texas at Austin Petr Stehlik, Brno University of Technology Information Technology: Roger Schmidt, Distinguished ‘‘Waste and Biomass Processing as a Contribution Engineer, IBM to Sustainable Development” T.L. Bergman et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 51 (2008) 4599–4613 4611

Kambiz Vafai, University of California, Riverside Nanotechnology I: ‘‘The Role of Porous Media in Addressing Some Challenging Issues in Biomedical Engineering” Chair: Dimos Poulikakos, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Zurich Education: Co-Chair: Raymond Viskanta, Purdue University Panelists: Chair: Richard Figliola, Clemson University C. Thomas Avedisian, Cornell University Co-Chair: Theodore L. Bergman, The University of ‘‘Thermal Therapeutics with Nanoparticles for Connecticut Treating Cancer: Challenges and Opportunities” Panelists: Debjyoti Banerjee, Texas A&M University Yunus A. Cengel, University of Nevada, Reno ‘‘Boiling Phenomena on Nanostructures” ‘‘Incorporating Green Practices into Engineering Rashid Bashir, Purdue University and Non-Engineering Education to Combat Cli- ‘‘Top-Down Micro/Nanosensors for Biology and mate Change” Medicine: Opportunities and Prospects” Frank A. Kulacki, University of Minnesota Ishwar K. Puri, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and ‘‘Multiple Futures for Heat Transfer Education – State University Undergraduate to Graduate” ‘‘First Principle Simulations to Enable Nanomate- John H. Lienhard V, Massachusetts Institute of rials for Energy, Environment, and Biological Technology Applications” ‘‘What Do Students Need to Learn about Trans- George L. Gould, Aspen Aerogels Incorporated port Phenomena?” ‘‘Fundamental Challenges in the Industrial Pamela Norris, University of Virginia Production and Application of Nanostructured ‘‘Teaching Nanoscale Transport Phenomena” Aerogel Materials” Patrick H. Oosthuizen, Queen’s University Costas P. Grigoropoulis, University of California, ‘‘Some Factors to Consider in Teaching Renewable Berkeley Energy in an Undergraduate Engineering ‘‘Nanoscale Transport and Thermal Processing” Program” Robert J. Ribando, University of Virginia ‘‘Use of Modeling, Simulation and Visualization to Nanotechnology II: Teach Heat Transfer Concepts and Design” Chair: Roop Mahajan, Virginia Polytechnic Institute Information Technology: and State University Co-Chair: Ranga Pitchumani, University of Chair: Bahgat Sammakia, State University of New Connecticut York, Binghamton Panelists: Co-Chair: Ravi Prasher, Intel Corporation David G. Cahill, University of Illinois at Urbana- Panelists: Champaign Mark S. Spector, US Office of Naval Research ‘‘Nanoscale Thermal Conduction” ‘‘Thermal Management Challenges of Military Arun Majumdar, University of California, Berkeley Electronics” ‘‘Transport Phenomena at Nanoscales” Darvin Edwards, Texas Instruments Constantine M. Megaridis, University of Illinois at ‘‘Thermal Management in Today’s Electronic Chicago Systems” ‘‘Fluids Confined in Carbon Nanotubes” Suresh V. Garimella, Purdue University Gang Chen, Massachusetts Institute of Technology ‘‘Electro-Thermal Co-Design of Emerging ‘‘Energy Technology Enabled by Nanoscale Ther- Electronics” mal Effects” Yogendra Joshi, Georgia Institute of Technology William M. Worek, University of Illinois at Chicago ‘‘Energy Efficient Thermal Management for Infor- ‘‘Nanofluids and Critical Heat Flux: An Experi- mation Technology Infrastructure Facilities – The mental and Analytical Study” Data Center Challenges” Zhoumin Zhang, Georgia Institute of Technology William P. King, University of Illinois Urbana- ‘‘Applications of Near-Field Thermal Radiation in Champaign Energy Conversion and Manufacturing” ‘‘Nanoscale Surface Modification and Nanome- trology using Scanning Probes” Sridhar Machiroutu, Intel Corporation Security: ‘‘Challenges in Heat Pipe Technology and Future Research Opportunities” Chair: Peter Simpkins, Syracuse University 4612 T.L. Bergman et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 51 (2008) 4599–4613

Co-Chairs: C. Thomas Avedisian, Cornell University, ‘‘About Sustainability Metrics” Mehmet Arik, GE Research Ken Okazaki, Tokyo Institute of Technology Panelists: ‘‘CO2-Free Clean Coal Technology Integrated with Malcolm J. Andrews, Los Alamos National CCS (Carbon Capture & Storage) and Hydrogen Laboratory Energy Systems” ‘‘Coupling of Diagnostics with Predictive Science” Laura Schaefer, University of Pittsburgh Arvind Atreya, University of Michigan ‘‘Greener Energy Systems for Buildings and Small ‘‘Transport Phenomena in Fire Security of the Communities” Built Infrastructure” John R. Thome, Ecole Polytechnique Fe´de´rale de Jane P. Chang, University of California, Los Angeles Lausanne ‘‘Challenges of Transport Phenomena in Research ‘‘Microscale Two-Phase Flow and Heat Transfer and Education: Miniaturized and Integrated Sen- Phenomena: Issues and Challenges” sors and Microsystems” Chao-Yang Wang, The Pennsylvania State Darrell W. 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