LIFE OF THE PROPHET OF

B. Hammouda

Outline

Chapter 1 - BRIEF HISTORY BEFORE ISLAM ...... 4

Introduction ...... 4 Brief History of the Monotheistic Religions ...... 4 Other Religions and Old Civilizations ...... 6

Chapter 2 - SITUATION JUST BEFORE ISLAM ...... 8

Main Languages and Currencies ...... 8 The Two Major Civilizations Just Before Islam ...... 8 The Trade Routes ...... 9 Life in Arabia Before Islam ...... 10

Chapter 3 - EARLY LIFE OF PROPHET ...... 12

Muhammad’s Family Origin ...... 12 The Early Years ...... 12 Muhammad as a Man ...... 13

Chapter 4 - PROPHETHOOD AND EARLY MEKKAN PERIOD ...... 15

Prophethood and Early ...... 15 Trouble Begins for the Muslims ...... 15

Chapter 5 - LATE MEKKAN PERIOD ...... 17

The Years of Sadness ...... 17 Hope Is Back ...... 17 The Hijra ...... 18

Chapter 6 - EARLY MEDINAN PERIOD ...... 20

The City Of ...... 20 Community Building ...... 20 Early Encounters with Quraish Expeditions ...... 21

Chapter 7 - BATTLE AFTER BATTLE...... 22

The ...... 22 After The Battle of Badr ...... 22 The ...... 24 After The Battle of Uhud ...... 24 The ...... 25 After The Battle of the Trench ...... 26

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Chapter 8 - TURNING POINT IN ISLAM ...... 28

The Treaty of Hudaybiya ...... 28 Islam Becomes a Major Power ...... 28 The Campaign of Khaybar ...... 29

Chapter 9 - MIDDLE MEDINAN PERIOD ...... 30

The First Umra...... 30 The Campaign of Muta ...... 30 The Conquest of Mekka ...... 31 The ...... 32 The Campaign of Taif ...... 32

Chapter 10 - LATE MEDINAN PERIOD...... 33

Medina Becomes a Capital ...... 33 The Campaign of Tabuk ...... 33 The Year of Deputations ...... 34

Chapter 11 - THE END OF THE PROPHET’S LIFE ...... 35

The Farewell Pilgrimage ...... 35 The Prophet’s Death ...... 35 Legacy of the Prophet ...... 36

REFERENCES ...... 37

MAP OF THE REGION ...... 37

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Chapter 1 - BRIEF HISTORY BEFORE ISLAM

Introduction

The Islamic civilization started with the message of Prophet Muhammad who lived from 570 AD to 632 AD (AD stands for our common era). It is often referred to as the “middle civilization”. It is middle in its location in the Middle East. It is also middle in time because it bridges a period between the Middle Age and pre-modern times. The Islamic civilization flourished in the world for many centuries.

When one thinks of the Middle East, one thinks of the birthplace of the monotheistic religions. Prophet Muhammad brought the message of Islam following up on a long line of prophets starting as far back as Noah. The life of prophets like Abraham, Ismael, Isaac, Jacob, Joseph, Moses, David, Solomon, and Jesus will be covered briefly. The life of Prophet Muhammad will be covered in much greater detail. He was the last prophet to be sent to mankind. Most religions were named after their founder; Islam was named after a state of personal achievement. Islam means “inner peace” and “surrender to the will of God” in the language.

In order to understand the world into which Islam developed, it is important to go over a brief history of the region including what other civilizations existed and what major powers were dominant at the time. In order to give a feel for what it was like to live in those times, we will touch upon languages spoken, trade routes, and the tribal way of life.

Brief History of the Monotheistic Religions

The Middle East is the cradle of the monotheistic religions. It is there that the three Abrahamic religions (Judaism, Christianity and Islam) were born. Abraham lived around 1900 BC in the Fertile Crescent of Mesopotamia (present day ) in his early life and then in the valley of the Jordan River. He received revelation in the form of a book referred to as The Scrolls. According to religious tradition, Abraham did not get children until he was very old. He finally got two sons from two different women: his servant Hajar gave birth to Ismael and his old wife Sarah gave birth to Isaac. Sarah was jealous of Hagar and asked Abraham to get rid of her. Abraham took Hagar and baby Ismael down the Red Sea coast to a spot where the present-day city of Mekka (in ) is. A community was established. Later on, Ismael helped build the first House of God at Mekka (called the ). Muslims are descendent of the tradition of Ismael. Jews and Christians are descendents of Isaac. They all descend from the same forefather Abraham.

Abraham started a long line of prophets. His other son, Isaac who lived in present-day was also a prophet. Isaac’s son, Jacob too was a prophet. Jacob had twelve children of which Joseph. Joseph’s compelling story in the Bible and the Qur’an tells of his tribulations in life. His other brothers (from the same father but a different mother)

4 were jealous of their father’s affection for Joseph and decided to get rid of him. They left the young boy inside a well and told their father that wild animals ate him. A merchant found him, took him, and traded him for money in Egypt. Young Joseph ended up in the house of an influential Egyptian man. Many years later, the wife of that man coveted his charms and made advances to him. After he refused her advances, she decided to accuse him of immoral conduct and had him put in prison. He stayed in prison for many years. His strong faith sustained him. His gift of being able to interpret dreams saved him. The Egyptian ruler of that time had a dream of seven fat cows eating up seven lean ones. He heard about Joseph’s gift and asked him about the meaning of this dream. Joseph told him that there will be seven years of bountiful harvest followed by seven years of drought in his land. Periods of drought were not uncommon in Egypt. Harvest depended on the vital flooding of the Nile River which did not always take place. The ruler was so impressed by Joseph’s interpretation of his dream that he appointed him as treasurer of his kingdom. Joseph saved good reserves of grains and food stuff during the bountiful period so that the kingdom was prepared when the drought period came. Drought affected the entire region and famine ensued. Joseph’s father Jacob, and his family, were severely affected back in Palestine. He sent his children to Egypt to get some food. Joseph who was in charge of the food reserves of Egypt recognized his step-brothers. He gave them food and forgave them their action against him many years ago. Jacob and all his children moved to Egypt to live with Joseph. Joseph is the one who brought the Jewish people to Egypt. Their stay in Egypt will be long and arduous. The pharaohs of Egypt enslaved the Jews and enlisted them in their grandiose projects of pyramid building. This went on for a few centuries till Moses was sent to deliver his people from bondage and take them out of Egypt.

Here also, stories in the Bible and in the Qur’an about the life of Moses overlap so much. From the time he was a baby Moses was adopted by the pharaoh and raised in his household. As a grown man he was strong and respected. One day, Moses killed a man who was maltreating a member of his tribe and he had to flee for his life. He ended up in the upper Sinai Peninsula where he received revelations from God. God asked him to go back to the pharaoh and ask him to let his people go! Along with his brother, Aaron, Moses went back to the pharaoh. God strengthened Moses with many miracles such as his cane transforming into a mighty snake, his hand becoming white at will, changing water from the Nile River into blood, being the cause of frogs falling from the sky with rain, etc. These miracles ended up convincing the pharaoh to let the Jewish tribes leave Egypt and cross the Red Sea towards Palestine. The twelve Jewish tribes will wander around the Sinai desert for forty years till a new generation of god-fearing leaders grew. Moses did not live to see them enter the Promised Land and establish a Jewish kingdom. His gift to the Jewish religion was the Torah (revealed by God) and the Talmud (recounted traditions of Moses’ life).

The Jewish kingdom lasted for a long time and God sent many more prophets to them. David was the king who unified the Jewish territory around 1250 BC. The Bible (Old Testament) refers to him as a king, the Qur’an mentions that he got revelations from God in the form of a holy book called the Zaboor. His son, Solomon, was also a prophet. He attained wisdom at an early age. Once, as a young boy he was sitting in his father’s court.

5 Two brothers asked King David to render a judgment regarding their dispute. One of the men had 99 sheep and the other one had only one sheep. The first one wanted to take the single sheep of his brother. The king rendered his judgment in favor of the second brother when young Solomon asked his father not to render quick judgment but study the case even though it seemed simple. Solomon grew up to be a just ruler over a vast territory. He built the Jewish Temple in Jerusalem. God gave him many gifts including the ability to communicate with birds and other animals. The story of his relationship with the Queen of Sheba (from the land of Ethiopia) is compelling. She was invited to come all the way to Jerusalem and was impressed by the Jewish Temple. The Qur’an mentions that the Temple floor was made out of glass, a highly advanced technology for that time.

This narrative skips ahead many centuries whereby the Middle East was ruled by either the Greeks (then Romans) or the Persians and gets us to the time of the next major prophet of God: Jesus. Jesus was born around year 30 BC of a miraculous birth; his mother was Mary but he did not have a father. When she got pregnant, Mary received the visit of an angel who informed her that she will give a miraculous birth to Jesus even though she never had a relationship with a man. Many more miracles will characterize the life of Jesus. The Qur’an tells that baby Jesus spoke to people as a baby. As a prophet he acquired the ability to heal the sick, restore vision to the blind, cure the lepers, and even to revive the dead (stated in the plural form in the Qur’an). Jesus also had a miraculous “death”. The Qur’an states that he was lifted up before crucifixion. Jesus’ prophethood lasted for three years from age 30 to age 33. He left us with the Christian faith and a group of close disciples to teach his message. Recounts of those early days were compiled into the New Testament. The Bible is the most read book in the world.

Islam constitutes the final monotheistic message revealed to Prophet Muhammad. The Qur’an was revealed over a period of 23 years and was complete before the prophet died in 632 AD. Thorough accounts of his life have been compiled and represent the traditions of the Prophet. These two sources constitute the basis for the Islamic message. Prophet Muhammad said that the Qur’an is the only miracle that God performed through him. Prophet Muhammad had a difficult life. His message started at age 40. He had to flee his home town of Mekka in Arabia at age 53 when his life was in danger. He moved to the city of Medina and established an Islamic community for a period of ten years before his death at age 63 in Year 632 AD. Prophet Muhammad has been the most influential man in early history.

Other Religions and Old Civilizations

Many other religions developed before the advent of Islam. The period between 300 BC and 600 BC saw the beginning of many religions named after their leaders: Confucius and Lao-Tse in China, Buddha in India, Zoroaster in Persia, etc. Even though these were not monotheistic religions, they shared much in morality and basic beliefs and overlapped in the notion of good and evil. Zoroastrianism caught on in Persia and was the main religion of the empire for centuries. Added to these religions, Greek mythology and Greek philosophers had much influence around the Mediterranean. In Egypt, the pharaoh

6 claimed to be a living god over many dynasties till the advent of the Coptic form of Christianity. During the third century AD, a teacher from Iraq called Mani tried to incorporate prophets and teachers into a single religion (Manichaeism) based on Zoroastrianism and Christianity.

Great many civilizations had developed in Asia and the Middle East before Islam. In China, India and Egypt, prosperous civilizations had flourished for thousands of years. These were characterized by highly developed agriculture, manufacture and trade. Metal working technology and complicated construction projects had been mastered (bridge- building in China, pyramid-building in Egypt). Cultural and artistic advances had been achieved. These various civilizations were characterized by the same form of government based around a powerful monarch who ruled by imposing his authority over his subjects. He was surrounded by an aristocratic class and powerful armies. Most people were poor, heavily taxed and had no hope for change. Moreover, constant warfare characterized the condition of many. The various religions brought some hope, but most of them ended up being controlled by the ruler. It was not easy to live in those times.

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Chapter 2 - SITUATION JUST BEFORE ISLAM

Main Languages and Currencies

Many languages were spoken in the Middle East: Syriac in , Arabic in Iraq, Arabia, and Palestine, Coptic in Egypt, Hebrew in Palestine, Armenian in Anatolia (Eastern Turkey), and Persian in Persia. Aramaic (the Semitic language that Jesus spoke) was also used in Palestine. Greek and Latin were used throughout the Middle East as languages of commerce and learning. Cultures overlapped and it was common to find people speaking more than one language, especially in trade. Moreover, the many displacements due to wars and famines helped spread cultures and languages beyond their original regions.

There were two main currencies used in trade; the Roman gold Dinar(ium) and the Persian silver Dirham. The Dinar was worth about twenty times the Dirham. To get an idea, the price of one camel was about 100 Dinars. Currency was widely available in the main trading centers but was scarce elsewhere in tribal market. People traded mostly by exchanging goods in kind.

The Two Major Civilizations Just Before Islam

The two major powers that ruled the Middle East just before the advent of Islam were the Roman and the Persian empires. The Roman Empire occupied western and eastern Europe and extended all the way to the Middle East and North Africa and the Persian Empire occupied present day Iraq and and at times extended westward into Syria and Egypt and eastward into India.

The Roman Empire was based at Rome and succeeded the Greek civilization in its cultural focus, philosophy and set of values. Christianity had gained greater acceptance gradually within the Roman Empire. It took over 300 years before Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire. There were many Jewish communities living in major cities and many pagan beliefs still haunted the Christian faith. At that time, there were three main trends within Christianity: the Coptic (Unitarian) Church in North Africa and East Africa, the Greek Orthodox (Trinitarian) Church in Eastern Europe, and the Catholic (also Trinitarian) Church in the rest of the Roman Empire including the Middle East. There were fierce debates all over the Roman Empire as to the nature of Jesus and his message. Ultimately, the Trinitarians won this debate with the conversion of the Roman emperor Constantine (311 to 337 AD) to their cause.

The Roman Empire was militarily powerful and dominated the regions surrounding the Mediterranean Sea until around 450 AD when it was invaded by the Huns (nomadic hordes) that came all the way from the steppes of Central Asia. This as well as other internal disputes weakened this Western Roman Empire (based at Rome) so that influence moved to the Eastern Roman Empire (based at Constantinople) that became the

8 dominant power protecting Christian interests. The Western Roman Empire survived in a symbolic form but with no power whereas the Eastern Roman Empire (referred to as the Byzantine Empire) became the major player in the Middle East for hundreds of years. From Constantinople, the emperor ruled vast territories through Greek-speaking civil servants.

The Persian Empire extended over vast territories around the rich plains of Mesopotamia rendered fertile by the Tigris and Euphrates rivers and included as far east as India. Its capital was Ctesiphon (close to present day Baghdad). The empire extended into Iran to the east and into the Mediterranean (at times) to the west. Persian influence in the Middle East goes back a long time. For instance, in 586 BC, the Persian king of Babylon (Nebuchadnezzar) captured Jerusalem, destroyed the kingdom of Judah and the Solomon Temple and sent the Jews into captivity in Babylon. These were allowed back into Jerusalem later.

The Middle East was at the center of a long-lasting struggle between the two super powers of the time; the Roman and Persian empires. This struggle goes back many centuries. Alexander the Great had conquered Persia around 333 BC and brought Greek culture and influence eastward to Central Asia. Alexander’s successors, however, could not keep the large territorial conquest unified and under control. The Roman Empire which inherited from the Greek civilization also inherited great influence in the Middle East but could not subjugate Persia. Many wars took place between the Romans and the Persians. An example is the conquest of the Persian capital Ctesiphon in 116 AD by the Romans. Another example is the capture of the Roman emperor Valerian himself in battle by the first Persian Sasanid ruler Ardashir (226-240 AD). After a period of peace between the two empires during the fifth century AD, wars were resumed and lasted from 540 AD to 629 AD. At first, the Persian (Sasanid) armies occupied the cities of Antioch in Syria, Alexandria in Egypt and Jerusalem in Palestine. Then, by 620 AD, they were driven back by the Roman Emperor Heraclius. Conquered territories went back and forth many times.

Desert Arabs to the South and Turkish tribes in the Northern steppes of Eurasia were of no interest to the Romans and Persians. These were left alone with no attempt to conquer them because they were mostly nomadic and had no real material wealth in their few cities.

The Trade Routes

Enmity between the Romans and the Persians did not help trade. Trade routes from the Far East to the Roman territories crossed Persian lands. The Romans wanted a trade route that would avoid the central plains of Asia under Persian rule. Two candidate routes were possible: either through the northern steppes across the khanate territories (Uzbekistan, Azerbaijan, etc) or through Arabia to the south. The northern route was not successful. The best candidate left was through the southern part of the Middle East leading to the Red Sea or to the Persian Gulf. Spices from India, silk and jade from China, gold and

9 ivory from East Africa and hides and brocade from would make their way through the Indian Ocean and the Red Sea to the . These were then carried by caravan to the Roman territory to the north called (Greater) Syria. Jerusalem and Damascus were part of Syria. They were bustling Roman market towns. From there, these goods would make their way to Constantinople, Rome and other European capitals by boat across the Mediterranean.

Arabs became major stake holders in this trade because they controlled the caravan trade from southern Arabian cities to Syria. This involved 250,000 Dinars’ worth of merchandise being traded per year. They would load up their camels with Asian and East African goods in Yemen and take them to Syria. Then they would load up with silver utensils, jewelry, manufactured goods and weaponry (tools and swords), pottery and other goods in Syria and take them south for trading with the local tribes. The city of Mekka (40 miles east of the Red Sea) had a strategic position at the crossroad of this caravan trade. Its influence was far reaching even before the advent of Islam in the seventh century. It was also a religious center where pagans came from all over to visit the Kaaba where their many idols were located. The region of Mekka was the location of a yearly fair that lasted for three months. Tribesmen from all over Arabia came to these gatherings to combine business and pilgrimage and renew alliances every year. Even warring tribes kept peace during that time.

Ethiopia had become an international trading partner with ships sailing as far as India. It was in control of the Yemen and Southern Arabia coast for a while. An Ethiopian military mission to Mekka failed in 507 AD. Persian influence in Yemen became strong and replaced Ethiopia’s but did not disturb the caravan trade.

Life in Arabia before Islam

Arabia was an uninteresting region outside of the main centers of civilization. It was inhabited by Bedouin tribes. Christianity had not penetrated much into the Arabian Peninsula (except on the southern coast at Najran). A few displaced Jewish tribes had been living in Arabia and in Yemen for a few centuries. Both Christians and Jews living in Arabia spoke Arabic and blended within the tribal way of life. Paganist beliefs were prevalent for most tribes in Arabia. A small group of people (called the Hanifs) remembered vaguely the monotheistic teachings of Abraham but were not ready to convert to Judaism or Christianity. Yemen to the south was prosperous and subject to many conquests.

Arabia was mostly desert land and steppes with isolated oases for enough cultivation to sustain the settled population. The rest of the population led a nomadic way of life and raised camels, sheep and goat. They were in constant search for grazing lands. The population of major cities in Arabia like Mekka was no more than a few thousand inhabitants. Another town Yathrib (located some 210 miles north of Mekka) was of the same size population.

10 Poetry developed as an important form of communication. Most people were illiterate, but enjoyed reciting verses that praised tribal values like honor and allegiance to family and tribe or in commemoration of the transient character of human life. The most appealing poems were posted on the Kaaba in the city of Mekka. Communication with the outside world took place through the caravan trade.

Mekka played an important role as a gathering and influential place for tribes in Arabia. The Quraish tribe was the dominant power in Mekka where it controlled the caravan trade and was in charge of the Kaaba (containing the pagan idols) and of the yearly gatherings.

Warfare was an incessant way of life in tribal customs. The victorious side would loot, pillage and take captives. Women captives would be sold into a life of slavery. This brought misery to them and dishonor to the surviving members of their families. Women in general were at the lowest social level and did not have rights. For this reason, local customs did not value the birth of baby girls. Many were killed. Life in these “days of ignorance” was harsh and unsettled.

Regular diet of people consisted of basic grains made into bread, dairy products, dates and (mostly camel) meat. Other food products like olives, lentils, nuts and some dried fruits (like dates and figs) were also available. Oasis towns were self-sufficient and sustained modest communities.

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Chapter 3 - EARLY LIFE OF PROPHET MUHAMMAD

Muhammad’s Family Origin

Muhammad descended from the noble Hashim clan of the Quraish tribe in the city of Mekka in Arabia. The Quraish tribe was highly influential and had control over the Kaaba and the caravan trade. Muhammad’s grandfather Abdul Muttalib had ten children of which Abu Talib, Abu Lahab, Al Abbas, Hamza and Abdullah. Abdullah was Muhammad’s father. Muhammad was of the same age as his young uncle Hamza. This is due to the fact that when Abdullah got married to Amina (from Yathrib), his old father Abdul Muttalib also got married to her cousin Hala. Abdul Muttalib had many wives but Abdullah and Abu Talib were of the same mother.

Soon after Abdullah got married to Amina at age 17, he died during a trip to Yathrib (located 210 miles north of Mekka). Abdullah left a few camels, a small herd of sheep and a servant girl named Baraka. Amina gave birth to her son Muhammad in Mekka in 570 AD. They were taken care of by Muhammad’s grandfather Abdul Muttalib. Soon after his birth, Muhammad was taken by a wet nurse called Halima to the countryside. It was a common Arab custom to send sons to be raised in the country side during their early years so that they stayed close to their customs and Bedouin origin. That way, they learned how to take care of animals, learned the purest form of Arabic language and were far from frequent epidemics that often ravaged cities. Halima’s life prospered when she took charge of Muhammad, the orphan boy that no other wet nurse wanted.

The Early Years

Muhammad stayed with Halima and her family for five years with a short break at age three when he went to visit his mother at Mekka. He could not stay in Mekka because of an ongoing epidemic. He grew up healthy and blessed in every sense. He had a gentle nature, was very helpful and loved by everyone from an early age. He went back to live with his mother Amina at age five. As fate has it, Muhammad had a difficult life. Soon after, his mother Amina died during a trip to visit her family in Yathrib. Muhammad was orphaned twice by age six. He was taken care of by his old grandfather Abdul Muttalib. He would often join his grandfather for tribal and family gatherings at the Kaaba. He had the honor of sitting close to his influential uncles. His grandfather died when Muhammad was eight years old. His uncle Abu Talib took care of him. Abu Talib also succeeded as the leader of the Bani Hashim clan. He had a number of children of his own and loved Muhammad very much. Even though he was an orphan, Muhammad received lots of affection, care and warmth inside his extended family, clan and tribe. His mother’s servant Baraka had also stayed with him all these years. She took good care of him and he loved her very much.

12 Muhammad had a typical upbringing with uneventful childhood and teenage years. Throughout his teenage years, Muhammad spent lots of time grazing the sheep of his uncle Abu Talib. He also helped his uncle as much as he could in his trade business. He had a good friend called Abu Bakr and was liked by everyone who knew him.

A couple of events described in the main stream accounts of Muhammad’s early life are worth reporting here. When he was twelve years old, Muhammad went on a trip to Syria with his uncle on a caravan trip. This was a special learning experience that opened Muhammad’s horizons and showed him a new world very different from his tribal environment. This was also for him the first real contact with monotheistic religions (Christianity and Judaism). These two religions were hardly represented in Mekka where most in the Quraish tribe members were pagan and worshipped idols. Muhammad’s uncles were in charge of the Kaaba where over 300 idols were kept. When he was fifteen, Muhammad witnessed a tribal war (at Fujar). It was his first encounter with violence and senseless killing. He did not participate directly in the battle but helped gather arrows. He abhorred this experience that marked him deeply. He was very happy when a peace treaty was concluded by the two warring parties.

The yearly fair at Uqadh (outside of Mekka) was also an experience of learning for Muhammad. This gathering attracted people from all over Arabia and from Yemen to the south. Almost everyone came, merchants, tribal leaders, pilgrims with their pagan idols, poets and soothsayers. Peace was kept by everyone, even by warring tribes. Business deals were made and alliances were renewed.

Muhammad as a Man

As a man, Muhammad was respected and often referred to as the honest one (As Saddiq) or the trustworthy one (Al Amin). Once he waited for someone (with whom he had an appointment) for three days in order to settle a debt. The man had forgotten the appointment and apologized. Muhammad forgave him.

At age 24, Muhammad followed his uncle Abu Talib’s advice and took the caravan of a wealthy widow called Khadija to Syria for trade. Her experienced servant Maysara accompanied Muhammad in this long and arduous journey full of responsibility. Muhammad traded fairly and did not pursue the commonly practiced trait of profit at any cost. His honest and trustworthy nature helped. After this successful trip and based upon what she heard from Maysara, Khadija was very impressed with Muhammad’s skills and moral qualities. Even though Khadija was fifteen years older than Muhammad, she proposed to him and he accepted to marry her. At age 25, Muhammad married Khadijah who was 40 years old.

That same year, there was a flood in Mekka and the Kaaba got damaged. The various tribe members made the necessary repairs. They could not, however, agree on who will have the honor of placing the “Black Stone” back in its niche. The Black Stone was a sacred piece of rock (some say a meteorite) that had been part of the Kaaba for a long

13 time. When their arguments reached a deadlock, someone suggested letting the first person entering the Kaaba place the Black Stone. Muhammad happened to arrive at the right time. He was asked to arbitrate the serious matter. In his usual wise ways, he suggested that each tribe leader cooperate in the task. He put a piece of cloth on the floor, asked every leader to hold one end. He then put the Black Stone in the middle of the cloth to be carried by everyone. Finally, he placed the Black Stone in its niche. Muhammad had averted a major conflict with a little bit of common sense.

Muhammad seemed to be getting settled into a “normal” life of reasonable comfort. He was liked and respected and was taking a good care of his wife Khadija and her wealth. They had seven children together: three boys named Qasim, Tayyib and Tahir and four girls named: Zaynab, Ruqaya, Um Kulthum, and Fatima. The three boys died in infancy and the four girls lived full lives. Muhammad also adopted his cousin (who was five years old) as a token of appreciation for all that Ali’s old father Abu Talib had done for him. Muhammad’s other uncle, Al Abbas, also adopted Abu Talib’s other young son Jaafar. Taking care of other members of the extended family was a common custom among Arabs.

Muhammad used to spend most of his time with the poor of Mekka, helping them, feeding them, and encouraging them. He also used to spend lots of time pondering about the ills of that society that included abject poverty, blatant oppression by the powerful and rich members of society, heavy burden of interest charged on loaned funds, constant warfare among tribes and moral decadence such as heavy drinking, gambling, and complete disrespect for women and servants. These issues as well as other bothersome questions made him seek answers. He gradually started isolating himself. He would go out of Mekka and spend time in a cave (called the Hira cave) on a mountain that overlooked the city. He did this for months, then years. He would spend most of his time at the cave. He started having visions while wide awake.

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Chapter 4 - PROPHETHOOD AND EARLY MEKKAN PERIOD

Prophethood and Early Muslims

At age 40 (in year 610 AD), Muhammad received his first revelation from God through Angel Jibrael (or Gabriel) while he was at the cave. The angel squeezed him and asked him to “recite”. Muhammad answered that he did not know how to read (he was illiterate). The angel repeated twice. Then revelation started in the form of the first verses of Sura (or Chapter) 96. The revealed words got engraved in his mind. The new prophet was shaken by this encounter and rushed out of the cave and down the mountain. He was afraid he had lost his sanity. He reported seeing Angel Jibrael filling the sky.

When Muhammad got home, he was shivering. His wife Khadija covered him up then inquired about what had happened. When he told her, she believed in him right away. She took him to her old cousin Waraqa Ibn Nawfal who was one of the few Christians in Mekka. Waraqa who was knowledgeable in the Bible recognized that Muhammad was a genuine prophet and confirmed that Angel Jibrael was the source of revelation for Moses and Jesus. Waraqa then warned Prophet Muhammad that his people will persecute him as were persecuted other prophets.

The first people to accept the newly revealed message of Islam were: Khadija (of course), Ali (who was ten years old), Zayd Ibn Harith (Khadija’s former servant who became Muhammad’s adoptive son), Jaafar (Ali’s brother), Abu Bakr (Muhammad’s influential childhood friend) and some of Abu Bakr’s family including his daughter Asma.

After the initial revelation, revelations stopped for a period of months. This was a trying time for the Prophet. Revelations resumed and became regular. The Suras that were revealed in this “early Mekkan period” were short and inspiring. Their appealing style was in the format of hymns. The message of Islam was focused on convincing the hearts. Islamic prayers were mostly informal and not spelled out in detail. After three years of revelation, there were barely 40 Muslims practicing their newly developing religion in private. After that initial period, the Prophet invited his family to the new faith and exposed his divine message. He did not receive a positive response. When he was speaking on the hill of Safa, his uncle Abu Lahab ridiculed him. The Prophet’s uncle and his protector Abu Talib was asked by the Quraish leaders to “straighten out” his nephew. He went and spoke with him. Prophet Muhammad told his uncle that he would not desist from his divine mission. Abu Talib understood the depth of conviction and decided to help his nephew no matter what.

Trouble Begins for the Muslims

Abu Jahl and other Quraish leaders saw the new message as a threat to their powerbase. They started maltreating the Muslims, disturbing their businesses and depriving them of

15 their social status. Leading poets of the Quraish tribe (Amr Ibn Al Aas, Abu Sufyan Ibn Al Harith) attacked Islam in their virulent verses that were posted on the Kaaba. When this was not an effective deterrent, they started physical abuse. Abu Jahl tortured then killed an old man called Yasir and his wife Sumeya because they were supportive of the Muslims. A slave servant named Bilal suffered in the hands of his master. His suffering stopped only when Abu Bakr paid for his freedom. Muhammad himself was maltreated in the hands of Abu Jahl. His uncle Hamza stood for him and protected him. Hamza became Muslim himself.

The condition of Muslims became so abusive that two groups of Muslims left for Abyssinia (Ethiopia) across the Red Sea. The first small group (11 men and 4 women) came back after three months. The second group (80 men and their families) was led by Jaafar (Ali’s brother). These received full protection from King Negus of Abyssinia who was Coptic Christian and was impressed by the newly developing monotheistic religion of Islam. King Negus protected the Muslims despite the fact that two Quraish leaders (Amr Ibn Al As and Abdullah Ibn Abu Rabia) were sent to lobby him against helping the Muslims. Jaafar recited Sura 19 named Maryam (or Mary after Jesus’ mother) for the king who saw similarities with the Christian message. The second group stayed in Abyssinia for years.

Umar Ibn Al Khattab (an influential and fierce fighter of Quraish) was a sworn enemy of the Muslims. One day, he caught his sister Fatima and her husband reading newly revealed verses of Sura 20. He got furious at first and started maltreating them. Then after realizing his heinous behavior against his own sister, he read the verses himself and was shaken by their content. He had hated the Muslims without ever bothering to check out their message. Umar converted to Islam that same day and became a force for Islam. This happened around year 616 AD.

Many non-Mekkans who came to the yearly Uqadh gatherings heard the Prophet’s message, were convinced of its authenticity, converted to Islam and took their new faith back with them to other parts of Arabia. In Mekka, however, persecution got more brutal.

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Chapter 5 - LATE MEKKAN PERIOD

The Years of Sadness

The pattern of abuse of the Muslims that had slowed down when Umar became Muslim intensified again. Life became unbearable for them. The Quraish tribe leaders decided to boycott the Prophet, his family and his followers. The Quraish leaders signed a pact to that effect that they hang at the Kaaba. The Prophet, his clan the Bani Hashim, and his supporters were forced to leave Mekka and settled between two hills outside of the city. They left without their belonging and had to endure hardship and abject poverty for three years. No one was allowed to deal with them, to help them or to even interact with them. The tight guard around the Muslims was loosened only during the sacred months. Muslims were allowed to move and Prophet Muhammad would eagerly plead with the Uqadh gathering visitors trying to get relief for their condition. After three years, the Quraish stopped enforcing the boycott and the Muslims were allowed back into their homes in Mekka.

These were the toughest years (617 AD to 620 AD) in the life of Prophet Muhammad and the early Muslims. They are referred to as the “years of sadness”. Soon after that, Khadijah, Muhammad’s dear wife for twenty-five years died at age 65. His dear uncle (and protector) Abu Talib also died at age 80. Muhammad was left without protection. He was discouraged of ever being able to convince the Quraish about his mission. He tried shifting his efforts to the town of Taif (40 miles east of Mekka). The Quraish leadership had soiled his reputation there as well. After receiving a nasty reception in Taif, the Prophet and his adoptive son Zayd left under a shower of rocks thrown by children and chased by barking dogs. When they got to safety, they took shelter near the wall of a house. The Prophet’s morale was down. He felt that he was not able to accomplish his divine mission. A servant in that house (named Addas) saw them and brought them some water and some grapes to eat. He happened to be of the Christian persuasion and seeing the Prophet praying, he was very interested in the Prophet’s message and became Muslim. This was the sign of easiness that comes after every hardship! God never forsakes his messengers.

Hope Is Back

During the same year (620 AD), the Prophet married a woman named Sawda. She was the widow of a companion that had gone to Abyssinia and who had died after his return to Mekka. Soon after, the Prophet experienced another extraordinary event. He was being visited on a regular basis by Angel Jibrael who brought revelations down. One night, Jibrael took the Prophet from his house in Mekka to Jerusalem where he met all other prophets and led them in prayer. Then Prophet Muhammad ascended to the seventh heaven where he was in the presence of God himself (Allah is the name of God in Arabic). There, the Prophet received the details of the Islamic prayers (their format and

17 their frequency). The five daily prayers were instituted. This experience was real and poignant. To the Prophet, it felt like it took a long time, but in reality, the whole trip took but a moment. The Prophet reported that his pillow was still warm by the time he returned. The Prophet mentioned that he had seen a caravan heading for Mekka during his night journey. He even described it. The arrival of the caravan to Mekka made believers out of many skeptics. The Prophet’s best friend Abu Bakr believed in the Prophet’s story right away. From then on, he was referred to as As Saddiq (the confirmer).

Things started looking up for the Prophet. His message started being taken seriously over the next couple of years. A delegation from Yathrib heard about his message and came to a yearly Uqadh gathering (during year 621 AD). At the time, the two Arab tribes living in Yathrib were in constant warfare and were looking for a strong leader who could arbitrate their disputes. Twelve tribal leaders met with Prophet Muhammad in secret, were impressed by the man and his message and made a treaty with him (the first pledge of Aqaba). The Prophet sent Musa Ibn Umayr back with them to teach them about Islam. After one year, an entire delegation of newly converted Muslims came from Yathrib to visit Mekka. They comprised 73 men and two women (in those days, it was harder for women to travel). They wanted the Prophet and the persecuted Muslims of Mekka to emigrate and go live with them in Yathrib. They made the second pledge of Aqaba committing to defend and protect them. The Prophet accepted. This was the big break that Muslims were waiting for.

The Hijra

Muslims started leaving Mekka in small groups at first (in order to avoid suspicion from their Quraish persecutors) and heading for Yathrib. This migration called the Hijra (migration) turned out to be the most important event in Islamic history. It is so significant that Muslims started dating their calendar by that year. This was year 622 AD (of our common era) corresponding to year 1 AH (AH refers to After Hijra).

Quraish ended up realizing what was happening and started to bring back and maltreat Muslims caught on the road to Yathrib. Man and wife were separated, and property was confiscated. The Prophet knew that things were getting bad and asked his friend Abu Bakr to keep two camels ready for travel. His plans were kept secret from everyone. Following a meeting led by Abu Jahl (who was very angry), a hit squad was formed to go kill the Prophet. Fourteen leaders of all tribal factions were chosen so that the blame would be shared in the Prophet’s death. That way, the Prophet’s clan (the Bani Hashim and the Bani Abdul Muttalib) would not avenge him. Vengeance was the only form of justice in tribal society in Arabia.

Islamic tradition reports that Prophet Muhammad was warned by Angel Jibrael of the plot to kill him. In the middle of the night, he left his cousin Ali in his bed and left town in a hurry with his friend Abu Bakr and a trusted desert guide. The Prophet also left with Ali many valuable items that people had entrusted him with for safekeeping. The items

18 were to be returned to their rightful owners. The hitmen barged into the Prophet’s room and realized that they had been outsmarted.

The Prophet and Abu Bakr headed south (opposite direction to Yathrib) in order to escape the relentless search that ensued. Almost every member of the Quraish tribe went out looking for them because there was a bounty of one hundred camels for whoever caught them, dead or alive. The two companions hid in a cave (called Ghar Thawr) three miles south of Mekka and stayed put for three days. Abu Bakr’s son (Abdullah) would visit them by night with some food and news about the situation. The Quraish bounty hunters did not find the Prophet and his friend. After three days, they discretely started moving north (but far away from Mekka). Their guide knew the desert better than the back of him hand. After seven days of travel mostly at night, they arrived to the town of Qiba at the outskirt of Yathrib and waited there for Ali to join them. While waiting for a few days, the Prophet and Abu Bakr initiated the construction of a mosque. Ali had walked on foot all the way for two weeks mostly at night. When Ali arrived, they all entered the city of Yathrib. This was a truly happy moment for all of the Muslims who were waiting for them.

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Chapter 6 - EARLY MEDINAN PERIOD

The City of Medina

When the Prophet, Abu Bakr and Ali arrived to Yathrib, everybody was waiting for them. The first decision taken was to change the name of the city of Yathrib into Medina meaning the City (of the Prophet) in Arabic. Many members of the Ansar (inhabitants of Medina that had accepted Islam) wanted to invite the Prophet to stay in their house. He did not want to hurt anyone’s feeling, so he decided to let his camel free to roam in the city streets until it settled in a vacant lot. He inquired as to the ownership of that lot, paid for it and a decision was taken to build the mosque and the Prophet’s house right there. The epic marking event of the Hijra involved no more than one hundred migrant Muslims from Mekka to Medina. These were called the Muhajiroon. They had lost all of their belongings in Mekka but were happy to get a fresh start in Medina.

Two Arab tribes and three Jewish tribes were living in Medina. The Arab tribes (the Aws and the Khazraj) were in constant warfare and had fought their last battle in 616 AD. The various tribes of Medina lived in segregated parts. The Arab tribes practiced agriculture and commerce. Medina was a stop on the south-north caravan trade and was located 210 miles north of Mekka. The Jewish tribes had probably moved south during the past couple hundred years. Jerusalem to the north and Yemen to the south were important Jewish centers. These were also the two terminal ends of the trade route that passed by Medina. The Jews of Medina were involved in the trade route. They had adapted well and blended in language and culture with the Arabs of Medina. They spoke Arabic along with Hebrew and Syriac. Some were involved in agriculture while others were goldsmiths and merchants. One Jewish tribe (the Bani Qaynuqa) lived within the city limit, another tribe (the Bani an-Nadir) lived nearby, while the third tribe (the Bani Qurayda) lived not too far from Medina. Another Jewish tribe lived in Khaybar, another city, 110 miles north of Medina. They were expecting the coming of a new Prophet mentioned in their holy scripture the Torah (equivalent to the Old Testament of the Bible). They, however, were convinced that he would come from the descendants of Isaac as all previous prophets did. Furthermore, they did not accept the message of Jesus and were still waiting for the true Messiah.

Community Building

A modest mosque was built of mud and straw bricks for walls and with palm leaves for roof. It became the heart of the Muslim community in Medina. All Muslims gathered five times a day for the congregational prayers under the leadership of the Prophet. Bilal made the calls for prayer (Adhan). Every member of the Ansars helped a member of the Muhajiroons get settled. The Ansars owned land and were good with agriculture while the Muhajiroon were skilled in trade.

20 Islam was getting a fresh start in Medina finally after all these years of oppression in Mekka. The Prophet was 53 years old, was surrounded by dedicated Muslims (both Muhajiroon and Ansar) and was confident about his mission. He was reunited with his daughters and family. He also married Aisha, the daughter of his best friend Abu Bakr. She was very young but this was a local custom. She lived next door to the Mosque and was close to everything that happened in the community.

Revelations had kept on coming down to the Prophet on a regular basis. The focus of revelations, however, changed from the inspiring and convincing style of the Mekkan Suras to the more practical style of the Medinan Suras. Legal aspects of Islam started being revealed in order to guide the fledgling Muslim community. Some of them include: the Friday Prayer, fasting during the month of Ramadan, Zakat (or charity), and many other issues (first prohibition of wine drinking and of gambling, etc).

Eager to live in peace, the Prophet signed a treaty of alliance, cooperation and peace with the Jewish tribes of Medina and the surroundings. At first, leaders of the Jewish tribes wanted to gain the Prophet to their cause. The Prophet also reached out to them. A special appeal was made to the Jewish tribes in the form of Sura 2. The Prophet used to fast when they fasted and pray towards Jerusalem. The Prophet was surprised, however, to realize that the Jewish tribes did not accept his message which was an extension of the message of Moses (and Jesus). The Jews, on the other hand, were disappointed when the direction of prayer was changed from facing Jerusalem (before Hijra) to facing the direction of Mekka (17 months after Hijra). They realized that the Prophet and his followers were set on establishing a community independent of the constraints (and prejudices) of the old religions. Divergences and friction between the Jewish and Muslim communities started building up.

The Christian community of Najran (south coast of the Arabian Peninsula) heard about the new message of Islam and sent a delegation to Medina and met with the Prophet. Sura 3 was revealed as a special appeal to Christians. Jesus and his mother Mary were given a very high status in the Qur’an.

Early Encounters with Quraish Expeditions

Soon after the Hijra, the Prophet received revelations allowing the Muslims to engage in war. Up to that time, Muslims were not even allowed to defend themselves. Muslims started getting ready. Eight months after the Hijra, the Prophet sent his uncle Hamza with 40 Muslim riders to the Red Sea coast where Abu Jahl was camping with 300 Quraish riders. Negotiations avoided war. The Prophet also sent Ubayda Ibn Al Harith with 60 Muslim riders to a water-well in the Valley of Rabigh where Abu Sufyan was leading 300 Quraish riders. Muslims withdrew before any fight ensued. Muslims were probing the movement of Quraish troops and wanted to show their presence. They were not for an all-out war; they just wanted to “disturb” the Quraish trade and well-being. Muslims wanted also to get back some of the wealth that they had left in Mekka.

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Chapter 7 - BATTLE AFTER BATTLE

The Battle of Badr

Thirteen months after Hijra, the Prophet led a force of 200 Muslim riders to intercept a Quraish caravan going to Syria and led by Abu Sufyan. The caravan consisted of 1000 camels loaded with goods. Abu Sufyan took another path and was not intercepted. The Prophet sent Abdulla Ibn Jahsh Al Asadi to constantly observe the caravan route. During the month of fasting (Ramadan) of year 624 AD (corresponding to year 2 AH), the Quraish caravan led by Abu Sufyan was spotted 50 miles south west of Medina while it was coming back from Syria. The Prophet put together a force of 313 men along with 70 camels and 5 horses and proceeded to meet the caravan. Abu Sufyan who learned about the imminent danger, sent a message to Mekka asking for help from Quraish, redirected his caravan route and was able to lead it out to safety. When they received Abu Sufyan’s message about the danger to their caravan, the Quraish rapidly put together a well- equipped force of 1000 men with 170 camels and 300 horses and marched toward Medina.

Having missed the caravan, the Muslims moved toward a watering spot (close to Medina) called Badr. The Quraish marched toward Badr to do battle against the Muslims despite the fact that they learned that their caravan was safe. After all they had not come all that way for nothing! The smaller Muslim force took charge of the wells and waited for the assault. Fighting started with duels between three Quraish leaders (Utba, Shaiba and Walid) all from the same family against three Muslim leaders (Ali, Hamza and Ubayda Ibn Al Harith). Muslim victory in the duels was followed by an all-out battle between the two armies. Led by Hamza and Ali, Muslims concentrated on the leaders of the Quraish army. Abu Jahl was wounded then died. Bilal killed off his former mean master. Most of the Quraish leaders that had plotted to kill the Prophet two years earlier were eliminated. Under the Prophet’s leadership, Muslims won the Battle of Badr even outnumbered by three to one. Muslims lost 14 men and Quraish lost 70 men. Muslims also made 70 prisoners and captured much weaponry.

After the Battle of Badr

The Quraish prisoners were treated humanely and were allowed to buy back their freedom either by paying a ransom or by teaching Muslim children how to read and write. Ransoms were in the range of a few thousand Dirhams. A small anecdote that happened would soften anybody’s heart. The husband of Zaynab (the Prophet’s daughter) was one of the Quraish prisoners. Zaynab (still living in Mekka) sent as ransom to free her husband a necklace that she had gotten from her mother Khadija. When the Prophet saw the necklace, it conjured many emotions and took him back to the memory of his dear wife Khadija and his sweet daughter Zaynab. He sent both the necklace and

22 Zaynab’s husband back to Mekka. Zaynab ended up leaving Mekka soon after that and joined the Muslims in Medina.

A series of revelations were made. These spelled out the right of orphans and widows and encouraged the Muslims against any form of weakness reminding them that hardship was not over. Muslims were also warned of a group of “Hypocrites” that had not participated in the defense of their community. These were led by Abdulla Ibn Ubay who was very resentful of his loss of power and prestige to the Muslims. He had become Muslim but his heart did not receive the message.

In Mekka, Quraish tribe leaders were mad at the outcome of their first military encounter with the Muslims. It was supposed to be an easy victory against the small unskilled Muslim army. Abu Lahab who did not join the battle because of his old age could not take the defeat and died “of shame”. The Quraish women started calling for revenge. Hind, the wife of Abu Sufyan refused any marital relationship with her husband till her father and brother (who had died during the battle) would be avenged. Abu Sufyan himself who had not participated in the battle because he was leading the caravan decided not to take a bath till the Quraish honor would get restored.

The Jewish tribe living in Medina (the Bani Qaynuqa) who had sided with Quraish started creating problems. A Muslim woman was ridiculed in their goldsmith market. Fight ensued between Muslims and members of the Bani Qaynuqa tribe and resulted in killings on both sides. Some Jewish poets who had become virulent with their verses against Islam and the Prophet were killed. The Muslims put their village under siege for two weeks till they decided to surrender. In order to save their lives, they agreed to leave Medina for good. They went to settle with other Jewish tribes at Khaybar and Um Al Qura (cities north of Medina).

Ali who was 27 years old got married to Fatima, the Prophet’s youngest daughter. She was around 20 years old. They had two sons, Al Hasan and Al Husain. The Prophet’s other daughters Ruqaya and Um Kulthum were married to two of Abu Lahab’s sons before the advent of Islam. The blatant enmity of Abu Lahab and his family against the Prophet and the Muslims had forced both of them to divorce. They had joined their father in Medina. A dear companion of the Prophet, Uthman Ibn Affan married Ruqaya at first. Ruqaya died after the Battle of Badr. Uthman actually stayed at the side of his dying wife and did not participate in the Battle of Badr. After a while, Uthman married Um Kulthum. He was referred to as Thul Noorayn (the One with Two Lights). The Prophet himself got married to Hafsa, daughter of Umar Ibn Al Khattab and widow of a companion. Back then, marriage was the only security for a woman, especially a widow.

The Battle of Badr gave the Muslims a reputation of strength. Surrounding tribes (some of which were allies to the Quraish) were worried about this new factor in the region that was breaking the balance of power among tribes. Muslims kept on their guard and kept well informed. As soon as they would hear of a threat mounting against them, they would preempt the situation by confronting the enemy before it had a chance to gather a full

23 force. A troop of 200 Quraish men led by Abu Sufyan conducted a surprise operation close to Medina and killed two Muslims before retreating in a hurry.

The Battle of Uhud

The Quraish tribe decided to take revenge for their loss at the Battle of Badr. They gathered a strong force of 3000 well equipped men led by Abu Sufyan. They took 200 horses and 300 camels and headed for Medina. Even women led by Hind (Abu Sufyan’s wife) went to cheer up the soldiers. The Prophet’s uncle Al Abbas who was still living in Mekka alerted the Muslims of the imminent thread. When he received the secret message, the Prophet consulted with his companions. Young companions wanted to confront the Quraish and dismissed advice from elders about fortifying the city of Medina and avoiding confrontation. The Prophet followed the opinion of the majority even though he did not feel comfortable with it. He could muster only 700 Muslim men that marched and waited for the huge Quraish army at Mount Uhud (5 miles north of Medina). The Prophet put 50 archers at the end of a pass in order to protect the Muslim army’s back. They were to stay there in any circumstance.

The Quraish army was led by experienced fighters like Abu Sufyan, Khalid Ibn Al Walid and Ikrima Ibn Abu Jahl. After the initial assault, the Muslims were winning. Muslims focused on the Quraish leaders. Ali killed Talha and his son Saad, Hamza killed the other son Uthman. The Quraish were retreating. Seeing this initial success, the archers got overconfident and left their post in order to participate in the action (and get some booty). Khalid Ibn Al Walid at the head of the Quraish cavalry saw their mistake and attacked the Muslim army from the back. Outnumbered, the Muslims were being attacked from both sides. They became confused and were badly hurt by the Quraish army led by Abu Sufyan. The Prophet was wounded by a rock and lost two front teeth. He killed the leader of an attacking party with a javelin. Muslims retreated to the top of a hill where they were able to defend themselves and stabilize their situation. The Battle of Uhud ended up as a draw. The Muslims lost 70 men during the battle. The Prophet’s uncle Hamza died by a javelin thrown by Wahsh Al Habashi, a slave servant of Quraish who was promised his freedom by Hind (wife of Abu Sufyan) who wanted to avenge the death of her father and brother. Hind mutilated the body of Hamza. Quraish lost 18 leaders and many soldiers. The next morning the Muslims confronted the Quraish army again. These retreated and did not attempt to enter Medina.

The Battle of Uhud was a close call for the Muslims who almost lost. The Muslims took many lessons from this. Zeal of the young Muslims who were eager to do battle was not the best thing. Indiscipline of the archers (who left their post) costed the Muslims dearly. Muslims should hold together and increase discipline if they are to survive. A series of revelations stressing these points ensued.

After the Battle of Uhud

24 The Battle of Uhud weakened the reputation of the Muslims in Medina. Local tribes wanted to take advantage of the situation and raid Medina. Muslims had to go on a series of preemptive strikes against groups that were getting ready to attack. A Muslims force went and deterred the Bani Asad tribe. This was followed by the Battle of Raji where 6 Muslims were killed, then by the Battle of Bir Mawna.

The second Jewish tribe living in the outskirts of Medina (the Bani an-Nadir) felt emboldened by these events and decided to kill the Prophet. They attracted him to a gathering and were planning on dropping a heavy rock on him. He caught on to their plot when they started whispering among themselves and got away safely. They had broken their promise of peace with the Muslims. The Prophet gave them 10 days to leave Medina. When this did not happen, the Muslims sieged them. After 30 days, they surrendered. The Muslims let them leave Medina safely but with only part of their belongings. The rest was distributed among the Muslims. The Bani an-Nadir tribe went north to Khaybar and Adhriat (farther north). The Muslims took their land which was distributed to the Muhajiroon who finally became land owners like the Ansars.

Up to that time, the Prophet’s secretary was a Jewish member of the community. After these events, the Prophet appointed a young Muslim called Zayd Ibn Thabit as his secretary. Zayd learned Hebrew and Syriac quickly in order to help the Prophet with official communications with the outside world. Zayd also learned the Qur’an and was helping write it down. The Prophet made sure that revelations got written down by many scribes as soon they were revealed. Many companions also memorized most of the Qur’an.

The Prophet married Umm Salama, another widow that needed protection. By her persistence, Umm Salama prompted a series of revelations spelling out women’s rights. Other issues related to inheritance, marriage, the right of orphans and property rights were also sorted out. The Prophet was 58 years old. The number of Muslims was increasing and Medina became the first experiment in the building of a Muslim nation.

The Battle of the Trench

In year 627 AD (or 5 AH) the Quraish leadership in Mekka, the remaining Jewish tribes in Arabia and all other disgruntled tribes got together and planned to attack and raid Medina to “finish off the Muslims for good”. They put together a 10,000 men strong army (referred to as the Allies Army) with good weaponry and full armor. They took 3,000 horses and 1,500 camels in their expedition and marched for Medina. The Muslims heard about the imminent threat. The Prophet convened an emergency meeting asking for opinions. A companion called Salam Al Farisi suggested digging a trench all around Medina and defending the city from behind the trench. He had seen the effectiveness of this war tactic when he was a child growing up in Persia. The Prophet thought that it was a brilliant idea and decided to adopt it. Muslims dug a 15 foot-wide by 15 foot-deep trench around Medina in six days and prepared for the defense of their city (they fortified

25 some buildings). Muslims were able to gather 3,000 men behind the trench. Half of these were archers. Women and children stayed safety at the heart of the city.

The last Jewish tribe living close to Medina (the Bani Qurayda) decided at first to stay neutral in the conflict and let the Muslims use their tools in the digging of the trench. The strong Allies Army led by Abu Sufyan marched to Medina and was in for a shock when they saw the trench. This changed their plan of attack. They decided to undertake a siege of the city. Nothing happened for days then weeks, just the occasional exchange of javelins across the trench. A Quraish fighter named Amr Ibn Abdwid was able to cross the trench and challenged the Muslims. Ali killed him in a duel.

Muslims were skilled at implanting spies inside the Quraish camp and at keeping informed of their plans. They also succeeded at inserting doubt into their morale and at dividing the various groups. Quraish leaders on the other hand tried to keep and even increase their coalition before the big assault. Members of the Bani an-Nadir tribe (that had been expelled from Medina) convinced the Bani Qurayda tribe to join the planned attack. After one month of siege, the Quraish plan however, was cancelled when severe weather ensued. In the middle of the night, and in the middle of a sand storm, there was panic in the Quraish camp following rumors that the Muslims were attacking. The Quraish army retreated in a state of chaos. The next morning brought relief to the Muslims who had experienced another close encounter. They had gotten out of this one with very little damage.

After the Battle of the Trench

The third and last Jewish tribe (the Bani Qurayda) living close to Medina had to be dealt with to avoid future threats from within. Muslims sieged them for 25 days after which they agreed to the arbitration of Saad Ibn Muad (a member of the Aws tribe of Medina) who was respected by both sides. He got them to deposit their weapons then used an old Torah law applicable in similar circumstances. All fighters of the Bani Qurayda tribe were executed and all women and children were taken as captives. Some members of the Bani Qurayda tribe showed extreme dignity in the face of such adversity. For example, a companion of the Prophet Thabit Ibn Qays owed a heavy debt of gratitude to Zubayr Ibn Bata (a member of the Bani Qurayda tribe) and asked the Prophet to spare his friend’s life. The Prophet accepted but Zubayr refused to live when so many other members of his tribe were being executed. He asked to be executed with them.

Historians agree that this was the saddest moment in the early history of Islam. After all of the persecution and attacks against them, Muslims had panicked and wanted to eliminate a potential future foe. They had allowed the members of the Bani an-Nadir tribe to leave Medina only to see them come back as a powerful enemy a couple of years later. They had blinked and allowed themselves to butcher unarmed members of the Bani Qurayda tribe. This drastic measure eliminated all Jewish influence from Medina but created resentment in the hearts of those of the Jewish faith towards Islam for centuries to

26 come. Muslims split the “spoils of war” including the women and children captives. Some were kept for a life of servitude while others were sold to slavery.

The Battle of the Trench had not been a definite victory for either side. The general sense of Muslim weakness was still lingering. Muslims conducted many campaigns such as against the Bani Libyan (near Mekka), or against the Bani Al Mustaliq. Muslims killed 100 men and confiscated cattle and took many captives. The Prophet ransomed one of the captives (Al Jawayhiriya) who was the daughter of the defeated leader and married her. Following his example, all other Muslims freed their captives.

Medina was bubbling with activity and energy. All of the captured wealth and the freedom that they enjoyed helped Muslims live better lives. The building of a nation was at work. There was still friction among the Muslims. The group of hypocrites led by Abdulla Ibn Ubay would occasionally call on old tribal values to stir up the Ansars against the Muhajiroon. Abdulla started a controversy involving Aisha, the Prophet’s wife. After a period of doubt and after specific revelation, she was exonerated from any ill behavior.

Muslims experienced short periods of peace in which many social issues were addressed. The issue of the veil for Muslim women and the issue of limiting Muslim men to four wives are examples. Marriage was a form of security for women (some of which were widows). A Muslim man could take on more than one wife at the condition that he could be equally fair to them. Sex offenses and slander against women were severely punished. A revelation prohibiting completely the drinking of alcoholic beverages was established.

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Chapter 8 - TURNING POINT IN ISLAM

The Treaty of Hudaybiya

By year 628 AD (6 AH), Islam was thriving in Medina. But there was unfinished business between the two warring factions. The Quraish and their powerful alliances could not get rid of the Muslims of Medina. Constant war had stopped completely the caravan trade from Mekka to Syria because Medina was too close to the caravan route. The Prophet wanted to prompt events and after a dream that he had, he decided to go for a pilgrimage to Mekka. He informed other tribes in Arabia and took 1400 Muslims with him that showed up unannounced at the outskirts of Mekka during one of the sacred months. Muslims did not take much weaponry with them and were not set on fighting. They camped at a place called Hudaybiya (just south of Mekka).

The Quraish did not know what to do. They could not break their own rule of not allowing any fighting during the sacred months. The Quraish nonetheless did not take chances and placed some of their forces led by Khalid Ibn Al Walid and Ikrima Ibn Abu Jahl in strategic positions. They kept the Muslims outside of their city and started negotiations. Uthman Ibn Affan was the Muslim negotiator and Suhayl was the negotiator for the Quraish. A treaty was concluded. It stated that the Muslims would return back to Medina that year without entering Mekka. They would be allowed into Mekka the next year and just for three days. The treaty also stipulated that the Muslims should not accept any new converts from Mekka. This Treaty of Hudaybiya promised peace for both sides for a period of 10 years. Many Muslims did not feel comfortable with the terms of the treaty but agreed to it just because the Prophet endorsed it. Even though they could not perform the pilgrimage, the Prophet and the Muslims sacrificed the camels that they brought with them and went back to Medina.

The Muslims took this treaty seriously and stuck to its terms. When the Quraish negotiator’s own son became Muslim and wanted to join the Muslims of Medina, the Prophet refused him because of the terms of the signed treaty. Many young men like him were in the same situation. These had left Mekka never to come back but were not allowed into Medina. Under the leadership of Abu Basir, they formed a sort of militia roaming the desert and disturbing the Quraish trade that had reconvened after the Treaty of Hudaybiya. Things got so bad that the Quraish asked the Muslims to reconsider that particular clause in the treaty and take these “bandits” into Medina.

Islam Becomes a Major Power

Muslims used this time of peace effectively. The message of Islam was spreading all over Arabia. Many delegations were received at Medina. These came to inquire and learn about Islam. Many accepted Islam and took the message back with them. The Prophet treated everyone with respect and courtesy. His warmth and gentle nature were attractive

28 and made his message welcoming. The Prophet made sure to let tribes choose their own leaders. Most often these decided to keep the same tribal structure after accepting Islam. They would just become part of the Muslim nation and in turn pay the required taxes and benefit from the countless advantages.

The Prophet wanted the message of Islam to move to the next level. He sent a series of messengers to the world powers outside of Arabia. He sent messages to the Roman Emperor, to the Shah of the Persian Empire, to the Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria, to the Negus of Abyssinia, and to the King of Yemen calling them to Islam. Most of these did not receive the message favorably. They failed to see the rising power of Islam. Little did they know that they will all be under Islamic rule within a short time (30 years).

The Campaign of Khaybar

The Muslims had a peace treaty with the Quraish and their allies in the south but the north was still insecure territory for them. A major source of trouble to the north could come from the Jewish tribes around Khaybar. Some of them were resentful of the fact that they were expelled from Medina. The Prophet led a 1,600 men strong Muslim army to Khaybar in 629 AD (6 AH). After a 25-day siege, the fortresses were stormed. They started falling one after the other in the hands of the Muslims. The Jewish tribes of Khaybar asked for peace. A peace treaty was agreed to by the two parties whereby Khaybar was disarmed and the Jewish tribes became share croppers with the Muslims in return for their safety. Muslims would get 50 % of the crop profits. The newly appointed Muslim governor of Khaybar returned their Torah. Jews took on the status of a “protected minority” and were free to do commerce in the Muslim territory (even in Medina).

A Jewish lady from Khaybar named Zaynab who had lost her father and husband in the battle invited the Prophet and other Muslims for a meal. She served them poisoned food. The prophet took a morsel, then caught on to the treachery. He got sick but survived. Another Jewish lady named Safiya (from the Bani an-Nadir tribe) who had lost her father and husband was taken as captive, was freed by the Prophet and ended up as his wife. Over time, she managed to clean her big heart and grew to love the Prophet very much. She became a “Mother of the Believers”.

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Chapter 9 - MIDDLE MEDINAN PERIOD

The First Umra

One year had passed since the Treaty of Hudaybiya. The Prophet and 2,000 Muslims returned to Mekka for a three-day Umra (lesser pilgrimage). The rituals of the Umra are similar to those of Hajj (real pilgrimage) except that they could be performed at any time of the year. The pilgrimage is performed only during the last lunar calendar month. Muslims carried no weapons with them. The Prophet kept 100 cavalry men on the lookout and for reconnaissance. The Quraish had evacuated the city. They moved to the surrounding hills and observed the Muslims. Muslims performed their rituals including the Tawaf (going around the Kaaba), hurrying between the hills of Safa and Marwam (called Saay), and sacrificing their animals at Marwa. Muslims also shaved their heads. They were all wearing the two-piece white garb (Haram), showed great discipline and sincere display of faith.

Some Quraish leaders who were observing the Muslims from the surrounding hills were amazed of what they saw. Some got so impressed that they decided to join them. Khalid Ibn Al Walid, Amr Ibn Al Aas, and Uthman Ibn Talha (guardian of the Kaaba) converted to Islam. Khalid took this decision despite the fact that he had lost his uncle and cousins at the Battle of Badr. These will become famous names in Islamic history.

The Campaign of Muta

The Muslims that had migrated to Abyssinia under the leadership of Jaafar joined the now well-established Muslim community in Medina. Arabia was mostly at peace, but threat rumors started coming from Syria and Palestine. The Romans had heard of the growing power of the Muslims in Medina and were getting ready to crush this potential foe. Muslims heard that a huge Roman army was getting ready to invade Arabia. After the killing of a group of Muslims in Syria, the Prophet called for an all-out effort to preempt the Romans. He was able to muster a 3,000 men army of volunteers rather poorly equipped. They marched north to meet as it turned out an overwhelming Roman army of over 100, 000 well equipped and well-trained legionnaires and under the leadership of Emperor Heraclius’ own brother.

The battle place was Muta at the northern border with the Roman territory. The Prophet did not join the expedition but gave command leadership to his adoptive son Zayd Ibn Al Harith. Zayd died valiantly in battle. Jaafar took leadership next and experienced the same fate followed by Abdulla Ibn Rawhana. After the initial slaughter, Khalid Ibn Al Walid took the command of the heavily outnumbered Muslim army. It was clear that they could not defeat the overwhelming Roman force. Khalid decided to inflict as much punishment as he could, and save as much of the Muslim force as he could. He deployed some Muslim forces to the rear making the Romans believe that he was getting

30 reinforcement. This made the Romans loose heart and avoid more fighting against the unusually motivated Muslim fighters who “enjoyed” dying in battle. Khalid was able to withdraw the rest of his force. There were great losses on both sides.

Other quick campaigns under the leadership of Amr Ibn Al Aas, Abu Bakr and Umar Ibn Al Khattab were sent to engage other smaller Roman armies and won at Dhat Al Salasil. Many northern tribes close to Syria converted to Islam and helped weaken Roman influence.

The Conquest of Mekka

A tribe allied to Quraish broke the Treaty of Hudaybiya by attacking a tribe allied to the Muslims. After two years of peace, the Muslims knew that they could not trust the Quraish. A flash visit of Abu Sufyan to Medina to argue that Quraish was not involved in the unwarranted assault did not help. No one would listen to him. It was too late!

The Prophet put together a 10,000 men strong army and marched secretly to Mekka in year 630 AD (8 AH). Other Muslim tribes around Medina contributed as well. The Muslims reached Mekka completely unannounced, camped on the surrounding hill (at Zahran) and lit lots of camp fires in the night. Mekkans were completely surprised and terrified of the imminent threat. Al Abbas (the Prophet’s uncle) joined the Prophet and became Muslim. The Prophet sent him back to Mekka in order to convince the Quraish leadership to surrender the city without fighting. The Muslim force was overwhelming. The Quraish did not stand a chance. It was nice to see the roles interchanged for once. When he was returning to Mekka, Al Abbas met Abu Sufyan who had come out of the city to check out the situation. He convinced him of the futility of any resistance and took him under his protection to the Prophet.

Abu Sufyan had a meeting with the Prophet, was impressed by the size of the Muslim army and by the gentle treatment that he received despite the fact that he had been a staunch enemy of Islam. He converted to Islam. It is not clear whether this was a sincere act or whether it was prompted by fear on his part. A deal was made whereby when the Muslim army entered Mekka, whoever stayed in their houses were safe, and whoever stayed in Abu Sufyan’s house or in the Kaaba were safe. The Prophet’s plan worked. The Muslim troops marched into Mekka with almost no fighting. The Quraish did not have time to put together any resistance.

When the Muslims reached the Kaaba, the Prophet performed the ritual of Tawwaf (going around the Kaaba seven times). He then entered inside the Kaaba room and destroyed the statues and pictures of idolatry. After that Bilal called for prayer and the Muslims prayed all around the Kaaba.

Most of the former enemies of Islam were pardoned. Even Hind (the wife of Abu Sufyan) who had mutilated the dead body of Hamza at the Battle of Uhud was not punished. Muslims did away with the past. They were focusing on the new era ahead of them. From

31 that day on, Muslims made sure that Mekka remains sacred and protected against war or bloodshed in its precinct. The Prophet’s kind and loving attitude toward his former enemies won the hearts of the Mekkans who started converting to Islam in great numbers.

The Battle of Hunayn

Two tribes to the south of Mekka (the Hazawin and the Thaqif tribes) were upset at the change in the balance of power in their region and wanted to attack and destroy the Muslims still stationed in Mekka. After two weeks in Mekka, the Muslim army had grown to 12,000 men. These marched South to engage the enemy. The Muslims were ambushed between two mountains in the early hours just before sunrise at a place called Hunayn. They lost hundreds of men in a very short time. They were completely confused and in chaos.

The uncle of the prophet Al Abbas stood on an elevated position and with his strong voice shouted out for everyone to rally around the Prophet. Close companions and Muslims leaders did just that. They stuck close together as a block, regained confidence and overturned the situation. Pretty soon, they were chasing the enemy. They were able to change the initial hurtful blow into a victory. The two tribes that had attacked the Muslims lost the battle of Hunayn. They had been so confident that they had brought women and children with them. The Muslims took a lot of war booty which included 22,000 camels, 40,000 goats, 4,000 ounces of silver and 6,000 captives.

The Campaign of Taif

The Muslims chased the defeated tribe of Thaqif back to their city of Taif. Surviving members of the tribe hurried back in and barricaded themselves in their fortress. Muslims started a siege. The city of Taif was prepared for a long siege. Muslims tried standard methods of that time to break the siege such as catapults. They also used wooden tanks to ram weak spots on the city walls. They destroyed the vineyard that Taif was famous for. The Muslims lost 18 men to the constant shower of arrows. After one month and since the holy period was approaching, the Muslims withdrew. Before leaving, the Prophet freed all captives of the Hazawin tribe. This gesture touched some and many converted to Islam.

The Prophet distributed some of the booty to the Muslims. He gave 100 camels to Abu Sufyan and 100 camels to his son Muawiya. These had been staunch enemies of Islam till just recently. When some Ansar close companions complained, the Prophet shared with them his wisdom: long time companions had strong faith and did not need gifts, new Muslims needed to be welcomed. And he added that he had a better gift for his dear companions of so many years. He informed them that he had decided to go back with them to live the rest of his life in Medina. He had chosen his adoptive city instead of his birth city. Everyone shed tears of joy.

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Chapter 10 - LATE MEDINAN PERIOD

Medina Becomes a Capital

With these last conquests, Islam had spread to all of Arabia except for Taif which resisted for a while. Before returning to Medina, Muslims went back to Mekka and performed Umra. The Prophet appointed Attab Ibn Ubay as governor of Mekka and Muadh Ibn Jalal in charge of Islamic teaching. The Muslims returned to Medina which became a great religious and cultural center. Many tribes sent delegations to Medina to gain Islamic knowledge. What was happening was a true revolution in the Arabian tribal set of values. For the first time, they were unified and working together. The Prophet appointed teachers and representatives in each tribe to keep open lines of communication and to collect taxes. A fraction of the taxes was reinvested locally.

The Prophet lost his daughter Zaynab. His other two daughters (Ruqaya and Um Kulthum) were already dead. Fatima was the only daughter left. Mariya, the Prophet’s Coptic wife gave him a son that they named Ibrahim.

The Campaign of Tabuk

In year 631 AD (or 9 AH) the Prophet heard that the Romans were preparing to attack Medina. He called all Muslims for help to equip an army to go north and meet the threat. Most everyone pitched in with their possessions, by volunteering and with their money. For example, the companion Uthman Ibn Affan gave 1000 Dinars. Muslims were able to gather a 30,000 strong army referred to as the Army of Hardship. Before leaving Medina, the Prophet appointed someone as governor of Medina and left Ali in charge of his household.

The Muslims marched north to the Roman territory at a place called Tabuk (330 miles northwest of Medina). Remembering their brief encounter with the Muslims at Muta a couple of years earlier, the Romans decided not to engage the Muslims and moved back to their fortified positions. The Prophet used this occasion to sign peace treaties with many tribes to the north of Arabia. The Prophet decided to go back to Medina but sent Khalid Ibn Al Walid to deal with a threat in the Kingdom of Duma. The campaign of Tabuk took three weeks during the late summer harvest season. It was very costly to the Muslims who were disappointed that they did not get a chance to fight against the Romans and get some booty. In the meanwhile, Khalid had a quick victory, killed one of the princes, and captured the second one along with lots of booty (2,000 camels, 800 goats). He took the second prince back to Medina where this one converted to Islam. The Prophet reinstated him back as the leader of his own kingdom under the banner of Islam.

In Medina, those who did not participate in the campaign of Tabuk gave false excuses. Three of them were boycotted for fifty days. No one would talk to them, nor associate

33 with them. They were finally forgiven. Abdulla Ibn Ubay, the leader of the “hypocrites” of Medina died. Out of kindness, the Prophet held a service for him. The Prophet’s baby son Ibrahim died at the age of 18 months. At the same time, there was a solar eclipse. Some in Medina wanted to see the eclipse as a sign. The Prophet straightened them out. An eclipse is just a physical phenomenon and Islam deemphasized “miracles”.

The Year of Deputations

During year 631 AD (or 9 AH), many tribes entered Islam in large numbers. They would send a delegation to Medina to join the overwhelming movement that led to the spread of Islam to many territories. Even the city of Taif decided to join in and sent a delegation to Medina. The Prophet reinstated tribal leaders to their position of leadership but under Islamic rules. Many companions were appointed as governors of new territories.

That same year, the Prophet sent the first delegation for a pilgrimage to Mekka (Hajj) under the leadership of Abu Bakr. Ali was also sent as the official spokesperson. The Prophet did not join this delegation. Even though Mekka and most of Arabia had converted to Islam, some pagan customs lingered. For example, an old custom of performing the Tawaf (going around the Kaaba) completely naked was still going on. Following the Prophet’s directives, Ali read out the newly revealed verses of Sura 9 spelling out new rules of decency and respect to be adhered to. A grace period of four months was instated after which the new rules were enforced and no old idolatry practices were tolerated.

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Chapter 11 - THE END OF THE PROPHET’S LIFE

The Farewell Pilgrimage

The next year, the Prophet invited all Muslims to join him for a pilgrimage. 100,000 of them responded to his call. The Prophet took all of his family and wives with him. Most everyone in Arabia joined him. The pilgrimage rites were spelled out in their minutest details by the Prophet himself. These include the state of ritualistic purity (Haram) which consists in wearing two simple pieces of white cloth only (for men). This acts as an equalizing factor whereby there is no distinction between rich and poor, young of old. The rituals of Tawwaf around the Kaaba, Saay between , stay at Mina, visit of , and visit to the Valley of Urana. There, the Prophet delivered what is referred to as “the Last Sermon” while mounted on his camel. He emphasized that Islam is based on the Qur’an (revealed over a period of 23 years) and the tradition that the Prophet was leaving. He pronounced the last verse to be revealed (“This day, I have finalized your religion…”). Hearing this, Abu Bakr realized that the Prophet had finished his mission and will not be around for long. He was sad. This was the last verse to be revealed in the Qur’an.

The Prophet and the Muslims finished their pilgrimage by spending the night at Muzdalifa, throwing pebbles at Mina and sacrificing camels. They then shaved their heads and declared the pilgrimage complete. The Muslims with him returned to their homes in the various parts of Arabia (Tihama, Hadramawt, Medina, etc).

The Prophet’s Death

The Prophet was still worried about threat from the Roman Empire. He asked Usama Ibn Zayd to prepare an expedition to go north. Usama was Zayd Ibn Al Harith’s young son and was not even twenty years old. Zayd was the Prophet’s adoptive son who had died leading the Muslims at the Battle of Muta. The Prophet chose him because of his skills and motivation. Old experienced Muslims (such as Abu Bakr and Umar) were to serve under the young leader.

The expedition got postponed when the Prophet got sick. The Prophet’s illness got worse. He addressed the Muslims one more time briefly where he asked for the support of Usama in his mission. The Prophet died on June 8th 632 (10 AH) in his wife Aisha’s room next to the Mosque. The Prophet was 63 years old. Umar got emotional insisting that the Prophet was not really dead. Abu Bakr injected some sense into the situation by reciting verses from the Qur’an “Muhammad is nothing but a messenger, other messengers before him came and are gone. If he were to die or get killed, will you return to your old ways?”. The prophet was buried inside Aisha’s room at the spot where he died (just like Moses).

35 Abu Bakr and Umar heard that the Medina Ansars were getting together to decide what to do next. They were ready to choose one among them (Saad Ibn Ubada) to assume leadership in Medina. Umar suggested choosing Abu Bakr (the longest time companion of the Prophet) as the first leader to succeed the Prophet. Everyone agreed. Abu Bakr was 60 years old. In his inaugural speech, Abu Bakr said “Obey me as long as I obey God and the Prophet, but if I deviate, do not obey me”.

Legacy of the Prophet

Prophet Muhammad had great influence on the history of the world. He left a holy book, the Qur’an, and his own teachings referred to as the Traditions of the Prophet. His message initiated the Islamic civilization. His immediate successors, the Rightly Guided Khalifs kept the initial message and teachings pristine for a period of 30 years. At the end of this period, an internal civil war broke out giving rise to the first Islamic dynasty: the Ummayads which lasted for about 100 years and ruled from Damascus.

Islamic influence spread fast. In less than a century, the Islamic territory expanded from Arabia where the message started to the conquest of Spain in 711 AD. The Islamic territory extended from Spain in the west to India in the east. Many Islamic dynasties developed in succession.

The second dynasty, the Abbasids that ruled from Baghdad witnessed the golden age of Islam. Great achievements in trade, commerce, culture, scientific discoveries and religious matters took place over a period of 500 years. The Mongol invasion of Baghdad in 1258 AD ended that era but lead to another momentum in Islamic history when the Mongol invaders converted to Islam. Turkish influence mounted gradually to the point of taking over most of the Islamic territory till modern times. During this time, three dynasties shared influence over the Islamic territory: the Mughals in India, the Safavids in Persia and the Ottomans in the rest of the territory (Middle East, North Afica and Turkey). The western Islamic territory (Spain and Morocco) remained autonomous for most of that time.

A Moroccan adventurer named Ibn Battuta spent 30 years traveling in the Islamic world during the fourteenth century. His travel basis was Mekka. He would go there at the time of pilgrimage (Hajj), hook up with a caravan coming from an Islamic land and go back with them for a few years. Then he would return to Mekka and redo this for another Islamic land. Mekka was the main Islamic center acting as a hub for exchange of ideas and progress. When something new showed up in Spain (for example), chances are it will make it to Mekka and then to other Islamic territories within a year or two.

The legacy of Prophet Muhammad spreads over 1400 years and touched a substantial fraction of humanity. In early 21st century, the world Muslim population is over 1.2 billion people covering most of the globe. The true legacy of Prophet Muhammad is, however, the comfort and solace that Muslims find in their heart and the peace that comes to their lives.

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REFERENCES

Muhammad Haykal, “The Life of Muhammad”, American Trust Pub. 1976.

A.S. Hashim, “Life of Muhammad”, Volumes I and II, 1990.

Albert Hourani, “A History of the Arab Peoples”, Warner Books, 1991.

Ira M. Lapidus, “A History of Islamic Societies”, Cambridge University Press, 1988.

300 km

MAP OF THE REGION MEDITERRANEAN SEA Damascus SYRIA PERSIA Jerusalem

Tabuk

EGYPT Khaybar Medina Mekka

Taif ARABIA RED SEA AFRICA

YEMEN INDIAN OCEAN

ABYSSINIA

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