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RAW NATURAL BUILDING MATERIALS Building a seaweed - processing farm with local raw natural on the coastal area of the Netherlands.

Susanne Hofer Student number 4246977 – [email protected] University of Technology Delft, 11th Architectural Engineering graduation studio 2013/2014 Tutors: Tjalling Homans, Suzanne van Dijk

January 2014

1.Abstract - This report shows the potential of building with raw natural building material as a sustainable solution for reducing carbon dioxide (CO2) emission of the building sector. It is an attempt to define basic criteria for materials and criteria for the programme, design and climate of a building to allow more convenient choices of materialization, which will have a positive impact on the sustainability of a construction. Therefore research on the spatial programme of a seaweed - processing farm as well as on the organic design formed relevant ambient, spatial and structural criteria for the materialization of the structure. Furthermore the analyzed location and climate of the coastal area of the Neth- erlands and future climate change predictions gave information about factors that influence the durability of building materials. Finally thresholds for the full life cycle during the production/processing, use and disposal of a material de- fined criteria, on the one hand for the sustainability of materials in general and on the other hand for selecting locally available natural raw materials and building methods as an overview. The goal of this paper is to give an overview of natural building materials that can easily be compared, considering previous defined criteria of programme, design & climate.

Keywords: natural raw building material, sustainability, the Netherlands, seaweed-processing

2. Introduction - For decades human activities such as temperature difference between now and the last ice age. burning fossil fuels, the clearing of vegetation, and cat- (IPCC, 2001) These predictions cannot be ignored any tle and rice production (methane) have increased the con- longer, therefore this report on the one hand deals with centrations of carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide the challenge to provide adequate food for the growing in the atmosphere, which results in a change of climate. world population and on the other hand with the challenge (Singer 2010) It is widely recognized that anthropogenic to fight climate change by stabilizing or reducing CO2 pol- climate change will have harmful effects on many human lution caused by the materials used in the building sector. beings and is therefore one of the most significant global This paper combines possible solutions for both problems challenges that we will have to face in future. The change in one project. First seaweed farming in the Netherlands in climate is projected to result in severe weather events is researched as a solution for food scarcity and forms the like flooding, heat stress, drought and deductive food inse- programme of the architectural project. Second locally curity (Caney, 2010). Nevertheless the predicted growing available natural raw building materials are investigated population, which is expected to reach 8 billion people in as materialization for the architecture of the seaweed-pro- the spring of 2024 and even count 9.5 Billion inhabitants cessing farm, in matter of minimizing the negative envi- by 2050, implicates a rapid increase in consumption that ronmental impact of the construction. causes greater greenhouse gas emissions and resource de- pletion (United Nations population division, 1999) (Hick- Concerning the expected food shortage a major problem man, 2011). is the current excessive and abundant consumption of the wealthy privileged nations (Mackenzie, 2011). Future predictions estimate that by 2100 the CO2 con- “Worldwide meat production has tripled over the last four centration will be about 90-250 percent higher than in the decades and increased 20 percent in just the last 10 years.” preindustrial era and that the surface temperature increas- (Kumar, 2011, p.1) This resulted in an average meat con- es from between 1,4°C to 5,8°C, comparable with a 4°C sumption of 41.90 kg per person per year in 2010. If we RAW NATURAL BUILDING MATERIALS 4246977 Susanne Hofer 2

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Illustration 1 - Annual world meat consumption per capita 2009

Illustration 2 - Prediction population growth 2050 keep up consuming this large amount of meat, it will even- commercial buildings account for roughly 32% of global tually be impossible to provide enough food for everyone energy use, and over 30% of total end use energy-related in the future (Kumar, 2011). Since a meat based diet re- CO2 emissions (International Energy Agency IEA, 2012). quires 7 times more space than a plant based one, a solu- tion would be to reduce meat consumption by shifting the The structures materialization has big influence on the diet of the population of industrial nations more towards a sustainability of an architecture, due to factors like it´s plant based diet. By growing seaweed as food for people, embodied energy and energy efficiency during use. As a a vast agricultural space can be developed in the ocean. matter of fact a major amount of CO2 pollution and energy Hence enough food for everyone could be produced in a waste of the building sector is already induced during the more sustainable way for a longer period of time. material processing, manufacturing and long transporta- tion of building materials. On top of that some materials Beside the attempt of offering alternative solutions for are hard to maintain and regularly even not disposable in sustainable food production in form of a seaweed farm a safe way. another ambition is to use raw natural building materials for the materialization of the building to reduce pollution, To make a long story short, if we can somehow reduce pol- waste and CO2 emissions. In fact Global CO2 emissions lution and the energy required to manufacture and dispose reached a historic high of 34,5 billion tones in 2012 and building materials we could well be on our way towards are constantly increasing (Oliverie et al. 2013). The Inter- reaching a truly sustainable society (WILLMOTT DIX- national Energy Agency (IEA) states that residential and ON, 2010). RAW NATURAL BUILDING MATERIALS 4246977 Susanne Hofer 4 Which local are suitable for and architectural structures of a in the of the

DEFINING RESEARCH FIELDS SETTING CRITERIA FINDING MATERIALIZATION Illustration 3 - Research method

3. Research question - The research question emerges out First, the method section analyzes the process of seaweed of previous acknowledgements of sustainable solutions. farming and the spatial programme of a seaweed-process- Hence the main considerations of this paper are the ar- ing farm including specific required indoor conditions. chitecture of a seaweed farm combined with raw natural The various processes will set constraints and define nec- building materials in the Netherlands. essary qualities of the architectural space and hence of the design and its materialization. Furthermore, the organic Which local raw natural materials are suitable for sustain- architectural design is considered and will set demands for ably manufacturing permanent and temporary, organic ar- the materialization such as high flexibility. chitectural structures of a seaweed-processing farm in the Moreover criteria for sustainable materials are defined coastal area of the Netherlands? through references and literature research and conclude in accordance a selection of different raw natural building 4. Background - Raw natural materials are defined as low materials. processed materials that use less energy and produce less Then, the result chapter presents the materials that were waste during manufacturing and are therefore considered selected and the material properties and characteristics, as more sustainable. They are vastly available by local re- which were analyzed in the technical research. The suit- sources that are renewable and can be reused or recycled ability of the listed different sustainable materials is an- easily. alyzed relating to the criteria of programme, climate and design. The design brief of a Dutch seaweed-processing farm pro- A following discussion will critically point out the major vides the programme of diverse permanent and temporary points of the research and future prospects of material re- spaces and defines the design and further the appropriate search. Finally the paper is completed with the conclusion. choice of materialization of the structure. Using local low processed materials adjusted to its pur- 5. Method - The starting point of the research was to de- pose could make a major positive impact on the emissions fine criteria that are relevant for picking sustainable ma- of CO2. Therefore the main focus of this paper and the terialization, which are the design, the programme of the graduation project for Architectural Engineering is put on architecture and the climate. planning a seaweed-processing farm with locally available raw natural materials in the most sustainable way. First, the conformance of the material with its functional purpose is of importance in matter of providing necessary 4.1 Objective and Methodology - The intention of this ambient qualities as energy efficient as possible; therefore paper is to define criteria of the programme, context and an analysis of the diverse functions of a seaweed-process- design to be able to select a suitable materialization. Fur- ing farm was necessary. Second, through research by de- ther it sets basic criteria to define sustainable materials and sign the appearance of the architecture and the aesthetical gives an overview of the different low processed natural and structural requirements of the materials were worked building materials that are locally available and suitable out. Third, the necessary durability of the materialization for building on the coastal area of the Netherlands. according to the specific local climate of the coastal area of the Netherlands was investigated through intense research

RAW NATURAL BUILDING MATERIALS 4246977 Susanne Hofer 5 startmaterial baby seaweedplant growing process seaweed green algae 123 m cultivation SUMMER product (spring > September) sales FAST GROWING & LIGHT

seaweed growing process brown algae processing product WINTER SLOW GROWING

distribution 2.5 m product development

FINDING MATERIALIZATION SEAWEED PRODUCTION PHASES Illustration 4 - Seaweed production phases Illustration 5 - Seaweed cultivation Illustration 6 - Seaweed growing

of climate predictions. Fourth, general constraints that de- the plants are already growing in the seawater. Thirdly, fine sustainable materials were researched and used to de- current agricultural areas could be relocated in the ocean, termine a list of raw building materials. Basic requirements what would give great new opportunities of reusing this for all materials are little processing and local availability, spaces for public needs. in terms of having their origin in the Netherlands. Finally, the raw building materials were reviewed for accordance 5.1.1. Seaweed cultivation and suitability to the various criteria of programme, design World wide there are 11.500 different types of seaweed and climate. known, but only about 100 can be found in the Netherlands. About 90 percent of the seven million tons of seaweed pro- 5.1 criteria by function - the programme of a seaweed duced worldwide are cultivated in Asia and exported to farm - The topic and the process of seaweed farming are countries around the globe. By cultivating seaweed local- very innovative and scientific information as well as lit- ly, in the Netherlands, the import and long transportation erature is rather scarce and hard to find. Nevertheless an of seaweed is reduced and a sustainable production can be intense research on the cultivation of seaweed led to a pilot guaranteed. project, the “Zeewaar”, that currently takes place in the Netherlands. After interviewing involved researchers and Seaweed in nature grows attached to objects like rocks employees of Rijkswaterstaat a first framework of the spa- or reefs, while the cultivated seaweed of Zeewaar is at- tial programme for a seaweed farm could be formed. The tached to an about 2,5 m long rope that is hanging from main information however was gained through communi- a substructure in the water. A system of ropes is strained cating with Rebecca Wiering, one of the partners of the between 16 massive steel pillars that form the edge of the Zeewaar project. She started the first sustainable seaweed farm, approximately about 1.400 m2 of area. Since sea- farming in Europe with her colleague Jennifer Breaton in weed needs as much sunlight as possible, it is a great prior- January 2013 in the Dutch Oosterschelde, in the South of ity to minimize the surface of the construction in matter of Holland. In cooperation with Wiering a space-allocation preventing shade. The seaweed gets harvested in summer plan was developed and a sequence of necessary spaces/ months about every third day by hand from little boats or rooms with their required dimensions and specific room kayaks, which are stored with other harvest equipment in climates were elaborated. the boathouse. A boat stage connects the cultivation structure on water General information about seaweed farming - Seaweed with processing facilities on land. farming in Europe is an innovative attempt of making use of the sea as a vast area for agriculture. The relocation of 5.1.2. Seaweed processing the food production offers several benefits over current After the harvest the seaweed needs to run through sever- systems. First of all, it is a more sustainable way of food al processing steps before being ready for consumption or production, since nutritious environments, like the Dutch distribution. The primary goal of all processes is to avoid seawater, do not need additional fertilizers. Moreover, ad- rotting of the product during processing and after distri- ditional seaweed could help to purify our oceans. Second- bution. ly, drinking water will not be wasted for watering since

RAW NATURAL BUILDING MATERIALS 4246977 Susanne Hofer 6

MANUAL WASHING DRYING PACKAGING DISTRIBUTION HARVESTING CUTTING FREEZING STORAGE

DRYING DRY STORAGE ROOM 4O m2 36 m2 DISTRIBUTION LOADING ZONE WET ROOM OUTSIDE 1OO m2 PACKAGING ROOM 1OO m2 FREEZER ROOM Illustration 7 - Seaweed processing spaces 4O m2

Processing step 1: washing and cutting to keep the temperature high and provide a dry space, The whole harvest is first transported on a conveyor belt since dried seaweed absorbs humidity easily and would upwards until it drops on a second sloped conveyor belt, start rotting faster. where it is flushed with salty seawater of about 8°C. A Therefore it is relevant to create a room that is flexible in constant vibration movement washes the seaweed and re- changing the room climate from a humid cold space to a moves all unwanted by-catch, like little mussels and crabs. dry warm space if needed. After cleaning the seaweed, it runs on a shaking belt to a cutting machine, which chops it. 5.1.3. Seaweed development There are three options of preparation for distribution of The consumption of seaweed as food has a very long tra- the washed and cut seaweed. It can stay fresh, be frozen dition in Asia whereas it is almost unknown in Europe. or be dried. If the seaweed is distributed fresh or frozen Nevertheless seaweed is nowadays known as the ´super it will immediately go from the washing and cutting pro- food´ of the future since it is very high in protein, vitamins cess to the packaging process. The fresh packed seaweed and . Since seaweed is a healthy sustainable solu- is immediately ready for distribution, while the seaweed tion for providing enough food, it is of highest importance for freezing is first packaged in right portions before the to find ways to integrate the new diet in the Dutch cuisine. freezing process commences. Recipes need to be developed that meet the eating habits and taste of the population. It is essential to plan a profes- Process step 2: drying sional kitchen for this purpose, where the product develop- Drying of seaweed, however, follows immediately after ment as well as workshops for the public will take place. the washing and cutting. The seaweed will be moved to The kitchen will be linked with a bar/ eating area that will shelves in the DRYING ROOM where the air-drying pro- be flexible in size. cess with temperatures preferably not above 26 °C takes place. Seaweed contains a lot of water and will shrink 5.1.4. Seaweed farm during the drying process to 1/10 of its original wet mass. All administrative purposes take place in the office area It will then be stored in the DRY STORAGE ROOM until that is linked with the processing farm and hosts spaces packaging is possible. for the staff. Due to hygienic reasons it is compulsory that there is an extra space or room between the wet cells and Process step 3: packaging the packaging room. Staff changing rooms as well as toi- All the fresh seaweed that does not go in the drying room lets and shower facilities will be located between the office will run to the PACKAGING ROOM. The seaweed pack- area and the processing farm. The entrance area is dedicat- ages will be put on pallets and moved either to a storage ed as a showroom and hosts an exhibition about seaweed. space for immediate distribution or moved further in the processing step, into the walk-in FREEZER ROOM. The entire project involves three programmes; process- During the process (4) of freezing the packages are placed ing, office and development, on about 900 m2, excluding on shelves and left there until distribution. If fresh sea- flexible outdoor spaces, and about 2ha cultivation space weed is packed the room climate should be around 12 °C on water. The programme also sets functional and spatial to avoid bacteria. For packaging dry seaweed it is crucial thresholds for the design.

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FOOD SUPPLY STORAGE COOKING SERVING WASH / TRASH

TOILET M/F 2 DEVELOPING BAR/ 2O m 2 OPEN KITCHEN DINNING SPACE CLOAK ROOM 1O m 5O m2 5O m2 ENTRANCE

CUSTOMER 2 1O m sale of seaweed RECEPTION

STAFF LOUNGE COLD WASHING TERRACE 2 flexible 2Om STORAGE SPACE Fresh seaweed washing & detergent TRASH- STAFF CHANGING ROOM TOILET Fruits/ Vegetable 15m2 staff cabins, lockers staff M/F Dairy products/ Meat ENTRANCE ROOM 15 m2 15 m2 15 m2 1Om2

Illustration 8 - Seaweed developing spaces

WASHING ROOM staff showers, toilets (M/F), basin 2O m2 ENTRANCE OFFICE exhibition space staff recreation space, little kitchen 5O m2 15O m2 CHANGING ROOM AREA staff cabins, lockers PROCESSING 2Om2 BETWEEN ROOM

Illustration 9 - Seaweed office spaces

DEVELOPMENT WORKSHOPS ORGANIZATION BAR/RESTAURANT EXHIBITION SALE SALES STORAGE

OFFICE DEVELOPING SPACE BOATHOUSE 1OO m2 flexible 24O m2 23O m2 permanent permanent 18°C - 22°C washing changing temporary PROCESSING SPACES 2O°C - 25°C WASHING / CUTING permanent - 32O m2

DRYING ON WATER FREEZING different ambient temperatures PACKAGING STORAGE FARM SEAWEED CULTIVATION

PROCESSING SPACES DRY STORAGE 2 DRYING ROOM permanent, 32O m 4O m2 36 m2 > 2O°C no windows PROCESSING FARM > 2O °C DISTRIBUTION 2 LOADING ZONE TOTAL 9OO m WET ROOM OUTSIDE 1OO m2 12 °C PACKAGING ROOM + CULTIVATION 1OO m2 A) 12 °C high humid FREEZER ROOM + OUTDOOR SPACES B) 2O °C low humid 4O m2 - 5 °C to - 25 °C

Illustration 10 - Seaweed processing farm - spatial programme

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Illustration 11 - Casar de Cáceres in Spain, by Justo Gracia Rubio Illustration 12 - structure of seaweed laminaria

Illustration 13 - formmodells of and cork 5.2 criteria by the design of the architecture Spain is inspired by the form of seashells the seaweed farm The design of the architecture and its materialization are is inspired by the analogy of brown seaweed, in particular highly interrelated. On the one hand certain materials are of the species of laminaria. chosen by their qualities, which make it possible to con- The basic idea of the concept is to create an architecture struct desired shapes and forms. On the other hand the ma- that should evoke the imagination of a seaweed ribbon terial properties have strong influence on the design pro- reaching from the coast into the sea. Several form models cess itself and need to be considered, in matter of building of clay and cork were developed and evolved in a prelim- more sustainably. inary form model.

The concept of the design of the architecture was explored This architecture, based on the continuous structure of through research by design and aims to combine the form laminaria, is configuring the architectural elements of the (composition), function (programme), the technical layer roof and the facade with a single form (Bahamón & Pérez, (structure and detail), the physical context and the histori- 2007). The particular shape as well as the double function cal context in a harmonic way. A literature research on the of the shell as roof and walls require conformance of the topic of ´biomimicry´ and ´architecture inspired by nature´ material to the shape of the structure. inspired the first design attempts. The reference project of Casar de Cáceres of Justo Garcia Rubio in Spain gave the final impulse that lead to the design. (Bahamón & Pérez, 2007) While the bus station of Rubio in Extremadura,

RAW NATURAL BUILDING MATERIALS 4246977 Susanne Hofer 9 BUILDING SITE EXPANSION seaweed farm

North North Elevation Elevation West Elevation West East Elevation West Elevation West Elevation East

South South Elevation Elevation

5O M

Illustration 14 - Building site in the Jacobahaven at the Oosterschelde in Zeeland, South Holland, The Netherlands

5.3 criteria by climate - the Netherlands • Winters will, on average, become more wet, and extreme The materialization of architecture also needs to withstand amounts of precipitation will increase. the climate and predominant weather conditions on the • Intensity of severe rain in the summer will increase, but, building site. The Netherlands has a temperate maritime in contrast, the number of rain days in summers will de- climate influenced by the North Sea and Atlantic Ocean, crease. with cool summers and moderate winters. Daytime tem- • Changes in wind regime will be small compared to peratures vary from 2°C-6°C in winter and 17°C-20°C in current natural variation. the summer. The average minimum temperature through- • Sea levels will continue to rise (Nijland et al. 2009, p. out the year in the Netherlands is above 0°C. However, 38). there is still high risk of frost in wintertime and during ex- treme conditions air temperature can drop even below -20 Further there are several other effects relevant to the dura- as recorded in 1944 (Birznieks, 2013). The Netherlands is bility of building materials like a flat country and has frequently breezy conditions espe- • Specific and relative humidity; the first is likely to -in cially among the coastal areas. crease, but relative humidity may decrease, especially in the summer. In future the weather conditions will be highly influenced • The amount of solar radiation is likely to increase. by the predicted climate change. Effects of climate change, • moisture content is expected to fall (Nijland et al. such as high temperatures, increased precipitation, (local- 2009, p. 39) ly) increased ground water table and increased salt con- centration of ground water will play a major role in the The durability of building envelopes, in particular their durability of materials in the building envelope (Nijland et materialization will be strongly influenced by the chang- al. 2009). The Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute, ing circumstances. Higher temperatures will lead to faster KNMI, has developed four possible scenarios of climate biocolonization as more periods of convenient tempera- change for the Netherlands in 2050, relative to 1990 (Van ture will occur. Species typical for the Mediterranean area den Hurk et al. 2006). will eventually develop in the West-European maritime climate, causing accelerated biodeterioration. Concluding, All four scenarios show similar general tendencies: the flexibility of the materialization to the changing- cli • Temperatures will increase, resulting in a higher mate circumstances is of relevance and needs to be consid- frequency of more temperate winters and warm summers. ered during the buildings lifespan of about 35 years.

RAW NATURAL BUILDING MATERIALS 4246977 Susanne Hofer 10 SUSTAINABLE MATERIALS

EMBODIED ENERGY OF A MATERIAL

MINIMALLY PROCESSED processing - little energy & waste LOCAL AVAILABLE transportation - no CO2 emission EASY AND SAFE construction - little energy & waste ADJUSTED TO PURPOSE operation - good energy efficiency RENEWABLE, REUSABLE or RECYCLABLE disposal - little waste & energy

Illustration 15 - Basic criteria for sustainable materials

5.4 criteria of defining sustainable materials Raw natural material - Materials close to their original nat- Construction is one of the industrial sectors in which most ural state are usually less processed and therefore have less resources and materials are used. Reduction of CO2 emis- embodied energy and cause less waste and less pollution. sions by optimizing the material used in construction is Rammed earth is a form of unbaked earthen construction. important because construction and use of buildings in The building technique uses the raw materials of , Western Europe is responsible for almost 30 % emissions gravel, silt and clay to construct long-lasting walls. The (Goverse, 2003). natural aggregates are mixed and compacted into a frame- The sustainability of a building system is determined by work creating monolith-building structures. the full life cycle and CO2 emissions during material production, processing, use and disposal (Dam & Oever; Various forms of earthen materials have the lowest envi- 2012). There are some general factors of sustainability that ronmental cost according to classifications of NIBE. Com- always need to be considered before going more into detail paring rammed earth to alternative building materials such of the specific material benefits and disadvantages for the as concrete and brick masonry, its embodied energy is sig- various purposes. nificantly lower (Birznieks, 2013).

Less is more - As soon as the materials are chosen accord- Durability and maintenance - The durability of a material ing to the purpose of the architecture, it is important to is a main criterion while choosing the appropriate materi- design while considering the material properties. Dimen- alization for a building. It is relevant to consider the need- sions and size of building constructions can be adjusted ed maintenance of a building material and therefore judge to the available dimensions of materials and save a lot of its life span and make wise choices. waste, for instance of timber or frameworks. Another good Traditional thatching experiences a revival in Holland and example of how to save materials is the timber grid shell thousands new thatched dwellings are built. With a main- method. Grid shell construction enables very efficient use tenance programme approximately every 15 years a well- of small amounts of timber, yet can create very large span thatched property, using long straw/ Devon reed material, structures (Hall, 2008). can be expected to have a lifespan of between 30 and 45 years. Water reed and heather thatched properties can last Local materials - Building with locally available materials up to 70 years. helps to avoid long transport distances. It is of major im- portance to pay attention to the origin of a material and its Renewable and recyclable - Reusable and renewable mate- processing. In this way it is possible to assess the whole rials can be reused easily and therefore produce less waste. chain of production and to make sure that the material has It is important to consider the reuse already in the design not been shipped/transported around the continent for dif- and building process by for instance fixing materials me- ferent procedures of production. chanically. In this way materials can be easily disassem- As an example: Straw bales are a byproduct of agricul- bled and reused or recycled (K.Hall, 2008). ture and therefore plentiful and locally available almost is a renewable resource since the plant regenerates everywhere. Straw is a 100 percent organic material and relatively fast in substantial quantities. In the context of the construction method is easy and fast. sustainable building, the use of building materials from

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EMBODIED ENERGY OF A MATERIAL processing - little energy & waste transportation - no CO2 emission construction - little energy & waste operation - good energy efficiency disposal - little waste & energy

Illustration 16 - Basic raw materials straw, reed, sand and timber

renewable raw materials is interesting, because they have be found across the entire area of the Netherlands, while low energy content. There is little environmental burden gravel is limited available. in production line and there are also good opportunities for Straw, and flax are plentiful available in the Neth- local production, which can minimize transportation and erlands. the related pollution. Further it is important to distinguish between biodegrad- The comparison of building methods indicates that straw able materials and bio renewable materials. The first cat- bale construction has the lowest embodied energy of all egory is obtained in a natural way and is naturally com- listed materials. Straw bale and hemp crete constructions postable. The second category concerns materials of have good insulation values and show equal thermal con- biological origin which can be chemically produced in bio ductivity values as flax insulation and insulation. refinery. Some of these materials will not compost in na- Timber construction, cordwood and baked stones have ture, but are nevertheless considered as renewable. (Prin- good water resistance, while straw bale constructions are sen, 2013) not resistant to water and need plaster finish to be suffi- cient resistance. This research focus is put on the category of biodegradable and recyclable materials such as and different crops 6.2. Criteria of programme like hemp, flax and straw as well as on resources of the The table in Appendix E summarizes the earlier described ground like sand, clay, lime and stone that confirm with the different spaces of a seaweed-processing farm and their analyzed criteria.The Netherlands so far mainly encourag- specific requirements. By comparing these criteria with es the use of sustainably produced wood in construction. the information gained from the tables in Appendix C & However there is still a huge potential of sustainable con- D, raw materials were evaluated and suitable as well as not structing with more unconventional raw materials. preferable materials displayed in Appendix F. The results in Appendix F are explained below. 6. Result Moisture resistant 6.1 Criteria of sustainable materials Earth constructions are relatively moisture resistant while The overview table in Appendix A lists basic raw building earth-crops mixture constructions, such as cob and light materials that can be sourced in the Netherlands. These earth building are less resistant. All earth constructions basic natural raw elements in the categories of earth mate- need to be protected from excessive wetting. Hempcrete is rials, crops and plants, farming and forestry are the main preferable over straw bale construction, which needs to be ingredients of the building methods explained in Appendix protected against moisture with a detailed finishing. B, which confirm with the criteria of sustainable materi- als. Appendix C displays the materials and their possible Flexible & water-resistant application and in Appendix D each building method is Timber is commonly used in the Netherlands for construc- analyzed and the properties listed for easy comparison. tions that are exposed to water. The pillars of the Zeewaar seaweed farm are made of Round Steel; a timber construc- Appendix A shows that in term of availability sand can tion however is a sustainable alternative.

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Illustration 17 - Raw building methods- Rammed earth - straw bale - grid shell - reed thatching

Permanent & low temperature ( 12°C) Also reed thatching is suitable for organic architecture, it Natural materials balance indoor and outdoor conditions; sets however the restraints of a minimal roof steepness of therefore it is difficult to regulate the temperatures. A solu- about 45°. tion is to insulate the construction sufficiently with insula- tion materials such as flax, hemp or wool. Some raw building techniques allow a greater freedom of shape and form of wall structure than others. Cob or straw low (12°C) versus high temperature bale are perfect for creating organically shaped structures, The research shows that natural building materials are not while rammed earth requires straight vertical walls for sta- preferred if manual control of temperature is necessary. bility and only allows the freedom in horizontal forming. Sufficient insulation and technical installations for cooling and heating however provide the potential to change tem- 6.4 criteria of climate peratures in a space. The combined effect of higher temperature and higher pre- Dry and high temperature above + 20°C cipitation is likely to speed up biocolonization and increase Earth constructions have great thermal capacity, while effects of biodeterioration and biodegration, for stony ma- straw bale constructions have excellent thermal insulation, terials, (organic) coatings and timber. New genera and par- both however tend to regulate room climates and humidity. asites are a big threat to building materials; in particular constructions consisting of organic materials such as reed Low temperatures from -5°C to -25°C or crops as well as timber are in risk of bio colonization. The suitability of the material for low temperature is not necessary, since a cooling/freezing unit, in the form of a Further, the high and more extreme precipitation impli- walk-in freezer will be installed, which will provide the cates a higher risk of moisture in a building structure. necessary temperature. Higher relative humidity and wet building materials con- sequently result in more intense damage upon frost. Espe- Ambient temperature of 18°C to 22 °C cially light earth and straw bale constructions need to be All considered building methods are suitable for creating protected against excessive wetting which is a risk to the thermal comfort and a good working/living environment. durability of the material. What is more a thatched roof for Earth constructions however have high thermal mass and instance should have a minimum pitch of 45°, to guarantee allow passive cooling. Furthermore rammed Earth walls that water will run off from the roof surface with minimum and timber constructions score with their natural and beau- penetration into the thatch. At a pitch of less than 45° the tiful aesthetic. thatch will decay and leak much sooner.

6.3 criteria by design A higher solar radiation increases the degradation of paint- ed timber construction elements. The main risk of lower Grid shell structures allow large spans and are flexible in soil moisture content is the possibility of shrinkage and re- shape and therefore suitable for the wavy shell roof struc- sulting subsidence of foundations and walls causing cracks ture. A precise structural calculation before constructing is in solid earth constructions. necessary. RAW NATURAL BUILDING MATERIALS 4246977 Susanne Hofer 13

7. Discussion & Recommendations right raw building method to certain spatial requirements The purpose of this study is to find and adjust the right nat- or ambient temperatures. The main reason is that natural ural raw materialization to the architecture of a seaweed materials tend to balance indoor and outdoor humidity & processing farm in the Netherlands. The research looked temperatures and make it therefore difficult to regulate at criteria of the programme, the design and the climate specific climates within a building. It needs to be investi- separately and therefore resulted in a number of possible gated whether temperature regulation is easier by adding materials that confirm with the individual requirements. sufficient insulation or stabilizers to the building materials. Architectural spaces however usually combine all this as- pects in one building element, which means that there are The findings of the research cover a range of necessary different material possibilities for the same structural ele- building components such as the roof; walls and floors but ment. don´t cover any research on transparent surfaces. Glass That is to say that final decisions have to be made in favor will be an important element that needs special attention of one previously explained aspect, such as programme, and further research, in matter of finding a sustainable op- design or climate or out of a different motive, such as tion. availability or financial reasons. For instance: if more than one building method is suitable Further research could also include processed building for a building element it is, from a financial point of view, materials consisting of raw material, such as papercrete or logical to select the more economical material whereas corkboard. from a design point of view, the more aesthetic material would be preferred. 8. Conclusion What is more straw as an example is so plentiful, that the farmers, which have no use for it, often burn it. This cre- The broad research investigates sustainable local raw ates a big amount of smoke, which is a threat for the envi- building materials and methods that can be adjusted to the ronment. Therefore the government of the Netherlands is organic architecture of a Dutch seaweed-processing farm. concerned with the problem and promotes solutions for the Sustainable raw building materials, that are available in use of the extra straw in building construction. the Netherlands were listed and put in relation to criteria Considering this problematic the use of defined by the climate, organic design and spatial plan of the straw bale method should be in favor. the architectural project. Clearly it must be discussed whether the criteria of pro- gramme, design or climate or other motives are more rele- In conclusion the results of this study show that in the ma- vant for the specific material choice. jority of cases it is possible and preferable to adjust natural raw building methods with suitable properties to spatial, As mentioned earlier the findings of the research show that thermal and design requirements. Natural raw building most of the programme spaces allowed a wide selection materials have lower embodied energy than conventional of possible building methods, for instance rammed earth building methods and hence support the sustainability of a construction is suitable for most spaces. Nevertheless it is building structure. recognized that it was not always possible to assess the

RAW NATURAL BUILDING MATERIALS 4246977 Susanne Hofer 14

9. References Burgers, G., & Komen, G., & Hazeleger, W. & Drijfhout, S. (2006): “KNMI climate change scenarios 2006 for the Bahamón, A.,& Pérez, P. (2007) inspired by Netherlands”, KNMI, De Bilt, report WR 2006-01. nature: animals, The building/ biology connection International Energy Agency IEA (2012) Energy Technol- Benyus, J.M. (1997) Biomimicry, Innovation inspired by ogy Perspectives 2012, Tracking green energy progress nature IPCC (2001) Intergovernmental Panel on Climate change, Birniznieks, L. (2013) Architectural Engineering Gradua- report tion Studio, Delft University of Technology, designing and Kumar, S. (2011) Worldwatch Institute, State of the World building with compressed earth 2011: Innovations that Nourish the Planet, Global Meat Production and Consumption Continue to Rise Dam, J.Van, & Oever, M. Van Den(2012) Catalogus Available online at: biobased bouwmaterialen, Het groene bouwen http://www.worldwatch.org/global-meat-produc- Available online at: tion-and-consumption-continue-rise-1 (assessed 18 Octo- http://www.groenegrondstoffen.nl/downloads/Boekjes/ ber 2013) 15Catalogusbiobasedbouwmaterialen.pdf Mackenzie, D. (2011) Magazine issue 2795, How to engi- European Commission (2013) DG Energy final report,En - neer a better future ergy performance certificates in buildings and their impact Available online at: on transaction prices and rents in selected EU countries http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn19947-we-can- feed-9-billion-people-in-2050.html#.UqnObKWJrR1 (as- Goverse, T. (2003) UVA, Thesis. sessed 4 Dezember 2013) Hall, K. (2008) the Green building Press, the green build- ing bible volume 1, 4th edition Nijland, T.G.,& Adan, O.C.G., & Hees, R.P.J.vd, & Etten, B.D.van (2009) TNO Built Environment and Geosciences, Hickman, L. (2011) The Guardian, Friday 14 January The Netherlands Organisation for Applied Scientific Re- 2011, the population explosion search TNO, Evaluation of the effects of expected climate Available online at: change on the durability of building materials with sug- http://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/jan/14/popu- gestions for adaptation lation-explosion-seven-billion (assessed 20 November 2013) Oliverie, J., & Janssens-Maenhout, G., & Muntean, M., & Peters, J. (2013), report no. 1148, Trends in global CO” emissions: 2013 report Hurk, B. van den, & Klein Tank, A., & Lenderink, G., & Ulden, A. van, & Oldenborgh, G.J. van, & Katsman, C., Prinsen, N. (2013) Biobased Bouwen: bouwen met grond- & Brink, H. van den, & Keller, F., & Bessembinder, J., & stoffen uit de levende natuur

RAW NATURAL BUILDING MATERIALS 4246977 Susanne Hofer 15

Available online at: Overview, Buildings Energy Data Book, http://www.duurzaamgebouwd.nl/ visies/20131127-biobased-bouwen-bouwen-met-grondst- offen-uit-de-levende-natuur (assessed 29 December 2013) VROM, 2010. Protocol 0054: Procesemissies niet fossiel, t.b.v. NIR 2010. Singer, P. (2010) One Atmosphere, Climate Ethics: Essen- tial Readings WILLMOTT DIXON (2010) 07TBN33 The Impacts of Construction and the Built Environment 21/09/2010 Strobouw Nederland (2014) Available online at: http://www.strobouw.nl (assessed 31 Illustrations: December 2013) Zeewaar.nl United Nations Population Division (1999), Department of Illustrations 4,5 Economic and Social Affairs United Nations Secretariat, ESA/P/WP.154 12 October 1999, the world at six billion Google.com Available online at Illustrations 2, 12, 13 http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/sixbillion/ sixbilcover.pdf (assessed 25 October 2013) Hofer, S. (2013), Illustrations, 1, 3, 6-11, 14-18 U.S. Department of Energy DOE (2008) Section Buildings

RAW NATURAL BUILDING MATERIALS 4246977 Susanne Hofer 16

RAW NATURAL BUILDING MATERIALS 4246977 Susanne Hofer 17 APPENDIX

by fine sand, while the the while sand, by fine

marine clays in the province of Groningen. Groningen. of province the clays in marine -

Brabant and Pleistocene eolian silt deposits in - ord rockaggregates are imported from Germany, Belgium and clay in the Netherlands (Oisterwijk), Belgium and

gravelysand located in the Dutch sector theof NorthAt the Sea.

marine deposits in the coastal provinces, and Quaternary fluvialile clays, deposited on - laricum,Roermond, Gouda Availability in the Netherlands It occurs mostly in layers of riverdeposits and inLimburg. MesozoicLimestone (Winterswijk) Holocene peri the floodplains of the Meuse and the Rhine, as well as peri Limburg. deposits Sand are covered across the entire area theof Netherlands, but especially in the southern and eastern parts of the county. The central and western part is dominated sand deposits. coarse contain areas southern and eastern Thelargest locally available coarse aggregate resources are located in Limburg and relatively minor surficialoccurrences gravelof and sametime most theof gravel and crushed – British sector of the North Sea. B Strawbales are a byproduct agricultureof and therefore plentiful and cheap. Alkmaar, Groningen, Oude Pekela & Belgium, Germany, France It grows onall types grounds.of Therefore hemp products save CO2 even before they are used as days.120 to 100 in meters almost4 to d material. insulation Flax is an arable crop that grows well on France. northern Other deposits are in Gelderland and Overijssel, No .

range range

to

material sheep -

, and it grows and and

particle size

granular obtainedfrom , it is elastic

pes flax of : flax and

fiber

crimped

(clusters).

sizedfragments. relativelyfast in regeneration of Flax is a renewable resource since the - iscomposed unconsolidatedof rock fur: it is

is a naturally occurring occurring isnaturally a isthe textile

staples nd include size classes from granule a

Limeoriginates in ground currents rocksof (erosion)in the earth´s crust. Thequantity clayof and silt was formed during the last ice age. Sand composed of finely divided particles. Gravel a general have that fragments boulder Wool Wool has several qualities that distinguish it from or hair in Wheat, material. organic is percent 100 a Straw ryeor barley with long stalks goodof quality are driedand used forthe straw bale. Highest green credentials of all agricultural corps (alsoflax and ) Hemp is one of the fastest growing corps and purifies the air from large quantities of CO2 duringgrowth. Thereare two main ty linseed. plant is substantialquantities. The entire flax plant is used,for example, maketo linen, maketo or linseedanimaloil, feed, linoleum, wood composites and natural building insulation.

Basic raw materials raw Basic Lime Clay& Silt Sand Gravel woolSheep Straw Hemp Flax

ng

Materials Earth Farmi Plants/Crops

APPENDIX A, PART 1/2 : TABLE OF BASIC NATURAL RAW BUILDING MATERIALS AND THEIR AVAILABILITY IN THE NETHERLANDS AND THEIR AVAILABILITY BUILDING MATERIALS RAW OF BASIC NATURAL 1/2 : TABLE APPENDIX A, PART

RAW NATURAL BUILDING MATERIALS 4246977 Susanne Hofer 18

Availability in the Netherlands Available in the Netherlands, is it relevant make to sure that the timber used comes form a reliable sustainablesource.

pseudoplatanus

Castanea sativa Castanea -

- Quercus Rubra Quercus

- Robinia pseudoacacia Robinia

- Pinus Sylvestris

Fraxinus excelsior Fraxinus Ulmus hollandica Pseudotsuga menziesii Pseudotsuga

- Fagus Sylvatica

- Populus -

Larix -

- Quercus Robur Quercus

- American oak Beuken Douglas Oak Ash tree Maple tree Acer Scotspine - Elmtree - Larch Poplar Black locust chestnut Sweet

Basic raw materials raw Basic Timber

APPENDIX A , PART 2/2 : TABLE OF BASIC NATURAL RAW BUILDING MATERIALS AND THEIR AVAILABILITY IN THE NETHERLANDS AND THEIR AVAILABILITY BUILDING MATERIALS RAW OF BASIC NATURAL 2/2 : TABLE APPENDIX A , PART

RAW NATURAL BUILDING MATERIALS 4246977 Susanne Hofer 19

12% asphalt) - Finishing brushed be should Earthwork removeto loose particles and smoothento the surface. Finish with earth plaster or breathing natural another material if required. Protectivecoating (notnecessary stabilized if with5 Finished in plaster, stucco, clay, lime Finished in lime or clay based renders and plasters breathableSoft, and flexible lime and earth render

50cm) on a on 50cm) -

Construction Mixtureis compressed gradually in horizontal layers in a formwork (compaction) mortar earth with Bricklaying Quickconstruction masonry of with comparable brick Constructioncomparable withmasonry brick of a to stacked are Sandbags walland sometimes or chicken a with reinforced bared wire, twine or rebar Mixtureis lightly compressed between temporary or a and shuttering permanent loadbearing framework. Walls should be no wider 300mm general. than in Cobis compressed in series layersof (30 plinth and trimmed from the side. Each layer needs to dry for at least 3 days.

formed blocks fill material of the category earthern, plants/crops, farming and forestry are compressed in dried - 1080°C 1080°C - Processing preparation1. Soil 2. Formwork 3. Compaction 4. Post processing Blocks mechanical or a hand by sun press baked and Adobe pre - air are (Unburned) low Backedwith temperature of 900 (10%energy of used for conventional clinker bricks) Sand is filled in bags made of Polypropylene (filling stays dry) or more organic/ such material natural gunny hemp and burlap, sack- (bag needs more clay) Mixingingredients. of Mixingingredients. of

Possible additive Stabilizer: Cement Stabilizer: Cement (8%),lime, fly ash, ricehusks otheror Stabilizer: Emulsifiedasphalt cement Portland (upto10%)

water

Ingredients Clay,silt, gravel, (10%) sand, water Clay,sand, water Sand clay, Raw Water Clay clay Sand/earth, Clay,straw, water sand (binder), Clay (stabilizer),fiber/ straw,

Buildingmaterial Rammedearth Compressedearth blocks Adobe/ Mudbrick Baked Claystones bag Earth Light earth Cob

Earthen

APPENDIX B, PART 1/3: TABLE OF NATURAL RAW BUILDING METHODS RAW OF NATURAL 1/3: TABLE APPENDIX B, PART

RAW NATURAL BUILDING MATERIALS 4246977 Susanne Hofer 20 -

Finishing can constructions bale Straw be plastered either with a lime based formulation or earth/clay render. fit -

panels for roofs,

screwed onto a

Construction The lightweight material is a by between hand stuffed temporary “shuttering” and a loadbearing construction. Straw bale building typically consists of stacking rows of bales. Insulation walls,and flooring. Groove insulation between doors & windows.panels Solid for robustpartition. layers in is thatched roof The is Schroefdak The by hand. a closed structure where the reedis dense surface. (Insulation panels) with place into can held be It staples or it can be friction whichinvolves cutting the insulation slightly bigger than the space it occupies, using friction to hold itin place.

2 -

d ropes. of the category earthern, plants/crops, farming and forestry

Processing The material is mixed in mortar mixers for 1 minutes. baleStraw are formed. 360 (Height) x 480 (Width) 800 mmx (Length) as building Manufactured insulation material in the form of blocks or fleece. (Rolls) insulationSolid panel Harvestreed of woolSheep fibers are either mechanically held together or bonded using 5% 15% and between recycledpolyester adhesive to form insulating batts, rolls an

Possible additive Stabilizer: Cement

Ingredients Hemp,lime, sand (byStraw product) Flax fibers adhesive Recycled binder (Polyester) Fire retardant substance Reed wool,Sheep Recycledpolyester

Buildingmaterial Hemp Crete bale Straw Flax products thatching Reed woolSheep

Crops Plants/ Farming

APPENDIX B, PART 2/3: TABLE OF NATURAL RAW BUILDING METHODS RAW OF NATURAL 2/3: TABLE APPENDIX B, PART

RAW NATURAL BUILDING MATERIALS 4246977 Susanne Hofer 21 s

Finishing Oftenthere is a final layer of whitewashedincrease to it resistancerain. to

y -

The

curved curved

M(Mortar ly.

- I - mortar) -

processing) or direct logs - Construction into planks raised Timber are place and bolted or screwed together a to frame. Walter method Segal uses timber efficient The poles are either used as dimensioned poles (higher pre as in Log building. A regular grid of slender timber laths is laid flat, out at each intersection point the members are connected by finall connectors; special the grid is shaped so that it takes up a double - form. Green oak frame building is and mixed daub The applied to the wattle and than allowed to dry. In this technique short pieces debarkedof are tree laid up or masonry with crosswise cob mixtures to build a wall. Method1: Through wall Method2: M insulation

.

of the category earthern, plants/crops, farming and forestry

poles need a

Processing Producedinto dimensioned timber planks Round minimum processing if not dimensioned (retains entire strength) and laths in Produced very Enables planks. efficient use of small amounts of timber, yet can span a large create structure. A precise calculation is essential. Freshly felled and not yet dried timber (green timber) The wattle is made by branches thin weaving (eitherwhole, moreor usually split) or slats between a timber frames Wood is debarked and cut in same pieces

Possible additive

,

60% ), 60% ), - clay, dung clay,

Ingredients Wood Wood Wood Wood Timber frame, Wattles or woven from brushwood, chopped daub: straw, Wood ( 40 Cob, Mortar (Sawdust chopped newsprint, paper sludge)

Buildingmaterial Timber frame pole Round Grid shell Green timber Wattle & Daub Cordwood

Forestry

APPENDIX B, PART 3/3: TABLE OF NATURAL RAW BUILDING METHODS RAW OF NATURAL 3/3: TABLE APPENDIX B, PART

RAW NATURAL BUILDING MATERIALS 4246977 Susanne Hofer 22

x x x x x Roof

x x Ceiling

x x x x x x Floors

x x x x x x Insulation

x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x Walls

x x x x x x x x x x x x Walls Load bearing

frame

Cob Grid shell Earth bag Earth Cordwood Straw bale Straw Light earth Round pole Round Sheep woolSheep HempCrete Green timber Timber Timber Flax products Wattle & Daub Rammedearth Reed thatching Reed Adobe/ Mud brick Bakedc lay stones Buildingmaterial

Compressedearth blocks

Crops

F.

Earthen Plants/ Forestry

APPENDIX C : TABLE OF NATURAL RAW BUILDING METHODS AND POSSIBLE RAW APPLICATIONS OF NATURAL APPENDIX C : TABLE

RAW NATURAL BUILDING MATERIALS 4246977 Susanne Hofer 23

-

No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Bio Yes* Yes* Yes* Partly Yes/No Depends Depends degradable

No No No No No No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes* Yes/No Depends Reusable Recyclable

70

100 70 For 60 < 100< 30 - Years 30 - centuries Lifespan Indefinitely

Bad Good Good Good Good Water Limited Limited Limited Acceptable Acceptable Acceptable Acceptable Acceptable Acceptable penetration resistance Acceptable

48 59 57

- 50 dB Rw >12 44 - 50 - 50 - Sound 40cm thick 40cm thick wallis 56dB Reduction

1700 1800 1660 1710

1009 Cp 1303 Heat 1260 J/Kg k Capacity 840 - 1500 - 1720 - 1550 - 1660 -

0,710 0,075 0,039 0,042

0,070 λ 0.20 1,130 1,200 1,100 W/mK Thermal - 0,50 - 0,180 - 0,053 - 0,035 - 0,035 conductivity

5,0 30

0,91 - - 70 10 0,7 0,7 0,9 0,45 11 - MJ/Kg Em.En 2,0 Energy 0,1 Embodied

3 1200

350 720 2200 2200 25 50

1800 191

ρ 130 1800 19 - 20 - Kg/m 80 - 250 - Density 220 - 480 - 640 - 1460 - 1460 - <

insulation Cob insulation

Units Timber Symbols Earth bag Earth Cordwood Strawbale Light earth HempCrete construction earth blocks Compressed Flax Wattle & Daub Rammedearth Reed thatching Reed Wool

Adobe/ Mud brick Bakedclay stones

Crops

Earthen Forestry

Plants/

APPENDIX D: TABLE OF NATURAL RAW BUILDING METHODS AND THEIR PROPERTIES RAW OF NATURAL APPENDIX D: TABLE

RAW NATURAL BUILDING MATERIALS 4246977 Susanne Hofer 24

APPENDIX E TABLE OF SPATIAL PROGRAMME OF A SEAWEED PROCESSING FARM including dimensions and requirements for the materialization

FUNCTION USE Dimensions Design ( Material ) Ambient Lifespan Requirements Temperature

Boat stage To connect the sea farm Minimal Flexible Water resistant with the land and enable Floor space

excess for harvesting.

2 Boathouse Storage space for the about 100m Flexible Resistance 10 kayaks/boats and harvest against tools, like buckets. During moisture, CULTIVATION the winter period there will Low humid dry be additionally hundreds of meters of rope stored.

2 Wet room Space for washing and 100 m Permanent Cool 12 °C cutting of the seaweed temperature

Packaging room For packaging Permanent (a.) Fresh seaweed or (a. & b.) (Flexible in a. High humid a. 12°C 2 (b.) Dried seaweed 100 m changing b. Low humid b. 20°C room (dry) climate)

2 Drying room Space for drying the 36 m Permanent Low humidity > 20 °C seaweed with drying

PROCESSING machines

2 Dry storage Space for storing dried 40 m Permanent Low humidity > 20 °C room seaweed No windows

2 Freezer room Space for freezing the 40 m Permanent Low - 5°C to seaweed packages temperature - 25°C

2 Developing Professional kitchen, food 100 m Permanent Restaurant 20°C to 25°C space storage, wash & trash room (kitchen) ambient climate Flexible (eating area)

2 DEVELOPMENT Office space Space for office, staffroom, 150 m Office ambient 18°C entrance and showroom Temperature

RAW NATURAL BUILDING MATERIALS 4246977 Susanne Hofer 25

APPENDIX F TABLE OF SPATIAL REQUIREMENTS AND POSSIBLE MATERIALIZATION

FUNCTION Design (Material) Ambient Suitable Not preferable Lifespan Requirements Temperature Natural Materials Natural materials

Boat stage Flexible Water resistant Timber construction Earth constructions,

Crop constructions

Boathouse Flexible Resistance Soil bags, Adobe, against Baked clay stone, Cob building, moisture, Hemp elements, Light earth or

CULTIVATION Low humid dry Timber construction Straw bale Cork construction Cordwood UNDERGROUND! Wet room Permanent Cool 12 °C Rammed earth temperature Soil bags Clay stones Adobe Cork Cordwood

Packaging Permanent room (Flexible in a. High humid a. 12°C changing b. Low humid b. 20°C room (dry) climate)

PROCESSING Drying room Permanent Low humidity > 20 °C Rammed earth Soil bags Baked clay stone Adobe Dry storage Permanent Low humidity > 20 °C Straw bale construction room No windows

Freezer room Permanent Low - 5°C to temperature - 25°C - -

Developing Permanent Restaurant 20°C to 25°C Rammed earth space (kitchen) ambient Timber construction Flexible climate All earth & crops (eating constructions area)

Rammed earth DEVELOPMENT Office space Office ambient 18°C Timber construction Temperature All earth & crops constructions

RAW NATURAL BUILDING MATERIALS 4246977 Susanne Hofer