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The Catholic University of America THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA St George’s Day: A Cultural History A DISSERTATION Submitted to the Faculty of the Department of History School of Arts and Science Of The Catholic University of America In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree Doctor of Philosophy © Copyright All Rights Reserved By Hanael P. Bianchi Washington, D.C. 2011 St George’s Day: A Cultural History Hanael P. Bianchi, Ph.D. Director: Laura E. Nym Mayhall, Ph.D. The modern celebration of St. George’s Day, frequently associated with intense English nationalism, grew out of a religious feast that commemorated a Middle-Eastern individual who died protesting an intolerant empire. Historians and journalists have looked to the medieval period to explain how this foreigner inspired the national holiday of England, neglecting the five hundred years from the Reformation to the present. This project is the first examination of the modern holiday, and it argues that St. George’s Day was first celebrated as a nationalistic holiday in eighteenth-century North America and was only introduced into England at the end of the nineteenth century. Situated in the crossroads of cultural history and holiday studies, this study examines the changing meaning of rituals on St. George’s Day: religious liturgies, ridings of St. George, feasts of the Order of the Garter, and annual dinners of St. George’s societies. The investigation maintains that the holiday rose in prominence as a religious feast day during the medieval period with different segments of society celebrating St. George under a variety of identities: clergy honored a martyr, knights a warrior, and commoners a dragon- slayer. Participants, however, venerated him primarily as a saint in order to avoid time in purgatory, be cured of illness, win a battle, or gain his protection. The Reformation ended St. George’s Day as a religious holiday, but it inspired a new version of St. George. Protestant reformers and Enlightenment thinkers attacked the existence of a real St. George, which enabled sixteenth-century authors to reinvent the saint as a mythical figure native to England and representing the nation. Ethnic societies dedicated to St. George in eighteenth- century America revived the celebration of St. George’s Day, and these celebrations honored St. George as the ideal Englishman, not as a real person. Moreover, the principal purpose of the holiday shifted from seeking supernatural aid to increasing devotion to England. The holiday only reappeared in England as a national celebration in the 1890s. Festivities climaxed during the interwar years, but fell from favor after World War II, only to experience a minor revival in the last two decades. This dissertation by Hanael P. Bianchi fulfills the dissertation requirement for the doctoral degree in history approved by Laura E. Nym Mayhall, Ph.D., as Director, and by Owen Stanwood, Ph.D., and Jerry Z. Muller, Ph.D., as Readers. __________________________________________ Laura E. Nym Mayhall, Ph.D., Director __________________________________________ Owen Stanwood, Ph.D., Reader __________________________________________ Jerry Z. Muller, Ph.D., Reader ii Notable Dates 285-305 Reign of Diocletian 303 Martyrdom in Eusebius of Caesarea’s Historia Ecclesiastica 361 Martyrdom of George, Arian bishop 494 Decretum Gelasianum 5th cent. Vienna Palimpsest 515 Inscription at Ezra 7th cent. Adamnan’s De Locis Sanctis 8th cent. Bede’s Martyrology 9th cent. Old English Martyrology 9/10th cent. Durham Collectar c. 1000 Aelfric’s Lives of Saints 1060s Portiforium of Saint Wulstan 1096–1099 First Crusade 11th cent. Missal of the New Minster 1189–1192 Third Crusade 1189–1199 Reign of Richard I 1222 Synod of Oxford 1266 Jacobus de Voragine’s Legenda Aurea 1277 First reference to the arms of St. George, Edward I’s Welsh campaign 1327-1377 Reign of Edward III 1337-1453 Hundred Years’ War c. 1348 Order of the Garter 1380s John Mirk’s Festial 1413-1422 Reign of Henry V 1415 Battle of Agincourt 1415 Feast elevated to major-double in the Province of Canterbury 1421 Feast elevated to major-double in the Province of York 1509–1547 Reign of Henry VIII 1547–1553 Reign of Edward VI 1549 Book of Common Prayer, no feast of St. George 1552 Book of Common Prayer, black letter day 1553–1558 Reign of Mary I 1558–1603 Reign of Elizabeth I 1559 Book of Common Prayer, red letter day 1561 Book of Common Prayer, black letter day 1568 Tridentine Calendar, semi-double 1590 Edmund Spenser’s The Faerie Queene 1596/7 R. Johnson’s The Famous Historie of the Seven Champions of Christendom 1642–1651 English Civil War 1645 Directory for the Public Worship of God, feast eliminated 1662 Book of Common Prayer, black letter day 1707 Great Britain created, union of Scotland and England 1733 St. George’s Society in Charleston iii 1772 Sons of St. George in Philadelphia 1786 St. George’s Society of New York 1801 United Kingdom created, union of Great Britain and Ireland 1818 Order of St. Michael and St. George 1871 Order of the Sons of St. George in Scranton, Pennsylvania 1874 Sons of England Benefit Society 1894 Royal Society of St. George 1918 Zeebrugge Raid 1969 Catholic Calendar, optional memorial 1996 Church of England, major festival 2000 Solemnity for Catholics in England iv Table of Contents Chapter 1. Introduction……….……………………...……………………………………………1 2. A Religious Celebration: St. George as Martyr……….……...…………...…………26 3. A Royal Celebration: St. George as Knight………………...………....……………..60 4. A Popular Celebration: St. George as Dragon-Slayer………………...……………..90 5. Decline of the Day: The Reformation and Beyond……………….……...………...125 6. Resurgence of the Day: St. George’s Day in North America……....………………170 7. An English Celebration: St. George as an Ideal…………………………...……….213 8. Epilogue……………….………………………………………….………...………285 Bibliography……………………………….……………………………………...……….304 v Chapter One Introduction Every year, the English celebrate St. George‘s Day as their national holiday. The day is meant to celebrate all things English, but amid the ale and fish and chips, St. George appears as an unusual English symbol. He has no inherent connection to England. He was not born there, nor did he ever visit it. Though his origins are unclear, he is most often said to have lived far from England in Turkey and Palestine. In addition, the feast of a Christian martyr of uncertain origins makes an improbable holiday for a secular Protestant nation, and for centuries, English Protestants and secularists have scrutinized the legends of St. George with his apparitions during the Crusades and mythical encounter with the dragon. The oddity of the marriage between St. George and England has caused many English revelers to wonder how April 23 became their national holiday. Scholars have often looked to the medieval period to explain the rise of St. George‘s Day. They have argued that the Crusades and the Hundred Years‘ War led to greater devotion to St. George and that the declarations of the Synod of Oxford (1222) and the Province of Canterbury (1415), which allegedly elevated the feast of St. George to a major holy day in England, initiated April 23 as England‘s national holiday. Historians have also exhaustively chronicled medieval festivities, including religious liturgies, popular ridings of St. George, and the great feast of the Order of the Garter, but they have neglected the period after the Reformation. This analysis fails to deal with the predicament that the medieval 1 2 feast of St. George differs greatly from the modern, nationalistic celebration of St. George‘s Day, and it also neglects several hundred years of history. This study argues that the medieval feast of St. George does not adequately explain the rise of St. George‘s Day as the national holiday of England and that the period after the Reformation was a time of great change in the meaning of April 23, setting the groundwork for the modern holiday. During the Middle Ages, St. George appeared in many guises as a martyr, knight, and dragon-slayer. Yet, he was seen by all ultimately as a saint, and his feast day was an occasion to venerate him in order to gain his intercession. As his cult grew at the end of the medieval period, St. George became the patron and protector of the country, and his feast was widely celebrated throughout England. It is, however, anachronistic to claim that April 23 became the national holiday of England during the medieval period, or that it celebrated the nation. The Reformation initiated the decline of St. George‘s Day, but his image was altered in a way that enabled the modern revival of April 23. Unlike prior transformations of St. George which added new layers to the saint‘s image, religious reformers and Enlightenment scholars successfully attacked and removed the most essential element of St. George during the medieval period, his status as a saint and martyr. St. George retained his image as a knight and dragon-slayer, and free from his Middle-Eastern roots, he was viewed increasingly as a mythical figure native to England. In short, he began to represent England and the ideal Englishmen. When English colonists in North America revived the celebration of St. George‘s Day in the eighteenth century, they celebrated the feast of the ideal Englishman, not a martyr. Undoubtedly, the medieval feast played a necessary role in the resurgence of St. George‘s Day in the twentieth century, but without 3 the history of the last five hundred years, modern celebrations focused on English nationalism would be unintelligible. Even though St. George‘s Day has experienced a resurgence of interest, the celebration of his day has been marked by a feeling of apathy and confusion over his status as patron of England. A poll by This England in 2009 revealed that seven out of ten young people did not know the date of St.
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