DOCSLIB.ORG

F43040cf740a763c7fb1e88cb3fe

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
F43040cf740a763c7fb1e88cb3fe Language & Communication 37 (2014) 100–119 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Language & Communication journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/langcom The clichéd juxtapositions and pleasing patterns of political advertising ⇑ Rowan R. Mackay Linguistics & English Language, The University of Edinburgh, Dugald Stewart Building, 3 Charles Street, Edinburgh EH8 9AD, UK article info abstract Article history: This paper addresses the following problem: advertising generally – and recent U.S. political Available online 6 March 2014 campaign ads specifically – use juxtaposition that is simultaneously effective and clichéd. We can identify the stereotypes employed, the structural components put together in a Keywords: formulaic manner, and the stock images, key changes, and colour coordination which form Political advertising such components. We are so aware of this make-up that a successful spoof ad makes its point Cliché simply through the use of an exaggerated application of just such a formula. Our casual Juxtaposition understanding of cliché, therefore, is inadequate if we wish to shed light upon political Legitimation advertising. Social semiotics Discourse analysis Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1. Introduction Calling something clichéd is a negative critical judgement on its style or structure, and on the limited imagination of its creator. On the other hand, to be told that we have made an effective juxtaposition is a compliment, and indeed cliché would seem to be antithetical to effectiveness. This paper addresses the following problem: advertising generally – and recent U.S. political campaign ads specifically – use juxtaposition that is simultaneously effective and clichéd. As viewers, we have little trouble identifying the stereotypes employed, the structural components put together in a formulaic manner, and the stock images, key changes, and colour coordination which form such components. Such is the audience’s awareness of this make- up that a successful spoof ad makes its point simply through the exaggerated application of the formula. To understand how cliché works as a purposive stylistic and compositional element, we need to investigate its complexity of meaning, and as- sess its multifarious realisations. The most common usage of the word cliché falls squarely into Orwell’s ‘catalogue of swindles and perversions’ (Orwell, 1962, p. 149), where it retains its negative connotation of being, at best, the result of slovenly composition, and at worst, a tool used in ‘the defence of the indefensible’ (Orwell, 1962, p. 153). Yet there is also a widespread view that a cliché has come into being be- cause it expresses something universal and eternal. This aphoristic quality, in particular, informs the use of cliché in advertising. McLuhan and Watson (1970) outline the many overlaps and connections between cliché and archetype, recalling the central place of archetype in Jungian philosophy, and the centrality of the ‘symbol’ to cliché, archetype, and juxtaposition. Zijderveld (1979) brings together many of these concerns within an argument which connects the ubiquitous cliché with modernity. Running in parallel with the expectation of cliché in political ads is an expectation of juxtaposition. Defined as the ‘action of placing two or more things close together or side by side, or one thing with or beside another; the condition of being so placed’ (OED Online), juxtaposition also brings with it suggestions of contrast, surprise, antithesis and synthesis. The Dada ⇑ Tel.: +44 (0)131 651 3083 E-mail address: [email protected] http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.langcom.2014.02.001 0271-5309/Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. R.R. Mackay / Language & Communication 37 (2014) 100–119 101 and Surrealist schools focussed on juxtaposition, as did the filmmaker Sergei Eisenstein. For all three, juxtaposition was a method by which complacency and the status quo could be challenged, a new way forward presented, and the first step to the change taken. The effect of the juxtaposition upon the psyche was both illuminating and transforming. This suited the radical politics of Eisenstein but could hardly suit the ‘more of the same’ message (Silverstein, 2011a) an incumbent pres- idential nominee might hope to convey. Yet conservatism can use shocking juxtaposition in negative campaigning: ‘‘woe unto us if they get in...’’. The infamous ‘Daisy’ anti-Goldwater ad of the 1964 US presidential campaign (the ‘Jaws’ of political ads) juxtaposed the image of an innocent little girl picking and counting petals of a flower with the ominous countdown to a nuclear bomb; the mushroom cloud reflected in the pupil of the girl’s eye. Regardless of political stance, juxtaposition as a means of scaremongering will always be effective. Yet how can a juxtaposition be both effective and clichéd? How is it that audiences still find the shark in the water, the tense music, and the fate of the oblivious bathers nerve-racking, alarming even? How can an ad still create even a slight frisson by presenting a mother kissing a cute child, a panoramic shot of an open, ‘natural’ landscape, and a politician framed against a blue sky? 2. Methodology The methodology employed in this paper draws from critical discourse studies, and in particular the discourse historical approach (DHA). The DHA focuses upon the evolution of ideas and states of affairs for the purposes of illuminating the pres- ent. The two conjoined ideas under investigation here are cliché and juxtaposition, against a backdrop of political advertising (and specifically, the spot ad); the ultimate aim of the paper being to persuade the reader that the ubiquity of what is called the ‘clichéd juxtaposition’ ought not blind us to its subtle and significant function in political discourse. The DHA ‘explicitly tries to establish a theory of discourse by establishing the connection between fields of action (Girnth, 1996), genres, discourses and texts’(Wodak and Meyer, 2009, p. 26). In relation to the political spot ad, the field of action (if it is to be called one field) is that of mainstream Politics (using the capital to limit the sprawling term ‘politics’ to just what concerns the polity). Within this field, the sub-genre of Political advertising is influenced by a plethora of contemporaneous, societally significant discourses. In recent times for example: the economic discourses of austerity, unemployment, regeneration and regulation, and the moral discourses of prudence, societal progress, and responsibility. These discourses are brought into the Political arena from their own fields (both eco- nomic and moral), thereby creating loops of influence. Such discursive interaction thus influences the texts produced in the relevant fields. My contention is that the use of clichés as vehicles for the easy communication of (purposefully) un(der)stud- ied value statements results in their being endemic to Political advertising (and advertising more generally). Simultaneously, despite this intentional lack of focus on values (through cliché), as advertising, the texts must be notice- able: they are not produced (as many institutional texts seem to be) as part of a bureaucratic demand for recording an official version of what has transpired. An advertisement aims to influence people’s action (see Mackay, 2013b). To gain attention, and to differentiate themselves from the competition – both in terms of holding the attention of an audience that may other- wise turn to another media, or outlet; and also in the more prescribed sense of competing against the other Political actors engaged in the same game. As these Political ads are multimodal texts, I shall also use the framework of social semiotics which, like the DHA, places the social as both the primary motivation and the pivot around which analysis is conducted. Similarly arising out of critical linguistics – and in particular Halliday’s systemic functional linguistics, with its metafunctions – social semiotics has wid- ened its remit to include ‘semiotic devices in discourse other than [but not excluding] the linguistic ones’ (Wodak and Meyer, 2009, p. 15). This allows for the communicative potential of non-linguistic (or not solely linguistic) modes to be taken into account, not as an afterthought, but with equivalent attention. The social aspect of social semiotics enables the analyst to consider the motivations, values, attitudes, ideologies, power-wielding potential, and historical ‘baggage’ which underwrites the affordances of each mode (as well as the limitations to the actual uptake of these affordances). It is beyond the scope of this paper to give anything approaching an exhaustive social semiotic analysis and, as such, I focus mainly, but not exclu- sively, on the visual mode. I use examples from two advertisements from the 2012 US presidential election – the first from the Republican primaries, and the second from the post-nomination presidential campaign. The selection of these two ads comes after a much larger systematic study of the political ad in the U.S. (Mackay, 2013a), in which I surveyed the ads from every U.S. presidential cam- paign in which the television spot was used (1952 onwards). I shall also refer to the spoof ads run as part of the satirical commentary initiated and headed by Stephen Colbert, a well known public figure in the U.S. These four ads are available online and, with the possible exception of the Colbert spoofs, are held in reliable, long-term collections. The addresses for these ads are the following: ‘‘ConservativeLeadership’’ Perry, 2011, Original air date: 31/10/11, From the Political Communication Lab, Stanford. http://pcl.stanford.edu/campaigns/2012/primary/?ad=Conservative+Leadership+-+Rick+Perry+%28SPAC%29+-+Oct+31. ‘‘The Moment’’ Romney, 2012, Original air date: 11/06/12, From Museum of the Moving Image, The Living Room Candi- date: Presidential Campaign Commercials 1952–2012. www.livingroomcandidate.org/commercials/2012/the-moment. Colbert SuperPac Commercial #1 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qulpucVacM8. Colbert SuperPac Commercial #2 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d5m9QZWwIgQ. 102 R.R. Mackay / Language & Communication 37 (2014) 100–119 3. Literature review 3.1.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Vagueness Susanne Bobzien and Rosanna Keefe
    Vagueness Susanne Bobzien and Rosanna Keefe I—SUSANNE BOBZIEN COLUMNAR HIGHER-ORDER VAGUENESS, OR VAGUENESS IS HIGHER-ORDER VAGUENESS Most descriptions of higher-order vagueness in terms of traditional modal logic generate so-called higher-order vagueness paradoxes. The one that doesn’t (Williamson’s) is problematic otherwise. Consequently, the present trend is toward more complex, non-standard theories. However, there is no need for this. In this paper I introduce a theory of higher-order vagueness that is paradox-free and can be expressed in the first-order extension of a normal modal system that is complete with respect to single-domain Kripke-frame semantics. This is the system qs4m+bf+fin. It corresponds to the class of transitive, reflexive and final frames. With borderlineness (unclarity, indeterminacy) defined logically as usual, it then follows that something is borderline precisely when it is higher-order borderline, and that a predicate is vague precisely when it is higher-order vague. Like Williamson’s, the theory proposed here has no clear borderline cas- es in Sorites sequences. I argue that objections that there must be clear bor- derline cases ensue from the confusion of two notions of borderlineness— one associated with genuine higher-order vagueness, the other employed to sort objects into categories—and that the higher-order vagueness para- doxes result from superimposing the second notion onto the first. Lastly, I address some further potential objections. This paper proposes that vagueness is higher-order vagueness. At first blush this may seem a very peculiar suggestion. It is my hope that the following pages will dispel the peculiarity and that the advantages of the proposed theory will speak for themselves.
    [Show full text]
  • Useful Argumentative Essay Words and Phrases
    Useful Argumentative Essay Words and Phrases Examples of Argumentative Language Below are examples of signposts that are used in argumentative essays. Signposts enable the reader to follow our arguments easily. When pointing out opposing arguments (Cons): Opponents of this idea claim/maintain that… Those who disagree/ are against these ideas may say/ assert that… Some people may disagree with this idea, Some people may say that…however… When stating specifically why they think like that: They claim that…since… Reaching the turning point: However, But On the other hand, When refuting the opposing idea, we may use the following strategies: compromise but prove their argument is not powerful enough: - They have a point in thinking like that. - To a certain extent they are right. completely disagree: - After seeing this evidence, there is no way we can agree with this idea. say that their argument is irrelevant to the topic: - Their argument is irrelevant to the topic. Signposting sentences What are signposting sentences? Signposting sentences explain the logic of your argument. They tell the reader what you are going to do at key points in your assignment. They are most useful when used in the following places: In the introduction At the beginning of a paragraph which develops a new idea At the beginning of a paragraph which expands on a previous idea At the beginning of a paragraph which offers a contrasting viewpoint At the end of a paragraph to sum up an idea In the conclusion A table of signposting stems: These should be used as a guide and as a way to get you thinking about how you present the thread of your argument.
    [Show full text]
  • The “Ambiguity” Fallacy
    \\jciprod01\productn\G\GWN\88-5\GWN502.txt unknown Seq: 1 2-SEP-20 11:10 The “Ambiguity” Fallacy Ryan D. Doerfler* ABSTRACT This Essay considers a popular, deceptively simple argument against the lawfulness of Chevron. As it explains, the argument appears to trade on an ambiguity in the term “ambiguity”—and does so in a way that reveals a mis- match between Chevron criticism and the larger jurisprudence of Chevron critics. TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION ................................................. 1110 R I. THE ARGUMENT ........................................ 1111 R II. THE AMBIGUITY OF “AMBIGUITY” ..................... 1112 R III. “AMBIGUITY” IN CHEVRON ............................. 1114 R IV. RESOLVING “AMBIGUITY” .............................. 1114 R V. JUDGES AS UMPIRES .................................... 1117 R CONCLUSION ................................................... 1120 R INTRODUCTION Along with other, more complicated arguments, Chevron1 critics offer a simple inference. It starts with the premise, drawn from Mar- bury,2 that courts must interpret statutes independently. To this, critics add, channeling James Madison, that interpreting statutes inevitably requires courts to resolve statutory ambiguity. And from these two seemingly uncontroversial premises, Chevron critics then infer that deferring to an agency’s resolution of some statutory ambiguity would involve an abdication of the judicial role—after all, resolving statutory ambiguity independently is what judges are supposed to do, and defer- ence (as contrasted with respect3) is the opposite of independence. As this Essay explains, this simple inference appears fallacious upon inspection. The reason is that a key term in the inference, “ambi- guity,” is critically ambiguous, and critics seem to slide between one sense of “ambiguity” in the second premise of the argument and an- * Professor of Law, Herbert and Marjorie Fried Research Scholar, The University of Chi- cago Law School.
    [Show full text]
  • 4 Quantifiers and Quantified Arguments 4.1 Quantifiers
    4 Quantifiers and Quantified Arguments 4.1 Quantifiers Recall from Chapter 3 the definition of a predicate as an assertion con- taining one or more variables such that, if the variables are replaced by objects from a given Universal set U then we obtain a proposition. Let p(x) be a predicate with one variable. Definition If for all x ∈ U, p(x) is true, we write ∀x : p(x). ∀ is called the universal quantifier. Definition If there exists x ∈ U such that p(x) is true, we write ∃x : p(x). ∃ is called the existential quantifier. Note (1) ∀x : p(x) and ∃x : p(x) are propositions and so, in any given example, we will be able to assign truth-values. (2) The definitions can be applied to predicates with two or more vari- ables. So if p(x, y) has two variables we have, for instance, ∀x, ∃y : p(x, y) if “for all x there exists y for which p(x, y) is holds”. (3) Let A and B be two sets in a Universal set U. Recall the definition of A ⊆ B as “every element of A is in B.” This is a “for all” statement so we should be able to symbolize it. We do so by first rewriting the definition as “for all x ∈ U, if x is in A then x is in B, ” which in symbols is ∀x ∈ U : if (x ∈ A) then (x ∈ B) , or ∀x :(x ∈ A) → (x ∈ B) . 1 (4*) Recall that a variable x in a propositional form p(x) is said to be free.
    [Show full text]
  • Some Common Fallacies of Argument Evading the Issue: You Avoid the Central Point of an Argument, Instead Drawing Attention to a Minor (Or Side) Issue
    Some Common Fallacies of Argument Evading the Issue: You avoid the central point of an argument, instead drawing attention to a minor (or side) issue. ex. You've put through a proposal that will cut overall loan benefits for students and drastically raise interest rates, but then you focus on how the system will be set up to process loan applications for students more quickly. Ad hominem: Here you attack a person's character, physical appearance, or personal habits instead of addressing the central issues of an argument. You focus on the person's personality, rather than on his/her ideas, evidence, or arguments. This type of attack sometimes comes in the form of character assassination (especially in politics). You must be sure that character is, in fact, a relevant issue. ex. How can we elect John Smith as the new CEO of our department store when he has been through 4 messy divorces due to his infidelity? Ad populum: This type of argument uses illegitimate emotional appeal, drawing on people's emotions, prejudices, and stereotypes. The emotion evoked here is not supported by sufficient, reliable, and trustworthy sources. Ex. We shouldn't develop our shopping mall here in East Vancouver because there is a rather large immigrant population in the area. There will be too much loitering, shoplifting, crime, and drug use. Complex or Loaded Question: Offers only two options to answer a question that may require a more complex answer. Such questions are worded so that any answer will implicate an opponent. Ex. At what point did you stop cheating on your wife? Setting up a Straw Person: Here you address the weakest point of an opponent's argument, instead of focusing on a main issue.
    [Show full text]
  • Is 'Argument' Subject to the Product/Process Ambiguity?
    View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by University of Richmond University of Richmond UR Scholarship Repository Philosophy Faculty Publications Philosophy 2011 Is ‘argument’ subject to the product/process ambiguity? G. C. Goddu University of Richmond, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: http://scholarship.richmond.edu/philosophy-faculty- publications Part of the Philosophy Commons Recommended Citation Goddu, G. C. "Is ‘argument’ Subject to the Product/process Ambiguity?" Informal Logic 31, no. 2 (2011): 75-88. This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Philosophy at UR Scholarship Repository. It has been accepted for inclusion in Philosophy Faculty Publications by an authorized administrator of UR Scholarship Repository. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Is ‘argument’ subject to the product/process ambiguity? G.C. GODDU Department of Philosophy University of Richmond Richmond, VA 23173 U.S.A. [email protected] Abstract: The product/process dis- Resumé: La distinction proces- tinction with regards to “argument” sus/produit appliquée aux arguments has a longstanding history and foun- joue un rôle de fondement de la dational role in argumentation the- théorie de l’argumentation depuis ory. I shall argue that, regardless of longtemps. Quelle que soit one’s chosen ontology of arguments, l’ontologie des arguments qu’on arguments are not the product of adopte, je soutiens que les argu- some process of arguing. Hence, ments ne sont pas le produit d’un appeal to the distinction is distorting processus d’argumentation. Donc the very organizational foundations l’usage de cette distinction déforme of argumentation theory and should le fondement organisationnel de la be abandoned.
    [Show full text]
  • • Today: Language, Ambiguity, Vagueness, Fallacies
    6060--207207 • Today: language, ambiguity, vagueness, fallacies LookingLooking atat LanguageLanguage • argument: involves the attempt of rational persuasion of one claim based on the evidence of other claims. • ways in which our uses of language can enhance or degrade the quality of arguments: Part I: types and uses of definitions. Part II: how the improper use of language degrades the "weight" of premises. AmbiguityAmbiguity andand VaguenessVagueness • Ambiguity: a word, term, phrase is ambiguous if it has 2 or more well-defined meaning and it is not clear which of these meanings is to be used. • Vagueness: a word, term, phrase is vague if it has more than one possible and not well-defined meaning and it is not clear which of these meanings is to be used. • [newspaper headline] Defendant Attacked by Dead Man with Knife. • Let's have lunch some time. • [from an ENGLISH dept memo] The secretary is available for reproduction services. • [headline] Father of 10 Shot Dead -- Mistaken for Rabbit • [headline] Woman Hurt While Cooking Her Husband's Dinner in a Horrible Manner • advertisement] Jack's Laundry. Leave your clothes here, ladies, and spend the afternoon having a good time. • [1986 headline] Soviet Bloc Heads Gather for Summit. • He fed her dog biscuits. • ambiguous • vague • ambiguous • ambiguous • ambiguous • ambiguous • ambiguous • ambiguous AndAnd now,now, fallaciesfallacies • What are fallacies or what does it mean to reason fallaciously? • Think in terms of the definition of argument … • Fallacies Involving Irrelevance • or, Fallacies of Diversion • or, Sleight-of-Hand Fallacies • We desperately need a nationalized health care program. Those who oppose it think that the private sector will take care of the needs of the poor.
    [Show full text]
  • Ambiguity in Argument Jan Albert Van Laar*
    Argument and Computation Vol. 1, No. 2, June 2010, 125–146 Ambiguity in argument Jan Albert van Laar* Department of Theoretical Philosophy, University of Groningen, Groningen 9712 GL, The Netherlands (Received 8 September 2009; final version received 11 February 2010) The use of ambiguous expressions in argumentative dialogues can lead to misunderstanding and equivocation. Such ambiguities are here called active ambiguities. However, even a normative model of persuasion dialogue ought not to ban active ambiguities altogether, one reason being that it is not always possible to determine beforehand which expressions will prove to be actively ambiguous. Thus, it is proposed that argumentative norms should enable each participant to put forward ambiguity criticisms as well as self-critical ambiguity corrections, inducing them to improve their language if necessary. In order to discourage them from nitpicking and from arriving at excessively high levels of precision, the parties are also provided with devices with which to examine whether the ambiguity corrections or ambiguity criticisms have been appropriate. A formal dialectical system is proposed, in the Hamblin style, that satisfies these and some other philosophical desiderata. Keywords: active ambiguity; argument; critical discussion; equivocation; persuasion dialogue; pseudo-agreement; pseudo-disagreement 1. Introduction Argumentative types of dialogue can be hampered by expressions that are ambiguous or equivocal. A participant can show dissatisfaction with such ambiguities by disambiguating the formulations he has used or by inciting the other side to improve upon their formulations. A typical example can be found in the case where W.B. had been arrested both for drink and driving and for driving under suspension.
    [Show full text]
  • Lecture 1: Propositional Logic
    Lecture 1: Propositional Logic Syntax Semantics Truth tables Implications and Equivalences Valid and Invalid arguments Normal forms Davis-Putnam Algorithm 1 Atomic propositions and logical connectives An atomic proposition is a statement or assertion that must be true or false. Examples of atomic propositions are: “5 is a prime” and “program terminates”. Propositional formulas are constructed from atomic propositions by using logical connectives. Connectives false true not and or conditional (implies) biconditional (equivalent) A typical propositional formula is The truth value of a propositional formula can be calculated from the truth values of the atomic propositions it contains. 2 Well-formed propositional formulas The well-formed formulas of propositional logic are obtained by using the construction rules below: An atomic proposition is a well-formed formula. If is a well-formed formula, then so is . If and are well-formed formulas, then so are , , , and . If is a well-formed formula, then so is . Alternatively, can use Backus-Naur Form (BNF) : formula ::= Atomic Proposition formula formula formula formula formula formula formula formula formula formula 3 Truth functions The truth of a propositional formula is a function of the truth values of the atomic propositions it contains. A truth assignment is a mapping that associates a truth value with each of the atomic propositions . Let be a truth assignment for . If we identify with false and with true, we can easily determine the truth value of under . The other logical connectives can be handled in a similar manner. Truth functions are sometimes called Boolean functions. 4 Truth tables for basic logical connectives A truth table shows whether a propositional formula is true or false for each possible truth assignment.
    [Show full text]
  • Fuzziness-Vagueness-Generality-Ambiguity. Journal of Pragmatics (Elsevier Science B.V
    Fuzziness-vagueness-generality-ambiguity. Journal of Pragmatics (Elsevier Science B.V. in New York & Amsterdam), 1998, 29 (1): pp 13-31. Fuzziness---Vagueness---Generality---Ambiguity1 Qiao Zhang Published by Journal of Pragmatics (Elsevier Science B.V. in New York & Amsterdam), 1998, 29(1): pp 13-31. Contact: Dr Grace Zhang Department of Languages and Intercultural Education Curtin University of Technology GPO Box 1987 Perth, Western Australia 6845 Australia Tel: +61 8 9266 3478 Fax: +61 8 9266 4133 Email: [email protected] Abstract In this paper, I attempt to distinguish four linguistic concepts: fuzziness, vagueness, generality and ambiguity. The distinction between the four concepts is a significant matter, both theoretically and practically. Several tests are discussed from the perspectives of semantics, syntax and pragmatics. It is my contention that fuzziness, vagueness, and generality are licensed by Grice's Co-operative Principle, i.e. they are just as important as precision in language. I conclude that generality, vagueness, and fuzziness are under-determined, and ambiguity is over-determined. Fuzziness differs from generality, vagueness, and ambiguity in that it is not simply a result of a one-to- many relationship between a general meaning and its specifications; nor a list of possible related interpretations derived from a vague expression; nor a list of unrelated meanings denoted by an ambiguous expression. Fuzziness is inherent in the sense that it has no clear-cut referential boundary, and is not resolvable with resort to context, as opposed to generality, vagueness, and ambiguity, which may be contextually eliminated. It is also concluded that fuzziness is closely involved with language users' judgments.
    [Show full text]
  • Quantifying Aristotle's Fallacies
    mathematics Article Quantifying Aristotle’s Fallacies Evangelos Athanassopoulos 1,* and Michael Gr. Voskoglou 2 1 Independent Researcher, Giannakopoulou 39, 27300 Gastouni, Greece 2 Department of Applied Mathematics, Graduate Technological Educational Institute of Western Greece, 22334 Patras, Greece; [email protected] or [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected] Received: 20 July 2020; Accepted: 18 August 2020; Published: 21 August 2020 Abstract: Fallacies are logically false statements which are often considered to be true. In the “Sophistical Refutations”, the last of his six works on Logic, Aristotle identified the first thirteen of today’s many known fallacies and divided them into linguistic and non-linguistic ones. A serious problem with fallacies is that, due to their bivalent texture, they can under certain conditions disorient the nonexpert. It is, therefore, very useful to quantify each fallacy by determining the “gravity” of its consequences. This is the target of the present work, where for historical and practical reasons—the fallacies are too many to deal with all of them—our attention is restricted to Aristotle’s fallacies only. However, the tools (Probability, Statistics and Fuzzy Logic) and the methods that we use for quantifying Aristotle’s fallacies could be also used for quantifying any other fallacy, which gives the required generality to our study. Keywords: logical fallacies; Aristotle’s fallacies; probability; statistical literacy; critical thinking; fuzzy logic (FL) 1. Introduction Fallacies are logically false statements that are often considered to be true. The first fallacies appeared in the literature simultaneously with the generation of Aristotle’s bivalent Logic. In the “Sophistical Refutations” (Sophistici Elenchi), the last chapter of the collection of his six works on logic—which was named by his followers, the Peripatetics, as “Organon” (Instrument)—the great ancient Greek philosopher identified thirteen fallacies and divided them in two categories, the linguistic and non-linguistic fallacies [1].
    [Show full text]
  • Vagueness and Quantification
    View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by Institutional Research Information System University of Turin Vagueness and Quantification (postprint version) Journal of Philosophical Logic first online, 2015 Andrea Iacona This paper deals with the question of what it is for a quantifier expression to be vague. First it draws a distinction between two senses in which quantifier expressions may be said to be vague, and provides an account of the distinc- tion which rests on independently grounded assumptions. Then it suggests that, if some further assumptions are granted, the difference between the two senses considered can be represented at the formal level. Finally, it out- lines some implications of the account provided which bear on three debated issues concerning quantification. 1 Preliminary clarifications Let us start with some terminology. First of all, the term `quantifier expres- sion' will designate expressions such as `all', `some' or `more than half of', which occurs in noun phrases as determiners. For example, in `all philoso- phers', `all' occurs as a determiner of `philosophers', and the same position can be occupied by `some' or `more than half of'. This paper focuses on simple quantified sentences containing quantifier expressions so understood, such as the following: (1) All philosophers are rich (2) Some philosophers are rich (3) More than half of philosophers are rich Although this is a very restricted class of sentences, it is sufficiently repre- sentative to deserve consideration on its own. In the second place, the term `domain' will designate the totality of things over which a quantifier expression is taken to range.
    [Show full text]