Combating Violence and Delinquency: the National Juvenile Justice Action Plan

Home , Juvenile delinquency, Nonviolence

NT OF ME J T US U.S. Department of Justice R T A I P C E E D

S Office of Justice Programs F F M I A C R E G O O F PR Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention JUSTICE

Combating Violence and Delinquency: The National Juvenile Justice Action Plan

Report

Coordinating Council on Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Coordinating Council on Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Members

Practitioner Members U.S. Department of Justice The Honorable Janet Reno, Chair Lisa M. Beecher Attorney General Detective Portland Police Department Office of Juvenile Justice and The Honorable James L. Burgess Delinquency Prevention Presiding Judge Shay Bilchik, Vice Chair 18th Judicial District of Kansas Administrator John Cahill Immigration and Naturalization Service Program Coordinator Doris Meissner Clark County Family and Youth Services Department Commissioner John A. (Jack) Calhoun Executive Director U.S. Department of Health and Human National Crime Prevention Council Services The Honorable Donna E. Shalala, Ph.D. Nancy G. Guerra, Ed.D. Secretary Associate Professor of Psychology University of Illinois at Chicago U.S. Department of Labor The Honorable Robert B. Reich Michael J. Mahoney Secretary President John Howard Association U.S. Department of Education The Honorable Gordon A. Martin, Jr. The Honorable Richard W. Riley Associate Justice Secretary Massachusetts Trial Court Roxbury District Court U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development Mary Ann Murphy The Honorable Henry G. Cisneros Manager Secretary Regional Center for Child Abuse and Neglect Deaconess Medical Center Office of National Drug Control Policy Rose W. Washington Lee P. Brown, Ph.D. Executive Director Director Berkshire Farms Center Corporation for National Service Eli J. Segal Chief Executive Officer

The Coordinating Council on Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention was established in 1974 as an independent organization in the executive branch of the Federal Government. The primary function of the Council is to make recommendations to the President and the Congress on coordination of overall policy and development of objectives and priorities for all Federal juvenile delinquency programs and activities. Members of the Coordinating Council are listed above. The nine practitioner members in the field of juvenile justice are appointed, without regard to political affiliation, by the Speaker of the House of Representatives, the Majority Leader of the Senate, and the President of the United States.

i Combating Violence and Delinquency: The National Juvenile Justice Action Plan

Report

Coordinating Council on Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention

March 1996

i ii Foreword

Every day, crime shatters the peace in our Nation’s neighborhoods. Violent crime and the fear it engenders cripple our society, threaten personal freedom, and fray the ties that are essential for healthy communities. No corner of America is safe from increasing levels of criminal violence, including violence committed by and against juveniles. Parents are afraid to let their children walk to school alone. Children hesitate to play in neighborhood playgrounds. The elderly lock themselves in their homes, and innocent Americans of all ages find their lives changed by the fear of crime.

The Coordinating Council on Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention’s National Juvenile Justice Action Plan (Action Plan) presents innovative and effective strategies designed to reduce violence and victimization. Through these efforts, communities and citizens are working to bring about positive change. They are establishing neighborhood watches and citizen patrols and working with law enforcement and other agencies to close down drug houses. They are cleaning up playgrounds and parks and creating drug- and weapon-free school zones. They are forming community planning teams to identify risk factors for delinquency, assess resources and needs, and provide programs designed to prevent juvenile involvement in delinquency and crime. They are creating opportunities for youth to take part in community-building activities. In concert with community oriented policing and strict accountability for offenders, these local prevention efforts are our Nation’s most effective long-term weapons against crime and violence.

Although the public is deeply concerned about juvenile violence and victimization, many Americans do not know how they can help. Because the effects of juvenile violence are felt by entire communities, the search for solutions must be a communitywide effort, and every citizen needs to be involved.

The Action Plan describes how communities can generate solutions and how individuals and groups can prevent or reduce violence in their own block, public housing unit, or neighborhood. Cooperative partnerships among justice, health, child welfare, education, and social service systems can lay the foundation for measurable successes. Working together, individuals, groups, and communities can make real and sustained changes. The Action Plan also provides important information about Federal training, technical assistance, grants, research, evaluation, and other resources that support these efforts.

The Coordinating Council recognizes that much work needs to be done. However, by continuing to build partnerships throughout our government and communities, we can promote early intervention and prevention of youth violence. The solutions are within reach. The power to change America is within ourselves. Together, we can redeem the promise that every young life holds.

Attorney General Janet Reno Chair Coordinating Council on Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention

iii iv Acknowledgments

The problem of violent crime committed by and against juveniles is a national crisis. The work of the Coordinating Council on Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention in developing the Action Plan represents an extraordinary accomplishment. The Action Plan frames the fight against juvenile violence through eight objectives that can be supported by activity at the Federal, State, local, community, and individual levels—and bases its recommended actions on research and program evaluations that give us reason to believe that we can be successful. The Action Plan also provides an annotated bibliography and technical assistance resources that can assist in ensuring that success.

While all of the members of the Coordinating Council participated in the development of the Action Plan, a Coordinating Council Working Group that includes the practitioner members and staff from both the member and other participating Federal agencies helped make this a document truly reflective of the needs of the field. The individuals and groups, listed in Appendix B, spent countless hours reviewing, refining, and finalizing the Action Plan. I thank them for their significant contribution. Special thanks are due to the Department of Justice’s youth violence working group and to the bureaus of the Office of Justice Programs.

There are several members of the staff of the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP) without whom this Action Plan could not have been produced. Gina E. Wood, Director of Concentration of Federal Efforts, guided this project with patience and vision to its conclusion. OJJDP Deputy Administrator John J. Wilson helped refine the document into its present clear statement. Sarah Ingersoll, Special Assistant to the OJJDP Administrator, served as the Action Plan’s primary author. OJJDP’s Juvenile Justice Resource Center provided invaluable support in developing the Action Plan.

The Action Plan was designed to provide a framework and strategy for action to address the problem of juvenile violence facing communities, their youth, and the juvenile justice system. I believe it has accomplished this goal. I look forward to implementing the action steps and seeing the emergence of a stronger juvenile justice system and a safer America.

Shay Bilchik Vice Chair Coordinating Council on Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention

v vi Table of Contents

Foreword ...... iii

Acknowledgments ...... v

List of Figures ...... ix

Introduction ...... 1

Objectives

1. Provide Immediate Intervention and Appropriate Sanctions and Treatment for Delinquent Juveniles ...... 5

2. Prosecute Certain Serious, Violent, and Chronic Juvenile Offenders in Criminal Court ...... 19

3. Reduce Youth Involvement With Guns, Drugs, and Gangs ...... 33

4. Provide Opportunities for Children and Youth ...... 51

5. Break the Cycle of Violence by Addressing Youth Victimization, Abuse, and Neglect...... 65

6. Strengthen and Mobilize Communities ...... 77

7. Support the Development of Innovative Approaches to Research and Evaluation ...... 85

8. Implement an Aggressive Public Outreach Campaign on Effective Strategies To Combat Juvenile Violence ...... 99

Conclusion ...... 105

Appendix A. Coordinating Council on Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention ...... A–1

Appendix B. Working Group Participants ...... B–1

Appendix C. Matrix of Technical Assistance Resources ...... C–1

Appendix D. Reports of Selected Commissions and Task Forces ...... D–1

Appendix E. Program Catalogs and Directories ...... E–1

Appendix F. Annotated Bibliography...... F–1

vii viii List of Figures

Figure 1. Juvenile population and arrest rates ...... 1

Figure 2. Juvenile arrest offenses in 1992 ...... 6

Figure 3. Risk factors for health and behavior problems ...... 8

Figure 4. The balanced and restorative justice model ...... 9

Figure 5. Violent crime arrest rates in 1983 and 1992 ...... 19

Figure 6. Delinquency dispositions in 1992 ...... 20

Figure 7. Juvenile arrest rates for specific violent crimes ...... 21

Figure 8. State transfer provisions ...... 23

Figure 9. Juvenile gun homicides ...... 34

Figure 10. State juvenile handgun prohibitions ...... 40

Figure 11. Violent crime occurrence times ...... 52

Figure 12. Public health model for prevention ...... 53

Figure 13. Influence of parents and peers on delinquency ...... 54

Figure 14. Social development strategy...... 55

Figure 15. Violent crime victimization rates ...... 65

Figure 16. Types of child maltreatment ...... 66

Figure 17. Alleged child maltreatment reports...... 67

Figure 18. Child abuse and neglect pyramid ...... 68

Figure 19. Juvenile victims of violent crime ...... 68

Figure 20. Influence of neglect and abuse on violent acts ...... 69

Figure 21. Influences on strong youth and strong communities ...... 77

ix Introduction

An Urgent Call In partnership with State and and innovative programs and Federal agencies, communities are services in the juvenile justice to Action beginning to mobilize to combat system. In the 1990’s, pervasive problems juvenile delinquency through pre- with juvenile violence threaten the vention, early intervention, and In support of these efforts, the safety and security of communities community-building strategies Coordinating Council on Juvenile across the country, and projections that address local needs. They are Justice and Delinquency Preven- for the future are cause for nation- reducing serious and violent juve- tion offers The National Juvenile wide alarm. Demographic experts nile delinquency by using multi- Justice Action Plan. This plan for predict that juvenile arrests for vio- agency, coordinated approaches local, State, and Federal action is lent crimes will more than double by the year 2010,1 given population growth projections and trends in Figure 1: Juvenile population and arrest rates juvenile arrests over the past decade. (See figure 1.) It is clear that our children—and the juvenile justice system—need immediate help. Juvenile population growth foreshadows increases in violent crimes by juveniles There is, however, reason for hope. Projections and trends are not des- tiny. We can successfully intervene POPULATION VIOLENT CRIME 10–17 IN 1,000s INDEX ARRESTS to reverse these trends based on 40 million 400,000 identified positive and negative characteristics—protective and risk factors—that are present or 30 million Actual Projected 300,000 lacking in communities, families, schools, peer groups, and individu- Increasing arrest rates als. These factors either equip a 20 million 200,000 child with the capacity to become a healthy, productive individual or 10 million Constant 100,000 expose that child to potential in- arrest rates volvement in crime and violence. Of equal importance, communities are learning that they can make 0 0 1980 1990 2000 2010 dramatic changes in delinquency levels by taking steps that successfully reduce the risk factors and Data Source: Analysis based on UCR arrest data and Census Bureau population strengthen the protective factors in estimates and projections. children’s lives. Source: Snyder, H., M. Sickmund, and E. Poe-Yamagata. 1996 (February). Juvenile Offenders and Victims: 1996 Update on Violence. Washington, D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, U.S. Department of Justice.

1 an eight-point statement of objec- The annotated bibliography (Ap- Objectives of The tives and strategies that are de- pendix F) lists a range of publica- signed to strengthen State and local tions that address juvenile violence. National Juvenile initiatives to reduce juvenile vio- The Comprehensive Strategy for Seri- Justice Action Plan lence and to increase the capacity ous, Violent, and Chronic Juvenile The Action Plan is a blueprint for of the juvenile justice system to re- Offenders2 and its companion piece, community action designed to ad- spond to, and prevent, delinquency. the Guide for Implementing the Com- dress and reduce the impact of prehensive Strategy for Serious, Vio- juvenile violence and delinquency. lent, and Chronic Juvenile Offenders,3 A Cooperative It is founded on the premise that no published in 1995 by the Office of Effort single individual, organization, Juvenile Justice and Delinquency or agency can address the causes To combat juvenile violence, all Prevention (OJJDP), are valuable of juvenile violence in isolation. citizens must recognize that they resources for community planning Working together, however, State can make a difference in their com- and action. The Action Plan supports and local leaders, representatives munities, both through individual implementation of the Comprehen- of public and private groups, and action and by joining with others in sive Strategy and the Guide’s frame- individual community members— comprehensive, collaborative initia- work for establishing a continuum including youth—can base their tives. While the Action Plan recog- of programs and services designed actions on what works and direct nizes the critical Federal role of to reverse the increasing trends of their energies to meeting the providing support and a national juvenile violence and delinquency. perspective, State, local, and indi- eight Action Plan objectives. The vidual commitment is the key in- To support implementation of State, following objectives, all of equal gredient if community efforts are local, and community activities, the importance, can be achieved by to succeed. All individuals can Action Plan provides: communities that address public play crucial roles in protecting safety concerns while making and nurturing children in their • A statement of resources that a commitment to services for communities. Federal member agencies of the children: Coordinating Council will com- Efforts to reduce juvenile violence mit to the eight priority objec- Objective 1. Provide immedi- can be as basic as parents setting tives, including training and ate intervention and appropri- clear expectations and standards technical assistance, financial ate sanctions and treatment for children’s behavior or as far- assistance, research, legislation, for delinquent juveniles. evaluation, and information dis- reaching as a local government Objective 2. Prosecute cer- semination. forming an anti-violence task force tain serious, violent, and or implementing community ori- • A summary of research that chronic juvenile offenders in ented policing. Another effective criminal court.4 strategy involves setting up local supports the plan’s objectives, which State and local communi- resource centers that offer positive Objective 3. Reduce youth ties can use to guide their policy, educational, social, and cultural involvement with guns, planning, and communication activities to provide youth with al- drugs, and gangs. ternatives to crime. Many national activities. organizations are committed to Objective 4. Provide oppor- • Model program examples that supporting the implementation tunities for children and can be adapted to meet local of community-based initiatives to youth. needs. reduce juvenile violence and can Objective 5. Break the cycle provide information about local • A list of technical assistance of violence by addressing projects across the country. (Na- providers, with addresses and youth victimization, abuse, tional organizations that provide phone numbers, and an anno- and neglect. technical assistance are listed in tated bibliography. Appendix C.)

2 Objective 6. Strengthen and lives and productivity will be an Washington, D.C.: Office of Juvenile mobilize communities. onerous and tragic burden to future Justice and Delinquency Preven- generations. tion, U.S. Department of Justice. Objective 7. Support the development of innovative In taking action, States and 3. Howell, J.C., ed. 1995 (May). approaches to research and localities have a variety of choices Guide for Implementing the Compre- evaluation. that are both critical and difficult. hensive Strategy for Serious, Violent, Funds must be allocated for juve- and Chronic Juvenile Offenders. Wash- Objective 8. Implement an nile justice program options, rang- ington, D.C.: Office of Juvenile Jus- aggressive public outreach ing from secure facilities to day tice and Delinquency Prevention, campaign on effective strate- treatment, probation placements, U.S. Department of Justice. gies to combat juvenile and improvements in research and

violence. data collection and dissemination of 4. The classification of juveniles information about juvenile violence as serious, violent, and chronic These objectives are supported issues. Also, funding must be made offenders is an important legal by research underscoring their im- available for a broad spectrum of distinction. In some jurisdictions, portance for strengthening the juve- effective youth development and identification of a juvenile as nile justice system and addressing delinquency prevention programs, a serious, violent, and chronic the crisis of youth violence. Each including afterschool programs, offender determines how the juve- section of the Action Plan addresses childcare for low-income working nile is processed in the system— one of these objectives and includes families, community policing for example, whether a juvenile a set of actions based on research, efforts, summer recreation and job is subject to established min- evaluated programs, and successful opportunities for low-income imum periods of secure confine- strategies. youth, and Head Start. ment or subject to criminal court jurisdiction. Additionally, the A Safer Tomorrow In addition to funding programs, consequences of being placed in Through Action there are many actions that States one of these categories are critical Today and local communities can take that to the allocation of scarce treatment build on their commitment to the resources. Generally, such determi- The sobering projections about safety, health, development, and nations are made at the State and the future of juvenile violence well-being of children. By starting local levels. underscore the need for strong, new initiatives, implementing the immediate, well-planned, and objectives, accessing the resources, Definitions used in different decisive action to intervene early and engaging in the activities of the research and statistics-gathering with efforts to prevent younger Action Plan, leaders at the Federal, efforts often vary. OJJDP has devel- children from following in the self- State, and local levels working oped the following definitions destructive footsteps of many of together can make a difference. of serious, violent, and chronic their older brothers and sisters. At juvenile offenders for purposes the same time, it is imperative that Endnotes of general guidance. we effectively respond to that small 1. Snyder, H., M. Sickmund, and • Juvenile refers to a person under percentage of juvenile offenders E. Poe-Yamagata. 1996 (February). the age established by a State to who repeatedly victimize the com- Juvenile Offenders and Victims: 1996 determine when an individual is munity and who account for the Update on Violence. Washington, no longer subject to original ju- vast majority of serious and violent D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice and venile court jurisdiction for (any) delinquent acts. We must take im- Delinquency Prevention, U.S. criminal misconduct. While this mediate steps to improve the capac- Department of Justice. upper age is 17 in a majority of ity of the juvenile justice system to jurisdictions, it ranges from 15 to respond to juvenile offenders. If we 2. Wilson, J.J., and J.C. Howell. 17 years of age. fail to respond to their needs, the 1993. Comprehensive Strategy for potential costs to society in human Serious, Violent, and Chronic Juvenile Offenders. Program Summary.

3 • Serious juvenile offenders are • Violent juvenile offenders are • Chronic juvenile offenders are those adjudicated delinquent for those serious juvenile offenders juveniles adjudicated delinquent committing any felony offense, adjudicated delinquent for one of for committing three or more including larceny or theft, bur- the following felony offenses— delinquent offenses. glary or breaking and entering, homicide, rape or other felony extortion, arson, and drug traf- sex offense, mayhem, kidnaping, These definitions include juveniles ficking or other controlled dan- robbery, or aggravated assault. convicted in criminal court for gerous substance violation. particular offense types.

4 1. Provide Immediate Intervention and Appropriate Sanctions and Treatment for Delinquent Juveniles

Overview Most arrested juveniles, whether The juvenile justice system must be male or female, have not committed equipped to address the full range The increased volume and chang- serious or violent crimes, but rather of juvenile problem behaviors. Often ing composition of juvenile delin- property crimes or status offenses. the presenting offense is merely the quency caseloads have overloaded Even violent juvenile offenders “tip of the iceberg,” and good case the juvenile justice system. Slightly rarely commit crimes exclusively management and needs assessments more than half of the juveniles in against persons. They are likely to can help to identify and address in- detention and 62 percent of juve- also engage in significant property dividual service needs. niles in long-term placements in the or drug-related crimes. United States in 1989 were housed However, the juvenile justice system in facilities where juvenile popula- As figure 2 indicates, juveniles are is often so overwhelmed that juve- tions exceeded design capacities.1 responsible for a far greater share nile offenders receive no meaningful of all property crime arrests (33 interventions or consequences, even To accurately assess the juvenile percent) than either violent crime for relatively serious offenses. This justice system and its role in delin- arrests (18 percent) or drug arrests neglect serves neither rehabilitation quency prevention, it is imperative (8 percent).3 In 1992, the highest nor accountability goals, and young to take into account the nature and percentage of juvenile arrests, com- people need to know that if they volume of cases coming before the pared to adults, was for arson (49 break the law, they will be held ac- juvenile court. In 1992, an estimated percent), vandalism (45 percent), countable. Clearly, a revitalized 1 million juveniles in the United and motor vehicle theft (44 per- juvenile justice system that ensures States were charged with approxi- cent). The juvenile property crime immediate and appropriate account- mately 1.5 million delinquent acts, a arrest rate in 1992 was five times ability and sanctions is a key to re- 26-percent increase from the vol- greater than the juvenile violent versing trends in juvenile violence. ume of cases reported in 1987. In crime arrest rate.4 addition, a disproportionate in- This section of the Action Plan crease occurred in violent offenses In addition to handling increased discusses the causes of increased (56 percent) and in weapons of- delinquency cases, juvenile courts juvenile violence and delinquency fenses (86 percent) among young have jurisdiction over status of- and sets forth the “balanced and people.2 fenses—acts that would not be con- restorative justice” model as a sidered crimes if committed by an philosophical underpinning for the Statistics also indicate that violent adult. Compared to delinquency juvenile justice system’s handling juvenile female offending is rising cases, the number of status offense of juvenile offenders. The keys to and that the increase is greater pro- cases is modest. In 1992, an esti- this model are individual assess- portionately than that of males. Be- mated 97,000 status offense cases ment and case management, a sys- tween 1988 and 1992, the number were formally adjudicated, an in- tem of graduated sanctions, and an of females under age 18 arrested for crease of 18 percent from 1988, emphasis on aftercare services. This all violent crimes increased 63 per- with the largest increases in run- section also supports the rights of cent, whereas the number of males away (31 percent) and truancy victims, including the right to re- under age 18 arrested for violent (21 percent) cases. ceive information about juvenile crimes increased 45 percent. offenders. It also provides examples

5 of programs that support the bal- Figure 2: Juvenile arrest offenses in 1992 anced and restorative justice model, and a summary of issues surrounding disproportionate minority confinement and gender-specific Juveniles accounted for a much larger proportion of all property crime services. arrests (33%) than violent crime (18%) or drug arrests (8%) in 1992 Current Status and Analysis of the Problem A separate juvenile justice system, which originated in the United States in 1899 and quickly spread to all the States and Territories, has not been able to respond effectively to the increases in juvenile violence this society currently faces. In fair- ness, however, it has never been given sufficient resources to operate effectively to meet this challenge.

At the turn of the century, the juvenile justice system operated in a world very different from the one we live in today. Then, more Americans lived in rural areas and small communities, juvenile offenses were generally less severe, and victims would be more likely to know the consequences for individuals who had harmed them. Today, the juvenile justice system is unable to devote sufficient resources to dealing with status offenders and minor delinquency because of the growing number of serious and violent juvenile offenders. These offenders require a greatly enhanced response, and ■ More than one-fourth of all persons arrested in 1992 for robbery were below age 18, well above the juvenile proportion of arrests for murder greater coordination among the (15%), aggravated assault (15%), and forcible rape (16%). system’s components. Use of the balanced and restorative justice ■ Juveniles were involved in 1% of all arrests for driving under the influence and prostitution, but more than 40% of all arrests for arson, vandal- model of accountability, multidisci- ism, and motor vehicle theft. plinary assessment teams, and a system of graduated sanctions can Note: Running away and curfew violations are not presented in this figure because, by definition, only juveniles can be arrested for these offenses. help to provide the response and coordination that are required to Data Source: FBI. 1994. Crime in the United States 1993; Uniform Crime Reports. effectively address juvenile violence Source: Snyder, H., and M. Sickmund. 1995 (August). Juvenile Offenders and and delinquency. Victims: A National Report. Washington, D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, U.S. Department of Justice.

6 Causes of step toward developing effective protective factors to successfully ad- programs to prevent or control dress serious, violent, and chronic Delinquency delinquent behavior. delinquency. The establishment of What causes juvenile delinquency? such a system can be guided by the Before formulating proposed rem- The second step requires identify- conceptual framework of balanced edies to a juvenile justice system in ing programs that help youth, and restorative justice. need of support, the causes and cor- families, and communities protect relates of juvenile delinquency need themselves from these risks. (See The balanced and restorative justice to be examined to ensure that those Objective 4 for a discussion of pro- approach to juvenile justice consists factors are targeted. tective factors.) Recent research of three related objectives: commu- sheds considerable light on the is- nity protection, accountability, and There is no single cause of delin- sue of “what works” in the preven- competency development. (See fig- quency and violence. Delinquents, tion and control of delinquency.6 ure 4 for a graphic depiction of the especially chronic delinquents, Based on thorough analyses of the balanced and restorative justice exhibit a variety of social and research literature and programs model.) psychological deficits in their identified in a nationwide search, backgrounds. These deficits, often the Office of Juvenile Justice and Accountability refers to the require- referred to as risk factors, stem Delinquency Prevention’s (OJJDP’s) ment that juvenile offenders receive from breakdowns in five influential Guide for Implementing the Compre- sanctions for their offenses and that domains in juveniles’ lives: neigh- hensive Strategy for Serious, Violent, they make amends to the victim and borhood, family, school, peers, and and Chronic Juvenile Offenders the community for harm caused. individual characteristics.5 (Guide), provides examples of Competency development suggests effective prevention programs that youth who enter the juvenile Risk factors, such as community and concludes: justice system should exit more disorganization, availability of capable of being productive, respon- drugs and firearms, and persistent The most effective programs sible citizens. Community protection poverty, make children more prone are those that address key requires that the juvenile justice to involvement in delinquent be- areas of risk in the youth’s system ensure public safety. havior than if those factors were life, those that seek to not present. Additionally, when a strengthen the personal and Operating in the “best interest of child’s family life is filled with vio- institutional factors that con- the child,” the American juvenile lence, problem behaviors, poor pa- tribute to healthy adolescent justice system has traditionally fo- rental monitoring, and inconsistent development, those that pro- cused on the individual juvenile disciplinary practices or maltreat- vide adequate support and offender’s extenuating circum- ment, a child’s risk of delinquency supervision, and those that stances and treatment needs. Delin- increases. Although a variety of offer youth a long-term stake quency case reviews are generally other risk factors exists, research in the community.7 conducted behind closed doors to shows those listed in figure 3 to be safeguard the confidentiality of linked to delinquency and violence. Effective and children, distancing or excluding Youth exhibiting combinations of Promising victims from the proceedings. In these deficits in multiple domains contrast to the adversarial criminal of their lives are at highest risk of Strategies and court, the juvenile court has not re- delinquency. Programs lied as much on victims’ impact statements in sentencing. Further, In sum, delinquency and violence Balanced and it has often been assumed that vic- have multiple causes, which often Restorative Justice tims would prefer not to meet their occur simultaneously, exacerbating A strong juvenile justice system offenders face to face. one another and making them more must build upon the research and difficult to ameliorate. Identifying evaluations of promising and ef- In recent years, the juvenile justice those factors most prevalent in a fective programs, and must work system has embraced community community is the essential first to reduce risk factors and enhance service and restitution programs,

7 Figure 3: Risk factors for health and behavior problems

Adolescent Problem Behaviors

Risk Factors Substance Abuse Delinquency Pregnancy Teenage School Dropout Violence Community Availability of Drugs ✔ Availability of Firearms ✔✔ Community Laws and Norms Favorable Toward Drug Use, ✔✔ ✔ Firearms, and Crime Media Portrayals of Violence ✔ Transitions and Mobility ✔✔ ✔ Low Neighborhood Attachment and Community Organization ✔✔ ✔ Extreme Economic Deprivation ✔✔✔✔✔ Family Family History of the Problem Behavior ✔✔✔✔ Family Management Problems ✔✔✔✔✔ Family Conflict ✔✔✔✔✔ Favorable Parental Attitudes and Involvement in the Problem Behavior ✔✔ ✔ School Early and Persistent Antisocial Behavior ✔✔✔✔✔ Academic Failure Beginning in Elementary School ✔✔✔✔✔ Lack of Commitment to School ✔✔✔✔ Individual/Peer Rebelliousness ✔✔ ✔ Friends Who Engage in the Problem Behavior ✔✔✔✔✔ Favorable Attitudes Toward the Problem Behavior ✔✔✔✔ Early Initiation of the Problem Behavior ✔✔✔✔✔ Constitutional Factors ✔✔ ✔

Data Source: Hawkins, J.D., and R.F. Catalano. 1995. Risk-Focused Prevention: Using the Social Development Strategy. Seattle: Developmental Research and Programs, Inc. Source: Howell, J.C., ed. 1995 (May). Guide for Implementing the Comprehensive Strategy for Serious, Violent, and Chronic Juvenile Offenders. Washington, D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, U.S. Department of Justice.

8 which emphasize the need to hold principles. Victim and offender, sur- Responding to juveniles accountable for their ac- rounded by their extended family Victims’ Concerns tions through repayment of their members, confront each other to As a civilized society, we need to debts to society and their victims. resolve conflict in an environment feel safe in the company of people The balanced and restorative that is emotionally and physically who walk our streets and attend justice approach calls for active safe. This holistic approach pro- our schools. Even if we improve the participation by the juvenile justice motes problemsolving in a non- juvenile justice system so that it system, the juvenile offender, and adversarial environment and is capable of providing treatment, community organizations. addresses the healing needs of skills training, and rehabilitation, the victim, the offender, and their mechanisms must be in place to Many Native American and Alaska families. provide information about juvenile Native communities rely on dual offenders and support the rights of systems of justice, one based on a Although forcing victims to meet victims. Simultaneously, however, common law model of justice and with juvenile offenders is inappro- we need to ensure that reasonable another based on indigenous con- priate, many victims agree to par- confidentiality protections are cepts of law and justice. In handling ticipate in mediation programs. The afforded to juvenile offenders. juvenile offenders, these indigenous mediation process personalizes the justice systems have common in- crime and forces offenders to face The Action Plan endorses the herent features based on restorative, the harm they have caused. presence of victims in the court- reparative, and distributive justice room, particularly in felony cases. Victims of juvenile offenders should be given the opportunity to address the court and be notified of the dis- Figure 4: The balanced and restorative justice model position, parole status, and release of perpetrators. It also supports programs that help young offenders understand the long-term effects of their behavior and learn how to ATIVE JU control anger and resolve conflicts OR S without violence. It is in agreement Community ProtectionT T I with a number of the recommenda- S C tions of the American Correctional E E Association’s Victims Committee R relating to juvenile offenders and will support Federal activity that assists in their implementation.8 These recommendations include:

• The rights of victims of juvenile Competency Development offenders should be recognized, including notification; restitu- Accountability tion; return of property; victim impact statements; protection from intimidation, harassment, and harm; and information and referral services. Source: Bazemore, G., and M.S. Umbreit. 1994 (October). Balanced and Restor- ative Justice. Washington, D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency • Victims must have access to in- Prevention, U.S. Department of Justice. formation about their offenders’ status.

9 • Any treatment and/or education rehabilitating offenders and involv- assessments to appropriately place programs for juvenile offenders ing victims in the juvenile justice juvenile offenders.11 The placement must include a victim awareness system. As part of the recovery pro- is determined by clearly designed, component. cess, victims tell offenders about the objective criteria that focus on the impact of crime on their own lives, seriousness of the delinquent act, • Juvenile justice, victim service, their families, and the communities the potential risk for reoffending and allied professionals should in which they live. This approach based on the presence of risk fac- collaborate on efforts to incorpo- has been adopted by a number of tors, and the risk to public safety. rate the balanced approach of corrections, probation, and parole Objective risk classification can restorative justice in their agency agencies for use with both adult and also be useful in addressing bias and system philosophies, poli- juvenile offenders. in placement decisionmaking, cies, programs, and services. thereby reducing disproportionate Risk Classification, incarceration rates for minority • Juvenile justice personnel— Needs Assessment, and populations. including administrators, man- Case Management agers, and line staff—need Risk classification and needs Needs assessments help to ensure victim sensitivity training and assessment. Risk classification and selection of the most appropriate must adopt protocols, programs, needs assessment are central to an program within the determined and policies to respond to effective juvenile justice system and security level. The needs assess- victimization incidents. critical to ensuring the three goals of ment may identify chronic or multiple needs that warrant placement • Crime data and statistics must the balanced and restorative justice in specialized programs (for ex- be categorized and analyzed model. A National Council on ample, programs for sex offenders according to the age of the of- Crime and Delinquency study of 14 or violent offenders, or a rigorous fender, the classification of the States found that an average of 31 wilderness program). Needs assess- crime, and the type of victim. percent of incarcerated juveniles could be safely placed in less secure ments can also be used in case • Existing victim service and community-based settings.9 This planning to identify appropriate awareness programs within finding should have a significant youth service needs. the juvenile justice system must impact on how States approach Case management and assessment be evaluated, with the data uti- the problem of facility overcrowd- teams. An effective case manage- lized to enhance, expand, and ing. Because estimates of the annual ment system is also crucial to a replicate effective programs cost of incarcerating a youth fall be- strong juvenile justice system. Con- nationwide. tween $34,000 and $64,000,10 reduc- tinuous case management results ing unnecessary training school in greater service coordination and • Victim services personnel need placements would reduce over- accountability. The case manager training in the juvenile justice crowding and produce considerable follows each youth from the point system, and juvenile justice savings that could be used to de- of intake through initial needs as- practitioners need victim velop and implement effective sessment, probation, incarceration, services training. graduated sanctions programs and aftercare to monitor progress designed to address the needs of Texas has provided victim access to and adjust the treatment plan each juvenile requiring intervention juvenile court hearings. Specifically, appropriately. Whenever possible, services. the court may not prohibit a victim it is best for the youth to be in from attending a hearing unless the Communities developing a gradu- community-based programs, victim is to testify in the hearing ated sanctions system need tools allowing caseworkers to develop and the court determines that the to determine which and how community support networks and victim’s testimony would be mate- many youth should be placed to involve the family. rially affected if the victim hears at each security level and in an The assessment team approach is other testimony at trial. appropriate program in the con- an innovative method for integrat- tinuum of services. An effective The California Youth Authority’s ing the risk classification and needs juvenile justice system uses risk Impact of Crime on Victims classes assessment process of the juvenile classification instruments and needs provide a model approach to both

10 justice system, the goal of appro- Participants also believed the pro- Violent, and Chronic Juvenile priate treatment, and the need to gram had reduced fear of crime in Offenders includes the following maximize the use of scarce system target neighborhoods.12 components: resources. The assessment team can serve as a central information or If implemented properly, the assess- • Immediate intervention for data gathering point within a juris- ment team concept has the potential first-time delinquent offenders diction for all agencies with juvenile to facilitate the delivery of the right (misdemeanors and nonviolent service responsibility. “front end” services to the right ju- felonies) and many nonviolent veniles in a timely manner. If team repeat offenders. Effective rehabilitation requires approaches are institutionalized maximum use of a broad range of and centrally located in assessment • Intermediate sanctions for many community resources, including centers that either provide compre- first-time serious and repeat health and mental health care, social hensive services or make referrals offenders and some violent services, recreation, education, and to community services, the juvenile offenders. employment and training services. justice system would have an im- • Secure corrections for many Each member of an assessment portant tool to achieve the goal of serious, violent, and chronic team should be knowledgeable effective and coordinated service offenders. about individual differences that delivery. can stem from race, gender, culture, Graduated Sanctions Immediate intervention. First-time and ethnicity. Central to the assess- delinquent offenders (charged with ment team approach is its ability to For interventions to be maximally misdemeanors and nonviolent felo- refer each juvenile, even the most effective, they should be swift, cer- nies) and many nonviolent repeat serious offender, to programs and tain, and consistent. An effective offenders should be placed in pro- services that address identified system of graduated sanctions must grams designed to reduce the needs and integrate the family into also incorporate increasingly severe probability of their committing the treatment plan. This approach is sanctions when a juvenile fails to more serious or violent offenses. designed to prevent a youth’s fur- respond to initial interventions. As Nonresidential community-based ther involvement in the system by the severity of sanctions increases, programs, including prevention inducing law-abiding behavior as so must the intensity of treatment. programs serving at-risk youth, early as possible through a combina- At each level, offenders must be may be appropriate for many of tion of appropriate intervention and aware that continued violations of these offenders. These programs are treatments. the law will subject them to more small and open, located in or near severe sanctions and may ulti- juveniles’ homes, and involve par- Family Assessment Service Teams mately result in secure confinement, ticipants in program planning, op- (FAST), a part of the Norfolk (VA) ranging from a community-based eration, and evaluation. They also Police Assisted Community Enforce- intensive treatment facility to a foster family participation in treatment effort, use an interagency ap- training school, camp, or ranch. ment and facilitate the establish- proach to coordinate resources and ment of law-abiding patterns of improve the effectiveness of juvenile Effective and fair graduated sanc- behavior. services, such as early intervention tions that hold juvenile offenders and prevention and family counsel- accountable can discourage them Intermediate sanctions. Offenders ing and followup. from continued involvement in de- for whom immediate intervention linquency and crime. In addition, is inappropriate (first-time serious Statistics show that crime has an OJJDP-funded study of existing or violent offenders) or offenders dropped markedly in neighborhoods graduated sanctions systems found who reoffend despite immediate targeted by the FAST program. that they appear to be more effec- intervention (for example, repeat According to one 1993 report, crime tive and less costly than juvenile property offenders or drug-involved decreased by 29 percent in the target 13 incarceration. The Guide includes juveniles) are appropriate subjects areas, police reported fewer service descriptions of promising and for intermediate sanctions. These calls, and there was a significant drop proven programs at each graduated sanctions may be residential or non- in street drug trafficking and gunfire. sanctions level. The graduated residential. For many serious and sanctions system set out in the violent offenders, placement in an Comprehensive Strategy for Serious,

11 intensive supervision or other in- and study skills. Group-focused Since closing its traditional training tensive service program may be services include group counseling, schools in 1972, Massachusetts has appropriate. life and job skills training, cultural relied on a sophisticated network enrichment, and physical education. of small, secure programs for violent In a South Carolina study of 39,250 Family-focused services include youth coupled with a broad range males born between 1964 and 1971 counseling, home visits, parent of highly structured, community- who had official delinquency counseling, and intervention. based programs for most committed records, researchers identified of- youth. Secure facilities are reserved fenders who had been incarcerated The program provides delinquent for the most serious offenders. A or placed on probation as adults. and dependent youth, ages 10 to 17, study of the State’s community- They found that those who had with as many as 55 hours of services based juvenile system revealed re- been institutionalized as juveniles a week without removing them from cidivism rates equal to or lower were substantially more likely to their homes. A unique program fea- than those of other jurisdictions. reoffend as adults. The authors ture requires work experience for all In addition, Massachusetts has concluded that their findings “ef- working-age clients, with 75 percent saved an estimated $11 million a fectively underscore the need to of their paychecks directed toward year by relying on community- bolster programming for early ef- payment of fines, court costs, and based sanctions.17 fective intervention in order to pre- restitution. This intensive treatment vent the recurrence of delinquent program has shown promising re- Juveniles whose presence in the behavior.”14 sults. A preliminary study revealed community would constitute a recidivism rates far lower than State threat to public safety or juveniles OJJDP’s Intensive Supervision of and national norms. who have failed to respond to Probationers (ISP) Program Model community-based corrections may is a highly structured, continuously Secure corrections. The criminal require extended correctional place- monitored, and individualized plan behavior of many serious, violent, ment in training schools, camps, that consists of five phases with and chronic juvenile offenders re- ranches, or other secure facilities decreasing levels of restrictiveness: quires the imposition of secure sanc- that are not community based. tions to hold them accountable and These facilities should be accredited • Short-term placement in to provide a structured treatment by the American Correctional Asso- community confinement. environment. Large, congregate-care ciation and offer comprehensive juvenile facilities, such as training • Day treatment. treatment programs that focus on schools, camps, and ranches, how- reversing criminal behavior patterns • Outreach and tracking. ever, have not been effective at reha- through education, health, skills de- bilitating juvenile offenders. The velopment, victim impact aware- • Routine supervision. continued use of large facilities will ness, teen parenting, and vocational remain a necessary alternative for or employment training and experi- • Discharge and followup. juveniles who require enhanced ence. In addition, some serious, vio- security to protect the public. Even The Bethesda Day Treatment Center lent, and chronic juvenile offenders so, small, community-based facilities Program in West Milton, PA, is a who have been waived or trans- providing intensive treatment serv- model day treatment program.15 ferred to and convicted in the crimi- ices and special programming in a Initiated with OJJDP formula grant nal justice system prior to the age at secure environment offer the best funds, the program is currently which they are no longer subject to hope for successful treatment of funded through county service con- the original (or extended) jurisdic- juveniles who require a structured tracts. The Center’s services include tion of the criminal justice system setting.16 These services include intensive supervision, counseling, may be appropriate candidates for individual and group counseling, and coordination of a range of serv- placement in juvenile correctional educational and training programs, ices necessary for youth to develop facilities as part of their criminal medical services, and intensive staff skills to function effectively in the court sentence, where State statute supervision. Proximity to the com- community. Client-focused services permits. munity permits direct, regular family include intake, casework, service involvement with the treatment The Florida Environmental Institute and treatment planning, individual process, independent living, and a (FEI), also known as “The Last counseling, intensive supervision, phased reentry into the community. Chance Ranch,” targets the State’s

12 most serious and violent juvenile interaction with these groups to resources in the school and the offenders. Located in a remote area and gradual community community. Probation officers also of the Florida Everglades, FEI offers adjustment. visit classrooms to talk to students both a residential phase and a and faculty members about the ju- nonresidential aftercare program. 4. Develop needed resources and venile justice system and to clarify Two-thirds of its referrals are adju- community support. the program. dicated delinquents from the crimi- 5. Monitor and ensure successful nal justice system. Yet, because of The development of excellent work- reintegration into the its strong emphasis on education, ing relationships among education, community.19 hard work, social bonding, and af- juvenile justice, law enforcement, other social agencies, and families tercare, recidivism rates of juveniles Cooperation between schools and has been one of the program’s most who have gone through the pro- the juvenile justice system. Two important accomplishments. gram are substantially less than key ingredients for implementing a School-based probation officers are rates of traditional training school system of graduated sanctions are now considered a vital element in programs: 30 percent instead of (1) strengthening cooperation and 18 the schools’ overall operation. Since 50–70 percent. communication between school implementation, the program has districts and probation depart- Intensive aftercare. Standard served from 91 to 104 students an- ments, and (2) providing schools parole practices, particularly those nually. In addition, the Pennsylva- with alternative strategies for deal- that focus on social control, have nia Commission on Crime and ing with students who exhibit be- not been effective in normalizing Delinquency has allocated more havioral problems or students high-risk juvenile parolees’ behav- than $2 million to replicate the SAP who are suspended or have been ior over the long term. If youth model in other Pennsylvania juris- expelled from school. successfully complete treatment dictions. To date, 29 Pennsylvania programs, they should not be The Allentown, PA, school district counties are implementing SAP 20 abruptly returned to the environ- developed the Student Assistance programs. ment where the misconduct oc- Program (SAP) to address the in- Disproportionate minority con- curred without appropriate creased number of dropouts, vio- finement and issues confronting supervision and transitional sup- lent incidents, behavioral problems, juvenile female offenders. An- port. Consequently, intensive after- and drug abuse problems among its other key component of graduated care programs that provide high students. SAP incorporates three sanctions is a focus on alleviating levels of social control and treat- main objectives: ment services have gained substan- disproportionate minority confine- tial support. • Educating school personnel ment and gender bias in the juve- about the duties, functions, and nile justice system. Persons of color, OJJDP has supported the develop- limitations of the juvenile justice particularly African-American and ment of an intensive aftercare system. Latino-American males, are dispro- program, currently being demon- portionately represented at every strated in four jurisdictions, that • Providing liaisons among the stage of the juvenile justice system. incorporates five principles: juvenile’s family, the probation Research shows that disproportion- department, the school district, ate minority confinement tends to 1. Prepare youth for progressive and the police department so result, in part, from a number of responsibility and freedom in that the educational interests and discrete decisions made throughout the community. needs of the student can be met. the system, from the point of arrest through intake and sentencing.21 2. Facilitate youth–community • Involving probation officers in The Juvenile Justice and Delin- interaction and involvement. the program. quency Prevention Act of 1974, as amended in 1988,22 requires 3. Work with both the offender School-based probation officers are States to make efforts to reduce the and targeted community support the key to SAP’s effectiveness. They proportion of minority juveniles systems, such as families, peers, act as student advocates and coor- detained or confined in secure schools, and employers, to facili- dinators to refer targeted students tate the youth’s constructive

13 detention or correctional facilities, away, for example, more often to increase the number of trainers jails, and lockups if such propor- become involved in prostitution or qualified to train others in assisting tion exceeds the proportion of turn to other unhealthy, exploit- victims of juvenile offenders. representation in the general ative, or abusive environments for population. Response to this over- shelter or survival. Provide Communities With representation, as well as to demo- Guidance for Implementing a Comprehensive Strategy graphic shifts, requires additional Front-end assessment through the That Reflects Delinquency or redirected resources, staff train- assessment-team approach may help to address some of the race and Prevention and Effective ing, recruitment, language and Graduated Sanctions cultural programs, and materials gender issues in the juvenile justice and documents translated into system and ensure that judgments OJJDP will widely disseminate the languages other than English for about treatment and rehabilitation Guide for Implementing the Compre- juvenile offenders, their families, respond to the individual needs of hensive Strategy for Serious, Violent, and crime victims. each youth. and Chronic Juvenile Offenders to practitioners, educators, commu- Similarly, the 1992 Amendments Federal Action nity activists, policymakers, city to the Juvenile Justice and Delin- Steps managers, governors, State attor- quency Prevention Act addressed neys general, and others to aid in the issue of gender bias, requiring Assist in the Development establishing effective prevention States to plan for an analysis of of Model State and Local programs and improving State and Programs Through Training the need, types, and delivery of local juvenile justice systems. gender-specific services. Delin- and Technical Assistance quency by female offenders has OJJDP will provide training and OJJDP will also provide communi- risen dramatically in the past technical assistance to jurisdictions ties interested in implementing a decade, accounting for 23 percent in developing a balanced and continuum-of-care model with a of juvenile arrests as of 1991. Recent restorative justice model. range of training and technical as- data indicate that because of the sistance through a series of regional relatively small number of adjudi- The Office of Justice Programs conferences, satellite video telecon- cated female juvenile offenders, (OJP), through its Office for Victims ferences, a CD–ROM package, and little attention has been focused on of Crime (OVC) and National focus groups to determine commu- their special needs.23 A comparative Institute of Justice (NIJ), will under- nity needs for building capacity study of 348 violent adolescent fe- score the importance of account- to implement the Comprehensive males and a similar number of ability for juvenile offenders by Strategy. males revealed that, although half recognizing the rights and concerns OJP will support demonstration the male offenders were admitted of victims and by emphasizing programs that provide a continuum to rehabilitation programs or alter- community service restitution of treatment services and sanctions. native programs, only 29.5 percent programs. This will include support These programs might include of female offenders received some for and strengthening of indigenous weekend detention, inpatient treat- alternative treatment.24 tribal justice systems that apply reparative and restorative justice ment for drug abuse, electronic According to data provided by 85 principles. monitoring, and community-based State corrections institutions, fe- residential facilities. Ensure That the Rights of male offenders face many special Provide Model Protocols problems, including the perpetua- Victims of Juvenile Offenders Are Recognized for Intake, Assessment, tion of a cycle of generational and Aftercare sexual abuse, teenage pregnancy, OVC will provide funding for cru- early parenthood, and emotional cial victim services and for training OJJDP will support programming dysfunction. Other research25 sup- of a broad range of professionals to develop and demonstrate meth- ports the conclusion that girls be- who work with crime victims and odologies to improve the front come self-destructive more often will develop projects to enhance end of the juvenile justice system than boys when acting out prob- victims’ rights and services. In addi- through refined assessment proto- lems. Young females who run tion, OVC will fund workshops cols and interdisciplinary case

14 management teams. The Guide Provide Research on the program implementation, monitor- provides sample forms and guid- Effectiveness of Intermediate ing, and evaluation. This informa- ance for developing a risk classifica- Sanctions tion will assist communities in tion process for making placement, In a collaborative effort, NIJ, OJJDP, effectively responding to demo- detention, probation and parole, the OJP Corrections Program Office, graphic shifts that are leading to and institutional custody decisions. and the Bureau of Justice Assistance increased confinement of Latino- The Guide also provides informa- (BJA) will provide funding to de- American and African-American tion on placement projections, client velop boot camp programs and offenders. needs assessments, continuous case research the effectiveness of high- Highlight and Address management, and management in- intensity, short-term programs, formation systems. Programming, Issues Confronting Female such as boot camps, wilderness Juvenile Offenders training, and technical assistance programs, and other intermediate will be provided to assist communi- sanctions that combine vocational OJJDP will provide training and ties in strengthening their assess- education, discipline, and life skills. technical assistance to States that ment processes and the delivery of This intra-agency research will as- have demonstrated a commitment aftercare services. sess the rationale underlying boot to addressing gender bias and lack camp programs and examine boot of gender-specific programming OJJDP will continue to support camps nationwide. within the juvenile system. the 3-year multisite implementation and evaluation of its Intensive Address and Support Efforts OJJDP will also support innovative Community-Based Juvenile After- To Reduce Disproportionate community-based programs that care Program (IAP). The overall aim Minority Confinement in provide comprehensive, gender- of IAP is to identify and help high- Secure Facilities specific prevention, intervention, treatment, and rehabilitative care. risk juvenile offenders make a As a condition of full participation OJJDP’s Program To Promote Alter- gradual transition from secure con- in the Juvenile Justice and Delin- native Programs for Juvenile Female finement into the community. This quency Prevention Act Formula Offenders will include case man- program is being implemented in Grants Program, States must gather agement and followup for at-risk Denver, CO; Las Vegas, NV; Camden and analyze data to determine and delinquent females as both a and Newark, NJ; and Norfolk, VA. whether disproportionate minority freestanding program and as a OJJDP will also continue to support confinement exists and, if so, to component of its overarching dem- aftercare training and technical as- plan, implement, and evaluate pro- onstration program, SafeFutures. sistance to these sites and to other grams designed to address the jurisdictions across the country. problem. Program planning should In addition, OJJDP will develop In addition, OJJDP will continue to be accompanied by training, educa- and disseminate a report synthesiz- support the Serious Habitual Of- tion on the issue, policy revision, ing current literature and best prac- fender Comprehensive Action Pro- and legislation. tices that address the problems of at-risk young females and juvenile gram (SHOCAP). This information OJJDP will continue to provide female offenders. The report will and case management program training and technical assistance contain information on trends and seeks to improve efficiency in han- to State and local governments, risk factors for female delinquency dling serious habitual juvenile of- community-based organizations, as they relate to behavior, family fenders by providing relevant case national organizations, and others and community experience, the information for more informed on all aspects of this statutory core amelioration of those risks, and decisionmaking by juvenile-serving requirement. agencies and organizations. The best practices for prevention, inter- SHOCAP identification and inter- OJJDP will disseminate a planning vention, and treatment models. vention process is included in manual to assist States in address- OJJDP will hold a national confer- OJJDP’s Police Operations Leading ing disproportionate minority con- ence to share information in the to Improved Children and Youth finement. This manual will include report with policymakers, research- Services (POLICY) training courses sections on data collection and ers, practitioners, judges, lawyers, provided to local law enforcement analysis, corrective action planning, and the media. representatives and interagency teams.

15 Suggestions for • Provide victim and community • Develop prevention and inter- restitution opportunities for vention strategies for juvenile State and Local youth to help enhance public sex offenders. Action safety and improve the quality of life. • Expand and provide services • Include key elected and justice to meet the physical and mental agency officials, grassroots • Work with victims’ rights organi- health needs of juvenile community leaders, crime vic- zations to ensure both juvenile delinquents. tims, and diverse groups in accountability to victims and community planning and imple- a strengthened community Endnotes mentation of a comprehensive commitment to rehabilitation. 1. Allen-Hagen, B. 1991 (January). multidisciplinary strategy to Public Juvenile Facilities: Children in address juvenile delinquency. • Develop ways to provide for the Custody 1989. OJJDP Update on involvement of crime victims in Statistics. Juvenile Justice Bulletin. • Develop local prevention policy juvenile offender programming. Washington, D.C.: Office of Juvenile boards to assess risk factors for Justice and Delinquency Preven- delinquency in the community, • Develop legislation, policies, tion, U.S. Department of Justice. review current juvenile justice and procedures to ensure that laws, and identify priorities. crime victims have rights in the 2. Snyder, H., and M. Sickmund. juvenile justice system. 1995 (August). Juvenile Offenders and • Incorporate key concepts of the Victims: A National Report. Washing- balanced and restorative justice • Develop assessment centers to ton, D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice model and indigenous justice coordinate community resources and Delinquency Prevention, U.S. models, particularly those ad- and improve services to juveniles Department of Justice. dressing youth accountability, and their families. competency development, and 3. Federal Bureau of Investigation. • Use risk classification tools based public safety. 1994. Crime in the United States, on offense severity and risk of 1993: Uniform Crime Reports. Wash- • Develop and implement a range future offending to determine ington, D.C.: U.S. Department of of graduated sanctions that com- appropriate security levels for Justice. bine accountability with treat- youth entering the system and to ment and provide increasingly estimate program facility needs. 4. Snyder and Sickmund, 1995. intensive treatment and rehabilitation services for delinquent • Establish a process for ongoing 5. Hawkins, J.D., and R.F. Catalano, juveniles. assessment of disproportionate Jr. 1992. Communities That Care: Ac- minority confinement and imple- tion for Drug Abuse Prevention. San • Develop or improve nonsecure ment strategies focused on sys- Francisco, Calif.: Jossey-Bass, Inc. and secure community-based tem improvement and program correctional facilities for juvenile development (prevention, early 6. Thornberry, T.P., D. Huizinga, offenders who must be removed intervention, treatment, and af- and R. Loeber. 1995. The prevention from their homes. tercare services). If dispropor- of serious delinquency and tionate minority confinement violence: Implications from the • Establish a comprehensive sys- exists, actively seek technical and program of research on the causes tem of youth service agencies to evaluation assistance to identify and correlates of delinquency. In reduce fragmentation in service the causes and implement correc- J.C. Howell et al., eds., Sourcebook on delivery and to provide a full tive action. Serious, Violent, and Chronic Juvenile continuum of service options. Offenders. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: The work of justice personnel • Address the issues of gender bias Sage Publications. must be coordinated with that of and lack of gender-specific pro- community members and other gramming within the juvenile Hawkins and Catalano, 1992. youth-serving agencies to maxi- system and actively participate in mize the timely identification of Federal training and technical delinquents and to identify the assistance programs. earliest point of intervention.

16 Howell, J.C., ed. 1995 (May). Guide 13. Wilson, J.J., and J.C. Howell. 21. Roscoe, M., and R. Morton. for Implementing the Comprehensive 1993. Comprehensive Strategy for 1994 (April). Disproportionate Minor- Strategy for Serious, Violent, and Serious, Violent, and Chronic Juvenile ity Confinement. Fact Sheet #11. Chronic Juvenile Offenders. Washing- Offenders. Program Summary. Washington, D.C.: Office of Juvenile ton, D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice Washington, D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Preven- and Delinquency Prevention, U.S. Justice and Delinquency Preven- tion, U.S. Department of Justice. Department of Justice. tion, U.S. Department of Justice. 22. Public Law 93–415. Tolan, P., and N. Guerra. 1994 14. Rivers, J., and T. Trotti. 1989. (July). What Works in Reducing Ado- South Carolina Delinquent Males: A 23. Chesney-Lind, M., and R.G. lescent Violence: An Empirical Review Follow-Up Into Adult Corrections. Sheldon. 1992. Girls: Delinquency of the Field. Boulder, Colo.: The Cen- Columbia, S.C.: South Carolina and Juvenile Justice. Pacific Grove, ter for the Study and Prevention of Department of Youth Services. Calif.: Brooks/Cole Publishing Violence, University of Colorado. Company. 15. Howell, ed., 1995. 7. Howell, ed., 1995. 24. Sheldon, R.G., and S. Tracey. 16. Palmer, T.B. 1971 (January). 1992. Violent female juvenile of- 8. American Correctional Associa- California’s community treatment fender: An ignored minority within tion Victims Committee. 1994 (Au- program for delinquent adoles- the juvenile justice system. Juvenile gust). Report and Recommendations on cents. Journal of Research on Crime and Family Court Journal 43(3):33–40. Victims of Juvenile Crime. Lanham, and Delinquency 8(1):74–92. Md.: American Correctional Associa- 25. Baggett, G., et al. 1990. Oregon tion. 17. Krisberg, B., J.F. Austin, and Girls’ Advocacy Project: Final Report. P.A. Steele. 1989. Unlocking Juvenile Ashland, Ore.: Juvenile Justice Ad- 9. Krisberg, B., and J.F. Austin. Corrections: Evaluating the Massachu- visory Committee, Oregon Com- 1993. Reinventing Juvenile Justice. setts Department of Youth Services. mission on Children and Youth Newbury Park, Calif.: Sage Final Report. San Francisco, Calif.: Services. Publications. National Council on Crime and Delinquency. Burke, V.B. 1992 (March). Reauthor- 10. Camp, G.M., and C.G. Camp. ization of the Juvenile Justice and 1990. Corrections Yearbook, 1990: 18. Howell, ed., 1995. Delinquency Prevention Act: Testi- Juvenile Corrections. South Salem, mony Before the House Committee N.Y.: Criminal Justice Institute. 19. Altschuler, D.M., and T.L. on Education and Labor, Subcom- Armstrong. 1994 (September). mittee on Human Resources. Wash- Cohen, M.A. 1994. The Monetary Intensive Aftercare for High-Risk ington, D.C.: National Institute of Value of Saving a High-Risk Youth. Juveniles: A Community Care Model. Justice, U.S. Department of Justice. Washington, D.C.: The Urban Program Summary. Washington, Institute. D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice and Reilly, P.P. 1978 (December). What Delinquency Prevention, U.S. De- makes adolescent girls flee from 11. Howell, ed., 1995. partment of Justice. their homes? Clinical Pediatrics 17(12):886–893. 12. Pratt, G. 1994 (December). 20. Delinquency Prevention Works. Community-based comprehensive 1995 (May). Washington, D.C.: wrap-around treatment strategies Office of Juvenile Justice and (paper presented at the Arizona Su- Delinquency Prevention, U.S. preme Court Juvenile Justice Re- Department of Justice. search Symposium. Phoenix, Ariz.).

17 2. Prosecute Certain Serious, Violent, and Chronic Juvenile Offenders in Criminal Court

Overview failed the juvenile justice system, the criminal justice system. While which, in turn, is failing us.1 With- many types of juvenile offenders Juvenile violent crime is increasing out adequate resources to handle can be treated in the juvenile justice at an alarming rate. Between 1983 the growth of youth violence, system, the Coordinating Council and 1992, juvenile arrest rates for the system has been unable to recognizes that prosecution in Violent Crime Index offenses in- successfully fulfill its role in secur- criminal court is a necessary option creased nearly 60 percent, while ing community safety. Our failure in State and Federal juvenile justice adult rates increased by 47 percent. to support the juvenile justice sys- systems for those juveniles whose (See figure 5.) tem and to increase the system’s offenses are particularly serious or capacity to succeed has created an violent or who are not amenable to In 1994, the Federal Interdepart- immediate need to target certain rehabilitation in the juvenile justice mental Working Group on Violence serious, violent, and chronic juve- system. concluded that we as a Nation have nile offenders for prosecution in It is important to note, however, that the vast majority of juvenile Figure 5: Violent crime arrest rates in 1983 and 1992 cases can be appropriately handled in the juvenile justice system. For example, in 1992, 70 percent of juveniles referred to juvenile court were handled informally or not ad- Violent crime arrests per 100,000 population judicated, while most adjudicated delinquents received dispositions of formal probation. (See figure 6.)

The juvenile justice system is in the midst of a revolutionary period of change. A slow trend during the past decade to remove more serious, violent, and chronic juvenile offenders from the juvenile justice system and turn them over to criminal courts has escalated. A recent national survey of State corrections agencies showed a 39- percent increase in the number of Data Source: FBI. 1994. Age-specific arrest rates and race-specific arrest rates juveniles transferred to, convicted for selected offenses 1965–1992. FBI. 1984–1993. Crime in the United States in, or sentenced in criminal courts series. between 1988 and 1990—from 5,797 Source: Snyder, H., and M. Sickmund. 1995 (August). Juvenile Offenders and to 8,067.2 In 1992, 38 States reported Victims: A National Report. Washington, D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice and 5,212 new court commitments of Delinquency Prevention, U.S. Department of Justice. juveniles to State prisons.3

19 Figure 6: Delinquency dispositions in 1992

Most adjudicated delinquency cases received dispositions or placement outside the home in 1992

■ Of every 1,000 delinquency cases handled in 1992, 166 resulted in formal probation, and 83 resulted in residential placement following adjudication. ■ Many delinquency cases that were handled formally in 1992 did not result in juvenile court adjudication. However, many of these cases still resulted in the juvenile agreeing to informal services or sanctions, including out-of-home placement, informal probation, and other dispositions. ■ Although juvenile courts handled about half of all delinquency cases without the filing of a formal petition, more than half of these cases received some form of court sanction, including probation or other dispositions such as restitution, community service, or referral to another agency. Data Source: Butts, J., et al. 1995. Juvenile Court Statistics 1992. Source: Snyder, H., and M. Sickmund. 1995 (August). Juvenile Offenders and Victims: A National Report. Washington, D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, U.S. Department of Justice.

The behavior of a relatively small (See figure 7 for trends in juvenile at-risk youth and less serious and percentage of juvenile offenders has arrests for specific violent crimes.) violent offenders who can benefit had a devastating impact on the Because of its frequency and seri- from a wide range of effective de- public’s sense of security, on vic- ousness, the violent behavior of linquency prevention and interven- tims, and on the families of victims. this group of offenders must be tion strategies. However, in their Research shows that, although controlled to ensure public safety efforts to ensure that certain juve- these serious, violent, and chronic and security.4 nile offenders are transferred offenders comprise only 6 to 8 per- to the criminal justice system be- cent of the total juvenile offender Transferring targeted juvenile of- cause of the seriousness of their population, they account for a dis- fenders who commit the most offenses, the Federal Government proportionately large number of serious and violent crimes to crimi- and the States must be sure that offenses. These juveniles are in- nal court enables the juvenile justice only those youth who truly require volved in a wide range of offense system to focus its efforts and re- this alternative under the laws of types and are likely to commit both sources on the much larger group of their particular jurisdiction are serious offenses and violent crimes.

20 placed in the criminal justice sys- Figure 7: Juvenile arrest rates for specific violent crimes tem. We must also remain vigilant about the juvenile’s right to counsel and about the potentially harmful impact of placing juveniles in adult jails, lockups, and correctional fa- Aggravated Assault cilities, including problems associ- The juvenile arrest rate for aggravated assault remained relatively constant from the ated with overcrowding, abuse, mid-1970's through the mid-1980's before increasing sharply through 1992. youth suicide, and the risk of trans- Arrests per 100,000 juveniles ages 10–17 300 forming treatable juveniles into hardened criminals.5 Most of all, 250 the continuing need for transfer of 200 juveniles to criminal courts should 150 strengthen our resolve to intervene

100 at the earliest possible time to decrease the risk of future criminal 50 behavior. 0 1973 1975 1977 1979 1981 1983 1985 1987 1989 1991 This section of the Action Plan describes the three primary mecha- Forcible Rape nisms for transferring targeted Unlike the Violent Crime Index trend, the juvenile arrest rate for forcible rape has juveniles to criminal court and increased gradually since the mid-1970's. summarizes current State legisla- Arrests per 100,000 juveniles ages 10–17 25 tion pertaining to juvenile transfer. It also addresses the trend toward 20 increased transfer and describes

15 innovative and alternative approaches to responding to serious, 10 violent, and chronic offenders, and 5 providing the treatment they need. This section includes proposed ac- 0 1973 1975 1977 1979 1981 1983 1985 1987 1989 1991 tion steps assisting Federal and State jurisdictions in focusing on Murder/Nonnegligent Manslaughter these offenders in order to secure the greater public safety. The Action The juvenile arrest rate for murder varied little from 1973 to 1987, but increased Plan also encourages further study 84 percent from 1987 to 1991, before it dropped in 1992 for the first time in 8 of the effectiveness and impact of years. Arrests per 100,000 juveniles ages 10–17 14 transfers on both juvenile offenders

12 and the justice system. 10 Current Status 8

6 and Analysis of 4 the Problem 2 Transfer Cases 0 1973 1975 1977 1979 1981 1983 1985 1987 1989 1991 A number of studies that have Data Source: FBI. 1994. Age-specific arrest rates and race-specific arrest rates examined the offense characteristics for selected offenses 1965–1992. FBI. 1984–1993. Crime in the United States of juveniles transferred to criminal series. court show that the presenting of- Source: Snyder, H., and M. Sickmund. 1995 (August). Juvenile Offenders and fense for most transferred juveniles Victims: A National Report. Washington, D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice and is a property offense.6 This trend, Delinquency Prevention, U.S. Department of Justice. however, appears to be changing.

21 Other research has focused on expert estimated that there were court by expanding offense catego- seriousness and chronicity. One 2,000 prosecutorial direct files na- ries or reducing age eligibility for study found that juveniles trans- tionwide in 1978.11 By 1993, Florida certain offense types. ferred by judicial waiver in Virginia prosecutors alone had filed criminal tended to be older, more serious charges in 7,000 cases involving In any particular State, one, two, offenders, with prior records and offenders under age 18.12 or all three transfer mechanisms 15 commitment histories, except in may be in place. (See figure 8.) metropolitan areas of the State.7 In addition to a national increase, By 1993, 28 States had at least two Another study found that juvenile there are indications that instances of the three mechanisms for trans- robbery offenders transferred to of prosecutorial discretion now ferring juveniles to criminal court criminal court in Philadelphia were outnumber judicial waivers in for prosecution. Three States had more likely to have used guns in States allowing such transfers. In statutory provisions for all three their offenses than those who were Florida, which has both judicial methods, and at least 18 States were not transferred.8 waiver and direct file provisions, considering additional legislation two cases were filed directly in in 1994. Transfer Mechanisms criminal court for every one case While every State provides one The three legal mechanisms for transferred by judicial waiver in or more mechanisms that allow transferring juvenile cases to crimi- 1981. By 1992, there were more juveniles charged with serious and nal court are judicial waiver, pro- than six direct filings for every 13 violent criminal behavior to be tried secutorial discretion, and statutory case of judicial waiver. in criminal court, the waiver and exclusion. The use of all three Statutory exclusion. Although direct file criteria vary from State to mechanisms is being expanded as not typically considered transfers, State. Age 14 is the most common the problem of youth violence and large numbers of youth age 17 minimum age at which transfer the fear surrounding it increase. and younger are tried as adults in can take place. The crimes that are Judicial waiver. Most States have the 11 States where the upper age of most commonly authorized for established mechanisms to waive original juvenile court jurisdiction is transfer are aggravated felonies— jurisdiction over a case to criminal less than 18 years. This type of usually serious, violent, repeat 16 court, generally after consideration statutory exclusion accounts for the offenses. Several States also have of a motion made by the prosecu- largest number of youth under age provisions for transferring “ex- tor.9 Juvenile court judges in all 18 being tried in criminal court. cluded” or “direct filed” cases from States except Nebraska, New York, Nationwide, an estimated 176,000 criminal court to juvenile court and New Mexico have the authority cases involving youth under age under certain circumstances. This to waive jurisdiction over a case 18 were tried in criminal courts in is sometimes referred to as “reverse to criminal court. An estimated 1991 because the offenders were waiver” or “transfer back.” A sum- 14 11,700 juvenile delinquency cases considered adults under State law. mary of some recent actions of State were referred to criminal court by Another statutory exclusion mecha- legislatures follows: judicial waiver in 1992, a 68-percent nism is to provide for statutory • Only one State, Wyoming, low- increase from 1987.10 waiver or transfer of certain juveniles to criminal court for specific ered the upper age—from 18 Prosecutorial discretion (“concur- offenses—generally older or repeat to 17—of its juvenile court juris- rent jurisdiction”). Twelve States offenders for violent offenses. In diction during the past 20 years, authorize prosecutors to file certain such cases, the prosecutor must joining the other 39 States that categories of juvenile cases directly file a case in criminal court for the had established age 17 as the in criminal court (direct file). This particular offense. upper age limit for original juve- discretion is generally constrained nile court jurisdiction. In 1995, by the age of the alleged offender State Trends however, two of these States, and the type of offense. Although Since 1978, at least 41 States have Wisconsin and New Hampshire, national statistics are unavailable enacted legislation to expand the enacted legislation to lower the on juvenile cases transferred to use of transfer mechanisms. In 1994, upper age of juvenile court juris- the criminal court as a result of at least 13 States enacted measures diction to 16, effective January 1, prosecutorial discretion, one establishing or expanding statutory 1996. transfers of juveniles to criminal

22 is clearly the most rigid method Figure 8: State transfer provisions of determining how a juvenile offender will be processed, and most determinations are based on serious offenses and age limits. Many States have a combination of transfer provisions Several States also exclude juveniles charged with felonies from juvenile court if they have prior felony adjudications or convictions. Prosecutorial discretion, or direct file authority, is also typically limited by age and offense criteria.

District of Columbia The judicial waiver process typically focuses on age, offense, offense history, and the juvenile’s amenability to treatment. A judicial waiver, therefore, should be predicated on an assessment of Waiver only the youth’s history of prior delin- Exclusion only Concurrent jurisdiction only quency, counseling, attempts at re- Waiver and exclusion habilitation, school record, and Waiver and concurrent jurisdiction other relevant factors. The decision All three mechanisms of the court must be in writing, exercised in open court, and predi- Note: Analysis conducted 10/94; some provisions effective 1/1/95. cated on an adversarial hearing Source: Snyder, H., and M. Sickmund. 1995 (August). Juvenile Offenders and with full due process, including an Victims: A National Report. Washington, D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice and opportunity for presentation of evi- Delinquency Prevention, U.S. Department of Justice. dence by the defense and the right to cross-examine witnesses.

Based on these varying require- • North Carolina lowered the age for serious or violent crimes. For ments, each transfer mechanism is of juveniles who can be tried as example, New York’s juvenile generally applied according to the adults to 13; Oklahoma can now offender law gives the criminal age of the youth and the serious- prosecute as adults juveniles age court original jurisdiction over ness of the offense. For older of- 13 and older accused of murder; juveniles ages 13 to 15 charged fenders, when the offense is more and Tennessee removed the age with murder, and those 14 or 15 serious or when the juvenile is a limit for trying juveniles accused years of age charged with Class repeat offender, the tendency is to of certain serious and violent A or B felonies, as defined by move away from judicial discretion offenses as adults.17 New York’s Criminal Code. The and toward prosecutorial discretion State’s 1978 juvenile offender law and statutory exclusion. • Five States have recently enacted also provides for the “reverse or expanded concurrent jurisdic- waiver” of these juveniles from Sentencing and tion legislation, bringing the the criminal court to the juvenile Dispositional Outcomes total of States having such legis- court. and Effectiveness lation to 12. In Michigan and Florida, prosecutors may now Depending on the decision point Criminal court handling of serious, elect the court of original juris- (judge, prosecutor, or legislator), violent, and chronic juvenile of- diction for certain classes of various transfer criteria are to be fenders raises many philosophical, adolescent offenders. carefully considered, such as the legal, program, policy, and research type of offense, age of offender, of- questions. Unfortunately, in recent • Eighteen States now have fense history, and receptiveness to years, an inadequate amount of excluded-offense provisions rehabilitation. Statutory exclusion research has been conducted on (statutory waiver or transfer)

23 the impact of criminal court pro- court and committed to juvenile The need for such information is cessing on reducing violent juvenile institutions.20 substantial. Unless we fully under- offending. stand how that body of law shapes A 1981 Ohio study of juveniles the processing of cases as they Some studies have shown relatively transferred to criminal court under move—or fail to move—through lenient treatment of juvenile offend- judicial waiver found that most the juvenile and criminal justice ers transferred to criminal court were involved in property offenses, systems, the efficacy of various by judicial waiver, concurrent juris- and less than 40 percent were in- provisions of State law will remain 18 diction, and/or excluded offense. volved in violent offenses. In con- unknown. Without empirical as- These studies are primarily based trast, a study conducted a decade sessments of the application and on data collected from the late later found that almost two-thirds impact of various recent adjust- 1970’s and the 1980’s. However, of the transfers were for violent ments to juvenile law, those who 21 three more recent studies are offenses. favor or oppose such changes can available. do little more than speculate or The relative merits of juvenile make rough projections based on A Cook County, IL, study exam- versus criminal justice system personal experience or limited ined juveniles transferred to crimi- handling of serious, violent, and research.24 nal court for drug and weapons chronic juvenile offenders are violations under several Illinois difficult to determine conclusively.22 The Climate That excluded-offense statutes during Few comparative studies have been Drives Waivers 1991–92. The study found that made, and those that exist are The trend toward treating more most of the transferred juveniles outdated. None has focused on in- juveniles as criminal offenders is were not viewed by criminal court novative sentencing options, such a reaction to a number of factors. judges as serious offenders. More as “blending” of juvenile and crimi- First, it is a response to the increas- than half received probation, nal justice system handling. A 1980 ing incidence and seriousness supervision, or conditional dis- study demonstrated the importance of juvenile violence and an over- charge. Twelve percent, most of of examining the seriousness of crowded and overburdened juve- whom judges ruled eligible for offense and age of the offender in nile justice system. Second, it is boot camps, were sentenced to these studies in order to obtain a based on a concern that the juvenile incarceration in Illinois prisons. clear picture of what is happening justice system does not dispense Among the remainder, 18 percent in the juvenile and criminal justice sufficiently tough sanctions to pro- were found not guilty.19 systems.23 This study confirmed vide accountability to victims and that these are critical control factors society. Third, because frequently At least one study using more in determining future case study there is no reliable system for the recent data shows a trend in trans- outcomes. fers reflecting changes in the profile retention of records and identifica- of offenders and case dispositions. Likewise, it is difficult to develop tion of offenders, it is perceived A 1994 followup study by the updated policy when the majority that the juvenile justice system is Virginia Commission on Youth of the studies were generated in the not able to track and suppress a showed increased incarceration 1980’s, and it is impossible to deter- blossoming criminal career. of transferred juveniles between mine from the existing research the Lack of capacity. As discussed in 1988 and 1990 compared with those impact of either criminal or juvenile the first section of the Action Plan, retained in the juvenile justice sys- system handling on subsequent juvenile justice practitioners are tem. Among the more than 1,000 offenses. While much activity is confronted daily with moving juveniles transferred between 1988 taking place in State legislatures to juvenile offenders through the and 1990, 63 percent were sen- address mechanisms for the pros- juvenile system. Overwhelmed by tenced to prison, 15 percent were ecution of juveniles in criminal burdensome caseloads, they are of- sent to a local jail, and 22 percent court, very little evaluative research ten unable to assess the individual received no incarceration. Those exists to guide such legislative treatment needs of each juvenile, sentenced to prison served an change. The extent to which these provide appropriate and sustained average of 17 months, compared transfer options are being used and services, or ensure adequate super- with less than 8 months served the effectiveness of the various vision to effectively monitor the by those adjudicated in juvenile policy options are not yet known. youth’s behavior and compliance

24 with a dispositional order. The lack with children and families. The are now either considering or revis- of system capacity and graduated court should be opened to the ing juvenile codes in response to sanction programs are central defi- media, interested professionals growing public concern over juve- ciencies in the juvenile justice sys- and students and, when appro- nile crime and increasing demands tem that may tilt the frustrated priate, the public, in order to by victims, it is likely that offender decisionmaker (prosecutor, judge, hold itself accountable, educate history information will remain or legislator) toward the decision others, and encourage greater unavailable to other agencies and to transfer increasing numbers of community participation.27 individuals with an interest in a offenders. As noted in the Interde- particular juvenile. Moreover, un- partmental Working Group on Confidentiality within the system der varying conditions, every State Violence’s Violence: Report to the of youth services also hinders the permits requests to expunge or President and Domestic Policy Coun- effectiveness of the juvenile justice destroy juvenile records. cil and in Objective 1 of this Action system. Courts, schools, mental Plan, the already strained juvenile health and health facilities, law en- Many State and local jurisdictions justice system lacks sufficient re- forcement, and other social service do not maintain accurate or com- sources to accurately and reliably agencies unintentionally impede plete records of juvenile offenders identify serious, violent, and effective rehabilitation of youth or do not share these records with chronic offenders and to intervene by restricting the exchange of ap- other jurisdictions and State reposi- effectively with them. propriate and critical information tories. This is primarily due to about their individual histories. In confidentiality concerns and the Confidentiality. Currently, in the majority of cases, the resistance limited automation of juvenile keeping with long-held confidenti- to sharing information is not based records. As a result, it is sometimes ality rules, most juvenile courts on laws or regulations but on insti- impossible to determine whether do not provide victims with formal tutional reluctance to violate pri- a juvenile who gets into trouble is notification about offenders or the vacy interests. Overly restrictive a first offender, a repeat offender, disposition of cases. Often, the only confidentiality rules and practices or a chronic offender. Ideally, when way the victim can receive such substantially weaken the juvenile a juvenile first comes in contact information is by attending the justice system as a viable arena for with the juvenile justice system, hearing, where statute permits. trying serious and violent juvenile appropriate records are established In addition, the media historically offender cases. Until we know the and maintained and all relevant have had little access to informa- history and service needs of juve- agencies can share information to tion that they could use to demon- niles who enter the system, we ensure positive identification. This strate the lack of resources and can neither provide adequate serv- record sharing also makes possible programs facing individual offend- ices nor fully protect the public. a proper treatment and rehabilita- ers and the system. In more than 20 tion plan designed to prevent the States, juvenile codes do not allow Lack of records or record avail- juvenile from coming into further the names or pictures of juveniles ability. A State may manage its contact with the juvenile justice involved in delinquency proceed- juvenile recordkeeping systems system. Records of adjudications ings to be released to the media.25 through a variety of methods. All should be compiled and made However, recent court decisions are variations on the theme of available for subsequent proceed- have “opened the doors” of some “nondisclosure,” a concept that ings in the juvenile and criminal delinquency proceedings, expand- means the records are not ordi- justice systems, even after the juve- ing public and media access.26 In narily available outside the court. nile reaches the age of full criminal addition, the National Council of The disclosure rules for each State responsibility, and the length of Juvenile and Family Court Judges vary, but the elements of the for- time records are held should de- has declared that: mula are generic. The parties before pend on the seriousness of prior the juvenile court are entitled to the offenses. Traditional notions of secrecy contents of the juvenile record file. and confidentiality should be Unfortunately, however, most Making juvenile records electroni- reexamined and relaxed to pro- States do not permit additional dis- cally accessible requires more than mote public confidence in the closure without specific authoriza- collecting and automating record court’s work. The public has a tion of the court or some other data. Some States require electronic right to know how courts deal statute. Thus, while several States information systems, and others

25 may need a change in their laws. A Issues of Juveniles in of a serious or violent offense to number of institutional components Federal Custody more than 1 year in jail and a fine are involved, and assurances of ap- Relatively few juveniles are in the of greater than $5,000. propriate confidentiality must be Federal juvenile and criminal jus- Similarly, the prosecution of juve- carefully considered and provided. tice systems. The Federal Bureau of nile Federal offenders in cases in- Prisons reports that, as of March 17, Problems with record maintenance volving Native American youth, 1995, it had custody of 270 offend- may contribute to prosecutors and the impact on tribes and tribal ers who were 17 years or younger seeking to transfer juvenile cases, courts when Federal prosecution at the time they committed their particularly violent offenses. Other- is declined, need to be explored. offenses. Of this total, 130 were held wise, when the juvenile reaches age Virtually no studies have been con- as criminal offenders in adult insti- 18, or a statutorily provided time ducted on their impact on Federal tutions, and 140 were housed in period, there may be no record of and tribal criminal justice systems. contract juvenile facilities. his or her delinquent history. For example, citizens, crime victims, Federal prosecutions of juveniles, Effective and school personnel, and law enforce- whether as delinquents or as crimi- Promising ment professionals express a legiti- nal offenders, account for less Strategies and mate concern about not having than 1 percent of all Federal pros- access to the history of juveniles ecutions. Apart from prosecutions Programs adjudicated for sexual assault (even of juveniles on Native American Information Sharing those who were treated) who are reservations and military bases, now free to apply for a job working the Federal Government typically A number of States have recently with children or other vulnerable prosecutes only those juveniles passed laws authorizing or requir- populations. who are members of large-scale ing information on alleged violent narcotics-trafficking organizations delinquents or adjudicated juvenile Length and termination of sen- or violent criminal organizations, offenders to be shared with schools, tences. Another factor that drives such as gangs. In other instances, child welfare agencies, or other the increased number of transferred juveniles are prosecuted in Federal social service providers. This infor- juveniles is concern that placement court for violent acts that have mation sharing provides all systems in programs is often delayed be- some Federal nexus, such as civil involved with a better understand- cause of waiting lists, and release rights violations, carjacking, or ing of the youth with whom they is too often determined by a slot- bank robbery. are working and the best way to driven system in which the critical work with that individual. It is factor is the need for a bed for the Even though the Major Crimes also an important consideration next offender. Furthermore, the Act asserts Federal jurisdiction for protecting the rights of victims juvenile justice system generally over certain offenses committed by of juvenile offenders. The Office loses jurisdiction over a juvenile Native Americans on their lands, of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency offender when the youth reaches tribes and tribal courts have ex- Prevention (OJJDP) is currently a certain age, whether or not treat- pressed concern over the handling working with the Department of ment is completed or the juvenile of serious crimes being committed Education to develop a fact sheet remains a threat to the public safety. by Native American youth in their on sharing school information This loss of jurisdiction may also communities. While tribes exercise with the juvenile justice system so contribute to the transfer of serious, concurrent jurisdiction over these that at-risk and delinquent youth violent, and chronic juvenile crimes, they lack many of the re- can be identified and services pro- offenders to the criminal justice sources needed to handle these vided prior to their involvement in system in order to ensure that pub- cases properly. Specifically, they serious and violent crime. lic safety is not threatened with the lack secure placement options, release of a violent offender who treatment resources, and sentencing The Illinois juvenile court model for has reached the upper age of dispo- capabilities. The Indian Civil Rights interagency information sharing, sitional jurisdiction, which gener- Act28 prevents tribal courts from passed by the General Assembly ally ranges from 18 to 21. sentencing any person convicted in 1992, supports law enforcement,

26 State attorneys, probation depart- models. Other States have created In 1995, Minnesota enacted a ments, juvenile courts, social serv- separate youthful-offender institu- blended sentencing law that creates ice providers, and schools in the tions for juveniles adjudicated a new category called “extended early identification and treatment delinquent for serious or violent sentence jurisdiction juveniles” of habitual juvenile offenders. This crimes or convicted and sentenced for serious and repeat offenders 1992 amendment to the Illinois Ju- criminally under youthful-offender over age 14. When found guilty venile Court Act of 1987 authorizes statutes. These typically permit of a crime, these juveniles receive an interagency committee to gather the juvenile court to treat older, both a juvenile disposition and a and disseminate comprehensive more aggressive juvenile offenders suspended criminal sentence. If data to agencies in the juvenile as youthful offenders, rather than they fail to conform to the require- justice system to produce more as delinquents, by placing them ments of the juvenile disposition, informed system decisions. This in specialized youthful-offender juveniles can receive the criminal is being accomplished, in part, facilities. Conversely, some statutes sentence that, in most cases, would through the establishment of a permit criminal courts to treat juve- result in confinement in an adult jail statewide Serious Habitual Of- nile criminal offenders, and some- or prison. The law extends the con- fender Comprehensive Action times younger adults who have tinuing jurisdiction of the juvenile Program (SHOCAP). Developed committed less serious crimes, as justice system to age 21. by OJJDP, the SHOCAP multi- youthful offenders. California, disciplinary interagency case man- Montana, and New York have long Florida has led the way in an agement and information-sharing had such statutes. unusual blending of traditional system establishes an interdiscipli- features of the juvenile and criminal nary committee. The committee Colorado’s Youthful Offender justice systems through a three- develops criteria to identify juve- System, created in 1993, is designed tiered approach that gives prosecu- niles who are serious habitual to break down gang affiliation tors expanded discretionary power offenders and adopts a written and youth violence by concentrat- in making jurisdictional decisions interagency information-sharing ing on treatment, discipline, and as the age of defendants and the 30 agreement. intensive reintegration services severity of offenses increase. In through a low staff-to-offender ra- criminal court, the judge has a The Florida model for interagency tio. In Wisconsin’s program, the variety of sentencing options, in- information sharing authorizes the State mandates that some youthful cluding sentencing the offender as juvenile court to maintain records offenders stay in the program for 5 an adult or as a juvenile. The crimi- of all cases brought before it. The years. If they have committed felo- nal court judge retains jurisdiction model also provides that the court nies that would have been punish- over an individual sentenced as a shall preserve records pertaining to able by life imprisonment, juveniles juvenile to monitor the sentence juveniles charged with committing must stay in the program until they and, if there is a violation of the delinquent acts or violations of the are 25 years old.29 court order, to resentence the of- law until they reach age 24, or age fender as an adult. Thus, Florida’s 26 in the case of serious or habitual In some jurisdictions, either through law grants its criminal court judges delinquents. Florida has recently legislation or agency procedures, broader dispositional power than developed a statewide SHOCAP in judges and correctional officials that of juvenile court judges, creat- 15 sites and will be adding another have available a range of both ing a “last chance” provision. 10 sites in 1996. juvenile and adult correctional sanctions for serious, violent, and Related statutory provisions in Youthful-Offender Laws, chronic juvenile offenders who some States target serious, violent, Blended Sentencing, and have been adjudicated delinquent or chronic juvenile offenders by Intermediate Facilities and/or convicted criminally. This creating an official record that will Some States are improving the blending of sanctions may be follow the offender into the crimi- response of their juvenile justice strictly age based (for example, nal system and/or by authorizing systems to serious, violent, and on reaching a certain age, the enhanced commitments by the ju- chronic juvenile offenders by devel- delinquent offender is transferred venile court. Colorado, Massachu- oping intermediate (third system) to adult prison under a criminal setts, Pennsylvania, and Texas have facilities or blended sentencing conviction). enacted enhanced commitments.

27 The Texas law, for example, gives serious, violent, and chronic offend- above. However, while not advo- the juvenile court authority to pro- ers and consideration of innovative cating for statutory exclusion or vide determinate juvenile sentences blended sentencing options for ju- lowering the age for criminal of up to 40 years in prison for 12 venile offenders under criminal court jurisdiction, the Action Plan violent felony offenses, with the court jurisdiction. recognizes that, in some instances, sentence to begin with treatment in State law may use more than one the juvenile correctional system to The two-tiered system would transfer mechanism and expressly age 18, at which time transfer to provide for the transfer of serious, provide for the imposition only an adult facility following a court violent, and chronic juvenile offend- of criminal sanctions for specific review is authorized. Such transfer ers contingent upon age, presenting classes of offenses at specific ages. is automatic at age 21. Juveniles offense, and offense history, allow- subject to this Texas law have a ing greater prosecutorial discretion If the graduated sanctions model right to all the due process and for the older, more serious offender. recommended in the Action Plan procedural rights of accused crimi- State laws should consider appro- is fully implemented in a jurisdic- nal offenders, including jury trial priate discretionary powers for tion with adequate programming and bail. prosecutors to proceed to criminal and resources, then the numbers court as the ages of juvenile offend- of juveniles being transferred into The distinction in appropriate ers and the severity of the offense the criminal court or classified for dispositional alternatives between increase, thereby allowing for indi- extended jurisdiction should de- younger adult and older juvenile vidualized case review and deci- crease. In the interim, however, a offenders is not always clear. Justice sionmaking. Extended jurisdiction more flexible mechanism is needed system practitioners have strong of the juvenile court can be predi- that ensures public safety and pro- and differing opinions about what cated upon a judge’s determination vides appropriate sanctions for seri- should be done to address these that a juvenile is a serious, violent, ous, violent, and chronic juvenile individuals. Consequently, blended or chronic offender based upon the offenders. With flexibility in court sentencing and extended jurisdic- current offense and the juvenile’s sentencing, the criminal court judge tion statutory schemes are gaining prior history in the justice system. can access juvenile court program- favor in an increasing number of The court could be authorized to ming as a “last chance” option for States. In order to address public use this extended jurisdiction to these offenders, while also enhanc- safety needs, States should continue keep an adjudicated delinquent in ing the supervision of the court and to experiment with the develop- the system beyond age 21 if there heightening the motivation of the ment, implementation, and evalua- were a reasonable expectation of offender, who is accountable to the tion of these types of dispositional successful treatment. criminal court and faces a potential options. At the same time, however, prison sentence upon violation of we must also invest in the juvenile The use of innovative blended sentencing conditions. justice system so that it can meet sentencing options can function the treatment needs of juvenile as a supplement to the provision Federal Prosecution of offenders. of extended jurisdiction by autho- Juveniles rizing the criminal or juvenile court At the Federal level, the Action The Action Plan suggests providing judge to utilize or, when appropri- Plan suggests examining the advis- increased flexibility for the transfer ate, to combine juvenile and adult ability of amending the Federal of appropriate juveniles to criminal responses into a continuum of Juvenile Delinquency Code to re- court until the juvenile justice sys- sanctions appropriate to the offense move procedural barriers to the tem has the capacity to provide history and age of the juvenile. transfer of juveniles under Federal adequate program services to seri- The Action Plan advocates a clear jurisdiction for criminal prosecu- ous, violent, and chronic juvenile judicial role in either the decision tion, including adding prosecutorial offenders and to ensure public to proceed against a juvenile as a transfer authority (direct file) for safety. Specifically, it proposes a criminal offender or at the disposi- certain serious and violent offenses. two-tiered system of extended juris- tional stage through discretion in diction in the juvenile court for sentencing options, as outlined

28 Federal Action intensive community-based inter- disseminates national statistics on vention, treatment, and rehabilita- juvenile victims and offenders and Steps tion services correlated with the documents the system’s response— Promote Innovative Options seriousness or nature of particular will continue to raise the level of for the Appropriate offenses. attention to juvenile record issues. Maintenance and Sharing SSD’s actions are helping States rec- of Juvenile Records Assist States and Local ognize the entire range of issues Governments To Identify associated with juvenile records: OJJDP and the Department of Juvenile Offenders Education (ED) will continue to fingerprinting and other forms of review Federal Educational DOJ supports improved juvenile biometric identification of juveniles, Records Privacy Act (FERPA) records that are accurate and acces- classification of juvenile offenses regulations to clarify and enhance sible, where appropriate, in both as compared with adult crimes, the ability of schools to share the juvenile and criminal justice automation of juvenile records, information with other agencies systems. expunging or sealing of records, responsible for handling juvenile and types of records to be made The Bureau of Justice Statistics (BJS) offenders. available in national criminal his- and OJJDP have produced publica- tory recordkeeping systems. OJJDP and ED will also develop tions to assist State recordkeepers in technical assistance mechanisms to understanding the technical, legal, The National Institute of Justice build the capacity of law enforce- and policy issues relating to juve- (NIJ) will sponsor research to ment and educational institutions nile records. Statistical and legisla- examine the use of juvenile record to share juvenile records. tive solutions from States were information in the adjudication compiled. and sentencing of criminal offend- Improve Targeting, ers. The study will consist of two Apprehension, Prosecution, Based on this information, BJS phases. Phase one will be a national Treatment, and Correctional will continue to address the issue assessment of legislation and prac- Facilities and Programs for within the context of its ongoing tice to determine the extent to Serious, Violent, and program to assist States in upgrad- which States are authorized to Chronic Juvenile Offenders ing criminal records. Specifically, consider juvenile record informa- The Department of Justice (DOJ) BJS will: tion in criminal prosecutions. Phase two will examine how juvenile will provide funding through its • Sponsor a national conference to record information is used in Correctional Facilities/Violent address issues associated with Sedgwick County (Wichita), KS, Offender Incarceration Grants for the use of, and access to, juvenile and in Montgomery County, MD. construction of, or planning for, records in the criminal justice prison facilities for criminal offend- system. ers and for boot camp programs OJJDP and ED will develop a fact sheet on sharing school information for adult or juvenile offenders (to • Sponsor a study to analyze legal with the juvenile justice system. make available secure space in and policy issues associated with prisons or juvenile correctional the collection, use, and exchange Examine Transfer Statistics facilities for violent offenders). of juvenile delinquency records, and the Impact of Innovative including the relationship be- Sentencing Options OJJDP will increase its focus on tween juvenile and criminal In order to assist in developing this programs to identify and target records. these offenders, such as SHOCAP; information, OJJDP will carry out arrest and prosecute them, as ap- • Convene a national conference to the following studies: propriate; and provide treatment discuss issues involved in link- • A statistical assessment of programs for serious, violent, and ing juvenile and adult records. chronic juvenile offenders within national transfer trends in the the juvenile justice system. These OJJDP’s Systems and Statistics context of State legislative programs combine accountability Development (SSD) Program— requirements. and sanctions with increasingly which collects, analyzes, and

29 • A comparison between juvenile • Address the Federal system’s OJJDP will continue to support and criminal justice system man- lack of victim rights, including a prosecutor training center devel- agement of juvenile offenders. notification; restitution; return oped by the National District of property; victim impact state- Attorneys Association. This project These studies will control for ments; protection from intimida- provides workshops on juvenile presenting offense, offense history, tion, harassment, and harm; and justice-related executive policy, and age of offender in order to information and referral services leadership, and management for provide accurate data. for those juveniles under Federal chief prosecutors and juvenile unit chiefs and provides background Develop and Support delinquency jurisdiction. Innovative Options for information to prosecutors on juve- • Permit use of supervised release nile justice issues and programs. the Handling of Serious, for juveniles adjudicated delin- Violent, and Chronic quent after their release from Juvenile Offenders Suggestions for terms of confinement. OJJDP will survey innovative State and Local system practices in managing seri- Provide Training and Action ous, violent, and chronic juvenile Technical Assistance to • Review mechanisms for pros- offenders in both the juvenile and Federal, State, and Local Prosecutors and Judges ecuting, adjudicating, and sen- criminal justice systems. Handling Juvenile Cases tencing juveniles in the criminal justice system. Review Procedural Barriers The DOJ Criminal Division, in to Prosecuting Violent conjunction with the Executive • Assess the impact of proposed Federal Juvenile Offenders Office for U.S. Attorneys, will as Criminal Offenders transfer mechanisms before they disseminate to all U.S. Attorneys’ are enacted into law. DOJ will facilitate prosecuting Offices a manual outlining the is- certain serious, violent, and chronic sues in federally prosecuting juve- • Establish and maintain a well- juvenile offenders as criminals nile offenders. The manual will structured system of graduated in Federal court by proposing cite relevant case law and include sanctions for juvenile offenders. that Congress amend the Federal form indictments and pleadings juvenile delinquency statute to to aid Assistant U.S. Attorneys. In • Establish automated record- accomplish the following: addition, a publication examining keeping systems in all local these issues, entitled Federal Pros- juvenile courts. Collect and cen- • Remove unnecessary procedural ecution of Gangs and Juveniles, is tralize juvenile records at the barriers for prosecuting and available from DOJ’s Office of State level. Forward records of transferring violent juvenile Legal Education.31 adjudication for serious delin- felony offenders as criminals in quency to the Federal Bureau the Federal system. Through the Anti-Violent Crime of Investigation to facilitate in- Initiative, the Criminal Division formation sharing and accurate • Authorize juveniles prosecuted will encourage Federal prosecutors criminal history records. as criminal felons to be detained to continue working with their State and incarcerated separately in and local counterparts to develop • Assist schools and juvenile adult facilities through a reason- strategies to reduce youth violence. justice system practitioners to able process and on a case-by- For example, all U.S. Attorneys obtain court orders allowing in- case basis. have met with their violent-crime formation sharing on juveniles workgroups to implement the in the justice system, where such • Permit expanded use of finger- Youth Handgun Safety Act in their orders are necessary to authorize printing and recordkeeping and districts. As part of that effort, they information sharing. expanded access to those prints have focused on identifying the and records for juveniles adjudi- • Adopt policies and standards sources of firearms possessed by cated delinquent. for prosecuting serious, violent, juveniles and getting guns out of and chronic juvenile offenders in schools as part of a larger strategy criminal court. to address violent crime.

30 • Develop innovative and/or 6. Bishop, D.M., C.E. Frazier, Houghtalin, M., and G.L. Mays. alternative sanctions such as and J.C. Henretta. 1989 (April). 1991. Criminal dispositions of New community-based corrections Prosecutorial waiver: Case study Mexico juveniles transferred to options. of a questionable reform. Crime adult court. Crime and Delinquency and Delinquency 35(2):179–201. 37:393–407. • Fingerprint and photograph youth charged with delinquent Bortner, M.A. 1986 (January). Nimick, E.H., L. Szymanski, and acts in the juvenile justice Traditional rhetoric, organizational H. Snyder. 1986. Juvenile Court system. realities: Remand of juveniles to Waiver: A Study of Juvenile Court adult court. Crime and Delinquency Cases Transferred to Criminal Court. • Request technical assistance 35:53–73. Washington, D.C.: Office of Juvenile and training through OJJDP to Justice and Delinquency Preven- institute needed system changes. Champion, D.J. 1989 (October). tion, U.S. Department of Justice. Teenage felons and waiver hear- • Work with the media (print and ings: Some recent trends, 1980– Thomas, C.W., and S. Bilchik. 1985. broadcast) to promote greater 1988. Crime and Delinquency Prosecuting juveniles in criminal public understanding of the 35(4):577–585. courts: A legal and empirical analy- scope and complexity of the sis. Journal of Criminal Law and transfer issue. Fagan, J., and E.P. Deschenes. 1990 Criminology 76(2):439–479. (Summer). Determinants of judicial Endnotes waiver decisions for violent juve- 7. Poulon, T.M., and S. Orchowsky. 1. Interdepartmental Working nile offenders. Journal of Criminal 1994 (January). Serious juvenile of- Group on Violence. 1994. Violence: Law and Criminology 81(2):314–347. fenders: Predicting the probability Report to the President and Domestic of transfer to criminal court. Crime Policy Council. Washington, D.C. Gillespie, L.K., and M.D. Norman. and Delinquency 40(1):3–17. 1984. Does certification mean 2. Hunziker, D. 1995 (May). Juve- prison? Some preliminary findings 8. Eigen, J.P. 1981. The determi- nile crime, grown-up time. State from Utah. Juvenile and Family Court nants and impact of jurisdictional Legislatures 21(5):14–19. Journal 35(3):23–34. transfer in Philadelphia. In J.C. Hall et al. Major Issues in Juvenile 3. Perkins, C. 1994. National Correc- Greenwood, P.W. 1986. Differences Justice Information and Training: tions Reporting Program—1992. in criminal behavior and court re- Readings in Public Policy. Columbus, Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Justice sponses among juvenile and young Ohio: Academy for Contemporary Statistics, U.S. Department of adult defendants. In M. Tony and Problems. Justice. N. Morris, eds. Crime and Justice: An Annual Review of Research. Chicago, 9. Hunziker, 1995. 4. Wolfgang, M.E. 1972. Delin- Ill.: University of Chicago Press. quency in a Birth Cohort. Chicago, 10. Snyder, H., and M. Sickmund. Ill.: University of Chicago Press. Hamparian, D.M., et al. 1985. The 1995 (August). Juvenile Offenders and Young Criminal Years of the Violent Victims: A National Report. Washing- Wolfgang, M.E., R.M. Figlio, and Few. Washington, D.C.: Office of ton, D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice T.P. Thornberry. 1987. From Boy to Juvenile Justice and Delinquency and Delinquency Prevention, U.S. Man—From Delinquency to Crime. Prevention, U.S. Department of Department of Justice. Chicago, Ill.: University of Chicago Justice. Press. 11. Hamparian et al., 1985. Heuser, J.P. 1985. Juveniles Arrested 5. Parent, D.G., V. Lieter, S. for Serious Felony Crimes in Oregon 12. Snyder and Sickmund, 1995. Kennedy, et al. 1994 (August). and “Remanded” to Adult Criminal 13. Ibid. Conditions of Confinement: Juvenile Courts: A Statistical Study. Salem, Detention and Corrections Facilities. Ore.: Crime Analysis Center, 14. Sickmund, M. 1994 (October). Washington, D.C.: Office of Juve- Oregon Department of Justice. How Juveniles Get to Criminal Court. nile Justice and Delinquency Pre- OJJDP Update on Statistics. Juve- vention, U.S. Department of Justice. nile Justice Bulletin. Washington,

31 D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice and Washington, D.C.: Office of Juvenile 24. Thomas and Bilchik, 1985. Delinquency Prevention, U.S. Justice and Delinquency Prevention, Department of Justice. U.S. Department of Justice. 25. Snyder and Sickmund, 1995.

15. Snyder and Sickmund, 1995. 19. Howell et al., eds., 1995. 26. Martin, G.A., Jr. 1995 (Summer). Open the doors: A judicial call to 16. Howell, J.C., J.D. Hawkins, and 20. Hunziker, 1995. end confidentiality in delinquency J. Wilson, eds. 1995. Sourcebook on proceedings. New England Journal on Serious, Violent, and Chronic 21. Howell et al., eds., 1995. Criminal and Civil Confinement Juvenile Offenders. Thousand Oaks, 21:393. 22. Howell, J.C., ed. 1995 (May). Calif.: Sage Publishing. Guide for Implementing the Compre- 27. Children and Families First: A 17. Hunziker, 1995. hensive Strategy for Serious, Violent, Mandate for America’s Courts, cited and Chronic Juvenile Offenders. Wash- in Martin, G.A., Jr. 1995 (Summer). 18. Clarke, S.H. 1994 (Summer). ington, D.C.: Office of Juvenile Jus- Increasing imprisonment to prevent tice and Delinquency Prevention, 28. U.S.C. 25 1302(7). violent crime: Is it working? Popular U.S. Department of Justice. Government 16–24. 29. Hunziker, 1995. 23. Greenwood, P.W., J. Petersilia, Hamparian et al., 1985. and F.E. Zimring. 1980 (October). 30. Thomas and Bilchik, 1985. Age, Crime, and Sanctions: The 31. Stevens, J.B. 1994. Federal Snyder, H., and J. Hutzler. 1981 Transition from Juvenile to Adult prosecution of gangs and juveniles. (September). The Serious Juvenile Court. Santa Monica, Calif.: The Criminal Practice Manual. Washing- Offender: The Scope of the Problem RAND Corporation. and the Response of Juvenile Courts. ton, D.C.: Office of Legal Education, U.S. Department of Justice.

32 3. Reduce Youth Involvement With Guns, Drugs, and Gangs

Overview Examples of programs illustrate the number of juvenile arrests effective ways of finding solutions for weapons violations increased The involvement of judges, pros- to each of these problems in local 117 percent. When guns are the ecutors, social service providers, communities. The Action Plan sup- weapon of choice, juvenile violence law enforcement officers, crime ports strong measures to prevent becomes deadly.1 (See figure 9 for victims, community-based organi- juveniles from using guns illegally an illustration of the increasing in- zations, and others is critical to im- and to remove guns from schools cidence of gun homicides commit- proving the juvenile justice system through youth-focused community ted by juveniles.) and reducing youth violence. The oriented policing, reducing the Action Plan supports interagency availability of firearms to youth, Because recent crime statistics— law enforcement teams, or task strengthening anti-drug and excluding homicides—gathered forces, that coordinate the investi- anti-gang measures, and building by the Federal Bureau of Investiga- gative efforts and suppression tac- healthy communities through ex- tion do not show all chargeable tics of Federal, State, and local law panded youth opportunities. offenses involved in a particular enforcement agencies in weapons, incident, there is no reliable way drug, and gang arrests. The Action Plan also supports the to determine how many crimes in- development of model juvenile volved a weapon, what was the In many communities, law enforce- handgun legislation to facilitate nature of any injury, or whether the ment has taken the lead in imple- law enforcement activities. Further, crime involved illicit drugs. There- menting innovative juvenile crime it encourages the efforts of school fore, it is difficult to determine the prevention and intervention efforts officials to remove guns from precise role that guns and illegal as part of an overall community schools, and supports the dissemi- drugs have played in the recent oriented policing approach. Suc- nation of information on promising increase in violent juvenile crime. cessful public safety and prevention juvenile gun violence reduction Although there are gaps, the data strategies provide comprehensive, programs, and the provision of make a compelling case that the targeted community services and technical assistance to achieve role of guns in juvenile-related support to youth to keep them from those goals. homicides is increasing at an un- becoming the next generation of precedented level. offenders. Youth-focused commu- Current Status nity oriented policing that is During the period 1976 to 1991, effectively linked to the juvenile and Analysis of firearms were used by 65 percent justice system can significantly the Problem of juvenile homicide offenders (44 contribute to the reduction of crime, Juvenile Gun Violence percent used handguns). Firearms restoration of order, and eradication were used in nearly 8 out of 10 ju- of fear in local communities. A trend analysis of juvenile homi- venile homicides in 1991, compared cide offenses shows that since with 6 out of 10 in 1976.2 This section addresses four primary the mid-1970’s, the number of problem areas in which law en- homicides in which no firearm Young black males have the most forcement plays a critical leading was involved has remained fairly elevated homicide victimization role: juvenile gun violence; the constant. However, homicides by rate of any race or gender group. combination of youth, guns, and juveniles involving a firearm have Homicides involving firearms have drugs; the link between drugs and increased nearly threefold. In addi- been the leading cause of death for delinquency; and youth gangs. tion, during this same period, black males ages 15 to 19 since

33 aggression. In neighborhoods, Figure 9: Juvenile gun homicides people are apprehensive about going outside their homes, and fights that once involved fists have become deadly exchanges. Gun homicides by juveniles have nearly tripled since 1983, while homicides involving other weapons have actually declined Youth, Guns, and Drugs The Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP) is currently supporting research on the causes and correlates of delinquency and has found a strong relationship among illegal gun possession by juveniles, delinquency, and drug use. Nearly 3 in 4 juveniles who illegally possessed guns committed some type of street crime; 1 in 4 committed a gun- related crime; and 4 out of 10 used drugs.7

Drug activity appears to exacerbate juvenile violence in two ways. First, ■ From 1983 through 1991, the proportion of homicides in which the firearms are more prevalent around juvenile used a gun increased from 55% to 78%. drug activity.8 In 1984, the United Data Source: FBI. 1993. Supplementary homicide reports 1976–1991 [machine- States saw a dramatic increase in readable data files]. juvenile gun homicide, coinciding Source: Snyder, H., and M. Sickmund. 1995 (August). Juvenile Offenders and with the introduction of crack Victims: A National Report. Washington, D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice and cocaine into urban communities. Delinquency Prevention, U.S. Department of Justice. Studies show that as the use of guns by drug-involved youth increases, other young people obtain guns for their own protection. This 1969, and the rates more than 9th- to 12th-grade students about cycle of fear or “diffusion” theory9 doubled in the decade from 1979 the number of times they had car- is supported by recent research on (40 deaths per 100,000) to 1989 (85 ried a weapon such as a gun, knife, the “ecology of danger.”10 A 1993 deaths per 100,000).3 Teenage boys or club during the prior 30 days. Louis Harris poll showed that 35 in all racial and ethnic groups are One in 20 students indicated he or percent of children ages 6 to 12 fear more likely to die from gunshot she had carried a firearm, usually a their lives will be cut short by gun wounds than from all natural handgun. A number of additional violence,11 and a longitudinal study causes combined.4 surveys confirm an increased pro- of 1,500 Pittsburgh, PA, boys re- pensity among young people to vealed that their frequency of carry- Between 1979 and 1991, the rate of 6 carry guns. The increased availabil- ing a concealed weapon increased suicide among youth ages 15 to 19 ity of guns and access to guns by when they began selling drugs.12 increased 31 percent. In 1991, 1,899 youth have had devastating conse- youth ages 15 to 19 committed sui- quences on schools and communi- The second way drugs and juvenile cide, a rate of 11 per 100,000 youth ties. In many schools, learning is gun violence appear related is in this age group. Firearms were no longer the top priority; survival through the impact of drugs on used in 6 out of 10 suicides among concerns lead many students to a young person’s perceptions. 5 youth ages 15 to 19 in 1989. avoid school entirely or carry weap- Adolescence is a time of taking ons for protection. Educators must risks and seeking stimulation, In 1990, the Centers for Disease divert attention from academics and juvenile delinquents report a Control and Prevention surveyed a to monitor and control student certain level of excitement as well nationally representative sample of

34 as fear of apprehension in the reported that 2 million youth rate children of gang members and are commission of a crime. Many themselves as heavy alcohol drink- choosing a familiar lifestyle. Many youth revel at the thrill of roller ers, with over 1 billion cans of beer are seeking the recognition they fail coasters, some ignore cautions being consumed annually by junior to receive from home or school. about “safe sex,” and others seek and senior high school students Even parents with strong parenting an “ultimate high” from illicit drugs alone.14 skills cannot ensure that their chil- or possession of a deadly weapon. dren will not become involved in Youth Gangs gangs, particularly in low-income, Drugs and Delinquency Today, youth gangs exist in nearly problem-ridden neighborhoods. Although researchers have not every State. One expert estimates established a definite causal that more than 3,875 youth gangs Youth gang research has focused link between drug use and delin- with a total of more than 200,000 extensively on the gang–drug quency, they have confirmed a gang members are established in nexus. Recent research, however, delinquency–illegal drug use corre- the 79 largest U.S. cities.15 Gang ac- suggests that there is also a signifi- lation. In the 1987 Survey of Chil- tivity has extended beyond the in- cant connection among gang in- dren in Custody, 81 percent of ner city of major population centers volvement, gang violence, and wards in State-operated institutions into smaller communities and sub- firearms. In one study based on responded affirmatively when urbs. Today’s gangs are best charac- responses from 835 male inmates questioned about lifetime use of terized by their diversity in ethnic in 6 juvenile correctional facilities drugs.13 Nearly half (48 percent) composition, geographical location, in 4 States, researchers found that admitted to being under the influ- organization, and the nature and movement from nongang member- ence of drugs or alcohol while com- extent of members’ involvement ship to gang membership brought mitting the offense for which they in delinquent and/or criminal ac- increases in most forms of gun- were institutionalized. Although tivities.16 In the 79 U.S. cities with involved conduct. Forty-five per- there is some variance across of- populations over 200,000, 91 percent described gun theft as a regu- fense categories, the percentage of cent reported having a gang prob- lar gang activity. Sixty-eight percent institutionalized wards who re- lem that had spread from the streets said their gang regularly bought ported being under the influence into areas traditionally considered and sold guns, and 61 percent de- of drugs or alcohol at the time of safe havens, such as schools.17 In the scribed “driving around shooting at the offense ranged from 34 percent Chicago metropolitan area, all pub- people you don’t like” as a regular 20 in the case of rape offenses to 51 lic and some parochial high schools, gang activity. percent for robberies and 59 percent including many in suburban Cook Additionally, experts report that for drug possession. County, reported evidence of gang gangs appear to be increasing their activity.18 Although the link between drug organizational sophistication and use by juveniles involved in serious Researchers have identified a num- their propensity for individual and 21 delinquency and by those not at- ber of factors that put youth at collective violence. These struc- tending school is well documented, risk of gang involvement: poverty, tural and behavioral changes are drug use by another segment of school failure, substance abuse, often, but not universally, attrib- the youth population not consid- family dysfunction, and domestic uted to the impact of the drug trade ered to be at risk—students who and societal violence.19 Easy access and the availability of firearms. have progressed to their senior year to illicit drugs and the perceived Another study indicates that gang in high school—also continues to financial rewards of drug dealing homicide settings differ from be the focus of serious concern. pose attractive alternatives for nongang homicide settings in that According to the results of a 1994 youth with inadequate education they are more likely to involve pub- national household survey, monthly and limited employment opportu- lic areas, automobiles, and firearms, 22 marijuana use among 12- to 17- nities, leading them into high-risk among other elements. The re- year-olds nearly doubled from 1992 behaviors and potential gang in- searchers further speculate that to 1994—from 4.0 percent of stu- volvement. Gang recruits often location, automobile involvement, dents surveyed to 7.3 percent—fol- have a poor self-image, low self- and gun presence suggest potential lowing a steady decline in drug use esteem, and little adult participa- points of intervention. from 1979 to 1992. The survey also tion in their lives. Some of them are

35 Effective and police look for any infractions that cause firearms, unlike narcotics or give them legal authority to search a other forms of contraband, are not Promising car or pedestrian for illegal guns. easily disposable, they often pro- Strategies and Special gun-intercept teams have vide a history of the criminal and Programs proven to be 10 times more cost ef- can link the individual to other fective than regular police patrols.25 crimes and provide valuable intelli- Getting Guns Out of gence about the offender’s criminal the Hands of Juveniles Targeted on an 80-block neighbor- associates. Consequently, firearms Research suggests that to reduce hood with a homicide rate 20 times can be an Achilles’ heel for gangs the environment of fear and the national average, the Kansas and violent criminals.27 achieve the greatest reduction in City program reduced crime by at Focusing on Gang the number of weapon-carrying least 50 percent during a 6-month period. In addition, the program Prevention, Intervention, youth, efforts must be directed at and Suppression Strategies frequent weapon carriers.23 Youth did not displace crime to other loca- gun-reduction and fear-reduction tions—gun crimes did not increase A combination of prevention, inter- strategies should reinforce one significantly in any of the surround- vention, and suppression strategies another. One expert suggests a ing seven patrol beats. Despite the has been implemented in communi- “market disruption” approach, fact that previous police campaigns ties across the United States to such as that used to fight street had drawn protests of discrimina- address the problem of gangs. It drug markets.24 Police have been tion, the gun-intercept program did is imperative that any program, successful in reducing drug traf- not experience such protests. Police whether prevention, intervention, ficking in communities by using had involved community and reli- suppression, or any combination community allies to report new gious leaders in initial planning, of these, be based in sound theory dealing sites, making buyers feel and neighborhoods had actively and work closely with the juvenile vulnerable by publicizing reverse sought greater police activity. Re- justice system. Specifically, policies sting operations in which police sults of a recent program evaluation and programs must be based on pose as dealers and arrest buyers, funded by the National Institute of appropriate targeting of both insti- and interfering with business Justice (NIJ) indicate that this strat- tutions and youth, as well as their by loitering around dealer sites. egy appears very promising: gun relation to each other at a specific Community support and youth crimes in the target neighborhoods time and place. For example, it is involvement in planning and declined 49 percent and drive-by important to focus on youth enter- implementation are critical to the shootings and homicides also ing or leaving a gang and on the 26 effectiveness of such an operation. dropped significantly. developmental stage of the gang problem.28 The Kansas City (MO) Gun Experi- The Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, ment is an example of a successful and Firearms’ (ATF’s) Achilles Pro- In the late 1980’s and early 1990’s, effort. The Department of Justice gram coordinates ATF’s resources OJJDP supported the completion (DOJ), the U.S. Attorney’s Office, with State and local law enforce- of two phases of a National Youth and the Kansas City Police Depart- ment to combat armed, violent Gang Suppression and Intervention ment worked together to form a gangs and armed narcotics traffick- Program. This program has pro- working group consisting of law ers in 21 of the Nation’s communi- vided an assessment of youth gang enforcement, human service agen- ties with the highest levels of research, including definitions, cies, and community organizations firearms-related violence. This ini- the nature and causes of the youth to focus police efforts in high-crime tiative focuses on the enforcement gang phenomenon, and the effec- neighborhoods by routinely stop- of tough Federal firearms laws that tiveness of the program strategies ping traffic violators, youth in vio- require minimum/mandatory sen- used by various agencies and lation of curfews, and individuals tencing with no chance of parole for organizations in the community.29 involved in other infractions of the convicted offenders. The Achilles The need for conclusive evalua- law. During these routine stops, Program targets gangs that lure tions of these strategies was empha- juveniles into a life of crime. Be- sized, but the following common

36 elements appear to be associated (Comprehensive Response Initia- These components represent a with the sustained reduction of tive). Five jurisdictions have been comprehensive Federal effort to gang problems: awarded funds to begin a 3-year prevent, intervene, and suppress effort to implement the comprehen- youth gang violence and to help • Leaders must recognize that sive model developed under the communities learn what programs gangs are present in the commu- Gang Suppression and Intervention and strategies are effective. nity and that suppression strate- Program. These demonstration gies must be complemented by sites, which are experiencing an With support from OJJDP, the prevention and intervention emerging or chronic gang problem, Boys and Girls Clubs of America strategies. are Mesa and Tucson, AZ; River- has successfully expanded its Tar- side, CA; Bloomington, IL; and San geted Outreach Program through • Community leaders must reach Antonio, TX. its local clubs. This program, de- a consensus on the nature of the signed to serve at-risk youth, is cur- problem and the critical points Other components of the Compre- rently used as a strategy for youth for intervention. hensive Response Initiative are: gang prevention and to intervene with gang members in the early • The combined leadership of the • The National Youth Gang Center, stages of gang involvement. This justice system and community- operated by the Institute for In- program has been implemented in based organizations must focus tergovernmental Research lo- over 200 clubs, reaching tens of on the mobilization of political cated in Tallahassee, FL, which is thousands of young people. The and community resources to designed to assist State and local clubs offer positive activities as address gang problems. jurisdictions in the collection, alternatives to the lure of gangs. analysis, and exchange of gang- • Leaders must create a mecha- The organization’s national office related statistics, legislation, re- nism or structure to coordinate provides training and technical search, and promising program communitywide efforts. assistance to local clubs that are strategies. potential expansion sites. A 1992 • A team comprising representa- evaluation of this program found • An independent evaluation tives from law enforcement, that 90 percent of the youth served of the Gang Suppression and In- prosecutors, judges, probation, by the program attended the club tervention Program to determine corrections, schools, community- once a week or more and that 48 how the five demonstration sites, based organizations, grassroots percent showed improvement in confronted by chronic or emerg- agencies, and other groups must school behavior. Over one-third ing gang problems, can effec- prepare a set of policies and reported improved grades and tively plan and implement a practices for the design and mo- an additional one-third reported comprehensive anti-gang vio- bilization of community efforts. increased attendance.30 lence model program and to test OJJDP’s Comprehensive Commu- the efficacy of such a model. ATF continues to support gang pre- nity-Wide Approach to Gang vention efforts nationwide through • Training and technical assistance Prevention, Intervention, and the Gang Resistance Education and in areas such as community Suppression (Gang Suppression Training (GREAT) Program. GREAT mobilization, youth gang prob- and Intervention) Program pro- is an educational, school-based lem assessment, program strat- vides policies and practices and a gang prevention program that was egy design, and data collection detailed analysis of how various originally developed in response to and analysis to support commu- components of a community can, an escalating youth gang problem nities in their planning and in partnership, approach chronic in metropolitan Phoenix, AZ. Rep- implementation efforts. and emerging gang problems. resentatives from ATF, area law • Targeted dissemination and enforcement agencies, and local OJJDP is in the process of complet- acquisition of youth gang-related educators designed GREAT to help ing the final phases (implementa- resources, including publica- children set goals, make sound tion and testing) of this program tions, manuals, and research judgments, learn how to resolve through A Comprehensive Re- findings through OJJDP’s Juve- conflicts without violence, and sponse to America’s Gang Problem nile Justice Clearinghouse. understand how gangs and youth violence negatively affect the quality of their lives. The GREAT

37 curriculum provides teenagers with ment provides another promising tion that the authorities cannot critical skills and information to model that specifically targets pub- protect them or maintain order resist gang involvement and learn lic housing. Funded by the Bureau in their neighborhoods.34 Other to become responsible members of Justice Assistance (BJA), the researchers believe that the funda- of society. GREAT also offers op- Building Interdiction Team Effort mental challenge with youth and tional curriculums for grades three (BITE) secures the perimeters of firearms is to convince youth that to six, as well as a followup sum- buildings, challenges suspicious they can survive in their neigh- mer recreation program. persons, patrols and searches com- borhoods without being armed.35 mon areas and vacant apartments, Successfully reducing firearm pos- To date, 1,300 officers from more and conducts searches of occupied session means reducing both per- than 530 agencies representing units with tenant consent. This con- ceived environmental dangers and 45 States, the District of Columbia, centrated effort on the part of police actual opportunities for weapon- and military bases overseas, have is sending a clear message to the associated violence.36 Because the been trained to present the core gangs that these buildings contain fear of assault is often stated as the curriculum in elementary, junior family homes and are neither ha- reason youth carry firearms, pro- high, and middle school class- vens for criminal activity nor turf to grams should be implemented that rooms. Since the program’s incep- be claimed. Preliminary results indi- address the risk of victimization, tion in 1992, more than 2 million cate that the program has improved improve school safety, and foster a children have received GREAT overall safety and reduced drug secure community environment.37 program training. trafficking in one housing development and drug-related violence in Law enforcement agencies increas- Nuestro Centro (Our Center) Gang, another.32 ingly emphasize that juvenile Drug, and Dropout Intervention delinquency prevention and inter- Program in Dallas, TX, inaugurated The San Diego Urban Street Gang vention are key elements of com- in 1991 with OJJDP funds, took Drug Trafficking Enforcement Dem- munity oriented policing. However, a grassroots preventive approach onstration Project, funded by BJA, many law enforcement agencies to the problem of juvenile violence. is another example of a successful and community organizations lack Citizens and community leaders approach. It targets young adult the information and resources to in a predominantly minority neigh- (ages 18 to 25) gang leaders identi- intervene effectively in situations borhood decided to take back their fied by law enforcement as being involving youthful offenders. Pub- streets by converting an abandoned involved in drug trafficking and lic safety and prevention strategies fire station into a community-run gang-perpetrated violence and can provide comprehensive, tar- youth center. Participants in the whose apprehension and prose- geted, community services and afterschool program are unem- cution would significantly alleviate support to at-risk youth. The ployed and undereducated youth or prevent an increase in drug traf- Action Plan supports youth-focused affected by drug abuse, gangs, ficking, related violence, and eco- community oriented policing and school problems, family problems, nomic disruption of the community. believes it has the potential to con- physical and sexual abuse, and de- During the first 2 years, over 160 tribute significantly to the reduction linquency. Through the dedicated hardcore gang members were ar- of crime, disorder, and fear. work of counselors and volunteers, rested and successfully prosecuted most of whom live in the neighbor- through these operations. Using In 1992, the New Haven (CT) Police hood, the program has shown sig- enhanced prosecution strategies, Department and the Yale Child nificant success in deterring gang targeted gang members received Study Center initiated the Child violence and drug use, with 95 lengthy prison terms, which re- Development–Community Policing percent of participants surveyed duced gang violence in San Diego.33 Program. Although not specifically involved in educational activities, dedicated to gun, gang, or drug including school, general equiva- Enhancing Youth-Focused reduction, this police department lency diploma (GED) preparation, Community Oriented Policing uses officers to work with children 31 and vocational training. Research from the Center for the and their families to prevent violent Study and Prevention of Violence juvenile crime and to help them A joint effort between the Chicago suggests that violence may be a cope with the stress caused by liv- Police Department and the Chicago response to young people’s percep- ing with violence. A key element of Housing Authority Police Depart-

38 the program is to increase police neighborhoods and serves as a effective antidote to the culture of officers’ level of confidence and vehicle for information sharing violence.43 Adult programs focusing competence in working with youth and problemsolving at the neigh- on parenting skills can complement who have been victims of or wit- borhood level. The program led youth gun violence prevention pro- nesses to violence, recognizing a to a drop in violent crime in the grams. Classes on gun violence and child’s emotional needs, and under- targeted neighborhoods. its impact on victims should be pro- standing family dynamics. This vided in juvenile justice programs, approach is also intended to enable Promoting Maturity schools, and community settings. clinicians to intervene at the time of and Respect for Life crisis and have a better understand- Developmental issues associated Reducing Firearms ing of the risk factors and problems with a lack of maturity can contrib- Availability, Strengthening Regulations, and Applying that lead to violence and crime. ute to youth violence. Young people Technological Innovations seldom understand the full impact Other youth-focused community of their behavior.38 This lack of Safer gun design, regulation, oriented policing strategies and awareness of consequences coupled product liability, increased sales programs that have demonstrated with a tendency to respond with tax, firearm registration and promise and/or effectiveness violence can be a lethal combina- licensure, background checks, and include: tion. Prevention strategies that help ammunition modification are ways youth to understand the impact to reduce the dangers and availabil- • Reintegrative Policing Strategies, of and take responsibility for their ity of guns.44 Stricter legislation and in which law enforcement offi- actions and that demonstrate ways assault weapon and illegal hand- cers help juveniles make the to handle problems without resort- gun bans are approaches almost transition into the community ing to violence can be highly effec- unanimously suggested by re- following secure confinement. tive.39 Such programs should be searchers as ways to limit the acces- 45 • Police Athletic Leagues (PAL), in available to high-risk youth be- sibility of guns to youth. The which police provide a wide ar- tween the fifth and sixth grades, National Rifle Association also fa- ray of youth activities and pro- when violence-prone attitudes vors regulations relating to the ac- grams that serve as alternatives appear to increase and become cess and misuse of firearms by to gang involvement, drug use, entrenched. minors, particularly at the State 46 and other delinquency. level. Figure 10 highlights the 16 Research has shown that in addi- States that prohibited the posses- • Futures Programs in Philadel- tion to the environment of fear in sion of handguns by juveniles in phia, PA, and other jurisdictions, which many youth live, the culture 1993. In addition to these States, all in which police officers serve as of the illicit gun trade has popular- but three of the States and Territo- mentors and role models, focus- ized firearms and made backing ries have code provisions relating to ing on the academic achievement down from arguments and “losing juvenile possession of firearms. 40 of at-risk students. face” difficult for young people. Self-defense, the need to show An evaluation of the effectiveness • Kids and Kops Day, part of the off, or the need to ensure respect of local gun laws and policies Santa Ana (CA) Police Depart- and acquiescence from others can shows that mandatory sentencing ment’s youth-related activities, also contribute to youth gun vio- laws for felonies involving a fire- in which police officers spend a lence.41 Other studies indicate that arm have prevented gun-related day with at-risk youth attending youth who respond aggressively violent crime.47 Restrictive handgun recreational and cultural events to shame, who find guns exciting, laws also show indications of effec- and participating in community who feel comfortable with aggres- tiveness.48 Other types of laws have activities. sion, and who believe that guns not been evaluated adequately to bring power and safety are most determine their effectiveness. • Multidisciplinary team building, likely to engage in gun violence.42 such as the Family Assessment Thus, prevention programs that Technological changes are an Services Teams of the Norfolk promote self-esteem, respect for important approach to reducing (VA) Police Assisted Community others, cultural pride, and nonvio- both youth gun violence and the Enforcement project, which ad- lent conflict resolution can be an extensive use of guns against dresses the needs of multiprob- their owners. Low prices49 and lem families in targeted

39 OJJDP supports the implementation Figure 10: State juvenile handgun prohibitions of the Congress of National Black Churches’ National Anti-Drug/ Violence Campaign’s (NADVC’s) Technical Assistance and Training At the end of 1993, 16 States had laws prohibiting the possession of Program. This program implements handguns by juveniles national training and technical assistance designed to increase public awareness and mobilize residents to address the problems of drug abuse and related crimes in targeted communities throughout the United District States. It also works to summon, of Columbia focus, and coordinate church, public, and community leadership to launch local anti-drug campaigns. This campaign is being implemented in 37 cities involving 1,760 State laws regarding handgun possession clergy and affecting about 500,000 by juveniles members. NADVC has helped the No possession below age 21 No possession below age 18 sites leverage over $13.4 million Possession allowed below age 18 in direct funding to local site anti- Note: Analysis conducted 10/94; some provisions effective 1/1/95. drug, anti-violence initiatives. Source: Snyder, H., and M. Sickmund. 1995 (August). Juvenile Offenders and Through its Community Anti- Victims: A National Report. Washington, D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice and Drug Abuse Technical Assistance Delinquency Prevention, U.S. Department of Justice. Voucher Project, OJJDP assists the National Center for Neighborhood Enterprise (NCNE) to extend its outreach to community-based innovations in firearm and ammu- The 1995 National Drug Control grassroots organizations that are nition manufacturing50 further in- Strategy53 empowers communities working to solve the problem of crease the lethal nature of youth to respond to their own drug prob- juvenile drug abuse. The project gun violence. Firearm design re- lem through initiatives such as com- has three goals: quirements are both technological munity policing and the Safe and and legal interventions that can Drug-Free School and Communities • To allow various neighborhood decrease accessibility of deadly Program. The Strategy seeks to re- groups to inexpensively pur- weapons by young people. duce chronic, hardcore drug use chase needed services through through treatment, including the the use of technical assistance Preventing and Treating support of drug courts, substance vouchers disbursed by NCNE. Drug Abuse abuse treatment in detention and • To demonstrate the cost-effective Additional support for drug and secure confinement facilities, and use of vouchers to help neigh- alcohol prevention and treatment a Substance Abuse Performance borhood groups secure technical is also an effective anti-violence Partnership, which coordinates assistance for anti-drug abuse strategy.51 Reducing the illicit drug the activities of national substance projects to serve high-risk youth. trade would reduce drug-related abuse prevention organizations. violence as well as drug-induced Finally, it places critical emphasis • To extend OJJDP technical violence. In addition, researchers on source countries, focusing on assistance to groups that are have shown that a reduction in the programs to achieve democratic traditionally excluded because number of juveniles selling drugs is institution building, dismantling they lack the administrative likely to reduce the carrying of con- narcotics trafficking organizations, sophistication, technical and cealed weapons, particularly and interdicting drugs. grantsmanship skills, and guns.52

40 resources to participate in all participate in advocating for the field officers were unhappy with traditional competitive grant freedom of our youth from gun, KCDC because they felt the housing programs. gang, and drug violence. authority was not sufficiently addressing crime. KCDC saw its role NCNE provides support to com- Youth who embrace the culture of as limited to the housing business munity groups in developing violence are most likely to be those and felt the police department and implementing a strategy who feel that they have no stake in should be the agency to address all under DOJ’s Operation Weed society and no trust in the adults crime-related issues. and Seed program; functions as a who are supposed to provide them clearinghouse for information on with safety and guidance. Commu- Members of the police department community anti-drug prevention nities must address the culture of and KCDC took action to become initiatives; and reviews technical violence and lack of opportunity involved in a citywide, multiagency assistance applications to select and alternatives, reaching out to committee to look at the city’s crime up to 25 eligible community-based, youth who feel disenfranchised problem. From this group, members anti-drug programs for award from the adult world and providing of the police department and KCDC vouchers. Vouchers, which range them with positive opportunities.55 developed a strong working rela- in value from $1,000 to $10,000, An effective strategy is one that in- tionship and collaborated to exam- can be used for planning, proposal cludes young people as a resource ine ways to reduce crime and writing, program promotion, legal and provides legitimate activities improve the quality of life in KCDC assistance, financial management, and opportunities for them.56 housing projects. and other activities. Research has shown that high levels Significant outcomes in KCDC Selection of voucher awardees and of poverty, high rates of single- housing projects have been pro- amounts is determined by the de- parent households, educational duced through Operation Safe gree to which applicants meet the failure, and a widespread sense of Home, which is part of the broader following criteria: not previously economic hopelessness exacerbate collaborative efforts of the U.S. De- funded by NCNE; lack of access to the cycle of fear or diffusion phe- partment of Housing and Urban traditional funding sources; need nomenon and increase the use of Development (HUD) and DOJ. for technical assistance and train- guns by young people.57 Youth Drug dealing has been disrupted. ing; small budget; comprehensive- drug involvement, crime in neigh- Many drug offenders have been ness of youth anti-drug programs; borhoods, and violence portrayed evicted, making housing develop- and clarity and feasibility of strate- in the media are also factors con- ments safer. Fences have been in- gies presented in the application tributing to the use of guns by stalled. Shrubbery has been cut to NCNE. young people.58 Therefore, the back to reveal criminals’ hiding Action Plan endorses support and places. Where there was little or Building Community and service systems for families and poor lighting, new high-pressure Increasing Opportunity neighborhoods that complement sodium lights have been installed, Youth gun and drug violence re- any intervention focused on the and a general cleanup has taken searchers agree that the strategies individual. place. Diversity training is being suggested above should be accom- provided to police department em- plished by a broad coalition of indi- In the past decade, Knoxville, TN, ployees to help them gain a better viduals and organizations.54 Crime along with many other cities, expe- understanding of cultural differ- control professionals, public health rienced a growth in crime and ences and to facilitate the process of and other health professionals, drug-related problems in its public community oriented policing. As a victims’ families, educators, law- housing communities. During this result of the drug abuse prevention makers and criminologists, gun same time, communications and education initiatives and the pro- control groups, community-based liaison between the police depart- gressive intervention of the collabo- organizations, the elderly, the ment and the municipal housing ration, violent crimes in Knoxville armed services, the Federal Com- authority, the Knoxville Commu- for 1993 were on the decline.59 munications Commission, and the nity Development Corporation U.S. Civil Rights Commission can (KCDC), were unsatisfactory. Many

41 Implementing assistance to help law enforcement BJA will establish and fund a Comprehensive Curfew agencies improve their capabilities national law enforcement organiza- Initiatives to respond to serious juvenile crime tion to provide training and admin- Communities are increasingly and contribute more effectively to istrative support to the Interstate recognizing the importance of delinquency prevention. Firearms Trafficking Compact, com- integrating curfew legislation with posed of 14 States and the District HUD will support agency efforts youth services such as job training of Columbia, which works to elimi- to combat drug trafficking in pub- and placement opportunities, indi- nate illegal gun trafficking and to lic and Native American housing vidual and family counseling pro- improve the investigation and developments by encouraging grams, and youth development prosecution of cases involving the housing authorities to address recreational programs, in an effort criminal use of firearms. drug-related activities, reimburs- to further reduce juvenile crime ing local law enforcement agencies, DOJ will support continuation of and victimization. enhancing security in housing de- interagency partnerships that pro- The curfew program in Phoenix, velopments, and providing social mote comprehensive, community- AZ, illustrates one city’s multifac- services to residents. based gun interdiction strategies eted response to juvenile curfew and will work with community or- ATF’s Project Uptown will address violations. A review of an ineffec- ganizations to ensure that schools, the problem of armed gangs and tive curfew ordinance enacted in public housing developments, and armed narcotics trafficking in public 1968 led to the formation of a part- other high-priority settings are free housing. The New York City Up- nership between the police depart- from gun violence. town initiative involves the concen- ment and the Parks, Recreation, tration of enforcement resources by ATF will implement the Violence and Library Department. Curfew ATF, the New York Housing Au- Reduction Alliance (VRA), a com- violators, detained by police, are thority Police Department, and the prehensive, nationwide strategy to supervised by recreation specialists Office of the U.S. Attorney in se- stop illegal firearms trafficking. at the city’s gymnasiums. They are lected public housing developments VRA will coordinate the resources counseled and engaged in recre- to reduce gang-related violence. of Federal, State, and local law en- ational activities until parents ar- forcement to combat and prosecute rive. An additional aspect of the With experience gained through violent criminals and also target for Phoenix curfew program involves Project Uptown, ATF, in cooper- prosecution illegal firearms traffick- targeting juvenile curfew violators ation with HUD, developed a suc- ers who supply firearms to violent who are also gang members. They, cessful strategy and guidebook criminals. Through VRA, ATF will too, are counseled and exposed to entitled Addressing Violent Crime in provide support to investigative positive alternatives to gang affilia- 60 Public Housing Developments, which efforts with Project LEAD, the ille- tion. Some curfew offenders receive it will disseminate to interested gal firearms trafficking data base, followup care to determine if fur- individuals. and ATF’s National Firearms Trac- ther support services are needed. ing Center. These curfew programs have To enable the criminal justice worked because other services, system to react more effectively to BJA will document promising such as recreation and parental the problem of youth and drugs, suppression and interdiction strate- counseling, are part of an inte- NIJ will fund research to assess gies to assist other jurisdictions grated strategy. the magnitude of youth gang that wish to implement such involvement in drug trafficking. Federal Action approaches. Steps Support Interagency Gun BJA and OJJDP will provide funds and Drug Interdiction and to assist State and local jurisdictions Enhance Law Enforcement’s Suppression Strategies to develop and implement new or Capacity To Respond to The Coordinating Council will sup- enhanced strategies to prevent Juvenile Crime and Drug port the Office of National Drug the illegal possession and use of Trafficking Control Policy (ONDCP) in imple- firearms by youth. Through its law enforcement menting its National Drug Control and training contract, OJJDP will Strategy to eradicate drug sources provide training and technical and reduce the demand for drugs.

42 Get Guns Out of Schools Support U.S. Attorneys’ intervene in youth gang activities. Efforts To Advance Local The Department of Education The agencies will use their par- Anti-Crime Initiatives (ED) will provide guidance to ticular areas of expertise in a com- local schools and law enforcement U.S. Attorneys’ offices in each prehensive effort to address the agencies to implement the Gun- Federal Judicial District will work pervasive, multifaceted problems Free Schools Act of 1994, 8 U.S.C. with Federal, State, and local law of youth gangs and associated vio- § 14601. The law requires States enforcement agencies to identify, lence. DOJ will provide leadership that receive Federal elementary and target, and investigate individuals in implementing gang suppression secondary education funds to re- who engage in illegal trafficking, and intervention strategies, coordi- quire school districts to expel for at sales, possession, or use of firearms. nating its efforts with the Depart- least 1 year any student who brings Prosecution will be vigorously pur- ment of Health and Human a gun to school, subject to certain sued through the Federal and State Services (HHS), which has tradi- exceptions. The law also requires courts. Each office will implement tionally focused on community- local education agencies that re- the following strategies to support based prevention efforts. ceive Federal funding to adopt a State and local efforts to get guns In a key element of the DOJ strat- mandatory policy of referring stu- out of the hands of young people: egy, U.S. Attorneys will work with dents who bring firearms or other law enforcement agencies at the weapons to school to law enforce- • Enforce laws and prosecute Federal, State, and local levels ment agencies. violators in order to disrupt the illegal gun trade. through the operation of task forces ED will work with OJJDP to sup- to identify, apprehend, and pros- port alternative education pro- • Work with State and local offi- ecute certain gang-involved juve- grams to keep youth expelled for cials to enhance enforcement nile offenders in Federal and State weapons violations off the streets. of laws concerning illegal traf- courts. ficking in firearms and the use ATF will continue to trace all fire- of guns to commit crimes. NIJ will fund research to examine arms recovered from juveniles the criminal behavior of gang mem- at school or at the scene of a crime • Provide encouragement to State bers, including motivation to join through the juvenile firearms trac- and local agencies to trace guns and remain in gangs, the role of ing initiative operating at the Na- seized from juveniles through gang life in criminal activity, and tional Tracing Center. When ATF’s juvenile firearms tracing involvement in the illegal economy. warranted, ATF will investigate program. In addition, NIJ will conduct re- and recommend to the local U.S. search on the effectiveness of spe- • Launch targeted enforcement Attorney’s Office for prosecution cial anti-gang legislation and gang efforts related to juveniles’ in- those individuals found to be pro- prosecution units. volvement in firearms traffick- viding firearms illegally to juve- ing, sales, possession, or use. BJA, OJJDP, and HHS will coordi- niles. ATF will also analyze the nate, evaluate, and enhance their juvenile firearms trace data to de- • Actively participate in delin- gang prevention, intervention, and termine trends in armed juvenile quency prevention efforts suppression activities. Research will crime and frequent sources of fire- through Operation Weed and focus on identifying the prevalence arms for juveniles. This program Seed and other community- and characteristics of violent gangs; will permit Federal law enforce- based initiatives. examining gang behavior; evaluat- ment to more accurately gauge ing prevention and intervention the extent of firearms in schools • Use public outreach to promote strategies; and analyzing the rela- and to direct limited Federal pros- increased personal responsibility tionship among gang participation, ecution resources in the most among youth concerning the use gang delinquency, and individual effective manner. of guns. violence. Target Youth Gang Violence BJA will continue to support the Federal agencies will increase their Comprehensive Gang Initiative, efforts to work cooperatively at the which provides funds to eight local national, State, and local levels to

43 jurisdictions including four sites sites, which will serve more than • Enhance law enforcement in the that participate in the Comprehen- 1,500 additional high-risk and gang- community. sive Communities Program. involved youth. • Increase information sharing OJJDP will continue to support HHS’ Family and Youth Services among key agencies, organiza- the Comprehensive Response Bureau (FYSB) has awarded six tions, and the community. Initiative, including the activities grants to implement action plans of the National Youth Gang Center, developed through the Youth Gang • Enhance linkages and coopera- the five demonstration sites of the Drug Prevention Program. In FY tion among community agencies Gang Suppression Intervention 1994, FYSB awarded 21 grants un- and organizations. Program, the independent evalua- der this program to develop 5-year • Provide a common framework tion of this demonstration effort, action plans to transform the envi- for decisionmaking and a com- the provision of training and tech- ronment, circumstances, and atti- prehensive interdisciplinary nical assistance to these demonstra- tudes that put youth at risk for approach to problemsolving. tion sites, and the targeted acquisi- unhealthy behaviors. The grantees tion and dissemination of youth were required to work closely with • Focus on prevention as well as gang-related resources through the youth, parents, community-based intervention for delinquent and Juvenile Justice Clearinghouse. organizations, police departments, at-risk youth. schools, churches, and local busi- OJJDP will expand the implementa- nesses to determine the most critical A youth-focused community ori- tion of the comprehensive model developmental needs of youth, ented policing training and techni- developed through the Gang Sup- identify gaps in services, and sup- cal assistance package based on pression and Intervention Program port schools, health systems, and these principles will be developed. by up to six additional demonstra- other agencies in collaborative ef- tion sites, as part of OJJDP’s Safe- forts to serve youth. Provide Information on Futures program. These additional Curfew Programs for demonstration sites will also ben- Advance Youth-Focused Juveniles efit from the other components Community Oriented Policing In response to heightened concern of the Comprehensive Response In a joint effort, DOJ’s Community among community residents as a Initiative. Oriented Policing Service Office, result of increased violent juvenile the Community Relations Service, crime and victimization, many OJJDP will establish a Gang Con- and OJJDP will develop a Youth- jurisdictions have sought various sortium, as part of OJJDP’s Com- Focused Community Oriented Po- means to protect themselves and prehensive Response Initiative, to licing Initiative designed to assist the community at large while ad- facilitate and expand ongoing coor- up to 31 communities in implement- dressing the need to reduce the dination and enhance youth gang ing effective community oriented incidence of such crime and victim- prevention, intervention, and sup- policing strategies that focus on ization. One method that has pression policies and activities, in- juvenile crime, disorder, and related gained widespread use and atten- cluding information exchange and community problems. tion is juvenile curfew ordinances. technical assistance services of the In order to help jurisdictions better many Federal agencies with pro- Although each program imple- understand curfews and the sur- gram emphasis on youth gangs mented will focus on a different set rounding controversy, the elements and related problems. of problems within the community, of effective curfew ordinances, and a set of similar activities will be un- OJJDP will continue to support their accompanying enforcement dertaken to: research of various gangs and programs, OJJDP is developing a summary document designed to gang-related issues. OJJDP will also • Involve the community and assist jurisdictions interested in es- continue to support the expansion youth in problem identification tablishing a juvenile curfew ordi- of the Boys & Girls Clubs’ Targeted and resolution. Outreach Program to over 30 more nance and enforcement program.

44 The document will describe the Chiefs of Police. Working with ED, services. In addition, NIJ will con- two-pronged strict scrutiny test OJJDP will broadly disseminate tinue to fund research to evaluate some jurisdictions have addressed this information to U.S. Attorneys, the effectiveness of drug court and satisfied for a curfew law chiefs of police, education organiza- programs. or ordinance to be valid on Con- tions, juvenile justice specialists, stitutional grounds. Up to seven and other agencies and individuals. Support Community Efforts curfew ordinances and their To Prevent Substance Abuse and Help Youth Resist community-based curfew enforce- The National Criminal Justice Pressure To Use Drugs ment programs will be highlighted Reference Service (NCJRS) will with information on resources, provide information on youth vio- The HHS Center for Substance organizations, and jurisdictional lence and guns to agencies, organi- Abuse Prevention (CSAP) will contacts provided. zations, and individuals. This provide Federal leadership in service will bridge the gap between promoting the development of Disseminate Information criminal justice and public health comprehensive, long-range, on Model Youth Handgun research by synthesizing and inte- multidisciplinary, communitywide Legislation and Strategies grating existing research and cata- programs to address alcohol and for Reducing Gun Violence loging ongoing projects in these other drug use prevention through Pursuant to the Youth Handgun areas. In addition to providing the Community Partnership dem- Safety Act, OJJDP funded the Na- an automated data base of criminal onstration program. This program tional Criminal Justice Association and juvenile justice firearms supports the development of coali- to survey State handgun laws and research, NCJRS provides special- tions or partnerships comprising ordinances and convene a broad- ized support services to assist public and private organizations, based group of experts to develop a clearinghouse users. agencies, and institutions to iden- draft model youth handgun law, Provide Research on the tify the needs and service gaps in with commentary, for the Attorney Efficacy of Drug Abuse each community, to establish priori- General’s consideration in formu- Prevention and Treatment ties, to coordinate new and estab- lating a proposed Model Code. Fol- Models lished prevention programs in the lowing the submission of the Model community, and to help public and Code to Congress, DOJ will work NIJ will support a project to de- private organizations promote and with governors, attorneys general, velop a comprehensive analysis of support drug abuse prevention and State legislators to encourage drug treatment methods and pro- programs. consideration and adoption of grams for both juvenile and adult youth handgun legislation in all offenders. CSAP will also support the High- States and U.S. Territories. Risk Youth Demonstration Pro- Promote the Development gram,61 which seeks to counteract To support community efforts to of Juvenile Drug Courts factors that place a child at risk for curb youth gun violence, OJJDP DOJ, through the Office of Justice using alcohol, tobacco, or illegal will also disseminate a directory of Programs Drug Court Office, will drugs. Projects funded through this effective anti-gun programs. The provide grants to local govern- initiative will focus on three specific directory will contain a summary of ments to establish and operate drug areas: current research on youth gun vio- court programs, including juvenile lence, legislation, and contact infor- drug courts, that provide judicial • Decreasing the incidence and mation for organizations working supervision over nonviolent offend- prevalence of alcohol and other to address this issue. ers with substance abuse problems. drug use among high-risk youth. Drug court programs typically in- • Identifying and reducing factors In addition, OJJDP will develop a clude mandatory, periodic drug in the individual, parents, ex- guide to implementing promising testing; substance abuse treatment; tended family, school, peer strategies to reduce youth gun diversion, probation, and other group, and neighborhoods violence based upon site assess- types of supervised release; and that place youth at risk for using ments of innovative programs by offender management and aftercare the International Association of alcohol and other drugs.

45 • Increasing youth resiliency as a developed by ATF for canines in ate revisions to eliminate illegal way to counter peer pressure to explosives detection. ATF has insti- handgun possession and use by use alcohol and other drugs. tuted a program that uses its own youth. canine team to detect explosives or CSAP will disseminate a directory firearms, recover evidence, and • Initiate interagency law en- of Federal programs that make present demonstrations. Efforts are forcement efforts to develop grants to States, communities, and also under way to make this pro- comprehensive gun prevention, private agencies for drug abuse gram available to State and local intervention, and suppression prevention and intervention activi- law enforcement. strategies such as gun buy-back ties. The directory describes the programs. Federal grantmaking process, pro- NIJ will support the publication of vides a catalog of applicable Fed- Smart Gun Technology Requirements: • Involve youth in planning and eral grants and other funding A Preliminary Report. The primary implementing youth-focused programs, and includes informa- purpose of the report is to state the community oriented policing tion on additional Federal and pri- requirements for a smart gun tech- programs. vate resources. The appendixes nology that would limit the use of • Consider using juvenile curfew contain the most current State-by- firearms to authorized users. The laws and related programs as State information on Federal for- secondary purpose of the report is one element of a comprehensive mula grants and housing authority technology transfer. For this report, approach to reducing juvenile grants and list High-Intensity Drug Sandia National Laboratories has violence and victimization. Trafficking Area program coordina- collected information from law tors and State points of contact for enforcement agencies, firearm • Promote community-based drug-related programs. manufacturers, and others. In addi- collaborative efforts to assess tion, NIJ will sponsor technology community gun, gang, and ONDCP will promote Federal development to create a concealed drug problems; develop appro- agency partnerships with State, weapon detection system. priate suppression, intervention, community, and national substance and prevention strategies; and abuse prevention organizations to Suggestions for mobilize community resources. establish a united front against drug abuse. State and Local Action • Establish juvenile drug courts Advance Technological or sessions as a community Interventions To Reduce • Seize firearms from juvenile of- resource to address youth Gun Violence fenders in school and ensure substance abuse. that firearms information is Through its Science and Technol- • Establish, support, and enforce submitted to ATF for tracing. ogy Division, NIJ is working to drug-free and gun-free zones. identify technologies to aid law en- • Develop appropriate interven- • Teach youth about the dangers forcement in preventing the illegal tion programs for youth who of drug and alcohol abuse and acquisition and use of firearms. bring guns to schools. NIJ will continue to fund demon- help youth develop positive stration projects to assist in design- • Develop a broad-based, multi- social skills. ing guns that are harder to conceal disciplinary strategy to inform Endnotes and have trigger safeties, finger- youth about the dangers of using print identification, and loading firearms, prevent them from ille- 1. American Psychological Associa- indicators. gally possessing firearms, and tion. 1993. Violence and Youth: rigorously enforce existing fire- Psychology's Response. Washington, ATF will explore and expand arms laws as they relate to youth. D.C. the investigative application of canines in firearms detection. • Review existing State firearms Howell, J.C. 1994 (October). Recent This application was discovered statutes in light of the Youth gang research: Program and policy as a result of training methodolo- Handgun Safety Act and DOJ’s implications. Crime and Delinquency gies and protocols designed and Model Code, and make appropri- 40(4):495–515.

46 Zimring, F.E. 1986. Gun control. 7. Huizinga, D., et al. 1994. Urban 18. Ibid. Bulletin of the New York Academy of Delinquency and Substance Abuse. Medicine 62:615–621. Washington, D.C.: Office of Juvenile 19. Ibid. Justice and Delinquency Preven- 2. Snyder, H., and M. Sickmund. tion, U.S. Department of Justice. 20. Sheley, J.F., and J.D. Wright. 1995 (August). Juvenile Offenders and 1992 (June). Youth, Guns, and Vio- Victims: A National Report. Washing- 8. American Psychological Associa- lence in Urban America (paper pre- ton, D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice tion, 1993. sented at the National Conference and Delinquency Prevention, U.S. on Prosecution Strategies Against Department of Justice. 9. Blumstein, A. 1994. Youth, Vio- Armed Criminals and Gang Vio- lence, Guns, and the Illicit-Drug In- lence: Federal, State, and Local 3. Ibid. dustry. Pittsburgh, Pa.: Carnegie Coordination, San Diego, Calif.). Mellon University. Washington, D.C.: National Insti- 4. Jones, M.A., and B. Krisberg. tute of Justice, U.S. Department of 1994. Images and Reality: Juvenile 10. Fagan, J. 1995. What Do We Justice. Crime, Youth Violence, and Public Know About Gun Use Among Adoles- Policy. San Francisco, Calif.: Na- cents? Boulder, Colo.: Center for the 21. Quinn, J.F., and B. Downs. 1995 tional Council on Crime and Study and Prevention of Violence, (Spring). Predictors of gang vio- Delinquency. University of Colorado. lence: The impact of drugs and guns on police perceptions in nine 5. Allen-Hagen, B., M. Sickmund, 11. Louis Harris and Associates, States. Journal of Gang Research and H. Snyder. 1994 (November). Inc., 1993. 2(3):15–27. Juveniles and Violence: Juvenile Of- 12. Van Kammen, W., and R. fending and Victimization. Fact Sheet 22. Maxson, C.L., M.A. Gordon, Loeber. 1994. Delinquency, Drug Use #19. Washington, D.C.: Office of and M.W. Klein. 1985. Differences and the Onset of Adolescent Drug Juvenile Justice and Delinquency between gang and nongang homi- Dealing. Pittsburgh, Pa.: University Prevention, U.S. Department of cides. Criminology 23(2):209–222. Justice. of Pittsburgh. 23. Centers for Disease Control and 13. Krisberg, B., R. DeComo, and 6. Callahan, C.M., and F.P. Rivera. Prevention. 1991. Weapon-carrying N.C. Herrera. 1992. National Juvenile 1992. Urban high school youth and among high school students: United Custody Trends: 1978–1989. Wash- handguns: A school-based survey. States, 1990. Morbidity and Mortality ington, D.C.: Office of Juvenile Jus- Journal of the American Medical Asso- Weekly Report 40(40):681–684. ciation 267(22):3038–3042. tice and Delinquency Prevention, U.S. Department of Justice. Blumstein, 1994. Lizotte, A.J., et al. 1994 (March). Patterns of adolescent firearms 14. 1994 National Household Survey 24. Kennedy, D.M. 1994. Can We ownership and use. Justice Quarterly on Drug Abuse. 1995. Washington, Keep Guns Away from Kids? Cam- 11(1):51–74. D.C.: U.S. Department of Health bridge, Mass.: Program in Criminal and Human Services. Justice Policy and Management, A Survey of Experiences, Perceptions, John F. Kennedy School of Govern- 15. Spergel, I. 1995. The Youth Gang and Apprehensions About Guns ment, Harvard University. Among Young People in America. Problem: A Community Approach. 1993. New York, N.Y.: Louis Harris New York, N.Y.: Oxford University 25. Sherman, L.W., J.W. Shaw, and and Associates, Inc., and LH Re- Press. D.P. Rogan. 1995 (January). The Kan- search, Inc. sas City Gun Experiment. Research in 16. Tatem-Kelley, B. 1994 (July). A Brief. Washington, D.C.: National Comprehensive Strategy To Address Webster, D.W., P.S. Gainer, and H.R. Institute of Justice, U.S. Department America’s Gang Problem. Washing- Champion. 1993 (November). of Justice. Weapon-carrying among inner-city ton, D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice junior high school students: Defen- and Delinquency Prevention, U.S. 26. Ibid. sive behavior vs. aggressive delin- Department of Justice. quency. American Journal of Public 17. Spergel, 1995. Health 83(11):1604–1608.

47 27. Achilles Program. 1995 (Septem- Office of Juvenile Justice and Delin- 45. American Academy of Pediat- ber). Washington, D.C.: Firearms quency Prevention, U.S. Department rics, 1989. Enforcement Division, Bureau of of Justice. Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms, Christoffel, 1991. U.S. Department of the Treasury. 36. Fingerhut, L.A., et al. 1991. Fire- arm mortality among children, Fingerhut et al., 1991. 28. Spergel, 1995. youth, and young adults 1–34 years Henkoff, 1992. of age, trends, and current status: 29. Tatem-Kelley, 1994. United States 1979–1988. Monthly Kennedy, 1994. Vital Statistics Report (39)11–27. 30. Feyerherm, W., C. Pope, and R. Lawyers Committee on Violence. Lovell. 1992 (December). Youth 37. Butterfield and Arnette, 1989. 1994. Gun Violence in New York City: Gang Prevention and Early Interven- Problems and Solutions. New York, tion Programs. Final Research Report. Centers for Disease Control and N.Y.: Lawyers Committee on Washington, D.C.: Office of Juve- Prevention, 1991. Violence, Inc. nile Justice and Delinquency Pre- Fagan, 1995. vention, U.S. Department of Justice. Pacific Center for Violence Preven- tion, 1994. 31. Delinquency Prevention Works. Kennedy, 1994. 1995 (May). Washington, D.C.: Sheley and Wright, 1993. Smith, D., and B. Lautman. 1990. A Office of Juvenile Justice and Generation Under the Gun: A Statisti- Delinquency Prevention, U.S. 38. Pacific Center for Violence Pre- cal Analysis of Youth Firearm Murder Department of Justice. vention. 1994. Preventing Youth Vio- in America. Washington, D.C.: Cen- lence: Reducing Access to Firearms. ter to Prevent Handgun Violence. 32. Ibid. San Francisco. Calif. 46. Blackman, P.H. 1994. Children 33. Urban Street Gang Enforcement 39. Shapiro, J.P., et al. 1993. Atti- and Guns: The NRA's Perception of Operations Manual. Forthcoming. tudes Toward Guns and Violence in the Problems and Its Policy Implica- Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Justice Third- Through Twelfth-Grade Youth. tions (paper presented at the Ameri- Assistance, U.S. Department of Cleveland, Ohio: The Guidance can Society of Criminology in Justice. Center. Miami, Fla., on November 9–12, 34. Elliott, D.S. 1994. Youth Violence: 1994). 40. Fagan, 1995. An Overview. Boulder, Colo.: Center 47. Howell, J.C., ed. 1995 (May). for the Study and Prevention of 41. Elliott, 1994. Guide for Implementing the Compre- Violence, University of Colorado. hensive Strategy for Serious, Violent, 42. Shapiro et al., 1993. 35. Butterfield, G.E., and J.L. and Chronic Juvenile Offenders. Wash- Arnette, eds. 1989. Weapons in 43. Henkoff, R. 1992 (August). Kids ington, D.C.: Office of Juvenile Jus- Schools. Malibu, Calif.: National are killing, dying, bleeding. Fortune tice and Delinquency Prevention, School Safety Center. 126(3):62–69. U.S. Department of Justice.

Centers for Disease Control and 44. American Academy of Pediat- 48. Elliott, 1994. Prevention, 1991. rics. 1989. Report of a Forum on Fire- Loftin, C., et al. 1991. Effects of arms and Children. Elk Grove, Ill. Fagan, 1995. restrictive licensing of handguns Christoffel, K.K. 1991. Toward re- on homicide and suicide in the Kennedy, 1994. ducing pediatric injuries from fire- District of Columbia. New England arms: Charting legislative and Journal of Medicine 325(23):1615–1620. Sheley, J.F., and J.D. Wright. 1993 regulatory course. Pediatrics (December). Gun Acquisition and 49. Pacific Center for Violence 88(2):294–305. Possession in Selected Juvenile Samples. Prevention, 1994. Research in Brief. Washington, D.C.: Sugarmann, J., and K. Rand. 1994. National Institute of Justice and Cease fire. Rolling Stone 677:30–42.

48 50. Jones and Krisberg, 1994. Price, J.H., S.M. Desmond, and Howell, 1994. D. Smith. 1991 (August). A pre- 51. American Psychological Asso- liminary investigation of inner- Pacific Center for Violence Preven- ciation, 1993. city adolescents' perceptions of tion, 1994. guns. Journal of School Health Blumstein, 1994. 58. Howell, 1994. 61(6):255–259. 52. Van Kammen and Loeber, 1994. Pacific Center for Violence Preven- Smith and Lautman, 1990. tion, 1994. 53. Office of National Drug Control Sugarmann and Rand, 1994. Policy. 1995 (February). National 59. Roehl, J., G. Capowich, and R. Drug Control Strategy 1995: Strength- Treanor, W.W., and M. Bijlefeld. Llaneras. 1991 (May). National ening Communities’ Response to 1989. Kids and Guns: A Child Safety Evaluation of the Systems Approach to Drugs and Crime. Washington, D.C.: Scandal. Washington, D.C.: Ameri- Community Crime and Drug Preven- Office of the President. can Youth Work Center and Educa- tion. Unpublished. Arlington, Va.: tional Fund to End Handgun Institute of Social Analysis. 54. Advocacy Institute. 1994. To - Violence. ward a Gun-Safe Society: Movement 60. Addressing Violent Crime in Building Strategies. Washington, 55. Ruttenberg, H. 1994 (May). Public Housing Developments. 1994. D.C.: American Academy of Pediat- The limited promise of public Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Alco- rics. health methodologies to prevent hol, Tobacco, and Firearms, U.S. youth violence. The Yale Law Jour- Department of the Treasury, and American Academy of Pediatrics, nal 103:1885. U.S. Department of Housing and 1989. Urban Development. Sheley, J.F., J.D. Wright, and Z.T. American Psychological Associa- McGee. 1992 (June). Gun-related 61. The Community Partnership tion, 1993. violence in and around inner-city Demonstration Program and the High-Risk Youth Demonstration Becker, T.M., L. Olson, and J. Vick. schools. American Journal of Dis- Program will be subsumed under 1993 (February). Children and fire- eases of Children 146(6):677–682. the Substance Abuse and Mental arms: A gunshot injury prevention 56. Blumstein, 1994. Health Services Administration program in New Mexico. American demonstration cluster as of FY 1996. Journal of Public Health 83(2):282–283. 57. Ibid.

49 4. Provide Opportunities for Children and Youth

Overview engage youth and their families; 25 percent of adolescents are at and are community-based and significant risk of veering off that What future do children envision integrated.1 path because they frequently en- for themselves? What opportunities gage in behaviors with negative are presented to them as they grow This section of the Action Plan em- consequences, such as alcohol or up? Many children grow up amid phasizes the importance of enhanc- other drug abuse, unprotected poverty, violence, and illness. They ing delinquency prevention efforts sexual activity, delinquency, or vio- see their families, friends, and com- and coordinating them throughout lence. Another 25 percent of adoles- munities suffering from the effects the community. It focuses on what cents, who engage in fewer of these of alcoholism, unemployment, we know about factors that put behaviors, are at moderate risk.2 incarceration, AIDS, or a lack of youth at risk of becoming delin- educational opportunities. Many quent or serious and violent offend- A 1992 study conducted by children, however, are resilient ers as well as those that protect the Carnegie Foundation deter- and manage to succeed despite a youth. It encourages communities mined that only 60 percent of an negative environment. Although to take steps to reduce characteris- adolescent’s nonsleeping time is not all children are faced with ad- tics that contribute to delinquency taken up by school, homework, verse circumstances, our Nation's while strengthening characteristics chores, meals, or employment. well-being requires that every child that nurture youth. This section em- Many adolescents spend the in every community be guaranteed phasizes the importance of truancy remaining 40 percent of their the opportunity to reach his or her reduction and safe school programs nonsleeping time alone, with full potential. and illustrates the Coordinating peers without adult supervision, Council’s strong support of youth or with adults who might nega- Providing children with the oppor- involvement in community crime tively influence their behavior.3 A tunity to develop positive behaviors and violence prevention strategies. recent study found that 27 percent is the foundation of most efforts to The section concludes that positive of eighth graders spent 2 or more prevent youth crime and violence. youth skill building, through hours alone after school and that For nearly three decades, educators, mentoring, conflict resolution, and low-income youth were more likely policymakers, and criminal justice community service, can work to than others to be home alone for professionals have sought effective prevent or reduce juvenile delin- 3 or more hours.4 It is not surpris- crime prevention strategies. Al- quency and serious juvenile vio- ing, therefore, that most violent though some communities are lence, especially when coordinated crimes committed by juveniles take experiencing success, the country with broader communitywide place at the close of the school day, is plagued with escalating juvenile efforts. when fewer opportunities for con- violence, which has compelled structive activities are available. policymakers to turn their attention Current Status (See figure 11.) from prevention to “get tough” approaches. But we know now and Analysis of In recent years, the capacity of what works. Effective strategies the Problem America’s low-income rural and include comprehensive approaches urban communities to provide Most adolescents are on a healthy that provide opportunities for critical positive activities or envi- path to productive adult lives. education, mentoring, conflict ronments has declined. Public There is evidence, however, that resolution training, and safety; schools in many areas have

51 Risk Factors for Delinquency Figure 11: Violent crime occurrence times Some youth lack healthy parental guidance and monitoring. Some youth have cognitive and psychological deficits that make social and When do juvenile and adult offenders commit violent crimes? academic success difficult. Some attend disorganized and disruptive schools and fail to engage in academic pursuits. Some live in chaotic neighborhoods with few resources or outlets for positive social activities. Some are excluded from prosocial peer groups and have few, if any, wholesome friends.

These risk factors, particularly when several are present, increase the likelihood of delinquency and violence. Conditions such as maltreatment or neglect by family members and others, a community with a large population of delin- ■ Violent crimes committed by juveniles peak after the close of the quent juveniles and gangs, ready school day and decline throughout the evening hours. access to drugs and guns, and an unsafe school increase the chance ■ In contrast with juveniles, the number of violent crimes committed by adults increases from early morning through midnight. that a youth will make unhealthy or unlawful choices. ■ The time profiles of when juveniles commit violent crimes and when juveniles are the victims of violent crime are similar. The study of Causes and Correlates Note: Data are from the State of South Carolina. of Delinquency, sponsored by the Data Source: FBI. 1993. National incident-based reporting system 1991 and 1992 Office of Juvenile Justice and 6 [machine-readable data files]. Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP), found the influence of peers and Source: Snyder, H., and M. Sickmund. 1995 (August). Juvenile Offenders and Victims: A National Report. Washington, D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice and parents to be strong risk factors Delinquency Prevention, U.S. Department of Justice. in the causes of delinquency. (See figure 13.) Protective Factors Some youth who experience child deteriorated, and the quality of results may be long in coming and abuse, neglect, poverty, poor health, public education has been compro- benefits—that is, crimes not com- or other risk factors do not become mised. City parks and recreation mitted—are extremely difficult to juvenile delinquents, school drop- centers are in disrepair, and finan- measure. The good news, however, outs, or teenage parents. These cial support for youth facilities and is that three decades of seeking youth have the benefit of a combi- 5 programs has decreased, leaving effective prevention strategies nation of protective factors that high-risk environments for youth. finally have netted results. help guide them in making healthy choices. The demand for an immediate The public health model has been solution to this problem, which particularly useful in developing a A resilient temperament and the commands considerable public strong scientific process and assess- development of close relationships attention, has been compounded ment of prevention activities. (See with parents and other role models by a historical impatience with figure 12 for a public health model who provide encouragement, prevention strategies in which for prevention.) healthy beliefs, and clear standards of behavior offer protection from

52 negative environmental influences.7 attend to family and community poor health, poor education, and In general, healthy youth have deficits over a sustained period of despair lay the foundation for alco- resources in their families and time. hol and other drug-related prob- communities that help them control lems. These conditions must be their behavior and provide them The Social Development Strategy alleviated. Risk factor research has with the skills and opportunities suggests that opportunities, skills, become more comprehensive and to be successful. Often referred to and recognition lead to healthy be- now includes the following do- as protective factors, these re- haviors. (See figure 14.) The under- mains: individual, family, school, sources reduce the chance that lying theme of this strategy is to peer group, and community. Protec- youth will become involved in reduce risk factors and increase pro- tive factor research, however, has serious delinquency. tective factors in the lives of at-risk primarily identified strategies that children. The identification of risk focus on the individual. Although Prevention strategies seek to reduce factors and protective factors has it is important to focus on increas- existing risk factors and provide been an important step in preven- ing skills or abilities of the indi- protective factors that are missing tion, assisting educators and practi- vidual, it is equally imperative to from a youth’s environment. In tioners in developing more effective focus on changing and improving many ways, prevention strategies programs for youth. social systems that create these con- attempt to provide for at-risk chil- ditions. The following elements in- Experts studying the impact of dren what effective parents and crease the likelihood of successful cultural influences on youth believe communities provide in the natural change: course of youth development. The that conditions such as poverty, most effective prevention strategies unemployment, discrimination, • Protective factors in the family, including having parents who demonstrate love and caring for their children, who are involved Figure 12: Public health model for prevention in their children’s activities, and who monitor and supervise their children’s behaviors. Other family-oriented protective factors include family stability and Implement Interventions adequate financial resources. and Measure Prevention Effectiveness • Positive personal attributes such • Community Intervention/ Demonstration Programs as intelligence, a steady disposi- • Training tion, social skills (including the • Public Awareness ability to solve problems without resorting to violence), and a con- Develop and Test Interventions ventional belief system. • Evaluation Research • Schools that positively shape behavior of young children and

Identify Causes teenagers due to strong policies • Risk Factor on violence and drugs. Teachers Identification who care about students and demonstrate concern for their Define the Problem students’ social and academic • Data Collection/ Surveillance growth also help to ensure successful development. When youth are prepared for school, Problem Response succeed in school, and are committed to the education system, they are less likely to become Source: Mercy, J.A., M.L. Rosenberg, K.E. Powel, C.V. Broome, and W.L. Roper. delinquents. Public health policy for preventing violence. Health Affairs. 1993 (Winter): 15. V12 N4.

53 • Communities that provide oppor- Peer influence is particularly opportunities combine as important tunities and social controls. Com- important during adolescence. factors to ensure positive outcomes munities that exhibit a high level for youth, not only in preventing of organization and cooperation, • Adult supervision of and involve- delinquency but also in preventing with neighbors working together ment in youth peer group activi- substance abuse, violent behavior, to meet common objectives, ties, to provide added protection teenage pregnancy, and school channel youth behavior toward against developing delinquent dropout. Parents should attempt positive outcomes. For example, behavior. to provide their children with this constellation of protective factors communities with active PTA’s, Cumulative Impact of continuously over the course of afterschool activities, churches Protective Factors and religious organizations, and their development. youth social clubs help to protect Healthy growth and development are most likely to occur when Comprehensive Delinquency youth from the temptations and Prevention hazards that exist in society. protective factors are sustained throughout these areas of influence. The best delinquency prevention • Youth participation in and accep- A nurturing family, positive friend- strategies are comprehensive, re- tance by prosocial peer groups. ships, a good education, and career ducing risk and developing protective factors in each child and in families, schools, communities, and peers. Researchers have found that collective strategies with mul- Figure 13: Influence of parents and peers tiple protective programs, rather on delinquency than those that address single risk factors, have a sizable impact on reducing delinquency.8 Activities that take place under one roof in the community and that reflect Average Number of Serious Delinquent Acts the cultural values of participants are more likely to engage the individuals they are meant to serve. 10.7 This means that to effectively re-

12 duce youth violence, strategies must engage the entire spectrum of 10 systems and individuals impacting a young person’s life. 8 6.0 Serious delinquency and youth 6 violence are most likely to occur in 1.3 youth exposed to multiple risk fac- 4 High Parent tors, multiple deficits of protective Problem Behavior 2 factors, and multiple concurrent 0.6 Low Parent problem behaviors. Consequently, 0 Problem Behavior prevention strategies need to deal Non- or Low-Delinquent Friends Delinquent Friends simultaneously with a host of prob-

(Denver data) lems and require comprehensive strategies. Moreover, because risk Data Source: Program of Research on the Causes and Correlates of Delin- factors and concurrent problem quency. 1993 (November). Urban Delinquency and Substance Abuse, technical behaviors tend to interact with one report. another, it is important that preven- Source: Thornberry, T.P., D. Huizinga, and R. Loeber. 1995. Sourcebook on tion strategies deal with all of these Serious, Violent, and Chronic Juvenile Offenders. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage factors in an integrated fashion. Publications. This recommendation is consistent with what we know about resilient

54 Start’s intervention program, which Figure 14: Social development strategy is effective in developing school readiness skills among high-risk children and reduction in later delinquency, is $4,300 per year per child. Similarly, a delinquency Healthy Behaviors prevention program in California produced a direct savings to law enforcement and the juvenile justice Healthy Beliefs system of $1.40 for every $1 spent 13 and on prevention. Clear Standards Effective and Promising

Bonding Strategies and • Attachment Programs • Commitment Delinquency Prevention Works We know that there are effective Skills Opportunities Recognition programs that reduce delinquency and show promise for stemming the rising tide of delinquency and youth violence. Materials on this Individual research published by OJJDP and Characteristics others summarize much of the treatment and evaluation literature and identify model programs that Source: Howell, J.C., ed. 1995 (May). Guide for Implementing the Comprehensive are worthy of replication. Among Strategy for Serious, Violent, and Chronic Juvenile Offenders. Washington, D.C.: the best of these reports are those Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, U.S. Department of Justice. of Lipsey,14 Tolan and Guerra,15 Howell,16 Thornberry,17 and Mendel.18 Truancy Reduction youth. Even high-risk youth can employment opportunities have a avoid involvement in delinquency prominent place in the Nation’s Too many of America’s young if they experience many protective crime control strategy. people attend school on an irregular factors.9 basis, resulting in their failure to Decades of research also demon- gain a solid foundation of basic aca- Improving education and youth strate that delinquency prevention demic skills. These young people employment opportunities, enhanc- is cost effective. According to one have not yet officially dropped out ing social skills, and providing conservative estimate, the average of school and they are not on an youth with mentors and adult role cost of incarcerating a juvenile for extended absence due to illness. models are essential components of 1 year is close to $34,000.10 Others They are truants—at risk of aca- delinquency prevention. Three de- put the figure between $35,000 and demic failure and dropping out cades of research indicate that in- $64,000.11 In addition, the total cost of school at age 16, or earlier, and creased opportunities for success, of a young adult’s (ages 18 to 23) never obtaining the skills necessary meaningful activities, positive serious, violent criminal career is to become contributing members of role models, consistent moral stan- estimated to be $1.1 million.12 In society. Truancy has been rated dards, and viable educational and contrast, the current cost of Head among the top 10 problems facing

55 schools, with the daily absentee the active support and participation Another truancy prevention pro- rate as high as 30 percent in some of parents, students, the community, gram impacting elementary and cities. As a number of studies have law enforcement, and businesses. A middle school attendance and documented,19 high rates of truancy number of jurisdictions across the disciplinary referrals is Self En- are linked to high daytime burglary country have truancy prevention hancement, Inc. (SEI) of Portland, rates and vandalism. Truancy is and intervention programs that are OR. SEI is a community-based not a problem restricted to the collaborative initiatives, and they organization that began in 1981 education and law enforcement are listed in the National School and has served more than 12,000 communities. It has an even more Safety Center publication Increasing inner-city school students. The pro- important impact on the truant's Student Attendance.20 In addition, gram offers classroom instruction, ability to learn, develop interper- the National Council of Juvenile extracurricular activities, cultural sonal relationships, and ultimately and Family Court Judges’ (NCJFCJ) enrichment, career counseling, and complete school and gain the report, A New Approach to Runaway, summer outreach for 450 high-risk knowledge and skills necessary Truant, Substance Abusing and Beyond children every year. SEI staff work for higher education and/or future Control Children,21 describes innova- with participants in their schools, employment. In order to compre- tive processes and approaches provide tutoring, encourage aca- hensively address the truancy prob- that individual communities might demic excellence, and respond lem, a range of interested parties adopt to more adequately address to crises in the school. must join together to coordinate a this population of youth. NCJFCJ response. These parties include has also updated its Disposition In addition, SEI sponsors field trips, schools, law enforcement agencies, Resource Manual22 that informs sporting activities, and afterschool parents, businesses, judicial and judges and juvenile court personnel supervision. A key component of social services agencies, and com- about various programs that hold the program is for staff to work munity and youth organizations. promise or have proven positive with families and help parents be- results. Within the Manual, several come more active in preventing tru- Communities have a responsibility programs are provided that address ancy. In 1994, SEI participants had to provide an appropriate educa- the problem of truancy. improved school attendance and tion for all youth in a disciplined, disciplinary referrals dropped dra- safe, and secure environment. Yet Truancy reduction programs are matically. Students in elementary school systems are frequently pre- having positive effects on both school raised their grades by 47 per- sented with students who have school attendance and juvenile cent and middle school students by specific instructional and/or social crime. A truancy reduction pro- 70 percent.24 problems that make it difficult to gram in the Oklahoma City public achieve in the regular school envi- school system reported a steady de- Mentoring ronment with a traditional curricu- cline in the dropout rate from 5.9 Mentoring has been defined as a lum. A host of problems from the percent to 4.1 percent during the “sustained, close, developmental home and the community emerge 1991–92 school year.23 The Truancy relationship between an older, in the classroom and require special Habits Reduced, Increasing Valu- more experienced individual and a handling. Teachers may observe able Education (THRIVE) program younger person, with the goal of signs of hunger, child abuse, ne- is a partnership between the school building character and competence glect, alcohol or other drug abuse, system and law enforcement to re- on the part of the protégé.”25 Usu- learning disabilities, developmental duce truancy and crime during ally the relationship involves regu- problems, socialization problems, school hours. Law enforcement of- lar contact over a sustained period behavior disorders, gang involve- ficers bring in juveniles who are out of time and involves mutual ment, and a general lack of school of school without an excuse and commitment, respect, and loyalty. readiness. notify parents who must pick up their children. If parents cannot be Mentoring has proved to be a In order to provide prevention and located, juveniles are sent to the valuable strategy for helping early intervention for youth at risk Oklahoma County Youth Services disadvantaged youth. A mentoring of truancy, as well as youth who Agency until they can be picked up. relationship can enrich children’s are truant, the school system needs lives, address the isolation of some

56 youth from adult contact, and Conflict Resolution the role of youth as effective provide support and advocacy for Conflict resolution encompasses citizens beyond the school into at-risk children. Research has indi- creative problemsolving strategies the community. cated that mentoring relationships in which parties in dispute collabo- can have a positive impact on a Conflict resolution programs in rate by expressing their points of schools generally fall into one of youth’s attitudes toward alcohol, view, voicing their interests, and tobacco, and drug use.26 Other three models: mediation, curricu- finding mutually acceptable solu- lum integration, or peaceable studies document the positive tions. Conflict resolution programs effects of cross-cultural mentoring.27 schools. The peaceable schools recognize that conflict is natural model synthesizes the elements Bigs in Blue is an innovative and that people can learn new skills of the first two models. mentoring program developed to deal with conflict in appropriate, by the Big Brothers/Big Sisters of nonviolent ways. The programs Recognizing the importance of Warren County, NJ, that matches appear to be most effective when directly involving youth in conflict at-risk youth with police officer they are comprehensive and in- resolution, many school communi- mentors. They employ prevention volve multiple components such ties are employing peer mediation and intervention strategies to help as moral reasoning, anger control, as a violence prevention strategy. In youngsters from chaotic home envi- social skills development, and these programs, specially trained ronments cope with peer pressure, collaborative problemsolving student mediators work with their succeed in school, receive career methods. peers to find resolutions to con- guidance, and make sound life flicts. Mediation programs reduce William DeJong, a lecturer at the the use of traditional disciplinary choices. Evaluations completed by Harvard School of Public Health, parents, volunteers, and youth indi- actions such as suspension, deten- reports in the 1994 fall issue of tion, and expulsion; encourage ef- cate reductions in delinquency and School Safety: “The best school- court involvement and improve- fective problemsolving; decrease based violence prevention pro- the need for teacher involvement in ment in school attendance, behav- grams seek to do more than reach ior, and grades.28 student conflicts; and improve the individual child. They instead school climate. Robert Taylor Homes in Chicago, try to change the total school envi- IL, the largest public housing devel- ronment, to create a safe commu- An example of a mediation pro- opment in the country, has imple- nity that lives by a credo of gram is We Can Work It Out, devel- mented a Mentoring and Rites of nonviolence and multicultural oped by the National Institute for 29 Passage program designed to assist appreciation.” Effective conflict Citizen Education in the Law and adolescents in their transition to resolution programs achieve the the National Crime Prevention adulthood. Mentors meet with following goals: Council. The program promotes mediation, negotiation, or other groups of 10 to 15 youths of similar • Enable children to respond ages at least twice a week and ad- nonlitigating methods as strategies nonviolently to conflict, using to settle unresolved confrontations dress such areas as self-concept, the conflict resolution strategies sexual identity and awareness, and fighting. The program empha- of negotiation, mediation, and sizes the importance of showing communications and decisionmak- group problemsolving. ing, and cultural heritage apprecia- students that many of the problems tion. Evaluations of participants are • Develop educators’ competence that are often taken to court might conducted every 6 months to track to manage behavior in school be solved more effectively through their interpretation of standard so- without coercion, using a pro- cooperative methods, such as peer cial interactions and situations, self- gram that teaches students re- mediation. reported violent behavior and self sponsibility and self-discipline. In the curriculum integration concept, hospital visits related to approach, teachers deliver daily violence, and calls to the police • Mobilize community involve- lessons in conflict resolution, infuse about violent events in the housing ment in violence prevention conflict resolution concepts and project. through education programs and services, such as expanding skills into core curriculum areas,

57 and model effective conflict resolu- who regularly use the curriculum, Members of the Corporation tion in their management of the the student mediation program for National Service’s (CNS’) classroom. Promoting Alternative may be added. The RCCP approach AmeriCorps program have estab- Thinking Strategies (PATHS) is a to conflict resolution integrates two lished a Safe Corridors program in curriculum integration approach primary components: the RCCP eight elementary schools in Phila- to conflict resolution for children elementary and secondary curricu- delphia. The program is designed from kindergarten through sixth lum and the RCCP student media- to ensure the safe passage of youth grade. It is designed to enhance tion program. A third component— to and from school by using 80 par- the social competence and under- the parent training curriculum— ent volunteers who patrol the standing of elementary school chil- introduces RCCP principles into streets around the schools in the dren and to facilitate educational the home to send youth a consistent mornings and afternoons. The vol- processes such as self-control, message from parents and teachers, unteers design the program struc- emotional awareness, and interper- who thus reinforce each other on ture, uniforms, and policies, and are sonal problemsolving skills that this crucial issue. responsible for recruiting other par- are integrated into the curriculum. ents to carry out the program. The An evaluation of PATHS shows Safe Schools and Safe Safe Corridors program has been so that the program is effective for Havens successful in increasing safety that both low- and high-risk children Community schools and family cen- the city is offering it as a model for in increasing management and ters provide youth with safe spaces statewide implementation. understanding of emotional for productive alternatives to oc- experiences.30 cupy out-of-school and weekend In Seattle, WA, AmeriCorps mem- time. They also provide a central bers staff 7 Safe Haven sites that Peaceable school programs seek space for integrating various prom- provide an opportunity for 1,000 to create schools in which conflict ising strategies and programs, such at-risk youth to participate in work- resolution has been integrated at as mentoring, conflict resolution, shops, tutoring and mentoring every level. Ultimately, conflict and employment training. These programs, and conflict resolution resolution skills are adopted by ev- programs generally provide a range sessions. The programs are de- ery member of the school commu- of educational, recreational, and cul- signed to increase self-esteem, pro- nity, creating a school climate that tural activities in a supervised envi- vide educational opportunities, encourages caring, honesty, coop- ronment with trained staff. and reduce violent behavior. eration, and appreciation for diversity. Peaceable school programs For years Boys and Girls Clubs of National and Community incorporate conflict resolution America have been engaged in Service Opportunities skills and noncoercive school and comprehensive strategies to help CNS, established in 1993 to engage classroom management strategies their members build self-esteem, citizens of all ages and backgrounds directly into the classroom curricu- acquire honest values, and pursue in community service, operates lum. Peaceable schools challenge productive futures. These clubs AmeriCorps and Learn and Serve youth and adults to believe and act also work specifically to prevent America. AmeriCorps participants on the understanding that a nongang involvement. Supported in provide a year or two of public violent, diverse society is a realistic part by Federal funding, the clubs service in exchange for education goal. have developed partnerships with awards to finance college or other corporations, private foundations, educational training or to pay back In schools in New York and other individuals, and government agen- student loans. Volunteers have cities, the Resolving Conflict Cre- cies. According to a Columbia Uni- helped elementary school students atively Program (RCCP) is imple- versity study, Boys and Girls Clubs improve their reading skills and mented as a peaceable schools have been effective in increasing scores in Kentucky, patroled recre- model of conflict resolution. The rates of school attendance and im- ation areas in New York City, RCCP approach requires schools proving academic performance. In assisted law enforcement and com- to participate in the curriculum addition, Clubs in public housing munity members in closing crack for a year or more; in schools projects have reduced the juvenile houses in Kansas City, and helped with a strong core of teachers crime rate by 13 percent.31

58 residents recover from natural Federal Action The Interagency Council on disasters in California and the Mentoring, which includes repre- Midwest. Steps sentatives from the Domestic Policy Launch an Initiative To Council; the Departments of Health Through the Learn and Serve Address the Problem and Human Services (HHS), Labor America program, school-age youth of Youth Outside the (DOL), Defense, Education, and serve their communities by teach- Educational Mainstream Justice; and the CNS, will continue ing younger students about vio- The Department of Justice (DOJ) to identify existing mentoring pro- lence prevention; designing crime and the Department of Education grams, investigate research issues, prevention and public safety exhib- (ED) will implement a joint initia- and explore opportunities for col- its for local fairs; helping other tive directed at youth who are in laboration. The Council is publish- youth to combat negative peer danger of leaving or who have ing a report entitled Making the pressure; eliminating graffiti in left the educational mainstream. Most of Mentoring, which summa- their communities; establishing Jun- The initiative will heighten public rizes current mentoring efforts and ior Neighborhood Watch programs; awareness of this increasing prob- proposes a three-part mentoring and helping to identify physical lem and identify effective and strategy. problems in the community, such as promising programs that are find- broken lighting, overgrown foliage Provide Guidance on ing solutions. It will provide assis- that blocks clear views of public School-Based Conflict tance to selected jurisdictions and places, and run-down parks. Resolution Programs sites to develop or enhance pro- OJJDP, in partnership with ED, One example of an effective grams for youth outside the educa- will publish a guide and provide community-building program tional mainstream, including youth training seminars to help school is the Teens as Resources Against who are truant, dropouts, afraid to administrators, teachers, and other Drugs (TARAD) project, funded by go to school, suspended, or ex- interested parties understand the the Bureau of Justice Assistance. pelled (for example, for weapon concept of conflict resolution and This youth-led prevention program possession), or need to be reinte- its usefulness in preventing vio- combats delinquency by inspiring grated into the mainstream from lence and teaching positive life teens to fight drug activity in their the juvenile justice system. skills. The guide will be a tool for communities. Teens in New York To help achieve the goals and objec- schools and communities to use in City, Evansville, IN, and three tives of this initiative, 4 regional their strategic planning for imple- South Carolina communities led the forums and 10 training and techni- menting effective conflict resolution way in their schools and neighbor- cal assistance programs will be held programs that meet their specific hoods by creating anti-drug mes- to address the needs of these youth. needs. By answering typical ques- sages on murals; disseminating One component will be a partner- tions asked about conflict resolu- accurate facts about drugs and ship between schools, law enforce- tion, the guide will give readers a teaching their peers healthy life ment, and juvenile and family court description of the essential elements choices; writing, choreographing, judges. Collaborative efforts will of effective school-based conflict and producing plays and puppet focus on prevention, early interven- resolution programs, as well as in- shows dramatizing the dangers tion, and supportive services. formation useful for establishing of drug use; and organizing com- and sustaining conflict resolution munity events such as fairs and Provide Mentoring programs in their schools. Six case substance-free New Year’s Eve Opportunities for Youth studies incorporating models of parties. The teens report positive OJJDP will provide programmatic peer mediation, curriculum integra- attitude changes about drug use support, technical assistance, and tion, and peaceable schools will be among their peers. Another mea- training to 41 mentoring programs, included in the guide. Other helpful sure of success is that local agen- funded under the Juvenile features include annotated lists of cies, groups, and organizations Mentoring Program (JUMP). conflict resolution programs, re- have assumed funding of most of sources, and trainers with contact the programs.32 information.

59 Increase School Safety NIJ will also do the following: Prosecution, and Probations Opera- To Improve Opportunities tions Leading to Improved Children for Learning • Fund evaluations of school-based and Youth Services (SAFE POLICY) programs aimed at reducing Federal reforms such as the reau- program. This program addresses youth violence and promoting thorization of the Elementary and the problem of increased serious school safety. Secondary Education Act (ESEA), juvenile violence in schools. A team of school personnel develops strate- Educate America: Goals 2000, and • Support a study of juveniles gies for sharing information and School to Work Transition are first who have been involved in improving school safety, as well steps in addressing the crisis facing school violence in an attempt as supervision, control, and delin- our public school system. Title I, to clarify the dynamics leading to quency prevention. Part A of ESEA provides grants to violence. The information gath- States to support standards-based ered from this study will be Provide Youth With Activities educational reform and improve used to design and implement That Encourage Positive the ability of schools to help educa- a school curriculum that better Youth Development tionally disadvantaged children. addresses those dynamics. Before these improvements can be To ensure that resource and family effective, however, students must • Explore risk factors that contrib- centers can implement programs, be assured that they can learn in a ute to delinquency (relationships the Department of Housing and safe environment. among school discipline and con- Urban Development’s (HUD’s) trol practices, behavior problems, National Youth Sports Grants will ED’s Safe and Drug-Free Schools in-school victimization, and provide funds for positive alterna- Program (SDFSP) was established school location) and school tive activities for at-risk youth, in 1994 to provide a comprehen- crime. This will be accomplished including sports, recreational, sive, coordinated approach to pre- through analysis of information cultural, and educational programs. vention of school violence and from interviews of students, This grant program is a vehicle alcohol, tobacco, and drug use by teachers, and principals. for youth to develop leadership young people. SDFSP administers skills, gain self-esteem, learn the State formula grant and discretion- HHS has provided funds through value of teamwork, and exercise ary grant programs and also pro- the Community Schools/FACES self-empowerment in a positive vides technical assistance to schools grant programs to support the and drug-free environment. in the development of comprehen- development or expansion of sive programs to prevent violence programs that are designed to OJJDP’s Pathways to Success will and drug use. improve the academic and social promote business, entrepreneurial, development of at-risk students at educational, recreational, and job The National Institute of Justice selected public schools in eligible skills, as well as arts programs for (NIJ) will provide funding to assess communities. Activities in these afterschool and weekend hours. In the effectiveness of the organiza- schools include homework assis- addition, OJJDP’s grant with the tional structure and operation of tance and afterschool activities, Academy for Educational Develop- a variety of these programs nation- such as educational, social, and ath- ment will support the develop- wide. This assessment will try letic programs; nutrition services; ment of a curriculum that trains to determine how school-based mentoring programs; family coun- youth workers to apply a youth drug prevention programs, such seling; and parenting programs. development approach. as Drug Awareness Resistance Education (DARE), can be tailored To assist in ensuring the safety Provide Training and to better meet the needs of specific of these and other sites, OJJDP Opportunities for Youth Employment populations. The study will also will support the National School recommend new structures and Safety Center in providing training HUD will continue to fund the operations to improve and expand and information on school safety YouthBuild program, which works DARE and other existing drug techniques through the School with AmeriCorps to help disadvan- prevention education programs. Administrators for Effective Police, taged young adults who have

60 dropped out of high school obtain Establish and Support Provide Opportunities employment and education skills Family-Based Community for Youth To Serve that will help them achieve eco- Centers That Integrate Their Communities Service Delivery Through nomic self-sufficiency. CNS will continue to establish a Range of Promising full- and part-time community serv- To encourage the involvement, Prevention Programs ice programs such as AmeriCorps investment, and participation of HHS will continue to fund commu- and Learn and Serve America, educators, businesses, students, nity-based family resource pro- which involve individuals of all and parents, DOL’s School-to-Work grams to help States develop and ages in violence reduction initia- Opportunities Initiative will inte- implement, or expand and enhance, tives and other public service activi- grate a career employment, educa- comprehensive statewide systems ties. These include school-based tion, and learning program. The of family resource services. These initiatives for kindergarten through program will be geared to all youth services will be provided through 12th grade and higher education to prepare them for the highly tech- innovative funding mechanisms programs that make service an nological and rapidly evolving and collaboration with existing integral part of college education. workplace. The link between unem- education, vocation, rehabilitation, ployment and lack of opportunities health, mental health, employment OJJDP will continue to support and delinquency is strong, and a and training, child welfare, and Teens, Crime, and the Community, national commitment to this issue is other social service agencies. The a program conducted by the Na- critical. DOL administers the Job goal will be to reduce barriers to the tional Crime Prevention Council Corps to address the multiple barri- delivery of high-quality, commu- and the National Institute for Citi- ers to employment faced by disad- nity-based services for families, zen Education in the Law, that vantaged youth. Job Corps, which with an emphasis on interagency seeks to direct the energies of serves about 60,000 youth each collaboration, service integration, young people toward constructive year, provides a comprehensive public and private partnerships, activities designed to reduce crime mix of coordinated and integrated interdisciplinary governance of lead and violence. services in one facility. These serv- agencies, and full partnership be- ices assist young adults to become tween families and professionals. All Federal agencies administering more responsible, employable, and programs that address the problem productive citizens. HUD awards grants to public hous- of juvenile violence will encourage ing authorities to provide families communities to include youth in The Department of the Interior and youth with better access to the planning and implementation and OJJDP will jointly sponsor education and employment oppor- of their programs. the Youth Environmental Services tunities. The objective is to help (YES) program. The purpose of the Coordinate Federal Crime these individuals achieve economic Prevention Programs YES program is twofold: self-sufficiency, improve their quality of life and, ultimately, decrease There is a substantial need to • To increase the capacity of States drug and crime problems. In 1995, coordinate Federal programs that and communities to correct, $10 million was made available to are designed to prevent and inter- treat, and rehabilitate adjudi- support the Family Investment vene in specific youth problems, cated delinquents. Centers and Youth Development improve the environments in which • To prevent at-risk youth from initiative sites that are providing youth live, and foster the overall entering the juvenile justice youth-related activities and services positive development of youth. system by implementing envi- such as training and assistance in The President’s Crime Prevention ronmental work programs on obtaining General Equivalency Di- Council, created by the 1994 Violent federally owned land. plomas (GED’s) and entrepreneur- Crime Control and Law Enforce- ship skills. ment Act, has published and In addition, OJJDP will explore disseminated a delinquency pre- opportunities to include high-risk NIJ will continue to support an vention catalog that highlights and juvenile court-involved youth evaluation of the Boys and Girls major Federal programs and offers in employment and training Clubs program in public housing. programs.

61 guidance for communities seeking • Implement developmentally 4. National Center for Education to plan and implement comprehen- appropriate conflict resolution Statistics. 1990. National Education sive crime prevention strategies. programs for students at all Longitudinal Study of 1988: A Profile Over the next year, the Prevention grade levels. of an American Eighth Grader. Wash- Council will work to identify ington, D.C.: Office of Educational ways to coordinate and integrate • Expand existing programs to Research and Improvement, U.S. existing Federal prevention pro- include artistic and cultural Department of Education. grams to ensure better collabora- activities, and implement activi- tion and to maximize their impact ties designed to promote the 5. Carnegie Council, 1994. on communities. values of individual and civic responsibility. 6. Thornberry, T.P., D. Huizinga, Suggestions for and R. Loeber. 1995. The preven- • Implement national service ini- tion of serious delinquency and State and Local tiatives at the local level to pro- violence: Implications from the Action vide youth with opportunities program of research on the causes to serve their communities. and correlates of delinquency. In • Establish and enhance programs J.C. Howell et al., eds. Sourcebook on that bring together teachers, • Review and modify personnel Serious, Violent, and Chronic Juvenile school administrators, social policies in the private sector to Offenders. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: service providers, police, juve- encourage employees to serve Sage Publications. nile justice practitioners, and as community volunteers with citizens. youth. 7. Hawkins, J.D., and R.F. Catalano, Jr. 1993. Communities That • Develop partnerships between • Increase funding for youth Care: Risk-Focused Approach Using parks and recreation agencies, employment and training the Social Development Strategy: An libraries, public housing agen- programs. Approach to Reducing Adolescent cies, community centers, and Problem Behaviors. Seattle, Wash.: • Review allocation of funding gymnasiums to furnish safe sites Developmental Research and Pro- to ensure equitable distribution for positive activities for youth. grams, Inc. of resources for delinquency • Advocate volunteerism prevention programs in schools. 8. Ibid. for mentoring and tutoring programs. Endnotes 9. Lipsey, M.W. 1992. Juvenile 1. Delinquency Prevention Works. delinquency treatment: A meta- • Develop safe passage commu- 1995 (May). Washington, D.C.: analytic inquiry into the variability nity patrols to ensure that youth Office of Juvenile Justice and Delin- of effects. In T.D. Cook et al., eds., get to and from school safely. quency Prevention, U.S. Depart- Meta-Analysis for Explanation: A Casebook. New York, N.Y.: Russell • Invite parents, law enforcement ment of Justice. Sage Foundation. officers, business leaders, and 2. Dryfoos, J.G. 1990. Adolescents at others into school buildings to Risk: Prevalence and Prevention. Lon- 10. Cohen, M.A. 1994. The Mon- provide additional supervision don, England: Oxford University etary Value of Saving a High-Risk and positive role models. Press. Youth. Washington, D.C.: The Ur- ban Institute. • Provide students with the skills 3. Carnegie Council on Adolescent and knowledge necessary to Development. 1994 (April). A Matter 11. Camp, G.M., and C.G. Camp. manage their behavior and re- Of Time: Risk and Opportunity in the 1990. Corrections Yearbook: Juvenile solve conflicts in a nonviolent Out-of-School Hours. New York, N.Y.: Corrections. South Salem, N.Y.: manner. Carnegie Foundation. Criminal Justice Institute.

12. Cohen, 1994.

62 13. Lipsey, 1992. Pennell, S., C. Curtis, B. McCardell, 25. Freedman, M. 1995. Making the and P. Kichinsky. 1981. Truancy Most of Mentoring. Unpublished 14. Ibid. Project Evaluation: Final Report. report. Interagency Council on San Diego, Calif.: Criminal Justice Mentoring. Washington, D.C.: 15. Tolan, P., and N. Guerra. 1994 Evaluation Unit, San Diego Corporation for National and (July). What Works in Reducing Ado- Association of Governments. Community Service. lescent Violence: An Empirical Review of the Field. Boulder, Colo.: The Stephens, R.D., S. Greenbaum, and 26. LoSciuto, L., and T.N. Center for the Study and Preven- R.W. Garrison. 1988. Increasing Stu- Townsend. An Outcome Evaluation tion of Violence, University of dent Attendance: NSSC Resource Pa- of “Across Ages”; An Intergenerational Colorado. per. Sacramento, Calif.: National Mentoring Program. Philadelphia, School Safety Center, Pepperdine Pa.: Institute for Survey Research. 16. Howell, J.C., ed. 1995 (May). University. Guide for Implementing the Compre- 27. Freedman, 1995. hensive Strategy for Serious, Violent, Truancy, Chronic Absenteeism and and Chronic Juvenile Offenders. Wash- Dropping Out. 1989. York, Pa.: 28. Barnes, L. 1992 (Fall/Winter). ington, D.C.: Office of Juvenile Jus- William Gladden Foundation. Police Officers at Heart of Bigs in Blue tice and Delinquency Prevention, Program. Big Brothers/Big Sisters U.S. Department of Justice. 20. Stephens et al., 1988. of America.

17. Thornberry et al., 1995. 21. New approach to runaway, tru- 29. DeJong, W. 1994. “Creating a ant, substance abusing and beyond more peaceful world,” School Safety 18. Mendel, R.A. 1995. Prevention or control children. 1990. Juvenile and (Fall 1994): p. 8. Pork? A Hard-Headed Look at Family Court Journal 41(3B):9–49. Youth-Oriented Anti-Crime Programs. 30. Greenberg, M.T., et al. 1995. Washington, D.C.: American Youth 22. Disposition Resource Manual. Promoting emotional competence Policy Forum. 1990. Washington, D.C.: National in school-aged children: The effects Council of Juvenile and Family of the PATHS curriculum. Develop- 19. Beach, C. 1983. Truancy and Court Judges. ment and Psychopathology 7:117–136. Student Delinquency: A Pilot Study. New York, N.Y.: Office of the 23. Beyond Convictions: Prosecutors 31. Howell, ed., 1995. Mayor, City of New York. as Community Leaders in the War on Drugs. 1993. Alexandria, Va.: 32. Given the Opportunity: How Diebolt, A., and L. Herlache. 1991 American Prosecutors Research Three Communities Engaged Teens As (March). The School Psychologist as a Institute. Resources in Drug Abuse Prevention. Consultant in Truancy Prevention. 1992. Washington, D.C.: National Tempe, Ariz.: Arizona State 24. Yap, K.O., and J. Pollard. 1992 Crime Prevention Council. University. (October). A Preliminary Evaluation of the Self Enhancement, Inc. (SEI) Levine, B. 1993 (August 16). Program. Portland, Ore.: Northwest Tracking Truants. Los Angeles Regional Educational Lab. Times, p. E–1.

63 5. Break the Cycle of Violence by Addressing Youth Victimization, Abuse, and Neglect

Overview This section explains how early written protocols, and the experiences of violence not only use of court appointed special As the most vulnerable members harm children but also can lead to advocates (CASA’s). of society, children have the right later violence and delinquency. It to be protected from victimization. describes effective intervention This section also examines how We as a Nation must act decisively strategies to break that cycle of vio- parents who have abused or ne- to uphold that right. Although lence, a strengthened dependency glected their children can learn to media attention often focuses on courts system that works more change their behavior and how youth who commit acts of violence, closely with child protective serv- authorities can determine when children are also increasingly be- ices, and improved delivery of children should be removed from coming victims of violent crime services through unified family their homes because of the threat and neglect. (See figure 15.) courts, administrative reform, of abuse or neglect. Finally, it describes ways to intervene with at- risk families before abuse, neglect, or family dysfunction arise or Figure 15: Violent crime victimization rates become entrenched. Current Status and Analysis of The rates of violent crime against juveniles and young adults increased between 1987 and 1992 the Problem

100 Each year, abuse and neglect leave 18,000 children permanently—often severely—disabled and inflict life- 80 long psychological damage on 18–24 thousands of victims, siblings, and 1 12–17 family members. Figure 16 shows 60 that neglect is the most common form of substantiated or indicated

25–34 maltreatment of children. 40 Rate per 1,000 Abuse statistics are similarly tragic. Total Figure 17 illustrates the increase in 20 35 and older allegations of child maltreatment from 1980 to 1992. In 1994, public

0 welfare agencies received reports 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 of 3.1 million children being abused Year or neglected. The increasing trend in child maltreatment reports over Data Source: Moone, J. 1994 (June). Juvenile Victimization: 1987–1992. OJJDP Fact Sheet #17. Washington, D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice and the past decade is believed to be Delinquency Prevention, U.S. Department of Justice. the result, at least in part, of a greater willingness to report suspected

65 permeated by violence. Many Figure 16: Types of child maltreatment children are exposed to chronic violence in their homes and communities. A recent study conducted at Boston City Hospital reported that Neglect is the most common form of substantiated or indicated 10 percent of children seen in its maltreatment primary care clinic have witnessed a shooting or stabbing before age 6. Type of maltreatment Percent of Victims In a survey of inner-city elementary Neglect 49% school children in New Orleans, Physical abuse 23 LA, 80 percent reported witnessing Sexual abuse 14 acts of violence, and 60 percent had Emotional maltreatment 5 seen a dead person. Similarly, in a study of 6th, 8th, and 10th graders Medical neglect 3 in New Haven, CT, 40 percent re- Other 9 ported having witnessed at least Unknown 3 one violent crime in the past year.4 Note: Total is greater than 100 percent because victims can be in more than one category when more than one type of abuse or neglect has occurred. The Cycle of Violence Data Source: NCCAN. 1994. Child Maltreatment 1992: Reports from the States Numerous studies demonstrate to the National Center on Child Abuse and Neglect. the connection between child abuse and neglect and later violent delin- Source: Snyder, H., and M. Sickmund. 1995 (August). Juvenile Offenders 5 and Victims: A National Report. Washington, D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice and quent behavior. A National Insti- Delinquency Prevention, U.S. Department of Justice. tute of Justice (NIJ)-funded study found that experiencing childhood abuse and neglect increases the likelihood of arrest as a juvenile by 53 percent, of arrest as an adult by 38 incidents. Greater public aware- An analysis of police data on child percent, and of committing a vio- ness both of child maltreatment victims under the age of 12 (victims lent crime by 38 percent.6 An Office as a social problem and the re- not covered in the National Crime of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency sources available to respond to it Victimization Survey) estimated Prevention (OJJDP) study found are factors that contribute to in- that as many as 2.2 million violent that adolescents from families re- creased reporting. victimizations—murder, rape, rob- porting multiple forms of violence bery, and assault—of children under are more than twice as likely as The U.S. Advisory Board on Child the age of 18 occurred in 1992. The their peers from nonviolent homes Abuse and Neglect provides na- analysis also revealed that the per- to report committing violent of- tional data on child victimization. petrators of violent crime against fenses.7 Figure 20 shows that physi- (See figure 18.) In 1991, there were children under the age of 12 were cal abuse and neglect can influence an estimated 2.9 million reports of most likely to be acquaintances of subsequent violent crime. child abuse and neglect involving the child (54%) and family members 1.9 million children. (33%) rather than strangers (13%).3 Due to the disproportionate number of neglect cases in comparison Each year an estimated 2,000 chil- Two years later, statistics showed to abuse cases, youth who were dren—most under age 4—die at similar trends. In 1994, a study re- neglected as children are almost the hands of parents or caretakers, vealed that children ages 5 and as likely to be arrested for violent about 5 children every day. Accord- younger who are victims of violent crimes as those who were physi- ing to a 1988 Bureau of Justice crime are more likely than older ju- cally abused. Consistent with this Statistics study of murder cases, venile victims to be victimized by a finding, of the maltreated children 4 out of 5 children under age 12 family member. (See figure 19.) who were arrested for violent who were murdered by a parent acts, 8 out of 10 were neglected as or caretaker had been previously Even when children are not sub- children. abused by the person who killed jected to violence themselves, them.2 they increasingly live in a world

66 Structural violence—harm inflicted and child abuse and neglect, has shelters, group homes, and hospi- on individuals by social institutions reached a crisis point. The complex- tals. In one out of five cases in or the social and physical environ- ity, seriousness, and ever-increasing which maltreatment was indicated ment—also has a major influence volume of maltreatment cases have or substantiated in 1992, the child on children. Children living in undercut CPS’ ability to process was removed from the home. More economically deprived areas are reports of child abuse and neglect; than 440,000 children were in some more likely to engage in crime than conduct sound investigations; type of substitute care at the end other children and are more suscep- communicate findings to the court; of 1992—60 percent more than 10 tible to violent and other criminal provide protective supervision; years earlier. Recent projections es- behavior.8 arrange appropriate foster care; timated that 550,000 children would monitor placements; and develop be in foster care by the end of 1995.9 Child Protective Services thoughtful, timely, and suitable and Dependency Courts permanency planning. As a result, Juvenile and family courts must The system of child protective serv- children frequently languish for make critical legal decisions and ices (CPS) and dependency courts, years in a series of temporary oversee CPS agency efforts when which addresses family violence placements, such as foster homes, families refuse to cooperate with protective services or when a child must be removed from the home. However, both judicial and agency Figure 17: Alleged child maltreatment reports caseloads have increased dramatically. One expert has found that in many jurisdictions, the demands made on juvenile courts in neglect Reports of alleged child maltreatment have increased since 1980 and abuse cases far exceed the number of judges and courtrooms to conduct the hearings.10 It is no Number of child reports (in thousands) exaggeration to refer to this situa- 3,000 National Study on Child tion as a crisis in many large urban Neglect & Abuse Report courts. 2,500 Annual 50 State Survey This crisis arose in part from the 2,000 National Child Abuse and Neglect Data System increased demands on family 1,500 courts. In the 1970’s, juvenile and family courts were required only 1,000 to determine whether a child had been abused or neglected and, if 500 so, whether the child should be re-

0 moved from the home and placed

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 under court or agency supervision. State and Federal legislation, par- ■ The increasing trend in child maltreatment reports over the past decade ticularly the Adoption Assistance is believed to be the result, at least in part, of a greater willingness to report suspected incidents. Greater public awareness both of child mal- and Child Welfare Act (AACWA) treatment as a social problem and the resources available to respond of 1980,11 sharply increased the to it are factors that contribute to increased reporting. scope of judicial oversight responsi- Note: Child reports are counts of children who are the subject of reports. Counts are bilities to include ensuring that duplicated when an individual child is the subject of more than one report during a year. every abused and neglected child who comes before the court is Data Sources: NCCAN. 1994. Child Maltreatment 1992: Reports from the States to the National Center on Child Abuse and Neglect. NCCAN. 1993. National child placed in a safe, permanent, and abuse neglect data system: Working paper 2, 1991 summary data component. stable home. The court must remain Source: Snyder, H., and M. Sickmund. 1995 (August). Juvenile Offenders and involved in a case until a child is Victims: A National Report. Washington, D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, U.S. Department of Justice.

67 returned home safely or placed in a Figure 18: Child abuse and neglect pyramid new permanent home. Judicial oversight may extend over a period of years until the case is finally closed. Yet most judges can spend an average of only 10 minutes on Child Abuse Fatalities—2,000 each of the 35 to 40 cases on their daily calendars. This time constric- Serious Disabilities—18,000 tion underscores the need for additional resources and assistance, Serious Injury—141,700 such as trained CASA’s for abused children, a strategy that is working Substantiated Incidence of Child Abuse and effectively in many communities. Neglect—992,617 Communities need to provide finan- Reports of Child cial resources to improve child pro- Abuse and Neglect— 2.9 Million, Involving tective services and dependency 1.9 Million Children courts, including better management of the system and training for CPS workers, social case workers, Data Sources: U.S. Advisory Board on Child Abuse and Neglect; Baladerian, Verbal judges, and court counselors. A testimony, 1994; NCCAN, 1991; National Committee to Prevent Child Abuse. community CASA program is one Source: A Nation’s Shame: Fatal Child Abuse and Neglect in the United States. way to augment the professional A Report of the U.S. Advisory Board on Child Abuse and Neglect. Washington, D.C.: Administration for Children and Families, U.S. Department of Health and Human staff. Services.

Figure 19: Juvenile victims of violent crime

Child victims of violent crime are more likely than older juvenile victims to be victimized by a family member

Victim’s age

Offender All 5 and 11 and 17 and 18 and type ages younger 6–11 12–17 younger younger older

Family member 27% 50% 26% 17% 33% 22% 29% Acquaintance 53 41 59 64 54 61 51 Stranger 20 9 15 18 13 17 20 Total 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100%

Data Source: Snyder, H. (1994). The criminal victimization of young children. Source: Snyder, H., and M. Sickmund. 1995 (August). Juvenile Offenders and Victims: A National Report. Washington, D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, U.S. Department of Justice.

68 Unified Family Courts Figure 20: Influence of neglect and abuse on violent acts Despite problems facing child welfare services and dependency courts, many successful systemic improvements are underway. There Is It Only Violence That Begets Violence? has been increased coordination of Percent of information sharing about family Arrested for Violent Acts Arrests for Violent cases among juvenile courts. Some Number of Acts by Type of Children Percent Number Maltreatment courts emphasize nonadversarial dispute resolution in family con- Physical abuse 76 21% 16 11% flicts and have developed an array Neglect 609 20 122 82 of domestic violence, visitation, divorce education, child advocacy, Sexual abuse 125 9 11 7 and litigation resources. The most Total maltreatment 810 149 100% promising development is the Comparison group 667 14% 93 emergence of unified family courts that handle the full range of family- Data Source: Widom, C.S. The Cycles of Violence: Revisited Six Years Later. related cases, including delinquen- Special Office of Justice Programs Presentation, April 19, 1995. cy, dependency, status offenses, paternity, custody, support, mental health, adoption, family violence, and divorce. Properly administered, Effective and their role in proceedings relating to unified family courts such as those Promising foster care and adoption and im- in Hawaii, New Jersey, and Rhode prove their handling of those pro- Island, can effectively address the Strategies and ceedings.12 Forty-eight States, needs of children in the context of Programs including the District of Columbia, the family.13 A unified family court began to implement the program should have authority equal to the State Court Improvement beginning in FY 1995. highest trial court of general juris- Program diction and be staffed by special- Since 1980, the responsibilities The State Court Improvement Pro- ized judges and other professionals. and caseloads of many juvenile gram is operated by the Children’s and family courts have sharply Bureau within the Department of For unified family courts to be increased. These increases are Health and Human Services’ effective, judges must be interested, partly due to the judicial oversight (HHS’) Administration on Children, committed, and qualified. They functions imposed by AACWA, re- Youth, and Families. This grant pro- should receive specialized training quiring certain court determina- gram provides State courts with the and have the authority to develop tions in foster care and adoption opportunity to collaborate with alternative dispute resolution fo- proceedings for children who enter other interested parties to review rums. Judges could further improve into State care as a result of abuse laws and procedures regarding fos- the family court system by making or neglect. Additionally, the inci- ter care and adoption proceedings, more informed and effective deci- dence of drug-affected children and supporting alternatives and im- sions regarding children and fami- families and the reporting of child provements. State courts have the lies through the use of integrated abuse and neglect have increased flexibility to design assessments family court management informa- steadily in recent years, resulting in that identify barriers, highlight tion systems, eliminating the higher court caseloads. practices that are not fully success- problem of conflicting court orders ful, evaluate areas they find to be in children and family cases, and The Omnibus Budget Reconcilia- in need of improvement or added providing the leadership required tion Act of 1993 (Public Law 103– attention, and implement reforms to develop an integrated service 66) established a new grant pro- that address specific needs. gram to help State courts focus on

69 delivery system. They should also Court Appointed Special and other assistance. In Cincinnati, ensure that children and families Advocate Programs the Hamilton Juvenile Court, the have complete and open access The CASA program is another local Cincinnati Bar Association, and the to the protective and restorative approach to improving the lives Junior League developed ProKids powers of the court. of abused and neglected children. to serve as court appointed special advocates for youth. When ProKids Children’s Advocacy Centers CASA programs use trained volunteers, sometimes known as guard- was created in 1981, only 25 pro- Children’s advocacy centers pro- ians ad litem, who help stabilize the grams in the Nation used commu- vide a community-based approach lives of victimized children. nity volunteers as child advocates whose goal is to improve manage- Appointed by the courts and for abused and neglected children. ment of abuse and neglect cases, working under court supervision, By 1994, ProKids had trained more increase the rate of prosecutions, CASA’s serve as advocates for than 450 child advocate volunteers, and ensure that victims and their children during court proceedings and 1,200 children have been 15 families receive coordinated treat- and help to ensure that a child is served by the program. ment services. Over the past 10 quickly placed in a safe, nurturing, years, nearly 300 communities have Family Preservation, Family and permanent home. They recom- Support, and Independent established children’s advocacy mend plans that will effectively Living centers. Multidisciplinary teams serve the best interest of the child conduct joint interviews and share based on an independent, thor- During the past two decades, in decisionmaking concerning the oughly researched investigation the focus on abused children and management and investigation of the child’s circumstances. their families has shifted within of cases, providing a range of serv- the child welfare system. Rather ices for victims and their families. Because CASA’s typically handle than removing abused children Some advocacy centers have spe- only one or two cases at a time, from their homes as the first course cial teams that focus on preventing they are able to devote significant of action, efforts are made to pre- child fatalities arising from abuse attention to individual children serve families by addressing the and neglect, including providing and obtain a full understanding problems of abuse and changing child abuse prevention education. of each case. They appear at all behavior within the family. This appropriate court proceedings new approach is based on the Children’s advocacy centers pro- and monitor court orders, ensuring following assumptions: vide increased substantiation and compliance by all parties. They prosecution of abuse cases, de- also bring changes in the child’s • Children’s safety and security creased post-abuse trauma to vic- circumstances to the court’s atten- is the first priority. tims through centralized intake tion. Their work aids overburdened • If their safety can be ensured, procedures, and enhanced support court officials and social workers children belong with their to victims of abuse and their fami- and enables judges to make more families. lies. Children’s advocacy centers informed decisions. provide two additional long-term • Families are the best environ- benefits: they focus community at- Nearly 700 communities nationwide ment for socialization. tention on child abuse prevention have established CASA programs. and raise community awareness of In 1994, some 37,000 court ap- • Being placed in a series of the problems of child abuse. They pointed special advocates repre- temporary foster homes can also provide locally developed in- sented more than 128,000 abused seriously impair a child’s frastructure that facilitates collabo- and neglected children—about 25 emotional development. ration among key local government percent of such children who came agencies. Communities that have before the courts.14 • Removing a child from an abu- developed such infrastructures in- sive home does not automati- crease the efficiency of their sys- One exemplary program is success- cally ensure the child’s safety. tems, improve the quality of care fully meeting the needs of children in a cost-effective manner, and ad- who have been removed from their The shift in emphasis toward family dress a multitude of local juvenile homes due to abuse or neglect and preservation and changing family justice and human services issues who need safe shelter, counseling, behavior grew out of research with increased cooperation.

70 showing that family bonding is Early Family Strengthening continues until the child is 5 years essential for healthy cognitive, and Support old, providing a connection to a emotional, and behavioral develop- Research has shown that juvenile “medical home” that emphasizes ment, and that families that receive delinquency prevention strategies preventive healthcare and home assistance can most often overcome are most effective when they are visits by trained health service per- problems. A 1984 study by the applied early in life—as early as sonnel. The program offers parent National Center on Child Abuse prenatally and perinatally.18 Waiting training, family counseling, en- and Neglect (NCCAN) found that until middle or late adolescence, hancement of parent–child interac- for every 1,000 children placed in when violent behavior patterns tion, child development activities, out-of-home care, 30 experienced are well established, makes reme- and social service linkage. Early additional abuse. By contrast, diation efforts more difficult. By evaluation findings provide among 2,505 children and their that time, serious delinquents gen- evidence that the program is suc- families who participated in the erally exhibit multiple, interwoven, cessful in reducing the likelihood 22 Families First family-strengthening and recurring problem behaviors of child abuse. program, only one child reported and a severe deficit in protective The Elmira Home Visitation Pro- an incident of abuse during the first factors. 12 months of the program.16 gram in New York provides a wide A review of violence research range of maternal and child health Homebuilders of Tacoma, WA, suggests that predatory and psy- services to poor, unmarried teenag- one of the first local family preser- chopathological violence is most ers during pregnancy and the first vation programs, has operated with effectively treated by early family- 2 years of their children’s lives. The impressive results since its estab- focused comprehensive interven- program has demonstrated the fol- lishment in 1974. In the first 12 tions.19 Reducing multiple risk lowing results: 75 percent reduction months after entering the program, factors and increasing several pro- in State-verified cases of child abuse 88 percent of the children identified tective factors will increase the like- and neglect, 32 percent fewer emer- by case workers as candidates for lihood that children will develop gency room visits during the sec- out-of-home placement remain in into productive, competent adults.20 ond year of life, 84 percent increase their homes, and both child and Programs such as Prenatal/ in unmarried mothers participating family functioning show significant Perinatal–Healthy Families, in the workforce, and 43 percent improvement on standardized Healthy Babies provide prenatal fewer subsequent births by unmar- measures. A similar program be- and perinatal medical care, inten- ried women than by their counter- gun in 1987 in the Bronx, NY, to sive health education for pregnant parts assigned to comparable 23 test the Homebuilders treatment women and mothers with young services. model in an urban setting also children, and prenatal and infancy The Memphis Home Visitation achieved a high level of success. home nurse visits. Services such as Program showed the following these have been known to reduce Family Ties of New York, another outcomes among participating the risks of head injuries, exposure program modeled after the Home- African-American mothers: 46 to toxins, maternal substance use, builders approach, is underwritten percent less alcohol consumption perinatal difficulties, and child by New York City with matching and 26 percent fewer cigarettes abuse—all delinquency-related risk State funds. From 1991 to 1992, 80 used during pregnancy, 24 percent factors—and enhance parenting percent of juveniles who partici- fewer cases of preeclampsia, and 26 skills.21 pated in Family Ties remained out percent fewer second pregnancies. of the juvenile justice system during The Healthy Start Program in In addition, more mothers breast the 6 months after starting with the Hawaii seeks to reduce child abuse fed their infants, fewer women re- program. During a period of a year by offering postnatal counseling ported attitudes that are associated or more, the success rate for pro- to high-risk parents when mothers with child abuse, such as lack of gram participants was 82 percent. are still in the hospital. By using 15 empathy for children and belief in Recidivism rates were significantly effective screening indicators, the physical punishment as a means of lower for the program group than program targets parents for early disciplining infants and toddlers; 17 for a comparison group. intervention services, which have and fewer were seen by health care 24 been accepted by approximately professionals for injuries. 95 percent of parents. The program

71 In Tennessee, lawmakers adopted Victimization Prevention Federal, State, and local officials, an “earlier is better” crime preven- Programs including those responsible for tion plan that provides a range of Prevention strategies should also criminal history record systems, services to at-risk infants, toddlers, address victimization among teens. and representatives of public and and preschoolers. The State legisla- An exemplary victim education pro- private care agencies and health, ture also enacted the Childhood gram is the Teens, Crime, and the legal, and social welfare organiza- Development Act of 1994, expand- Community school-based curricu- tions. DOJ will use research by the ing family support and preserva- lum that makes youth aware American Bar Association to draft tion services and requiring of crime and the high rate of teen guidelines. development of a statewide early victimization through real-life is- 25 DOJ will make available a set of childhood education plan. sues. Formal evaluations have docu- protocols to assist decisionmakers mented that the program has Other early prevention strategies in law enforcement, public health, resulted in local youth-led victim- targeting children and their fami- drug treatment, and other relevant ization prevention measures and lies in the first 5 years of life have areas in making reasonable efforts changed students’ attitudes about shown dramatic results.26 For to enable drug-exposed children to crime and victimization.29 example, during the preschool remain safely at home. years, home visitation programs Federal Action that provide health and parent edu- NIJ will support a scientific study cation and enhance family social Steps of the effects of hearsay evidence on juror decisionmaking in child abuse support systems have been shown Improve Juvenile and Family to be effective. Also, preschool pro- Court Handling of Child cases. grams and structured educational Abuse and Neglect Cases HHS’ Children’s Bureau operates day care have demonstrated suc- With support from OJJDP, the the State Court Improvement Pro- cess in reducing risk factors and National Council of Juvenile and gram, which provides State courts involvement in delinquency.27 Family Court Judges (NCJFCJ) will with the opportunity to collaborate Several other States emphasize help replicate in several jurisdic- with other interested parties to re- early intervention approaches, such tions the successful demonstration view laws and procedures regard- as Minnesota and Tennessee. In re- juvenile and family court reform ing foster care and adoption cent years, Minnesota has used project in operation in Hamilton proceedings. funds earmarked for crime preven- County, OH. NCJFCJ will widely disseminate comprehensive re- Enhance Local Efforts To tion to augment Head Start, learn- Investigate and Prosecute source guidelines for improving the ing readiness, and family support Child Abuse and Neglect programs. In addition, the State handling of child abuse and neglect Cases and Strengthen legislature has established a Senate cases, developed on the principles Child Protective Services Crime Prevention Committee. of the demonstration project. The Departments of Justice (DOJ) and NIJ will fund research to examine Other successful prevention strate- HHS will support the implementa- the use of parent drug testing gies include parent training and tion of this model in juvenile and to facilitate judicial and social serv- multisystemic family therapy. Par- family courts across the country. ices in the prevention of further ent training programs teach skills maltreatment in child abuse and that can improve parenting prac- The National Child Protection Act neglect cases. tices. Multisystemic family therapy of 1993, as amended by the 1994 includes parent training within a Crime Act, requires the Attorney NCCAN, established by the Child wider range of interventions for General and DOJ to develop guide- Abuse Prevention and Treatment improving family cohesiveness. lines for the adoption of appropriate Act of 1974, will assist States and Both programs have been shown safeguards by care providers and by communities in child abuse preven- to reduce antisocial behavior and States for the protection of children, tion, identification, investigation, delinquency.28 the elderly, and individuals with and treatment. NCCAN will sup- disabilities from abuse. The Attor- port State grant programs, research ney General will consult with

72 and demonstration grant projects, Under Title XX of HHS’ Social Secu- nutritional, social, and other serv- clearinghouses, resource centers, rity Act (enacted in 1974), the Fed- ices to bridge the gap between eco- and an Interagency Task Force on eral Government provides grants to nomically disadvantaged children Child Abuse and Neglect. States for social services aimed at and their peers. preventing or remedying abuse and OJJDP will provide training in neglect while preserving families NIJ will provide technical assistance investigative techniques to law and preventing inappropriate insti- and training to the nationwide Girl enforcement, child protective serv- tutional care. Grants are also set Scouts Beyond Bars program. The ices, and other justice system agen- aside for evaluation, research, and primary goals of this program are to cies involved in investigating training and technical assistance. prevent juvenile delinquency in missing children cases and child these at-risk children, improve the abuse, sexual exploitation, and HHS’ Children’s Bureau began to parenting skills of incarcerated pornography. Courses will include provide grants to State courts in mothers, and reduce the probability the most advanced concepts in 1995 to improve foster care and of recidivism. investigative process and will pro- adoption proceedings. Without the vide information on interagency services these programs provide, OJJDP will establish a national development, advanced interview- most children who are at risk for family-strengthening training and ing techniques, team activity in- serious child abuse, family conflict, technical assistance effort. One or volving investigations, case and mental health problems would more agencies will be funded to preparation, and prosecution. be immediately removed from the provide a range of technical sup- home. port to help communities establish OJJDP will continue to provide or strengthen family support local children’s advocacy centers HHS will provide Maternal and programs. with funding, training, and techni- Child Health Improvement Grants cal assistance through the National to improve the delivery of health Support Community-Based Services That Reduce Family Network of Children’s Advocacy care services to mothers and chil- Violence and Victimization Centers and with training, consulta- dren, particularly those families in tion, resource materials, and other low-income and isolated areas. The HHS will continue to fund the technical assistance through the Department will also continue to Family Violence Prevention and four regional children’s advocacy support Healthy Start sites to in- Services Program to assist States centers. OJJDP will also seek to increase awareness of infant mortality and Native-American tribes in the crease the number of children rep- and overcome barriers to delivery prevention of family violence and resented by court appointed special of child and maternal health care; the provision of immediate shelter advocates through continued sup- streamline and coordinate services and related assistance for victims of port of the development and en- between public and private agen- family violence and their depen- hancement of local CASA cies; and build partnerships among dents. The program also funds dis- programs. families, volunteers, companies, cretionary grants to support and health care and social service research into the causes and pre- Strengthen At-Risk Families providers. vention of family violence, to sup- and Support Healthy Start port the training of family violence Programs for Children In FY 1995, HHS began to award personnel and provide technical HHS will provide nearly $1 billion grants to implement Early Head assistance in the conduct of family through the Family Preservation Start programs that provide inten- violence programs, and to support and Family Support Services Pro- sive and comprehensive child de- the operation of a national resource gram to States and a limited group velopment and family support center on family violence. of tribes for family support services services to low-income families and services to families at risk or in with children under age 3 and to These funds are also used to pro- crisis. The program offers States an pregnant women. In addition, vide grant awards to nonprofit extraordinary opportunity to make HHS will continue to support the private sector organizations in each sweeping changes in their child Head Start program to provide State to form State Domestic Vio- welfare systems to assist children comprehensive health, educational, lence Coalitions that are dedicated at risk for abuse and neglect.

73 to the prevention of family violence Provide Training and multidisciplinary teams and exten- in general and spouse abuse in par- Technical Assistance To sion of the teamwork concept used ticular. The Violent Crime Control Strengthen Agencies Serving by children’s advocacy centers to and Law Enforcement Act of 1994 Children and Their Families a wide range of crimes, including requires State coalitions to work HHS will continue to fund national family violence. OJJDP will also with local domestic violence pro- child welfare resource centers focus- work with OVC to improve services grams and providers of direct serving on critical topics such as family- to children who are victims of ices through training, planning, centered practice, permanency crimes under Federal law, including disseminating information, and planning, organizational improve- those living on Native-American collaborating with other government, youth development, and legal lands. mental systems that help battered and court issues. These centers OJJDP will support an initiative to women. provide training and technical provide more conflict resolution assistance to build the capacity of The Bureau of Justice Assistance programming for young people to State, local, tribal, and other pub- (BJA) will fund three Violence equip them with the skills neces- licly administered or publicly sup- Against Women demonstration sary to resolve conflict nonviolently. ported child welfare agencies in the sites to identify mechanisms and A training and technical assistance development, expansion, strength- procedures to help jurisdictions provider will assist interested com- ening, and improvement of the coordinate criminal justice agen- munities in selecting an appropriate quality and effectiveness of services cies, victims services, social serv- conflict resolution model and in to children and their families. ices, medical services, and others, implementing it in schools, youth as appropriate, to ensure that issues HHS will continue to provide dis- facilities, recreation centers, and and problems about violence are cretionary child welfare training other institutions serving youth. handled effectively. These pilot pro- grants and promote the use of Social grams provide BJA with a basis for Security Act Title IV–E training Suggestions for determining a prototype to enhance funds to enhance child welfare State and Local and coordinate jurisdictionwide practice in ways that make positive responses to issues concerning differences for children and their Action violence against women. families. • Foster substance abuse treatment approaches designed for parents, The Office for Victims of Crime HHS will also continue to fund and including residential treatment (OVC) will provide funds to help work with States to strengthen the programs that allow children DOJ implement the recently en- design and delivery of Independent to accompany their addicted acted Violence Against Women Living Initiatives to assist children parents. Act (VAWA). OVC funding will be who have reached the age of 16 in allocated for the development of making the transition from foster • Provide financial and other model policies and procedures on care to independent living. The resources to enable parents to implementation and enforcement National Resource Center for Youth take part in treatment. of the Full Faith and Credit provi- Development, funded by HHS, is sions, and to train State and local responsible for identifying and • Eliminate punitive policies such criminal justice components and disseminating information to the as those that require parents to advocates. field on innovative, successful tran- give up parental rights in order sitional and independent living pro- to be eligible for treatment. NIJ will sponsor research on youth grams dealing with issues such as victims of domestic abuse in an • Develop a network of State and effective parenting and adolescent attempt to provide a better under- local victim assistance strategies input into program design. standing of their needs and how that serve children and their they can be more effectively ad- Improve Services to Children families. dressed. NIJ will also support re- Who Are Victims of Abuse search to clarify understanding of and Other Crimes • Establish victim awareness activities in juvenile corrections the prevalence of partner violence OJJDP will work with OVC to among young adults. facilities to help young offenders improve services to children understand the impact of their through expansion of resources for

74 crimes on others, the roots of Endnotes 8. Eron, L.D., J. Gentry, and P. their own violent behavior, and 1. A Nation's Shame: Fatal Child Schlegel, eds. 1994. Reason to Hope: ways to become nonabusive Abuse and Neglect in the United A Psychosocial Perspective on spouses and parents. States: A Report of the U.S. Advisory Violence and Youth. Washington, Board on Child Abuse and Neglect. D.C.: American Psychological • Support comprehensive adoles- 1995. Washington, D.C.: Adminis- Association. cent pregnancy prevention tration for Children and Families, programs. 9. National Commission on Chil- U.S. Department of Health and dren. 1991. Beyond Rhetoric: A New Human Services. • Support victim education for American Agenda for Children and teens through community- or 2. Dawson, J., and P. Langan. 1994. Families. Final Report. Washington, school-based programs. Murder in Families. Bureau of Justice D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. • Advocate for manageable Statistics Special Report. Washing- ton, D.C.: Bureau of Justice Statis- caseloads and properly trained 10. Hardin, M. 1992. Judicial Imple- tics, U.S. Department of Justice. child protective workers. mentation of Permanency Planning Reform: One Court That Works. • Reform juvenile and family court 3. Snyder, H., and M. Sickmund. 1995 (August). Juvenile Offenders and Washington, D.C.: American Bar administration to better address Association. needs of victimized children Victims: A National Report. Washing- ton, D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice and improve dependency case 11. Public Law 96–272, The Adoption and Delinquency Prevention, U.S. management. Assistance and Child Welfare Act of Department of Justice. 1980. • Encourage formation of local 4. Thornberry, T.P. 1994 (Decem- CASA and other children’s 12. Public Law 103–66, The Omni- ber). Violent Families and Youth Vio- advocacy programs. bus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1993. lence. Fact Sheet #21. Washington, • Launch local Healthy Start D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice and 13. National Council of Juvenile programs. Delinquency Prevention, U.S. De- and Family Court Judges. 1991. Rec- partment of Justice. ommendations for a Model Family • Involve young men in parenting Court: A Report from the National 5. Ibid. programs, especially those Family Court Symposium. Reno, Nev. placed in juvenile justice facili- Wright, K.N., and K.E. Wright. 1994 ties and those incarcerated in Rubin, H.T., and V.E. Flango. 1992. (May). Family Life, Delinquency, and correctional facilities. Court Coordination of Family Cases. Crime: A Policymaker's Guide. Re- Williamsburg, Va.: National Center search Summary. Washington, D.C.: • Establish and maintain an effec- for State Courts. tive and inclusive planning effort Office of Juvenile Justice and Delin- focused on family preservation quency Prevention, U.S. Depart- 14. CASA: Court Appointed Special and family support services. ment of Justice. Advocate for Children . . . A Child's Voice in Court. 1988. Juvenile Justice 6. Widom, C.S. 1992 (October). The • Provide mental health and treat- Bulletin. Washington, D.C.: Office Cycle of Violence. Research in Brief. ment services and parenting of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Washington, D.C.: National Insti- skills training for confined abus- Prevention, U.S. Department of tute of Justice, U.S. Department of ers and/or young offenders who Justice. are victims of abuse. Justice.

7. Thornberry, 1994.

75 15. ProKids: Speaking Up for Abused 19. Tolan, P., and N. Guerra. 1994 22. Delinquency Prevention Works. and Neglected Children in Hamilton, (July). What Works in Reducing Ado- 1995 (May). Washington, D.C.: Ohio (brochure). 1994. Cincinnati, lescent Violence: An Empirical Review Office of Juvenile Justice and Ohio: ProKids. of the Field. Boulder, Colo.: The Cen- Delinquency Prevention, U.S. ter for the Study and Prevention of Department of Justice. 16. Bergquist, C., G. Pope, and K. Violence, University of Colorado. Corliss. 1995. Evaluation of 23. Ibid. Michigan's Families First Program, 20. Howell, J.C., ed. 1995 (May). Summary Report. Lansing, Mich.: Guide for Implementing the Compre- 24. Olds, D.L., et al. 1993. Effect of Michigan Department of Social hensive Strategy for Serious, Violent, prenatal and infancy nurse home Services. and Chronic Juvenile Offenders. Wash- visitation on government spending. ington, D.C.: Office of Juvenile Jus- Medical Care 31(2):155–174. 17. Collier, W.V., and R.H. Hill. tice and Delinquency Prevention, 25. Rubin and Flango, 1992. 1993 (June). Family Ties Intensive U.S. Department of Justice. Family Preservation Services Program: 26. Mendel, R.A. 1995. Prevention or An Evaluation Report. City of New Wilson, J.J., and J.C. Howell. 1993. Pork? A Hard-Headed Look at Youth- York, N.Y.: Department of Juvenile Comprehensive Strategy for Serious, Oriented Anti-Crime Programs. Justice. Violent, and Chronic Juvenile Offend- Washington, D.C.: American Youth ers. Washington, D.C.: Office of Policy Forum. 18. Thornberry, T.P., D. Huizinga, Juvenile Justice and Delinquency and R. Loeber. 1995. The prevention Prevention, U.S. Department of 27. Delinquency Prevention Works. of serious delinquency and vio- Justice. lence: Implications from the pro- 28. Ibid. gram of research on the causes and 21. Olds, D.L., et al. Forthcoming. correlates of delinquency. In J.C. The potential for reducing antisocial 29. Hwalick, M. 1992 (August). Howell et al., eds., Sourcebook on behavior with a program of prenatal 1992 Evaluation of Teens, Crime, and Serious, Violent, and Chronic Juvenile and early childhood home visita- the Community. Bingham Farms, Offenders. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: tion. Denver, Colo.: Prevention Re- Mich.: Social Program Evaluators Sage Publications. search Center for Family and Child and Consultants, Inc. Health and Home Visitation.

76 6. Strengthen and Mobilize Communities

Overview summarized the advantage of us- interdiction, stiff sentences) to ing the community as a frame of local dynamics, local impact, and Communities play the primary role reference to solve the problem of local opportunities. [Community in preventing juvenile delinquency violence in the following manner: analysis] suggests that the fear and the criminal victimization of caused by violence is as much a juveniles. With Federal and State Using community as a unit of problem as violence itself; that leadership and support, communi- analysis shifts attention from local responses can successfully ties can successfully change local individual incidents of crime fight the drivers of violence conditions to help youth become as such (the undifferentiated (street gun and drug markets). law-abiding, productive citizens. categories of murder, assault, It emphasizes the power and po- drug trafficking, etc.), and tential of local resources, local All community members—business generalized responses (law en- alliances, and local experiments leaders, media representatives, forcement, gun control, drug in violence prevention.2 teachers, parents and grandpar- ents, young people, policymakers, clergy, elected officials, and law Figure 21: Influences on strong youth and enforcement—are responsible for strong communities ensuring the health and well-being of children. When all members of the community work together to achieve common goals, everyone benefits from the strength of a Youth and working partnership. (See figure Schools Families 21.) Business Policy Policymakers Leaders Even medium- and small-scale Makers community mobilization efforts can be effective. The Community Media Responses to Drug Abuse (CRDA) Recreation Initiative, a program researched by STRONG YOUTH STRONG the National Institute of Justice (NIJ) COMMUNITIES and designed and implemented Faith Social Communities by the National Crime Prevention Services Council (NCPC), found that modest neighborhoods with limited re- City Housing sources can make significant strides Planners and Civic in reducing drug activity, protecting Organizations Law youth, and improving the physical Juvenile Enforcement Justice environment.1

The Subgroup on Violence and Place of the Interdepartmental Source: OJJDP Internal Working Group,1995. Working Group on Violence

77 This section describes why strong below the poverty level, a 42- Effective and communities are critical to reduc- percent increase since 1976. Poverty ing delinquency and violence and rates are higher among children un- Promising provides fundamental elements der age 6 (25 percent) than among Strategies and essential to successful community older youth (19 percent). Poverty is Programs change. It also presents examples also higher among minority youth, of efforts that prove community particularly African Americans (47 Although evaluation has not mobilization strategies work. percent) and Hispanics (40 percent), yet proved the effectiveness of than among white youth (17 per- efforts to produce positive and Current Status cent). Youth growing up in inner cit- lasting community change, several and Analysis of ies are most likely to live in poverty.4 community-building strategies appear to be promising. A com- the Problem Historically, government has munitywide approach to reducing Community Deterioration responded to youth problems by violence and delinquency is prom- providing services to address the ising for several reasons. First, it Earlier sections of this Action Plan symptoms, often resulting in ineffi- affects the entire social environ- describe categories of risk factors cient use of scarce resources. Chil- ment by focusing on community that research has shown can con- dren labeled as delinquent enter norms, values, and policies as well tribute to juvenile delinquency. the correctional system, which has as on conditions that place children They include individual, family, been unable to pay attention to un- at risk for adolescent problems. peer, school, and community fac- derlying family and other problems. Second, all members of the com- tors. Community risk factors in- Youth intervention agencies identify munity can apply their expertise clude the availability of drugs and some children as abused, neglected, where it is most effective. Commu- firearms, community laws and or dependent, remove them from nity mobilization holds the promise norms favorable to drug use, the their homes, and place them in fos- of investing every local resident in nature and extent of crime, media ter care, but the agencies fail or are solving what is truly a shared portrayals of violence, neighbor- unable to provide preventive family goal—to help young people grow hood transition and mobility, re- support or mental health services. up to maximize their potential and duced interaction among residents Some children with mental health reduce their likelihood of involve- causing community disassociation, needs are placed in secure psychiat- ment in violence and delinquency. and economic deprivation. ric settings with little opportunity Federal and State governments can for treatment in community-based, Community life has changed sig- assist communities by showing family-oriented programs.5 nificantly in recent decades, result- them the most effective ways to tap into fiscal and human resources. ing in a decline in essential youth This fragmented human services nurturing, supervision, and guid- system does not serve anyone effec- Community planning teams that in- ance. In many instances, the dete- tively—youth, families, or commu- clude a partnership of agency and rioration of the community has nities. The system is expensive; it lay participants can help create a isolated parents and their children often fails to solve youth’s prob- consensus on priorities and services from the network and support of lems; and youth are referred from to be provided. They also build sup- extended families, and fear of chil- agency to agency with little port for a comprehensive approach dren has replaced fear for children.3 followup. Comprehensive and tar- that draws on all sectors of the com- geted collaborative efforts can more Poverty exacerbates social disorga- munity for participation, such as the effectively assess the needs of at- nization and is both a source of criminal justice and juvenile justice risk youth, implement promising stress and a risk factor for commu- systems; other service systems such strategies, and maximize communities, individuals, and families. In as health and mental health, child nity resources.6 1992, 22 percent of youth lived welfare, education, assisted housing providers, recreation, and law

78 enforcement; business; media; reli- • Conflict resolution training. One of the key CRDA projects gious institutions; and grassroots was the Oakland (CA) Community organizations, including parent • Substance abuse reduction Organization. Residents learned to groups, youth clubs, crime victim programs. work in partnership with law en- groups, and civic and social groups. forcement, which resulted in in- • Improved juvenile justice creased funding for the police processes. The Department of Justice’s (DOJ’s) department’s Beat Health Unit. Beat Office of Community Oriented • Block teams and jurisdiction- Health has been directly respon- Policing Services (COPS) supports wide teams to address specific sible for mobilizing residents to the concept of successful commu- problems. take direct action in drug abuse pre- nity policing through close, mutu- vention, organizing a neighborhood ally beneficial ties between police In 1989, the Bureau of Justice cleanup, and closing more than 300 and community members. COPS Assistance (BJA) provided funding drug houses.8 uses a long-term problemsolving to establish the CRDA National approach that targets persistent or Demonstration Program in 10 sites Community Assessment recurring problems in communities. across the country. The purpose of The public health model of youth One of the key COPS components is the program was to help communi- violence prevention encourages a enhanced communications among ties develop and implement effec- partnership of community leaders police, the community, and other tive strategies to reduce drug abuse to determine their community’s public and social service agencies. and improve the quality of life in readiness for a comprehensive The community must be viewed as their neighborhoods. A process and risk-focused prevention effort and an active partner with law enforce- impact evaluation funded by NIJ to identify or create a community ment in identifying problems and identified a number of positive prevention board. The board as- determining appropriate tactics and changes in target areas compared sesses the community’s risks and measures of success. with control areas. The evaluation existing resources by collecting found that local organizations in data on risk indicators and ana- In the Texas City Action Plan To these neighborhoods, assisted by lyzing existing programs. With this Prevent Crime (T–CAP),7 NCPC NCPC and the National Training information, the community board worked with seven municipal and Information Center, could suc- prioritizes risk factors, identifies governments, local leaders, private cessfully develop and implement a programming gaps, and reviews entities, and citizens to adopt and wide variety of anti-drug strategies. effective approaches to address implement strategies to reduce high-priority risk factors. violence. Through this partnership, Many of these strategies involved the initiative has accomplished the cooperative efforts with law en- With a complete community assess- following: forcement workers who helped ment, the board can develop a stra- community organizations increase tegic plan to implement and evalu- • Violence reduction through levels of citizen awareness and par- ate a comprehensive risk-reduction environmental design, such as ticipation in anti-drug activities. strategy tailored to the unique risk improved street lighting. These community interventions and resource profile of its commu- • Job creation and training also resulted in increased social in- nity. Such a strategy includes help- programs. teraction among residents, favor- ing communities reduce critical able attitudes toward the police, risk factors; helping youth deve- • Mandated parent education and and positive perceptions about their lop protective factors such as enhanced childcare. neighborhood as a safe place to live. healthy beliefs, clear standards for The CRDA program also helped behavior, and skills for economic • Youth recreation and senior grassroots organizations develop self-sufficiency; or implementing a citizen safety projects. partnerships with criminal justice combination of both approaches. agencies, fire and housing depart- • Community oriented policing ments, city councils, school boards, The Office of Juvenile Justice and strategies aimed at community and recreation departments. Delinquency Prevention’s (OJJDP’s) disorder. Title V Initiative, Local Incentive Grants for Delinquency Prevention

79 Programs (Title V Initiative), pro- Youth involvement has two benefi- community’s ability to serve as its vides an example of effective re- ciaries: the community benefits own guardian. A good example source allocation combined with from the high energy and creative is found in community oriented training. During 1994, the Title V talents of young people, and young policing strategies, which seek to Initiative distributed grants to 49 people benefit from the critical give law enforcement a highly States and 6 Territories to promote realization that they can make posi- visible presence in communities local momentum and attract local tive differences in their community. and build positive relationships financial and human resources. Many community programs at- with residents. These community- Nearly 2,500 local participants at- tribute their success to activities based programs, which promote tended OJJDP-sponsored training designed to help youth realize that police-community partnerships to sessions and learned how to imple- they are valuable to their families solve problems that lead to crime, ment an effective prevention plan- and communities and to convey a have proven to be successful in fos- ning framework, design new ap- sense of respect and pride in the tering this kind of neighborhood proaches to interagency collabora- positive contributions that youth responsibility. tion, and conduct valuable risk and can make.9 resource assessments. Private initiatives funded by Communities should initiate activi- foundations have taken the lead in The Department of Health and ties and services that help youth supporting communitywide and Human Services (HHS) has funded resist violence and develop skills neighborhood-based strategies. several promising pilot programs to mediate conflicts peacefully. They Over the years, national founda- based on the public health model should take steps to help youth re- tions such as Ford, Rockefeller, through its Maternal and Child place their mistrust toward the law McArthur, Robert Wood Johnson, Health Block Grants. The Commu- and law enforcement with a sense of Clark, Casey, and Carnegie have nities That Care process formalizes trust and a willingness to cooperate. supported these programs. These the public health model into a tool The Youth as Resources Program, programs have reached out to the for mobilizing communities to ad- operated by NCPC, is an example of corporate and business sectors that dress issues of delinquency, vio- a program with strong youth and have been supportive in enhancing lence, substance abuse, school community involvement. Guided their success. dropout, and teen pregnancy. by a board of local leaders, including youth, young people take active The Administration’s Empower- Youth Involvement roles in planning, implementing, ment Zone and Enterprise Commu- Many young people feel a deep and managing community service nity initiative applies the principles sense of alienation and discon- projects. The program, which began of community mobilization to nection from their own com- in 3 Indiana cities, has spread to neighborhood economic develop- munities, contributing to a lack of more than 35 sites in 17 States and ment strategies. Other examples self-esteem. Youth need opportuni- abroad.10 of place-based violence prevention ties to establish their self-worth strategies include the Office of Jus- and receive affirmation of their Neighborhood-Targeted and tice Programs’ (OJP’s) Operation Place-Based Strategies place and role within the commu- Weed and Seed, the Department of nity. Adult leaders often fail to tap Strategies that benefit communities Housing and Urban Development’s into essential youth skills, such as include those that foster a return (HUD’s) Public Housing Drug problemsolving and decisionmak- to the informal social control once Elimination Program, the Center ing, that can effectively change provided by stay-at-home neigh- for Substance Abuse Prevention’s conditions and attitudes within a bors and senior citizens, who would (CSAP’s) Community Partnerships, community. “watch over” their neighborhoods and the Centers for Disease Control and their neighbors’ children. Pro- and Prevention’s (CDC’s) violence Adults must recognize that youth grams that encourage informal prevention projects. have a stake in their communities community involvement and em- Operation Weed and Seed “weeds and need to be substantially in- phasize community partnerships out” violent crime, gang activity, volved in addressing community with law enforcement and social drug use, and drug trafficking in problems, particularly juvenile service agencies can strengthen a violence and victimization. targeted high-crime neighborhoods,

80 and then “seeds” the area by restor- viding a comprehensive framework develop and implement compre- ing social and economic revitaliza- for community leaders to address hensive, community-based Title V tion. In many areas, Operation the problem of violence. It has also initiatives and gain support from Weed and Seed has reduced crime, produced innovative local actions, key leaders from the public, non- fear, and violence, and helped com- often beyond traditional jurisdic- profit, and private sectors. Finally, munities develop innovative plan- tional boundaries, to prevent and the Title V Initiative encourages ning and organizational strategies reduce violence. existing prevention coalitions and to address neighborhood problems. programs to expand to delinquency Training and Resource prevention programming, thereby HUD’s Public Housing Drug Utilization enhancing the effectiveness and Elimination Program has encour- Community leaders need to know scope of community systems. aged cooperative working relation- how and where to target and gener- ships among housing authorities, ate local resources. They also gain To support the effective use of Title law enforcement, and tenants to from establishing mechanisms that V Initiative funds, OJJDP makes enhance local resident control sustain linkages among local re- available a two-phase training pro- and accountability for buildings, sources. A number of Federal gram on risk-focused prevention conditions, and responsible tenancy. agencies, ranging from HUD’s Of- to local leaders and community planning teams. During 1994, Local/Federal Partnerships fice of Public and Indian Housing to CSAP, have developed training nearly 2,500 local participants at- Federal agencies can collaborate as programs and clearinghouses to tended OJJDP training sessions partners in local efforts to improve support efforts to identify and sus- and learned how to implement communities. Key to the success tain resources. AmeriCorps and an effective planning framework, of a Federal/local partnership is other service-oriented initiatives design new approaches to inter- a willingness to compromise and provide information about human agency collaboration, and conduct sustain involvement over time. resource opportunities. OJJDP has valuable risk and resource assess- Agencies must be prepared to allow established a Juvenile Justice and ments. These communities are flexibility and leeway in decision- Delinquency Prevention Training joining forces to aggressively ad- making and in framing local and Technical Assistance Center. dress their juvenile violence and 11 initiatives. These agencies are complemented delinquency problems. by a host of private nonprofit agen- In the Pulling America’s Communi- Information Sharing cies that have strong records of ties Together (PACT) program, success in supporting local mobili- Newsletters, bulletins, computer Federal representatives of the De- zation efforts. (See Appendix C.) linkages, and other vehicles for shar- partments of Education, Housing ing information can generate action and Urban Development, Health OJJDP’s Title V Initiative, described as well as convey critical informa- and Human Services, Justice, and earlier, not only provides a sound tion. Information sharing can iden- Labor have worked with Atlanta, strategy for assessing risk and pro- tify programs that are founded on GA; Denver, CO; the District of Co- tective factors but is an example of successful strategies. However, lumbia; and the State of Nebraska effective resource utilization com- rather than reproducing successful to coordinate efforts to reduce combined with training. The program programs, communities must adapt munity violence by building encourages communities to pool the underlying strategies to their healthier communities. Through delinquency prevention resources own structure and needs. Experience NCPC, the National Council on and systems in several ways. First, suggests that methods and strategies Crime and Delinquency, and Devel- by developing comprehensive are more transferable than programs opmental Research and Programs, needs assessments and objectives, and more portable than institutions. Inc., BJA and OJJDP have provided grantees enable communities to Sharing information about the re- technical assistance to the PACT make more effective use of local sults of successful strategies is vital program. prevention funds. Second, grantees not only to publicizing successful must match at least 50 percent of models but also to encouraging com- As a result of these partnerships, the Federal award with State or lo- munities to set realistic program PACT has stimulated cooperation cal funds or in-kind services, thus goals and devise useful evaluation among many agencies that have no stimulating local public and private mechanisms. prior history of collaboration, pro- funding. Third, local leaders must

81 Outcomes: Short- and concentrating resources on and (violence, delinquency, drug use, Long-Term Successes strategically planning action for gangs, and teen pregnancy), and Tackling the complex problem of distressed urban areas. coordinate or integrate service juvenile delinquency will not nec- delivery and funding. CDC, through its Community Dem- essarily produce immediate results. onstration Grants, and OJJDP, In support of creating these link- Long-term successes are usually through its Title V Initiative grant ages, OJJDP has disseminated built on a layered foundation of program, will help communities the Matrix of Community-Based many short-term efforts and suc- design and implement multifaceted Initiatives to inform communities cesses. Short-term objectives, juvenile delinquency and violence about existing sites with successful when successfully met, create confi- prevention programs. public and private comprehensive, dence and generate energy and en- community-based strategies to pre- thusiasm toward working on the Link Federal and vent violence and strengthen eco- longer term issues. They also help Private Initiatives at the nomic development. The report develop skills and capacities that Community Level provides a broad narrative descrip- will be valuable in working on Improving the coordination of tion of each major initiative, a local more complex long-term goals. comprehensive community-based contact, and a contact within the Federal Action efforts to prevent crime is critical. Federal department or the founda- OJJDP’s SafeFutures program will tion that can provide additional in- Steps provide funding to six jurisdictions formation.12 Support Concentrated that create exemplary public-private partnerships in the areas of juvenile Advance the Public Strategies To Improve Health Approach to Distressed Neighborhoods justice and delinquency prevention, demonstrate a comprehensive strat- Assessing and Reducing and Reduce Violence Violence in Communities Citywide egy to strengthen the juvenile justice system, and provide a con- OJJDP will continue to widely The Federal Government will sup- tinuum of services and sanctions. disseminate its Guide for Implement- port community efforts to assess It will also establish technology and ing the Comprehensive Strategy for and identify local needs, resources, protocols to replicate its successes Serious, Violent, and Chronic Juvenile and priorities in order to identify in other jurisdictions. Offenders and will continue to make and respond to the needs of high- available timely research findings risk youth and juvenile offenders. Other Federal agencies, including and program strategies to help Federal agencies will continue to the Departments of Housing and communities understand the issues support community mobilization Urban Development, Health and surrounding youth violence, in- models such as the Title V Initia- Human Services, and Education cluding the use of firearms, and po- tive, Comprehensive Communities will join with the Corporation for tential responses to these problems. Program, Project PACT, National National Service (CNS) and private Funding Collaborative on Violence agencies to provide training and CDC will distribute guidelines on Prevention, Operation Weed and technical assistance to SafeFutures violence prevention and interven- Seed, and Hope VI public housing communities. tion to communities to help them Urban Revitalization Grants. develop their own violence preven- The President’s Crime Prevention tion programs. As part of this dis- NIJ will continue to support evalu- Council will provide small grants semination strategy, CDC will ations of Operation Weed and in support of community efforts disseminate proceedings from a Seed. The Administration will to develop comprehensive plans National Conference on Violence continue to support Empowerment to assess neighborhood-based pro- on issues such as domestic violence, Zones and Enterprise Communi- grams, ensure a continuum of suicide, violence in the workplace, ties as an economic model for responses to youth problems and youth violence.

82 Hold Satellite Video The National Senior Service Corps reducing youth violence. The inter- Teleconferences To Share will continue to draw on the skills, active nature of CD–ROM technol- Information on Delinquency talents, and experiences of older ogy will enable local users to apply Prevention and Juvenile Americans to address community the forms and protocols, risk assess- Justice Programs needs through the Foster Grand- ment information, and research OJJDP has begun a series of video parent Program, the Senior Com- and guiding principles provided on teleconferences to permit local panion Program, and the Retired diskette to strategies that address officials, juvenile justice and delin- and Senior Volunteer Program. local needs. quency prevention practitioners, Establish a Center That and others to share a wide range of HUD’s Heinz Neighborhood Development Program will con- Coordinates Juvenile promising strategies. The telecon- Justice and Delinquency ferences provide information about tinue to assist neighborhood groups in organizing and improving their Prevention Training and training and technical assistance, Technical Assistance discuss principles of prevention environments. OJJDP has established and will and intervention, and address tech- Improve the Existing niques for implementing successful Communications continue to support a Training juvenile justice reform. Infrastructure and Center to provide an inventory of Utilize State-of-the-Art juvenile justice and delinquency The first teleconference focused on Technology To Share prevention training and technical community planning, mobilization, Information assistance resources and to establish and coordination of services as a a resource data base. followup to OJJDP’s Title V Risk- OJJDP is expanding JUVJUST, an Focused Prevention Training Pro- electronic list service that will facili- OJJDP will also conduct needs gram. Subsequent teleconferences tate the sharing of information on assessments that will support new concentrate on delinquency reduc- juvenile violence reduction. It training and technical assistance tion topics, including proven pro- will supplement efforts such as program development and imple- grams that address serious, violent, the Partnerships Against Violence ment specialized training, including and chronic juvenile offenders; Network (PAVNET), the Juvenile training of trainers. community policing; boot camps; Justice Clearinghouse, OJJDP’s online information on reducing youth Promote Federal and truancy reduction; mentoring; and Other Joint Funding conflict resolution. gun violence, and HHS’ PrevLine. PAVNET is a coalition of Federal DOJ will publicize and promote Encourage Youth and agencies (Agriculture, Education, funding efforts with other Federal Adults To Contribute to the Health and Human Services, Hous- agencies and other public-private Safety of Their Communities ing and Urban Development, Jus- funding sources and encourage CNS provides opportunities for tice, and Labor) that integrates joint funding of efforts to prevent youth and adults to become in- data and resources, removing juvenile delinquency. volved in violence reduction activi- barriers to information sharing. It ties through programs such as provides an online search and re- Suggestions for AmeriCorps, Learn and Serve trieval system; a printed directory State and Local America, and JustServ. of programs, technical assistance resources, and funding sources; Action AmeriCorps’ VISTA, a CNS pro- networking among Federal clear- • Consider innovative ways to gram, will continue to assist men inghouses and resource centers; mobilize communities that break and women age 18 and older who and an Internet mail group. out of traditional institutional commit themselves to helping low- practices. income people with neighborhood OJJDP will also provide local safety and revitalization through jurisdictions with an interactive • Develop partnerships with employment training, housing, CD–ROM program through which community-based organizations, literacy, and health education. they can obtain information about schools, businesses, parents, and implementing programs and others. strategies that can be effective in

83 • Assess and identify local needs, • Enforce anti-noise ordinances, and Delinquency Prevention, U.S. resources, and priorities to target housing codes, health and Department of Justice. high-risk youth and juvenile fire codes, anti-nuisance laws, offenders. and drug-free rental clauses 5. Howell, J.C., ed. 1995 (May). in residential and business Guide to Implementing the Compre- • Use the Federal communications environments. hensive Strategy for Serious, Violent, infrastructure to gather informa- and Chronic Juvenile Offenders. Wash- tion about successful prevention • Organize a hotline number for ington, D.C.: Office of Juvenile Jus- and intervention programs that reporting criminal activity and tice and Delinquency Prevention, can be adapted to local needs. information. U.S. Department of Justice.

• Develop and implement locally Endnotes 6. Wilson, J.J., and J.C. Howell. based strategies of integrated 1. Rosenbaum, D.P., et al. 1994. 1993. Comprehensive Strategy for prevention and graduated sanc- Community Responses to Drug Abuse: Serious, Violent, and Chronic Juvenile tions to target youth violence. A Program Evaluation. Washington, Offenders. Program Summary. D.C.: National Institute of Justice, Washington, D.C.: Office of Juvenile • Create a youth commission or U.S. Department of Justice. Justice and Delinquency Preven- task force that involves young tion, U.S. Department of Justice. people in designing and imple- 2. Interdepartmental Working menting community activities Group on Violence. 1994. Violence: 7. Taking the Offensive To Prevent that affect them. Report to the President and Domestic Crime: How Seven Cities Did It. 1994 Policy Council. Washington, D.C. (April). Washington, D.C.: National • Develop a clearinghouse and Crime Prevention Council. information hotline and hire a 3. Anderson, E. 1990. Street Wise: youth services coordinator to Race, Class, and Change in an Urban 8. Rosenbaum et al. 1994. evaluate programs and assist Community. Chicago, Ill.: University 9. Interdepartmental Working youth in finding services in their of Chicago Press. communities. Group on Violence. 1994. Jencks, C. 1992. Rethinking Social 10. Changing Perspectives: Youth As • Coordinate activities in local Policy: Race, Poverty, and the Resources. 1990. Washington, D.C.: communities by linking law Underclass. Cambridge, Mass.: National Crime Prevention Council. enforcement efforts with eco- Harvard University Press. nomic empowerment, youth de- 11. 1994 Report to Congress: Title V velopment, education reform, Merry, S.E. 1981. Urban Danger: Life Incentive Grants for Local Delinquency and an improved juvenile justice in a Neighborhood of Strangers. Phila- Prevention Programs. 1995 (March). system. delphia, Pa.: Temple University Washington, D.C.: Office of Juvenile Press. • Assist the private sector and Justice and Delinquency Preven- local governments to form part- Wilson, W.J. 1987. The Truly Disad- tion, U.S. Department of Justice. nerships by identifying Federal vantaged: The Inner City, the 12. Matrix of Community-Based Ini- resources that are committed Underclass, and Public Policy. Chi- tiatives. 1995 (May). Washington, to promoting public-private cago, Ill.: University of Chicago D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice and partnerships. Press. Delinquency Prevention, U.S. De- • Foster neighborhood crime 4. Snyder, H., and M. Sickmund. partment of Justice. watches, cleanups, and public 1995 (August). Juvenile Offenders and awareness events. Victims: A National Report. Washing- ton, D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice

84 7. Support the Development of Innovative Approaches to Research and Evaluation

Overview crime, its origins, factors that place factors; and rigorous evaluation of youth at risk for involvement in programs designed to address juve- Effective public policy, laws, and criminal activity, and factors that nile crime and delinquency. In each intervention strategies to prevent protect youth from turning to vio- of these areas, we must develop and reduce juvenile crime and lence and delinquency. Research is data collection instruments that violence require a solid knowledge providing information on violence are sensitive to ethnicity, culture, base. Building a knowledge base in some major cities and helping the and gender and that can better requires a thoughtfully developed, cities develop a plan to solve this measure the complete context of comprehensive portfolio of statisti- problem. Building on solid research youth development. cal systems, research programs, into the causes and correlates of de- and evaluation capabilities. This linquency, we must continue to This section addresses each of these combination is necessary for the evaluate strategies and programs to critical areas. It presents a clear following reasons: determine what works to prevent description of the issues involved in juvenile delinquency and crime. juvenile justice system data collec- • Statistical systems monitor Strong evaluation data are essential tion and the challenges faced by changes in juvenile crime, vio- to create national, State, and com- researchers and evaluators. This lence, and risk factors that have munity partnerships to effectively section also looks ahead to future been shown to be related to these prevent and intervene in juvenile directions required by effective ju- phenomena. delinquency. venile justice research, evaluation, and data collection and proposes a • Focused long-term research Techniques have become increas- series of steps that the juvenile jus- improves our understanding of ingly sophisticated for collecting, tice system can take to improve the the causes and correlates of juve- storing, managing, and analyzing outlook for effective research and nile crime and strengthens our large amounts of data on juvenile evaluation. ability to develop successful pre- delinquency. This information con- vention, early intervention, and tributes to our understanding of the graduated sanctions programs. Current Status and problems of juvenile violence and Limitations of • Effective evaluation tools to delinquency, provides the basis for measure progress—to tell us if new research, and aids in evaluat- Existing Knowledge we are on the right track—are ing the effectiveness of the pro- Statistical Information and critical for refining and modify- grams and strategies contained in Systems the Action Plan. ing existing prevention and early Statistical information on juvenile intervention strategies as well as To enhance evaluation and research justice comes both from the juvenile graduated sanctions programs. efforts, we need to improve three justice system and from data on delinquent behavior generated by The Nation’s ability to address the critical areas: national statistical other disciplines. Ideally, data problems of juvenile violence and information and systems on the collection systems should comple- delinquency has been hampered by nature and extent of juvenile delin- ment and enhance each other. an incomplete understanding of the quency and violence; longitudinal For example, analysis of juvenile nature and extent of these prob- research to strengthen our under- arrests should reveal information lems. Recent research has greatly standing of the complex relation- about causes of delinquency and increased knowledge about juvenile ships between risk and protective juveniles’ entry into detention, their

85 processing in juvenile court, and If we clearly understand the goals and localities and publishes reports their placement in the juvenile of a national data collection system, from a number of others.2 NJCDA correctional system. we are better able to assess its effec- illustrates the promises and difficul- tiveness. For example, the Federal ties of State-level data collection. Much can be learned from nation- Bureau of Investigation’s Uniform Although automated information wide statistics about juvenile arrest Crime Reporting (UCR) system an- systems provide accurate and com- and victimization rates, the number nually collects national data on the plete pictures of juvenile court ac- of cases handled annually in juve- number of reported crimes and ar- tivities within each State, the level nile courts, and the number and rests.1 UCR uses standardized defi- of data collection varies consider- types of juveniles in custody. This nitions of crimes and provides infor- ably among States. Some States information contributes to the de- mation on crime at the State and have basic information systems velopment of national policy on a local levels. Throughout its 60-year that enable users to make simple wide range of issues. However, en- history, UCR has gained the coop- comparisons but do not allow for hanced analysis of State and local eration of every State and nearly indepth analysis. Other States data and research findings can lead every local police department. De- have expansive systems that facili- to even greater refinements in the spite its high quality and compre- tate longitudinal analysis of court approach to juvenile justice and hensiveness, UCR does not serve as careers. Still others have no indi- delinquency prevention. State and an accurate indicator of the total vidual data collection. In order local jurisdictions are the primary number of juvenile crimes because to obtain an accurate nationwide sources of juvenile justice policies it includes only reported crimes. picture of the juvenile justice sys- and procedures, and improvements Further, UCR includes incidents of tem, all States and localities need to in national data are largely depen- criminal activities and arrests but collect standardized core data. dent on information generated not court data. from the State level. An example is OJJDP’s current data collection on data on the deinstitutionalization of Although the UCR approach is juvenile custody reflects still an- status offenders and disproportion- logical from a law enforcement per- other system of gathering national ate minority confinement. As each spective, it does not work as well in information. As with other systems, State addresses these issues, a na- other sectors of the juvenile justice it has its strengths and weaknesses. tional data system tracks progress system. The juvenile court data col- The main source of custody data and gathers and disseminates infor- lection system, for example, counts since 1974 has been the Children in mation that can be helpful to other case records but not arrests. In most Custody (CIC) census, that surveys States and local jurisdictions. jurisdictions, it is not possible to as- all facilities that can hold juvenile sess the number and types of cases offenders.3 This census collects in- In addition, each component of that the juvenile court handles formation on the population of the juvenile justice system, from based on the number and type of these facilities on a given day by law enforcement to corrections, juvenile offenses or arrests. The is- age, race, and sex. As with other has its own data collection system sue is complicated by differences data sets, however, it cannot discern that provides unique perspectives among States in defining “juvenile.” State and local policies that directly on the problems of juvenile delin- Depending on State law, the maxi- affect the numbers. Also, CIC can- quency and the operation of the mum age that an individual is con- not connect with other data sets juvenile justice system. Each sidered a juvenile ranges from un- (given differing definitions and perspective is important to under- der 16 to under 18 and, for purposes units of measurement) to track of- standing the entire picture of juve- of continuing juvenile court juris- fenders individually or generically nile justice. However, in order to diction over alleged or adjudicated through the juvenile justice system. obtain a comprehensive portrait delinquents, can extend to age 25. of delinquent behavior, we need a Since 1990, OJJDP has pursued data collection system that tracks Juvenile court data are more dispar- another avenue for collecting cus- the offender from arrest through ate than UCR data. The Office of tody statistics: the Juveniles Taken court proceedings to disposition, Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Into Custody (JTIC) program that identifying successful techniques Prevention (OJJDP) funds the Na- provides the same population within programs. tional Juvenile Court Data Archive detail as CIC but in greater depth.4 (NJCDA) project, which collects au- Under this program, States supply tomated data files from many States individual data on juveniles in their

86 custody. By tracking each juvenile While the body of research in the Inadequate funding for replicating through the entire custody experi- field is increasing, three trends have successful research projects. One ence, JTIC collects both admission hampered its development and important way to find solutions to and release information, providing application: juvenile delinquency is to replicate length of stay measures for juve- models of programs that work. niles in custody at both the national • Inadequate support for research Once the replication has been and State levels. Unlike CIC, JTIC and longitudinal studies. evaluated, the researcher under- does not collect information on the stands whether and how a success- • Inadequate funding for replica- conditions of confinement for these ful strategy drawn from research tion of successful research juveniles. As with CIC, its ability will be successful in other settings. projects. to link to other parts of the juvenile The final step in the research pro- justice system is limited by the • Inadequate planning for research cess is dissemination and technical compatibility of individual data and dissemination of research assistance to those who wish to systems. Together with CIC, JTIC findings. establish successful programs. provides an expansive view of juvenile custody in the Nation. These deficiencies must be rem- Inadequate planning for research edied before we can fully identify and limited dissemination of re- The other main division in national and target prevention, intervention, search findings. A 5-year plan for juvenile delinquency data collection and treatment programs that effec- research would enable policymak- relates to information on delinquent tively reduce delinquency as well as ers, practitioners, legislators, and behavior. Data on delinquent be- make broader social policy deci- researchers to determine what havior are frequently gathered from sions and foster systemic change. information is valuable and how surveys and self-reported data, or limited funding can be used respon- may be drawn from other sources Inadequate support for research sibly. This plan would include that contribute to our knowledge of and longitudinal studies. Histori- designing basic research questions, delinquency and delinquent behav- cally, there has been a shortage of testing theories, and developing ior. For example, the Department empirical research on the factors successful programs. The final step of Labor’s (DOL’s) National Longi- that put youth at risk for involve- would be technology transfer and tudinal Survey of Youth collects ment in delinquent activity and the dissemination of the information some reports of delinquent behav- protective factors that help at-risk to the field. ior and law enforcement contact.5 youth avoid delinquency. A recent Other surveys supported by the De- comprehensive meta-analysis of 30 In addition to funding long-term partments of Health and Human years of research on risk and protec- research, research findings need to Services (HHS) and Education (ED) tive factors represents a significant be translated into effective commu- collect information on substance advance in this area.6 However, nity strategies. Research findings abuse and education and include more empirical research is essential can be used to develop better infor- questions about delinquent behav- to developing a full range of pro- mation about causes of crime and ior. Research studies have tracked grams that will be successful in pre- how to intervene successfully, infor- comprehensive self-report measures venting juvenile delinquency and mation that needs to be both acces- of delinquency, but these studies reducing recidivism. sible and useful to communities. are limited in geographic distribu- The involvement of nonprofit orga- tion and time. Unfortunately, such With the alarming growth in vio- nizations, service providers, and disjointed analyses of the correlates lence among youth gangs, gang- practitioners in the juvenile justice of delinquency provide limited in- related research has attracted system is critical to this process. sights into delinquent behavior. increased attention. Recent gang research has been valuable, but Evaluation of Programs Longitudinal Research gaps remain in our understanding Evaluation research can contribute The development of effective about why youth join and leave tremendously to the development delinquency prevention strategies gangs and about the interrelation- of effective juvenile justice and de- requires that we support research ship between gang participation linquency prevention programs. into the factors that place children and other forms of delinquency This potential can be fully realized 7 at risk for delinquent behavior as and violence. with strong support for a program well as those that protect children.

87 evaluation strategy that addresses communities, rather than specific positive effects. It also revealed, the following critical needs: individuals. The results of these however, that the uneven quality of efforts on the full population can evaluation research makes it diffi- • Develop effective evaluation be difficult to measure, especially cult to determine program effective- strategies and capabilities. when multiple interrelated inter- ness for many program areas. Most ventions are being conducted evaluation research could be im- • Improve evaluation information. simultaneously. Increasingly sophis- proved by stronger research design, • Link evaluation to program ticated evaluation methods are longer term followup, and better development and practice. needed to address these challenges. documentation of program implementation.11 We are able, however, • Target funds to long-term Problems in conducting evaluations to offer communities an array of evaluation. of prevention, intervention, and strategies and programs that have treatment programs are compounded shown promise and some programs Develop effective evaluation by deficiencies in data collection sys- that have been carefully evaluated strategies and capabilities. The tems nationwide. Impact evaluations and found to be effective.12 current state of evaluation research of juvenile justice programs rely on underscores the need for more an ability to track changes in a vari- Link evaluation to program sophisticated evaluation method- ety of community and individual development and practice. Too of- ologies and data collection capabili- data components related to juvenile ten, evaluations are not designed ties to address complex programs. offense rates, juvenile justice system with the user audience in mind; Many prior evaluations of juvenile processing rates, indicators of risk, and too often, they are not put to justice programs have suffered and other outcomes. These data com- good use by communities that from weak research designs that ponents are not always easily acces- could benefit from their practical have lacked sufficient rigor to sible, comprehensive, or easily linked information. Consequently, impor- clearly demonstrate program im- to individual participants, and incon- tant findings about what does and pacts.8 Additionally, many evalua- sistencies often exist among different does not work often fail to reach tions have focused more on process data collection systems. front-line practitioners who could evaluation issues (exploring what put this valuable information into activities were undertaken and Evaluation challenges posed by action. Intervention efforts should why) than on impact evaluation prevention and intervention pro- consist of significant long-term in- issues (determining program grams are particularly problematic vestments to be most effective. outcomes and impacts). for many local communities that do To ensure the development and not have access to sophisticated testing of new, high-quality, scien- Prevention programs in particular evaluation tools or data collection tifically based prevention strategies, pose a number of challenges for systems. There is a great need to funding partnerships between evaluation. First, preventive efforts build local evaluation capacity both service agencies and research insti- focus on reducing or eliminating to conduct self-evaluations and to tutes are needed, in addition to in- certain behaviors or conditions in participate more meaningfully in creased investment in well-planned, 9 at-risk populations. Unlike typical national evaluation efforts. rigorous evaluations. program evaluations that measure what happened or what changed as Improve evaluation information. Target funds to long-term evalua- a result of a program, prevention Although research on the prevention. Historically, agencies have program evaluations must assess tion and control of juvenile delin- tended to provide resources for what did not happen; for example, quency and violence has increased the delivery of services rather a crime that would have been com- substantially over the past 30 years, than for an evaluation of the long- mitted by a juvenile but did not more knowledge is needed of what term effectiveness of these services. occur. Moreover, it must show that works, for whom, and under what Where evaluations have been 10 the crime would have happened conditions. A recent exhaustive funded, often they have been added without the prevention program. review of evaluations of prevention to programs as short-term efforts, Second, primary prevention efforts and corrections programs and strat- resulting in weak evaluations based often target large population egies identified several interven- on limited data. In addition, the groups, such as entire schools or tions that consistently demonstrate short-term nature of some federally

88 funded programs has precluded collecting those data. In addition, • System development plans long-term evaluations. Demonstrat- OJJDP will continue to update Juve- associated with the collection ing the effectiveness of prevention nile Offenders and Victims: A National of data requested from opera- programs (especially early interven- Report. tional agencies. These could in- tions with children, families, and clude the development of soft- schools) requires collecting impact Efforts to improve national statistics ware to assist in the collection of data over long periods of time— will involve the active participation data or products containing sta- sometimes 5, 10, or more years. of the following interagency tistical feedback to be sent to the Funding agencies and service pro- collaborations: participating agency. viders need to build in evaluation • Department of Justice (DOJ) at the front end of programs and • A publication plan with descrip- Crime Statistics Working Group. sustain the evaluation over the full tions of products and services to be made available from a given term of the program. • Interagency Panel on Improving data collection (or series of col- National Statistics on Children lections), lists of intended audi- Future Directions and Families. in Juvenile Justice ences, methods for evaluating • Interagency Working Group on the usefulness of the products, Statistics, Violence Research. and dissemination strategies. Research, and • National Neighborhood Research Evaluation Indicators Project. Federal agencies have implemented Statistics several effective and promising re- • Interagency Forum on Early search initiatives to promote knowl- In 1990, as part of a comprehensive Childhood Research. edge of the patterns and trends in effort to define and address gaps juvenile delinquency and violence. in data and data quality, OJJDP Participants in these projects will These include efforts to build un- funded the Juvenile Justice Statis- identify and pursue opportunities derstanding in the following areas: tics and Systems Development to improve measures and statistics (SSD) project to analyze the current on juvenile victims and offenders. • Causes and correlates of crime, state of data about juvenile victim- These opportunities may include delinquency, and violence. ization and delinquency and gener- sharing information or planning ate discussion about improvements. and cofunding collaborative initia- • Drug use. In the early phases, the National tives. This collaboration will Center for Juvenile Justice (NCJJ) emphasize juvenile violence and • Youth gangs. conducted an inventory of all Fed- delinquency, the populations in- • Juvenile sex offenders. eral data systems that focus on ju- volved, and the systems’ responses. venile offending and delinquent • Youth development. behavior. From this inventory, NCJJ The result of these efforts will be a identified systems that support par- plan that reflects the culmination of Understanding the causes and ticular analyses, such as substance development activities by the year correlates of violence. In 1986 the abuse, child victimization, health 2001. The 5-year plan will propose: Program of Research on the Causes and poverty issues, and delinquent and Correlates of Delinquency • A portfolio of data collection behavior. (Causes and Correlates), sponsored efforts including their purpose, by OJJDP, began drawing data from cosponsors, periodicity, content, With this comprehensive picture three sources: (1) Denver Youth and methods with an outline of of existing data systems, OJJDP Survey, (2) Pittsburgh Youth Study, expected analyses and uses. and NCJJ are working with other and (3) Rochester Youth Develop- Federal and public- and private- • Plans for specific methodological ment Study. Causes and Correlates sector experts to identify the most research, with the necessary fea- studied 4,000 youth over a 5-year critical information needs on a sibility and pilot test objectives period, allowing researchers to particular topic and determine the and plans. identify a pattern of causes and risk most effective methodology for factors leading to delinquency,

89 including data on drugs, guns, on the cycle of violence that estab- From the Causes and Correlates peers, school, and family. This lish the relationship between experi- study, OJJDP has also found that longitudinal research with a shared ences of childhood violence and the number of violent offenses in- measurement approach is a mile- adolescent delinquent behavior: creased after the onset of drug use. stone in delinquency research. In- Drug use is closely related to vio- terviews with 60,000 test subjects • An NIJ-sponsored longitudinal lent crime and juvenile offending.20 and caregivers confirmed the direct study of childhood victimization relation between youth involve- followed more than 1,500 cases Understanding youth gangs. The ment with drugs and delinquency.13 from childhood through young Family and Youth Services Bureau’s adulthood. This study found Youth Gang Drug Prevention Causes and Correlates findings that childhood abuse increases Program supports ongoing gang- suggest that involvement in violent the likelihood of future delin- related research projects, including: behavior begins early for many quency and adult criminality by youth, often before the teenage nearly 40 percent.16 Data from the • Gang Families in a Public Hous- years. By the mid-to-late teenage study subsequently were used to ing Project, which examines the years, approximately 20 percent examine the specific criminal dynamics of family life as they of males and 10 to 15 percent of consequences of child sexual relate to gang membership and females are involved in violent be- abuse.17 the transfer of gang habits and havior.14 Not all youth involved in values among family members. violence are involved at the same • The Rochester Youth Develop- • Factors Related to Gang Mem- rate. One group of offenders, an ment Study collected extensive bership Resistance, which uses estimated 14 to 19 percent, is re- data through personal interviews comparison group studies to ex- sponsible for approximately 75 and agency records, finding that plore how some at-risk youth percent of offenses. The encourag- a history of maltreatment in- avoid gang activity. ing news, however, is that 82 per- creases the chances of youth violence by 24 percent. In addition cent of juveniles who have nine The National Youth Gang Center, to adolescents who were them- or more protective factors are able a key component of OJJDP’s Com- selves abused or neglected as to resist the pressure to become prehensive Response to America’s children, adolescents growing up involved in delinquency. This re- Gang Problem initiative, maintains in homes where partner violence search offers evidence of our ability and expands critical knowledge existed also exhibited higher to solve the problem of juvenile about youth gangs and how com- rates of violence.18 delinquency through prevention munities can respond to them programming.15 Understanding the role of drugs effectively. The center collects and analyzes gang-related data; ana- HHS’ Family and Youth Services in delinquency. Since 1990, NIJ lyzes anti-gang legislation; reviews Bureau recently conducted a na- has collected quarterly data and current anti-gang literature; identi- tional study of substance use, sui- recorded trends in drug use among fies promising gang prevention cide, and other at-risk behaviors a group of high-risk male juvenile program strategies; and coordinates among juveniles with runaway, arrestees or detainees in 12 U.S. cit- activities of the Gang Consortium, throwaway, and homeless experi- ies. Ten of the sites also collect data a coalition of representatives of ences. Although the results of the from female juvenile arrestees and Federal agencies. The center also study are not yet available, one detainees. This Drug Use Forecast- supports a national baseline study study goal was to determine the ing (DUF) program documented a of the locations and characteristics prevalence of substance use, sui- dramatic rise from 1992 to 1993 in of violent gangs. cide attempts, and other problem the use of marijuana among juvenile arrestees/detainees, underscoring behaviors (delinquent activity, vic- Understanding system response to the importance of providing inter- timization, and sexual activities) in juvenile sex offenders. Recogniz- vention programs for youthful of- this population. ing that juvenile sex offenders have fenders. The program shows that become an increasingly visible and In addition, the National Institute many juveniles who use illegal particularly problematic offender of Justice (NIJ) and OJJDP have drugs falter in school attendance population, OJJDP has supported supported several studies focusing and eventually enter the juvenile justice system.19

90 an initiative to describe and assess those that are not so that youth • Availability of recreational and the ways in which the juvenile programs can include appropri- educational activities and justice system and other related ate goals. employment opportunities. systems respond to juvenile sex offenders. This ongoing research • Support longitudinal studies that • Existence of family and commu- initiative, conducted by the Na- examine processes of individual nity supports. tional Council on Crime and Delin- development and change as well • Developmental needs served by quency, includes a comprehensive as change in communities and gang participation and other literature review, an indepth assess- institutions. high-risk behaviors. ment of system functioning at 8 • Specify the most effective sites, and multistate retrospective combination of community • Cultural and ethnic characteris- data tracking of a cohort of 450 ju- supports and opportunities for tics as well as intergenerational venile sex offenders from the point youth to develop the skills and influences on gang participation of court referral through disposition strengths they will need to and other high-risk behaviors. and treatment. become productive adults. • Patterns of drug use and violent Understanding the positive and When developing effective commu- delinquency among youth to resilient aspects of youth develop- nity strategies with measurable determine whether they are ment. The first principle in design- results, program designers should part of a single syndrome or a ing youth development research pay attention to the circumstances developmental stage. should be to move away from the in which youth live and grow, “deficit model” that focuses on • Correlation among family addressing a broad spectrum of discrete problem behaviors, such variables (for example, parental areas associated with a healthy as teen pregnancy, to a more com- supervision and/or involvement) community and healthy human prehensive approach that describes and high-risk behaviors to deter- development (for example, eco- experiences of youth in high-risk mine whether there is a concur- nomic opportunity, safety, health, situations, including their capacity rent or predictive relationship. and education). Research in this for change, resourcefulness, and area needs to include an under- full potential. Research should de- Dissemination and implementa- standing of the developmental scribe youth in the context of peer tion of research findings. OJJDP needs of adolescents in relation to group, family, neighborhood, and published the Comprehensive Strat- the environment. community rather than solely in egy for Serious, Violent, and Chronic Juvenile Offenders (Comprehensive the context of individual behavior. The proposed model for inquiry Strategy) in 1993 and the Guide for We also need to understand the would move beyond measuring Implementing the Comprehensive adaptive and protective behaviors individual actions and circum- Strategy for Serious, Violent, and of youth in high-stress environ- stances to include data that illus- Chronic Juvenile Offenders (Guide) ments and pay greater attention trate the importance of positive in 1995. These documents are the to positive developmental out- developmental outcomes among foundation upon which the Action comes. A research framework that youth. Rather than using research Plan rests. The Comprehensive Strat- considers the full context of youth activities to focus simply on indi- egy and the Guide integrate more development would: vidual problem behaviors and the than 30 years of research into the categorical funding streams by • Identify the developmental causes and correlates of juvenile which most current programs are needs of youth in general and delinquency and violence, risk and supported, this model would focus within the context of distressed protective factors for delinquency, on the interaction of risk factors environments. and the effectiveness of a wide and normal processes of human variety of prevention programs and development, positive adaptation, • Focus attention on the interac- juvenile justice system graduated and resilience among youth. Ex- tion of risk factors and protective sanctions. These documents help amples of areas for future research factors. to translate research into practical include the following: information that can be used at the • Support studies that identify community level. needs that are being met and

91 Evaluation Other examples of recent and on- The Center for Substance Abuse Several effective and promising going demonstration projects with Treatment (CSAT) created the strategies have been implemented integrated evaluation components National Evaluation Data and Tech- by Federal agencies over the past include: nical Assistance Center (NEDTAC) several years that have resulted in to serve as a program evaluation • Center for Substance Abuse useful evaluations to drive success- system and resource center to sup- Prevention’s (CSAP’s) Commu- ful program development. These port the needs of CSAT staff and nity Partnerships, a program include: grantees and substance abuse that launched a variety of drug- treatment evaluators. NEDTAC • Making evaluation funding prevention activities tailored to provides a wide range of technical an integral part of program the needs of target communities. assistance and data base develop- development. ment services to support grantees • Bureau of Justice Assistance’s in meeting evaluation requirements (BJA’s) Comprehensive Commu- • Using evaluability assessments and utilizing evaluation data. Un- nities program, a strategy to and constructing logic models. der its program evaluation system, control violent crime through NEDTAC also conducts special • Enhancing local evaluation community mobilization. studies to inform policy decisions capacity. • Office of Justice Programs’ and program planning. • Linking evaluation findings (OJP’s) Operation Weed and Using evaluability assessments to program development and Seed, a multiagency strategy and constructing logic models. practice. supporting law enforcement and Evaluability assessments have community revitalization. Making evaluation funding an been gaining increasing popularity integral part of program develop- • OJJDP’s Title V Initiative, Incen- as a tool to help ensure that an ment. A number of recent delin- tive Grants for Local Delinquency evaluation will be both technically quency prevention initiatives have Prevention Programs (Title V feasible and capable of answering made evaluation an integral part of Initiative), a comprehensive risk- research questions important to 22 the program. The Cities in Schools focused approach to developing decisionmakers. Evaluability (CIS) program, for example, is a community-based delinquency assessments address important dropout prevention program prevention strategies. issues related to a program’s implemented in 665 sites in 197 measurable goals and objectives, communities nationwide and The results of these evaluations are hypothesized causal links between funded by OJJDP in collaboration being used to enhance knowledge activities and outcomes, and data with ED, HHS, and the Depart- of what is effective and to guide on- collection capabilities. Addressing ments of Commerce and Defense. going program implementation and these issues before the evaluation The program’s continued operation replication efforts. begins strengthens the potential has been supported by preliminary reliability of the evaluation. In recent years, several agencies evaluation results that indicate have strengthened their institutional Logic models are also useful tools significant success in keeping at- evaluation capabilities and manage- to help program planners create risk students in school. Eighty per- ment evaluation systems. In addi- program activities and expected cent of students who entered the tion, OJJDP has established an outcomes. The principal purpose of program during the 1989–90 and evaluation contract capable of plan- the logic model is to present graphi- 1990–91 school years were still in ning and performing independent cally the logical connections among school in 1993, and 70 percent of evaluations of a variety of OJJDP conditions that contribute to the students with high absenteeism projects. need for a program in a community, prior to entering CIS improved the activities aimed at addressing their attendance.21 these conditions, and the outcomes and impacts expected to result

92 from the activities.23 These models, • How Good Is Your Drug Abuse average wage earned. Performance which have been required of CSAP Treatment Program? A Guide to standards such as these could help grantees in several programs and Evaluation. HHS, National Insti- to keep programs accountable recently by OJJDP in its SafeFutures tutes of Health (1995). while providing objective measures program, can also play a key role for assessing program effectiveness. in conducting evaluability assess- These manuals explain key evalua- ments of newly designed programs. tion concepts and list the steps nec- Federal Action essary for communities to more eas- Enhancing local evaluation ily evaluate their own programs. In Steps capacity. Enhancing local capacity addition to disseminating manuals, Build Local and Federal is critical to conducting successful, several agencies, including CSAT Evaluation Capabilities sophisticated evaluations of com- and CSAP, have provided commu- OJJDP will expand the technical plex prevention and intervention nity members with substantial assistance and training role of the strategies. In recent years, a number training and technical assistance evaluation contractor under its um- of evaluation manuals have been about conducting evaluations and brella evaluation contract. In addi- developed and disseminated to collecting and assessing relevant tion to conducting evaluations of local communities, including: program data. individual projects, the contractor will be responsible for helping to • What, Me Evaluate? A Basic Evalu- Linking evaluation findings build local evaluation capacity and ation Guide for Citizen Crime Pre- to program development and strengthening national and local vention Programs. National Crime practice. OJJDP’s recently pub- partnerships to evaluate Federal Prevention Council (1986). lished Guide is a current example of initiatives. transferring evaluation findings to • Evaluating Drug Control and program development and prac- OJJDP will continue to build local System Improvement Projects. NIJ 24 tice. The Guide describes the com- capacity in prevention program (1991). munity planning and organiza- implementation and evaluation tional steps necessary to design • Handbook for Evaluating Drug and through the Title V Initiative. Local and implement local prevention Alcohol Prevention Programs: Staff/ communities will receive training and graduated sanctions strategies Team Evaluation of Prevention Pro- and technical assistance related to and to link them to provide a com- grams (STEPP). HHS, Public implementing risk-focused preven- plete continuum-of-care system. Health Service (1987). tion strategies and assessing risk Findings from available research and resource data. OJJDP will pro- • Evaluating Juvenile Justice Pro- and evaluation are explained in eas- vide local grantees with Delinquency grams: A Design Monograph ily understandable language to sup- Prevention Program Community Self- for State Planners. DOJ, OJJDP port prescribed steps in program Evaluation Workbooks to assist them (1991). implementation, management, and in building self-evaluation capacity. evaluation. • Prevention Plus III: Assessing This workbook will contain a series Alcohol and Other Drug Prevention The development of performance of forms and instructions to assist Programs at the School and Com- standards is another tool used to local communities to assess and munity Level. HHS, Office for link evaluation to practice. DOL evaluate youth violence reduction Substance Abuse Prevention has been developing performance and delinquency prevention activi- (1991). indicators and standards for youth ties in three key areas: (1) docu- employment programs. If the objec- menting their prevention plans, • Understanding Evaluation: The tive of a program is youth employ- resource allocation, organizational Way to Better Prevention Programs. ment, for example, standards structure, and decisionmaking ED (1993). (based on prior research and evalu- processes; (2) monitoring imple- ation) might be set for the percent- mentation of programs, activities, age of youth placed in jobs and the and services; and (3) tracking changes in the indicators of risk.

93 The Violent Crime Control and Develop a 5-Year OJJDP will conduct additional Law Enforcement Act of 1994 Violence and Delinquency analyses using data collected under (Crime Act) mandates the alloca- Research Plan the Program of Research on the tion of 20 percent of every new To close the gaps in research on Causes and Correlates of Delin- Crime Act grant program to evalu- delinquency and crime, the Coordi- quency. These analyses will be used ation. NIJ and OJJDP will continue nating Council member agencies to support further development of to include evaluation requirements will continue to support many of OJJDP’s Comprehensive Strategy. in their grant solicitations and the research efforts discussed earlier OJJDP will continue to support encourage applicants to initiate and will also introduce new studies studies on the incidence and char- partnerships with researchers, of interest. evaluators, and management infor- acteristics of violence committed mation systems specialists at the OJJDP will develop a 5-year by or against juveniles in Los Ange- outset of their projects. research plan to organize and de- les, CA, and Washington, DC, and velop new knowledge on violence will report on studies being com- Develop a 5-Year Plan and delinquency and will confer pleted in Milwaukee, WI, and To Improve National with experts on the plan. South Carolina. Statistical Data OJJDP will fund the Gangs, Groups, OJJDP has made a significant in- Implement Additional Long- Individuals, and Violence Interven- vestment in improving national Term Studies To Increase Understanding of the Causes tion study panel. This panel will statistics on juvenile offenders and Correlates of Youth assist in the implementation of and victims and the justice system’s Crime and Violence OJJDP’s Comprehensive Strategy response to juvenile delinquency by providing up-to-date informa- and violence. OJJDP’s Statistics and HHS, through the National Institute tion about prevention and interven- Systems Development (SSD) pro- of Child Health and Human Devel- tion strategies that work effectively gram has examined more than 50 opment (NICHD), will launch a for specific types of individuals, at national data collection efforts, new effort in adolescent health that specific stages of development, and identifying many gaps in basic in- is its largest and most comprehen- under specific conditions. This formation and specific needs for sive to date. Using longitudinal sur- study should be completed in 1996. improvement. The resulting report, veys of over 19,000 middle and high school students and their parents, Developing a National Juvenile Justice OJJDP will also consider funding researchers will collect data about Statistical Program (1994), outlines a longitudinal survey of youth to adolescents’ health status, health both general strategies for filling gather self-reported data concern- behaviors, family behavior, neigh- critical information gaps and a de- ing juvenile crime and violent acts. borhood, and community. The goal tailed continuum of options for a Other areas of future research inter- of the study is to better understand comprehensive juvenile custody est include: assessment centers; the complex forces (i.e., what they statistics program. child abuse and neglect and other are and how they may be shaped) related issues; youth and guns; de- OJJDP is currently implementing that promote good health in young velopmental pathways of juvenile recommendations for improving people. offenders; family influences, such as juvenile custody statistics, starting absent or teen fathers; and victims with an extensive redesign of the NIJ will continue research related and witnesses of violence in the Children in Custody census. Other to drug use and criminal activities, home. planning work focuses on juvenile including the expansion of juvenile probation and transfers of juveniles research protocols under its multi- Address Gaps in Youth to criminal court. year DUF program. Gang, Gun, and Drug Research In 1996, OJJDP will issue a 5-year NIJ will also continue to fund plan, Juvenile Justice Statistics 2001, the Project on Human Development NIJ and OJJDP will address gaps in a blueprint for achieving long- in Chicago neighborhoods, which research about youth involvement term gains in our ability to monitor is a longitudinal study on child with gangs, guns, drugs, and their trends in juvenile delinquency, development and risk factors for interconnections. violence, and victimization. violence.

94 OJJDP will examine the interrela- intervention approaches aimed NIJ will continue to fund research tionships among gangs, guns, at diverting at-risk youth from to measure the incidence of drug drugs, and violence through re- becoming gang members. use among juveniles using three search on causes and correlates of modes of drug-use detection: delinquency in Rochester, NY; The Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, self-report, hair analysis, and uri- Pittsburgh, PA; and Denver, CO. and Firearms is studying how the nalysis. NIJ will also continue to disruption of illegal weapons mar- document the prevalence and use of OJJDP will continue its research on kets impacts juvenile violent crime drugs through 11 of its DUF sites. juvenile gang involvement, collect- rates and gun homicides. Also through its DUF program, NIJ ing information on gang members will measure firearm access, posses- NIJ is conducting several firearms who commit murder. It will also sion, and use by 6,000 booked juve- studies, including a national survey conduct a national assessment of nile and adult arrestees in 11 sites. the scope and seriousness of gang of high school students, to examine violence. firearm acquisition, ownership, Examine the Impact of and use as well as victimization Options for Processing NIJ will conduct a study about the experiences; a study on firearm Juvenile Offenders nature and extent of gang migration prevalence in and around urban, OJJDP will support a study of the to provide data to law enforcement, suburban, and rural high schools; processes by which juveniles are community members, and policy- and a study that applies the prin- transferred to criminal court and makers and to enhance the capability ciples of community oriented polic- the comparative effectiveness of of the juvenile justice system to effec- ing to the interruption of illicit the criminal justice system’s han- tively address this problem. The re- youth gun markets in Boston, com- dling of serious, violent, and sults of gang-related research will bining prevention strategies with chronic juvenile offenders with be shared among Office of Justice policing strategies used against juvenile justice system processing. Programs agencies through the illegal drug traffickers. This research is expected to provide Gangs Working Group and among legislatures and other policymakers Federal agencies through the Na- OJJDP will evaluate the effective- with empirical information about tional Gang Consortium. ness of a comprehensive strategy to reduce juvenile gun violence in the juvenile transfer mechanisms, OJJDP will supplement the baseline Atlanta metropolitan region. such as court processing, case dis- study on the presence of violent positions, and outcomes. The com- gangs with two studies designed to HHS will fund, through the Centers parative effectiveness of different develop detailed information on for Disease Control and Prevention, processing options for protecting various aspects of gangs such as a research project to examine the public safety and reducing subse- the proportion of violent crime at- risk factors for gun use and injury quent recidivism is of particular tributed to youth gangs. NIJ has among young males in inner cities. interest. funded several studies (Huff, Klein, The research will examine two aspects. First, it will compare young Translate Research Findings and Maxson) that will supplement Into Programs and Practices these efforts and further define the males whose violence and/or inju- relationships among gang partici- ries involve guns, and those whose DOJ will continue to support re- pation and other forms of delin- violence and/or injuries involve search and evaluation of programs quency and violence. gangs whose violence does not in- and effective and promising ap- volve guns. Second, it will deter- proaches to youth violence. This OJJDP’s Field-Initiated Research mine the characteristics and pro- knowledge will assist in program program will support research cesses of personal interactions design and focus, resulting in ideas generated in the field. Priority where gun injuries occur compared more effective ways to prevent research topics may include factors to nongun injuries. The research and stop juvenile offending, and related to joining and leaving will identify modifiable risk factors will include: gangs, ethnographic studies on in the daily routines of youth in ar- the dynamics of gang creation or eas of concentrated violence, and • Gathering data about the extent enlistment, and prevention or will contribute to the development and demographics of the prob- of a framework for process analysis lem of youth crime and violence of violent events. to examine the influence of

95 factors such as location, age • Reviewing plans for juvenile jus- in various minority and ethnic trends, gender, ethnicity, and situ- tice and delinquency prevention adolescent populations. This ational precursors. These data research projects and offering knowledge will then be used should provide information recommendations for coordina- to develop and test targeted about specific types of victims tion. Reviewing final reports and intervention programs. (such as the elderly) and offenses findings of relevant research (such as domestic violence). projects. Integrate Evaluation Into Demonstration Projects • Supporting further research NIJ will continue to support research Coordinating Council member on the effectiveness of different to examine the relationship between agencies will enhance the role of intervention strategies for differ- early childhood abuse and neglect, evaluation in Federal juvenile jus- ent populations, groups, and subsequent violent criminal behavior, tice and delinquency prevention individuals. This research will and intervention strategies that help programs by building Federal and promote flexibility in evaluation prevent progression to this behavior. local evaluation capacity. methodologies ranging from randomized controlled trials to NIJ will also fund research to explore OJJDP will support a national qualitative assessments with the the influence of peer groups in the evaluation concurrent with the goal of building knowledge of development of career criminals. funding of six SafeFutures demon- effective practices. Research and stration sites that will test OJJDP’s OJJDP will convene a study group evaluation, including data on Comprehensive Strategy. The par- consisting of experts in the juvenile cost effectiveness, should be ticipating SafeFutures communities delinquency field to continue devel- built into all prevention and will be expected to demonstrate opment and refinement of the Com- intervention funding. a strong capacity for data collection prehensive Strategy. and analysis to support an evalua- • Coordinating research funding BJA will continue to collect program tion component addressing both efforts with other Federal and evaluation data and disseminate process and outcome measures. agencies and public and pri- them through the What Works series. Partnerships between local and vate funding sources and NIJ will also continue to evaluate and national evaluators will be encouraging joint funding of disseminate information through the encouraged. projects. Also, encouraging Research in Brief series, evaluation university partnerships with OJJDP will also support the devel- bulletins, and other publications. local community-based organi- opment of a long-term national zations and service providers NIJ and OJJDP will develop addi- evaluation strategy for the Title V through proposal requests that tional mechanisms to disseminate Initiative to assess the impact of require such partnerships. research findings and data, such community-based, risk-focused as conferences, meetings, clearing- prevention efforts. This strategy • Summarizing, packaging, and house services, research reports, and will aggregate data from individual disseminating relevant juvenile research briefings. communities participating in the justice and delinquency preven- Title V Initiative and will integrate tion research findings in a user- The Coordinating Council and its preliminary findings from the cur- friendly format to other Federal member agencies will support efforts rent implementation evaluation. agencies and State and local to translate the findings of evaluation juvenile justice practitioners. activities into effective programs and The Executive Office for Weed Identifying and referencing juve- practices. OJJDP will continue to up- and Seed and BJA will continue nile justice and delinquency date and disseminate the Guide as to support NIJ’s evaluation of the prevention research, promising additional evaluation findings are Comprehensive Communities and programs, and proven models available. Weed and Seed programs to assess at each stage of youth develop- strategies for crime and drug con- ment. Providing information NICHD will continue to support trol. Other agencies will also begin about funding availability for community-based studies to deter- or continue national evaluations of juvenile justice and delinquency mine the factors influencing risk- related prevention or intervention prevention research from vari- taking behavior, including violence programs. For example, HHS will ous Federal agencies.

96 support a national evaluation of 4. DeComo, R., et al. 1995 (May). Washington, D.C.: Office of Juvenile its new Family Preservation and Juveniles Taken Into Custody: Fiscal Justice and Delinquency Preven- Family Support Services program. Year 1992. Washington, D.C.: Office tion, U.S. Department of Justice. of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Suggestions for Prevention, U.S. Department of 13. Huizinga, D., R. Loeber, and Justice. T. Thornberry. 1994. Urban Delin- State and Local quency and Substance Abuse. Wash- Action 5. National Longitudinal Surveys ington, D.C.: Office of Juvenile Jus- Handbook 1995. Center for Human tice and Delinquency Prevention, • Develop linkages with colleges, Resources Research, The Ohio State U.S. Department of Justice. universities, and nonprofit re- University, Columbus, Ohio: Bureau search centers for the purpose of of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department 14. Ibid. expanding their research and of Labor. evaluation capabilities. 15. Ibid. 6. Hawkins, J.D., and R.F. Catalano, • Expand and coordinate manage- 16. Widom, C.S. 1992 (October). The Jr. 1993. Communities That Care. Risk- ment information systems across Cycle of Violence. Washington, D.C.: Focused Approach Using the Social youth service agencies. National Institute of Justice, U.S. Development Strategy: An Approach Department of Justice. • Work cooperatively with na- to Reducing Adolescent Problem tional evaluators to enhance pro- Behaviors. Seattle, Wash.: Develop- 17. Widom, C.S. 1995 (March). gram effectiveness. mental Research and Programs, Inc. Victims of Child Sexual Abuse—Later Criminal Consequences. Washington, 7. Spergel, I. 1995 (June). The Youth • Support research into causes D.C.: National Institute of Justice, Gang Problem: A Community Ap- and correlates of juvenile delin- U.S. Department of Justice. quency at the State and local proach. New York, N.Y.: Oxford levels. University Press. 18. Huizinga et al., 1994.

• Develop new programs based on 8. Howell, J.C., ed. 1995 (May). 19. Drug Use Forecasting, 1993 An- state-of-the-art research and Guide for Implementing the Compre- nual Report on Juvenile Arrestees/De- evaluation. hensive Strategy for Serious, Violent, tainees: Drugs and Crime in America’s and Chronic Juvenile Offenders. Wash- Cities. 1994 (November). Washing- • Support randomized assign- ington, D.C.: Office of Juvenile Jus- ton, D.C.: National Institute of Jus- ments for assessing program tice and Delinquency Prevention, tice, U.S. Department of Justice. effectiveness. U.S. Department of Justice. 20. Thornberry, T.P., D. Huizinga, • Make data available for monitor- 9. Linney, J.A., and A. Wandersman. and R. Loeber. 1995. The prevention ing changes in risk and protec- 1991. Prevention Plus III: Assessing of serious delinquency and vio- tive factors. Alcohol and Other Drug Prevention lence: Implications from the pro- Programs at the School and Community gram of research on the causes and • Serve as learning laboratories for Level. Rockville, Md.: Office of Sub- correlates of delinquency. In J.C. the field. stance Abuse Prevention, U.S. De- Howell et al., eds. Sourcebook on Endnotes partment of Health and Human Serious, Violent, and Chronic Juvenile Services. Offenders. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: 1. Federal Bureau of Investigation. Sage Publications. 1994. Crime in the United States, 10. Delinquency Prevention Works. 1993: Uniform Crime Reports. 1995 (May). Washington, D.C.: Of- 21. Delinquency Prevention Works. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department fice of Juvenile Justice and Delin- of Justice. quency Prevention, U.S. Depart- 22. Rutman, L. 1980. Planning Use- ment of Justice. ful Evaluations—Evaluability Assess- 2. Butts, J.A., et al. 1995. Juvenile ment. Newbury Park, Calif.: Sage Court Statistics 1992. Washington, 11. Howell, ed. 1995. Publications. D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, U.S. 12. 1994 Report to Congress: Title V 23. Linney and Wandersman, 1991. Department of Justice. Incentive Grants for Local Delinquency Prevention Programs. 1995 (March). 24. Howell, ed., 1995. 3. Ibid.

97 8. Implement an Aggressive Public Outreach Campaign on Effective Strategies To Combat Juvenile Violence

Overview the nature and value of the juve- to redress it, including the impor- nile justice system. It can educate tance of community involvement in Public information about juvenile all members of the community finding solutions. crime presents a paradox. In some about effective prevention and in- ways there is too much informa- tervention strategies. It can help Public debate over prevention tion—and in other ways there isn’t communities identify and access program funding tells the tale: enough. While the media frequently local resources. And it can inform unless the public understands the focus on the increase in youth policymakers of tested, proven op- effective strategies underlying pre- gangs, drugs, and juvenile violence, tions for effective juvenile justice at vention programs, communities few people beyond the juvenile jus- all levels. will face difficulties getting support tice field realize that a relatively and implementing many of these small number of youth become in- This section documents the effec- strategies. A dynamic public ed- volved in serious criminal activity. tiveness of mass media public ucation campaign can herald the Most people are also unaware that education efforts and suggests a service-oriented efforts of resilient a significant body of research exists range of successful strategies that young people who are improving on the causes and correlates of juve- can bring about measurable change safety in their communities and nile delinquency and crime, serving in communities. It also encourages spotlight policymakers whose deci- as a foundation for effective Fed- communities to enlist support for sions result in positive outcomes for eral, State, and local programs and juvenile justice and delinquency youth. Most importantly, it can fo- strategies. prevention and intervention efforts cus on what works, what does not by engaging the media as partners. work, and for whom, when, and Researchers have verified that The section concludes with an out- why. Translating data and research long-term public education cam- line of public information efforts into straightforward language and paigns on violence prevention, being planned by the Federal Gov- providing this information to those family education, alcohol and other ernment and coordinated with who need it is, therefore, an essen- drug prevention, and gun safety national organizations to inform tial component of reducing youth curriculums in school are effective communities about what works to violence and crime. strategies to help prevent delin- reduce juvenile delinquency and 1 quency. They also concur that in- violence. Government and the media share volving youth2 and developing important roles in this process. In community consensus are essential Current Status recent years, some media have to an effective public education spearheaded public education cam- process.3 and Analysis of paigns to address various social the Problem problems and have disseminated A well-designed public education information, for example, on the As youth violence has increased, campaign can make a positive serious health risks of tobacco use the media have expanded national impact on public opinion, target and alcohol overconsumption. Gov- and local coverage of the problem, specific audiences, and be a cost- ernment has sounded the alarm often using images that build upon effective way of providing critical about these and other health-related community fear. However, the information to a large number of hazards, pushed for greater media media frequently overlook the more people. For example, it can enhance responsibility, and offered guidance complicated messages about the community understanding about on promising strategies to address causes of violence and approaches

99 the problems. Throughout this table among these are the cam- catalyst to generate citizen action, process, national organizations that paigns for individual responsibility galvanize police-community part- directly serve teachers, police, and for forest fire prevention (Only You nerships, and rally local and State local governments have been key Can Prevent Forest Fires), safety crime prevention efforts. In the past partners in getting the message out. belt use (Buckle Up for Safety), decade, the campaign has received community crime prevention (Take more than $500 million in funds It is imperative that a public a Bite Out of Crime), and support and in-kind support, distributed information campaign make for historically black colleges and hundreds of thousands of timely effective use of innovative media universities (A Mind Is a Terrible publications, provided training to efforts, such as new dissemination Thing To Waste). Similarly, mass crime prevention practitioners, and techniques and outreach materials, media education campaigns can conducted hands-on demonstration to convey the complicated, but directly and indirectly generate programs to help citizens work critically important, messages of public support for the actions with law enforcement and other the causes of youth violence and proposed in this Action Plan. public and private service providers the effective strategies for violence to build safer, healthier, and more prevention. Many national, Federal, State, nurturing communities. and local organizations have con- Effective and ducted information campaigns on An extensive independent evalua- Promising a wide variety of criminal justice tion6 funded in 1991 by the Depart- issues. Both the private and non- ment of Justice (DOJ) found that the Strategies and profit sectors have initiated media McGruff® anti-crime campaign can Programs campaigns aimed at reducing all teach an individual about crime types of violence, including domes- Effectiveness of Mass Media prevention for only 2.2 cents in Public Education Efforts tic and other family violence, child Federal funds, and the campaign abuse, violence with guns and spends only 2.9 cents to generate The effectiveness of mass media other weapons, and juvenile vio- individual action. Additionally, campaigns is well documented. lence. Some networks have pro- the campaign’s public service mes- The National Highway Traffic vided a focus on family violence. sages generate $50 or more in do- Safety Administration linked the The Corporation for Public Broad- nated print space and air time for sharp decline in drunk driving casting produced “Act Against every $1 of Federal funds spent in crashes and deaths over the past Violence” and encouraged local their development, a remarkable two decades to effective behavior media to get involved. The Califor- public-private partnership. modification and explicit changes nia Wellness Foundation has con- in community attitudes and values tributed millions of dollars to a National Night Out, supported by due to public information cam- statewide Campaign to Prevent the Bureau of Justice Assistance paigns.4 The positive effects of in- Handgun Violence Against Kids. (BJA), provides an example of a creasing knowledge about HIV The Center for Substance Abuse well-publicized yearlong campaign infection and AIDS through enter- Prevention, Department of Health to support the development of tainment television were demon- and Human Services, National community-based policing initia- strated when the number of calls Crime Prevention Council (NCPC), tives in thousands of neighbor- received by the Centers for Disease Harvard University School of Pub- hoods across the United States, its Control and Prevention’s National lic Health, and Children’s Defense Territories, many Canadian cities, AIDS Hotline increased from the Fund have also developed media and at U.S. military bases around Saturday average of 4,900 to nearly information campaigns on violence. the world. In 1994, public service 84,000 after the ABC network ads about this program, involving broadcast a 2-hour entertainment The National Citizens’ Crime youth, families, educators, business, and AIDS outreach special.5 Prevention Campaign conducted law enforcement, and other service a large-scale public education ef- providers, encouraged the partici- These campaigns are among fort, symbolized by McGruff®, pation of 27 million people in 8,750 dozens of national media efforts, the “crime dog.” Locally, crime rural, urban, and metropolitan publicizing a variety of issues, that prevention practitioners view the jurisdictions. have increased public awareness McGruff® campaign as an effective and generated positive action. No-

100 Partnerships Law Enforcement Officers’ entertainment programming. This One of the important benefits of a Association, and the National grassroots partnership, which re- successful public education cam- Association of State Troopers. quired limited funding, has spread paign is the opportunity for indi- throughout Minnesota and is being • Professional organizations that 7 viduals, groups, public and private adopted by other States and cities. have a stake in the effectiveness agencies, and others to form part- These NCPC kits and other assis- of the juvenile justice system to nerships to share responsibility in tance are included in a list of anno- reduce juvenile violence and combating juvenile violence and tated resources in Appendix F. other juvenile crime, including other delinquency problems. the American Bar Association, Sharing communications market Through public service advertising the National Association of State research and polling information and public outreach to print and Attorneys General, the National about juvenile delinquency and vio- electronic media, more community Association of District Attorneys, lence can form the foundation for members become aware, and can the American Psychological As- an effective communication strat- become essential members, of exist- sociation, the National Council egy. Again, many organizations ing prevention activities. These of Juvenile and Family Court have already gathered this informa- partnerships, forged through a Judges, and the American tion and can be of assistance in for- shared understanding of the strate- Medical Association. mulating sound strategies that re- gies and principles underlying local spond to public concerns. Collabo- programs, can draw on diverse • Service providers and private rating to develop anti-violence skills and talents to broaden the organizations that can contribute messages for use in public service scope of efforts to reduce juvenile ideas, resources, and strategies announcements (PSA’s) and other violent crime. to anti-crime information cam- mass media is fundamental to a paigns, such as child advocacy As community leaders begin to successful campaign. groups, religious organizations, collaborate with State or local entertainment and sports lead- Getting the Message Out level groups and individuals, it is ers, business and industry, and important that they consider the The goal of public information foundations. following as partners in a public efforts must be twofold: to change public perception about youth vio- information campaign strategy: Some groups have accumulated lence and available solutions and to substantial experience in helping • Groups that can impact public convince adults and youth that local communities with media cam- policy, such as the National Gov- their active involvement is essential paigns and partnerships. NCPC, ernors’ Association, the National to success. To achieve these goals, for example, distributes an action Conference of State Legislators, public information campaigns kit, Partner With the Media To Build the National Association of should enable people to reach in- Safer Communities, containing re- Counties, the National League formed judgments about prevent- producible materials that commu- of Cities, and State and local ing crime by and against juveniles. nities can use to reach the public agencies. The message should reflect an with their anti-crime, anti-violence awareness of the increasing cultural messages. • Groups that can bring law diversity in this country, be sensi- enforcement support to juvenile NCPC has partnered with the media tive to gender-related differences crime and violence prevention as in a Turn Off the Violence Campaign, and problems, and appeal to the a matter of public safety, such as inaugurated in Minneapolis-St. Paul, priorities of key decisionmakers. the National Sheriffs’ Associa- MN. In this effort, the community tion, the International Associa- Generally, the public information engaged the help of local print and tion of Chiefs of Police, the campaign should: electronic media to convince resi- Crime Prevention Coalition, dents that violence is an unaccept- the Police Executive Research • Provide accurate information able way to resolve conflict. The Forum, the National Organiza- about the causes, nature, and campaign also encourages media tion of Black Law Enforcement extent of juvenile delinquency to reevaluate their own violent Executives, the Fraternal and victimization problems. Order of Police, the Hispanic

101 • Provide needed information Matching the Message to the most likely to see them. Foreign- to convince the audience that Medium and Increasing Local language radio PSA’s in special juvenile delinquency and Awareness of Resources programming can also include victimization are preventable. Research and experience have appropriate information to reach shown that public information residents who are unable to read • Inspire individuals and campaigns directed at different or understand English. communities to address these audiences require differing ap- problems because they have a Communities that design local proaches, strategies, and creative stake in the outcome. targeted public information cam- execution. The issue is not simply paigns should include an evalua- to target a mix of television, radio, Ideas for Action tion mechanism that will provide newspaper, magazine, and other Communities can begin immedi- important data on the effectiveness communications outlets, but rather ately to take short-term concrete of structured, public communica- to determine what combinations steps to get the message out, while tions efforts as well as information within these media prove most ef- larger, overarching public informa- to help identify ways to increase fective. Communities wishing to tion campaigns get underway. awareness and the use of resources publicize their delinquency preven- Local action can include: that can prevent or reduce violence tion and intervention strategies can among youth. • Speeches, interviews, and public consult with media experts to deter- statements. mine which type of medium is best Through effective media cam- suited to their audience and their paigns, young people can receive • Town hall meetings and focus activities. Effective communication public recognition for community groups. requires tailoring each message to a service and neighborhood or school specific audience, such as youth improvements. Elderly residents • Electronic dissemination of victims, minorities, women, or the can begin to feel confident again information on juvenile violence elderly, and knowing the desired about the safety of going out of and solutions by CD–ROM and result. their homes. Neighborhood leaders online access. can turn their discouragement It is essential that juvenile justice about pervasive violence into action • Teleconferences and audio practitioners, including court per- toward ridding their streets of the conferences. sonnel, probation officers, law causes of juvenile violence with enforcement officers, and youth • Meetings with government strategies that work. Parents can service workers, collaborate with officials and legislators. learn about the positive effects local leaders to inform the public of local youth programs. And about the strategies they are using • Articles in journals and news policymakers can support local and their successes. Their experi- magazines. groups with resources for programs ence brings credibility and an im- that have documented records of • Opinion pieces and letters to the mediacy to the concerns being ad- success. editor. dressed and to the solutions being described. • Press releases about anti- Federal Action violence events highlighting Communities should also develop Steps juvenile justice activities. localized campaigns that increase residents’ awareness of Federal, DOJ will convene national organi- • Outreach to youth through State, and local resources for juve- zations in support of a public infor- schools and youth organizations nile justice and delinquency pre- mation campaign that will consist to learn their views, discuss al- vention. Lists of resources can be of several components: a series of ternatives to violence and crime, posted in community gathering PSA’s to highlight solutions to and enlist their leadership and places, at agency offices, and in youth violence, a booklet developed involvement. other sites where clients are

102 with the President’s Crime Preven- A response pamphlet will also be Link Successful Local tion Council on ways to reduce available through an 800 telephone Initiatives With a National youth violence, a CD–ROM and number that will be advertised dur- Public Information Campaign videotape combining the messages ing the PSA’s, and by the Juvenile BJA has developed a technical assis- of the PSA’s, and a public informa- Justice Clearinghouse. Linking tance package for public information campaign on gun violence. the information in this pamphlet tion campaigns that communities These mass media components online with the Partnerships can use to showcase local juvenile will be disseminated through Against Violence Network justice prevention successes and intensive outreach to State and (PAVNET) will offer additional other achievements. The package local constituencies. distribution opportunities. identifies local programs that have Disseminate Public Service Produce a Videotape successfully demonstrated and Announcements and CD–ROM on Reducing documented delinquency preven- Youth Violence tion and intervention strategies. DOJ proposes the production of Local media can support this public PSA’s by a public-private partner- The Office of Juvenile Justice and information sharing by contributing ship, using donated airtime and Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP) is space, airtime, and programming. print space, when possible. The producing a CD–ROM demonstrat- PSA’s are aimed at a variety of ing the tools and implementation As the national campaign devel- audiences and have a three-part strategies of effective youth vio- ops, a working group consisting message: lence prevention programs. of media representatives, organizations with experience in mass me- • Persuade young people to turn Additionally, OJJDP will explore dia campaigns, key constituents, away from violence and the possibility of producing a state- and the philanthropic sector could dangerous lifestyles. of-the-art videotape with a well- join forces to maximize the use of known and admired public figure existing resources and to strengthen • Educate parents and other as narrator. It would combine the and coordinate the message. Mem- community residents about messages of all delinquency pre- bers of this group could include, solutions to youth violence. vention PSA’s into a coordinated but would not be limited to, the Na- and compelling production. • Demonstrate to youth, parents, tional Association of Counties, the National Funding Collaborative on and youth-serving professionals This video will be the visual media Violence Prevention, the Police Ex- how they can be part of the equivalent of OJJDP’s Delinquency ecutive Research Forum, the Crime solution. Prevention Works and the Compre- Prevention Coalition, the National hensive Strategy for Serious, Violent, Develop a Document League of Cities, the National Gov- and Chronic Juvenile Offenders. on Ways To Reduce ernors’ Association, the National Youth Violence Produce a Media Message School Board Association, and the A user-friendly document will on Reducing Youth International Association of Chiefs communicate to the public “what Gun Violence of Police. works” in prevention and early in- DOJ will continue to support a pub- The working group would have the tervention. This publication, being lic information campaign to specifi- capacity to engage in a number of developed by the President’s Crime cally address youth gun violence. activities: Prevention Council, will communi- Although the Department advocate the goals of prevention pro- cates comprehensive gun interdic- • Share market communications grams and suggest ways for com- tion strategies, it is clear that youth research conducted in the area munity leaders, parents, and youth gun violence raises unique prob- of youth violence. to become involved in prevention lems requiring additional forms of efforts. This document will include intervention. The message articu- • Combine and leverage resources the objectives set forth in the Action lates youth’s perspectives on gun to support public outreach Plan. violence and also dramatizes for efforts. parents the problem of an unse- cured gun in the home.

103 • Develop a statement that could • Include PSA’s with contact and Mass Media Strategies. Washing- be integrated into individual numbers and resource informa- ton, D.C.: National Institute of media projects, such as bill- tion hotlines after programming Justice. boards, PSA’s, and radio and on youth violence. print announcements. 2. Treanor and Bijlefeld, 1989. • Develop a local teen talk show • Create collaborative projects. hosted and produced by youth. 3. Fingerhut et al., 1991. • Access and highlight Federal Endnotes 4. DeJong, W., and L. Wallack. 1992 programs or best practices in (Winter). The role of the designated 1. American Academy of Pediat- the area of youth violence. driver programs in the prevention rics, Committee on Adolescence. of alcohol impaired driving: A criti- 1992. Firearms and adolescents. Pe- Suggestions for cal reassessment. Health Education diatrics 89(4):784–787. State and Local Quarterly 19(4):429–442. Centers for Disease Control and Action 5. Interdepartmental Working Prevention. 1991. Weapon-carrying Group on Violence. 1994. Violence: • Engage local media in among high school students: Report to the President and Domestic highlighting positive youth United States, 1990. Morbidity and Policy Council. Washington, D.C. activities. Mortality Weekly Report 40(40):681– 684. 6. O’Keefe, G.J., et al. 1993. The • Encourage mayors, police chiefs, Social Impact of the National Citizens' sheriffs, and others to deliver Christoffel, K.K. 1991. Toward re- Crime Prevention Campaign. Wash- local anti-violence prevention ducing pediatric injuries from fire- ington, D.C.: Bureau of Justice announcements to local station arms: Charting a legislative and Assistance, U.S. Department of managers. regulatory course. Pediatrics Justice. 88(2):294–305. • Showcase youth successes in 7. Working Together To Stop the local communities. DeJong, W. 1994. Preventing Inter- Violence: A Blueprint for Safer personal Violence Among Youth: An Communities. 1994. Washington, Introduction to School, Community D.C.: National Crime Prevention Council.

104 Appendix A Coordinating Council on Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention

The Council is composed of an • Making recommendations to the Background equal number of Federal and practi- President, Congress, and the The Office of Juvenile Justice and tioner members. The nine Federal OJJDP Administrator on the co- Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP) members include the Attorney Gen- ordination of overall policy and was established by the President eral; Secretaries of Health and Hu- development of priorities and and Congress through the Juvenile man Services, Labor, Education, and objectives for all Federal juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Housing and Urban Development; justice and delinquency preven- (JJDP) Act of 1974, Public Law 93– the Administrator of the Office of tion programs and activities. 415, as amended. Located within Juvenile Justice and Delinquency the Office of Justice Programs of Prevention; Director of the Office of • Ensuring that the practices of the U.S. Department of Justice, National Drug Control Policy; Chief Federal agencies are consistent OJJDP’s mission is to provide na- Executive Officer of the Corporation with the mandates of the JJDP tional leadership in addressing the for National Service; Commissioner Act. of the Immigration and Naturaliza- issues of juvenile delinquency and • Reviewing and making recom- tion Service; and any other officers improving juvenile justice. OJJDP mendations regarding any joint of Federal agencies who hold sig- sponsors a broad array of research, funding proposal undertaken by nificant decisionmaking authority program, and training initiatives to OJJDP and any other agency as the President may designate. improve the juvenile justice system represented on the Council. as a whole, as well as to benefit in- Therefore, the Director of the dividual youth-serving agencies. President’s Crime Prevention • Reviewing reasons why Federal OJJDP also provides direction and Council has been added as an ex- agencies take juveniles into cus- resources to the juvenile justice officio member of the Council. tody and making recommenda- community to help prevent and The nine non-Federal members are tions about how to improve control delinquency throughout the practitioners in the field of juvenile Federal practices and facilities country. justice who are appointed, without for holding juveniles in custody. regard to political affiliation, by the Section 206 of the JJDP Act, as Speaker of the House of Representa- • Making recommendations on amended, established the Coordi- tives, the Majority Leader of the the OJJDP Administrator’s nating Council on Juvenile Justice Senate, and the President. long-term plan and the imple- and Delinquency Prevention as an mentation of overall policy and independent organization in the As mandated by the JJDP Act, the strategy to carry out the plan. executive branch of the Federal Coordinating Council is responsible Government. The primary function for the following actions: of the Coordinating Council is to coordinate all Federal programs • Examining how programs can be that address juvenile delinquency, coordinated among Federal, detention or care of unaccompanied State, and local governments to juveniles, and missing and better serve at-risk children and exploited children. juveniles.

A–1 Appendix B Working Group Participants The following individuals served on a working group of the Coordinating Council on Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention to develop the Action Plan. They discussed issues, contributed information on relevant research, resources, and programs, and reviewed several drafts.

Practitioner Rose W. Washington Ada Melton Executive Director Director for the American Indian Members Berkshire Farms Center and Alaska Native Affairs Desk Lisa M. Beecher Office of the Assistant Attorney Detective U.S. Department of General Portland Police Department Justice Office of Juvenile Justice The Honorable James L. Burgess Beth Wilkinson and Delinquency Presiding Judge Principal Deputy Chief for Prevention 18th Judicial District of Kansas Terrorism and Violent Crime John J. Wilson Criminal Division John Cahill Deputy Administrator Program Coordinator Julie E. Samuels Gina E. Wood Clark County Family and Youth Director Director Services Department Office of Policy and Management Concentration of Federal Efforts Analysis Program John A. (Jack) Calhoun Criminal Division Executive Director Betty Chemers National Crime Prevention Council Victor Stone Director Senior Legal Advisor Research and Program Nancy G. Guerra, Ed.D. Criminal Division Associate Professor of Psychology Development Division University of Illinois at Chicago Donna Enos Ron Laney Acting Assistant Director Michael J. Mahoney Director Executive Office for United States Missing and Exploited Children’s President Attorneys John Howard Association Program Marianne Tomecek Joan Hurley The Honorable Assistant to the Director Gordon A. Martin, Jr. Assistant Director Executive Office of United States Research and Program Associate Justice Attorneys Massachusetts Trial Court Development Division Roxbury District Court Office of Justice Programs Katherine Deoudes Mary Ann Murphy Laurie Robinson Special Assistant to the Manager Assistant Attorney General Administrator Regional Center for Child Abuse Reggie Robinson Eileen M. Garry and Neglect Deputy Assistant Attorney General Special Assistant to the Deaconess Medical Center Administrator

B–1 Sarah Ingersoll National Institute of U.S. Department of Special Assistant to the Justice Administrator Health and Human Chriss Wetherington Services Donni LeBoeuf Special Assistant to the Director Senior Program Manager Peter Edelman Office of Community Acting Assistant Secretary Robin Delany-Shabazz Oriented Policing Services Planning and Evaluation Program Manager Diana Fishbein, Ph.D. Training and Technical Assistance Carol Williams Senior Researcher Division Associate Commissioner Community Relations Children’s Bureau Jim Burch Service Administration for Children Program Manager and Families Special Emphasis Division Gail Padgett Associate Director Elaine Johnson Barbara Allen-Hagen Office of Technical Assistance Director Program Manager and Support Center for Substance Abuse Research and Program Prevention Development Division George Henderson Substance Abuse and Mental Senior Program Specialist/ Health Services Administration Catherine Doyle Attorney Advisor Information Specialist Office of Technical Assistance Angela Duran Information Dissemination Unit and Support Special Assistant to the Assistant Secretary Bureau of Justice Gil Chavez Office of the Assistant Secretary Assistance Southwest Regional Director for Planning and Evaluation Steve Rickman Atkins Warren Director Emily Novick Central Regional Director Crime Support Division Social Science Research Analyst Office of the Assistant Secretary Ada Montare Robert Brown for Planning and Evaluation Mid-Atlantic Conciliation Specialist Chief Crime Prevention Branch Mike Ambrose Immigration and Senior Program Specialist Bureau of Justice Naturalization Children’s Bureau Statistics Administration for Children Service and Families Jay Hoover Ruben Cortina Special Assistant to the Director Joe Bock Director Family Services Program Specialist Detention Management Branch Office for Victims of Crime Family and Youth Services Bureau David Osborne Elizabeth Herskovitz Special Assistant to the Director Detention and Deportation Officer U.S. Department of Detention Management Branch Sharon English Labor Crime Act Coordinator David Lah Chief, Evaluation Unit Office of Policy and Research

B–2 U.S. Department of Office of National Joseph J. Vince Chief, Firearms Enforcement Education Drug Control Policy Division William Modzeleski Fred W. Garcia U.S. Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Director Deputy Director for Demand and Firearms Safe and Drug-Free Schools Reduction Lewis P. Raden DonnaMarie Marlow John Gregrich Special Agent in Charge Senior Education Program Senior Policy Analyst Firearms Enforcement Branch Specialist U.S. Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Safe and Drug-Free Schools Corporation for and Firearms National Service Dale Armstrong U.S. Department Program Manager Susan Stroud of Housing and Firearms Enforcement Branch Director U.S. Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Urban Development Office of Federal Partnerships and and Firearms Special Programs Michael B. Janis General Deputy Assistant Secretary Learn and Serve America President’s Crime for Public and Indian Housing Bob Hussey Prevention Council Sonia L. Burgos Federal Liaison Counsel Greg Everts Director Office of Federal Partnerships and Special Counsel Crime Prevention and Security Special Programs Division U.S. Department of Elizabeth Cocke, Ph.D. Project Analyst the Treasury Office of Crime Prevention and Herb Jones Security Division Director, Project Outreach Office of the Under Secretary Enforcement

B–3 organizations directly formore information. Topical resources andtypesofservicesavailableare indicatedinthematrix.Pleasefeelfree tocontactthese The followingorganizations provide productsandservicesrelated tojuvenilejusticeanddelinquencyprevention. Matrix ofTechnicalAssistanceResources Appendix C 703–836–3195 (fax) 703–549–9222 Alexandria, VA 22314 99 CanalCenterPlaza,Suite510 American ProsecutorsResearch 301–918–1900 (fax) 301–918–1800 800–222–5646 Lanham, MD20706 4380 ForbesBoulevard American Correctional Association (ACA) 202–662–1501 (fax) 202–662–1506 Washington, DC20005 740 15thStreetNW., 10thFloor Juvenile JusticeCenter American Bar Association (ABA) 708–228–5097 (fax) 708–228–5005 Elk Grove,IL60009 P.O. Box927 141 NorthwestPointBoulevard American Academy ofPediatrics 202–884–8404 (fax) 202–884–8267 Washington, DC20009 1875 Connecticut Avenue NW. Center for Youth Development Academy forEducational Institute (APRI) and PolicyResearch Development (AED)

● ●● ● ● ●●● ● ●● ●● ●● ●●●● ● ●●●●●●●●●●● ● ●● ● ● ● ●● ●● ● ● Policies/Regulations/Laws Policies/Regulations/Laws

●● ●● Gun-Related Issues Gun-Related Issues

Gang-Related Issues Gang-Related Issues

C–1 Drug-Related Issues Drug-Related Issues

Youth-Based Prevention Youth-Based Prevention Programs Programs

Anti-Violence Initiatives Anti-Violence Initiatives

School-Related Initiatives School-Related Initiatives

Child Victimization Child Victimization Issues

Community Mobilization Community Mobilization

Statistics and Research Statistics and Research

Public Relations/Media Public Relations/Media Strategies Strategies

Training/Technical Assistance Training/Technical Assistance

Publications Publications

Program Evaluation Program Evaluation

Clearinghouse Services/ Clearinghouse Services/ Dissemination Dissemination 310–559–9396 (fax) 310–559–2944 Los Angeles, CA 90034 1962 Shenandoah Center forMediaLiteracy 818–591–9330 (fax) 818–591–9321 Calabasas, CA91302 5146 DouglasFirRoad Center forCivicEducation(CCE) 410–792–4358 (fax) 800–732–3277 Rockville, MD20849–6000 P.O. Box6000 Bureau ofJusticeStatistics(BJS) 301–251–5212 (fax) 800–688–4252 Rockville, MD20849–6000 P.O. Box6000 Bureau ofJustice Assistance (BJA) 202–927–8112 (fax) 202–927–7777 Washington, DC20226 650 Massachusetts NW.Avenue U.S. DepartmentoftheTreasury Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, andFirearms 404–527–7689 (fax) 404–527–7100 Atlanta, GA30303 100 Edgewood,Suite700 Boys &GirlsClubsofMetro Atlanta 215–567–0394 (fax) 215–567–7000 Philadelphia, PA 19107 230 North13thStreet Big Brothers/BigSistersof America 410–547–6624 (fax) 410–547–6600 Baltimore, MD21202 701 St.PaulStreet Annie E.CaseyFoundation Clearinghouse Clearinghouse

● ●●●●● ● ●● ● ●●● ● ● ●●●● ●● ● ● ●●● ●●●●● ● ● ● ● Policies/Regulations/Laws

●●●●●●●●●●●● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●● Gun-Related Issues

Gang-Related Issues ●● ● ● ●● ●● ●● ●● ●● C–2 Drug-Related Issues

●● ●● Youth-Based Prevention Programs

Anti-Violence Initiatives

School-Related Initiatives

Child Victimization Issues

Community Mobilization

●●● Statistics and Research

Public Relations/Media Strategies

Training/Technical Assistance

Publications

Program Evaluation

Clearinghouse Services/ Dissemination 202–662–3550 (fax) 202–628–8787 Washington, DC20001 25 EStreetNW. Children’s DefenseFund 202–638–4004 (fax) 202–638–2952 Washington, DC20001–2085 440 FirstStreetNW., Suite310 Child Welfare Leagueof America 312–753–5940 (fax) 312–753–5900 Chicago, IL60637 1313 East60thStreet University ofChicago Chapin HallCenterforChildren 404–488–4349 (fax) 404–488–4362 Atlanta, GA30341–3724 4770 BufordHighwayNE.,MailstopK60 Prevention Division ofViolence National CenterforInjuryPrevention Centers forDiseaseControland 202–371–9615 (fax) 202–289–7319 Washington, DC20005 1225 EyeStreetNW., Suite1100 Center toPreventHandgunViolence 303–443–3297 (fax) 303–492–8465 Boulder, CO80309–0442 Campus Box442 University ofColoradoatBoulder Center fortheStudyandPrevention 301–468–6433 (fax) 800–729–6686 Rockville, MD20847–2345 P.O. Box2345 National Clearinghousefor Alcohol and Center forSubstance Abuse and Control Prevention (CDC) of Violence Drug Information(NCADI) Prevention PREV-LINE

●●●●● ● ●●● ●●●●● ● ●●●● ●● ● ● ●●● ●● ● ● ●● ●●●●● ●●●● Policies/Regulations/Laws

●●●● ● ● ●● Gun-Related Issues

Gang-Related Issues

C–3 Drug-Related Issues

●●●●● ●● ●● ● ●●● Youth-Based Prevention Programs

Anti-Violence Initiatives

School-Related Initiatives

Child Victimization Issues

Community Mobilization

Statistics and Research

Public Relations/Media Strategies

Training/Technical Assistance

Publications

Program Evaluation

Clearinghouse Services/ Dissemination 606–622–6264 (fax) 606–622–1498 Richmond, KY40475–3131 300 StrattonBuilding College ofLawEnforcement Training Eastern KentuckyUniversity 206–286–1462 (fax) 206–286–1805 Seattle, WA 98109 130 Nickerson,Suite107 Developmental Researchand 310–215–0180 (fax) 800–223–DARE Los Angeles, CA 90051 P.O. Box2090 D.A.R.E. America 202–565–2781 (fax) 202–606–5000 Washington, DC20525 1201 New York NW.Avenue Corporation forNationalService 217–398–3132 (fax) 217–398–3120 Champaign, IL61820 41 EastUniversity Suite300 Avenue, Community Research Associates, Inc. 301–492–5984 (fax) 301–492–5929 Chevy Chase,MD20815 5550 FriendshipBoulevard,Suite330 U.S. DepartmentofJustice Community RelationsService 202–544–7213 (fax) 202–544–7190 Washington, DC20002 100 Maryland NE.,Suite402 Avenue Educational FundtoEndHandgunViolence Coalition toStopGunViolence 202–887–0738 (fax) 202–467–0864 Washington, DC20036 1211 Connecticut Avenue NW., Suite414 Coalition forJuvenileJustice Resource Center Programs, Inc.

●● ● ● ●● ●● ● ● ● ● ● ●●● ●●●●● ● ●●●● ● ●●●●● ●● ● ● ● ●● ●●●●●●● Policies/Regulations/Laws

Gun-Related Issues

Gang-Related Issues ●● ● ● ● ●● ●● ● ● C–4 Drug-Related Issues

●●●●●● ●● ● ●●● Youth-Based Prevention Programs

Anti-Violence Initiatives

School-Related Initiatives

Child Victimization Issues

Community Mobilization

Statistics and Research

Public Relations/Media Strategies

Training/Technical Assistance

Publications

Program Evaluation

Clearinghouse Services/ Dissemination 408–257–4560 (fax) 408–257–4500 Cupertino, CA95014 20195 StevensCreekBoulevard, Suite 120 Hands Net 202–371–9615 (fax) 202–898–0792 Washington, DC20005 1225 EyeStreetNW., Suite1100 Handgun ControlIncorporated 414–735–4757 (fax) 800–648–4966 Appleton, WI54913–2277 1825 NorthBluemoundDrive P.O. Box2277 Criminal JusticeDepartment Fox Valley Technical College 305–760–5673 (fax) 305–760–5668 Fort Lauderdale,FL33301 220 SE.SecondStreet University Tower Balanced andRestorativeJusticeProject University Florida Atlantic 312–341–9361 (fax) 312–341–0900 Chicago, IL60604 200 SouthMichigan Avenue, Suite1520 Family ResourceCoalition 617–864–5164 (fax) 617–492–1764 800–370–2515 Cambridge, MA02138 23 GardenStreet Educators forSocialResponsibility 617–244–3436 (fax) 617–969–7100 Newton, MA02158–1060 55 ChapelStreet Center forViolence andInjuryPrevention Educational DevelopmentCenter, Inc.

●●● ● ● ●●● ●●●●● ● ●●●● ●● ● ●●●● ●●●● ●●● ● ●●●●● ● ●●● Policies/Regulations/Laws

Gun-Related Issues

● ●●●●●●● Gang-Related Issues

C–5 Drug-Related Issues

●●●●Youth-Based Prevention Programs

Anti-Violence Initiatives

●●● School-Related Initiatives

Child Victimization Issues

Community Mobilization

Statistics and Research

Public Relations/Media Strategies

Training/Technical Assistance

Publications

Program Evaluation

Clearinghouse Services/ Dissemination 215–625–9589 (fax) 215–625–0551 Philadelphia, PA 19107 801 Arch Street,Suite610 Juvenile LawCenter 202–624–5269 (fax) 202–624–8560 Washington, DC20001 444 NorthCapitolStreetNW., Suite445 Justice ResearchandStatistics 703–836–4543 (fax) 703–836–6767 800–843–4227 Alexandria, VA 22314 515 NorthWashington Street of International Association 301–251–5767 (fax) 301–251–5312 800–995–2232 Rockville, MD20849–6424 P. O.Box6424 Resident InitiativesClearinghouse U.S. DepartmentofHousingand 301–251–5767 (fax) 301–251–5211 800–578–DISC Rockville, MD20849–6424 P.O. Box6424 Drug Information&StrategyClearinghouse U.S. DepartmentofHousingand 703–385–3206 (fax) 800–FYI–3366 Washington, DC20013–1182 P.O. Box1182 National ClearinghouseonChild U.S. DepartmentofHealthand Association (JRSA) Chiefs ofPolice(IACP) Urban Development Urban Development Abuse andNeglectInformation Human Services

● ● ●●● ●●●●● ●●●● ●● ● ●●●● ●●●●●●●● ●● ● Policies/Regulations/Laws ● ●●●●●●● ● ● ●●●● ●●●●● Gun-Related Issues

Gang-Related Issues

C–6 Drug-Related Issues

Youth-Based Prevention Programs

Anti-Violence Initiatives

School-Related Initiatives

Child Victimization Issues

Community Mobilization

Statistics and Research

Public Relations/Media Strategies

● Training/Technical Assistance

Publications

Program Evaluation

Clearinghouse Services/ Dissemination 517–432–1787 (fax) 517–355–2322 East Lansing,MI48824 Michigan StateUniversity 560 BakerHall School ofCriminalJustice National CenterforCommunity 202–783–2704 (fax) 202–783–6868 Washington, DC20001 444 NorthCapitolStreetNW., Suite642 National Association ofState 202–466–4769 (fax) 202–466–4764 Washington, DC20036–4502 1726 MStreetNW., Suite500 National Association forMediation 202–434–8008 (fax) 202–434–8000 Washington, DC20001 444 NorthCapitolStreetNW., Suite339 of Attorneys National Association 612–626–2134 (fax) 612–624–8644 Minneapolis, MN55455 420 DelawareStreetSE. Box 721 Health National Adolescent 312–363–7664 (fax) 312–363–6700, ext.421 Chicago, IL60649 65th StreetatLakeMichigan LaRabida Children’sHospitaland Midwest RegionalChildren’s Policing (NCCP) Prevention Network(NPN) (NASADAD) andtheNational Alcohol andDrug Abuse Directors in Education(NAME) General (NAAG) Resource Center Research Center Advocacy Center

●●● ●● ● ●● ●●●● ●● ● Policies/Regulations/Laws

Gun-Related Issues

Gang-Related Issues

C–7 Drug-Related Issues

Youth-Based Prevention Programs

●● ●● Anti-Violence Initiatives

School-Related Initiatives

●●●●● Child Victimization Issues

Community Mobilization ●●●● ●●●● Statistics and Research

Public Relations/Media Strategies

Training/Technical Assistance

Publications

Program Evaluation

Clearinghouse Services/ Dissemination 303–863–8003 (fax) 303–830–2200 Denver, CO80202 1560 Broadway, Suite700 National ConferenceofStateLegislatures 312–939–8962 (fax) 312–663–3520 Chicago, IL60604 332 SouthMichigan Avenue, Suite1600 National CommitteetoPrevent 301–608–8721 (fax) 301–608–8098 800–621–4000 Silver Spring,MD20911–3505 P.O. Box13505 National Clearinghouseon 207–780–5817 (fax) 207–780–5810 Portland, ME04112 P.O. Box15010 National ChildWelfare ResourceCenter 804–220–0449 (fax) 804–253–2000 Williamsburg, VA 23185 300 Newport Avenue National CenterforStateCourts(NCSC) 703–235–4067 (fax) 703–235–3900 800–843–5678 Arlington, VA 22201–3052 2101 WilsonBoulevard,Suite550 National CenterforMissingand 412–227–6955 (fax) 412–227–6950 Pittsburgh, PA 15219–3000 710 Fifth Avenue, Third Floor JuvenileJustice(NCJJ) National Centerfor Child Abuse Families and Youth for OrganizationalImprovement Exploited Children(NCMEC)

● ● ●● ●● ● ●●● ●●●● ●●●●●● ● ● ● ●●●●●●●●●●Policies/Regulations/Laws

Gun-Related Issues

Gang-Related Issues

C–8 Drug-Related Issues

●●●● ● ● Youth-Based Prevention Programs

Anti-Violence Initiatives

School-Related Initiatives

●●●●Child Victimization Issues

Community Mobilization

Statistics and Research

Public Relations/Media Strategies

Training/Technical Assistance

Publications

Program Evaluation

● Clearinghouse Services/ Dissemination 202–546–6649 (fax) 202–546–6644 Washington, DC20003 711 GStreetSE. National InstituteforCitizen 202–624–5313 (fax) 202–624–5320 Washington, DC20001 444 NorthCapitolStreetNW., Suite267 National Governors' Association (NGA) 202–508–3859 (fax) 202–347–4900 Washington, DC20001 444 NorthCapitolStreetNW., Suite608 National CriminalJustice Association 202–296–1356 (fax) 202–466–6272 Washington, DC20006–3817 1700 KStreetNW., SecondFloor National CrimePreventionCouncil(NCPC) 206–323–8137 (fax) 206–328–8588 Seattle, WA 98102 2722 Eastlake Avenue East,Suite220 National Court Appointed Special 415–896–5109 (fax) 415–896–6223 San Francisco,CA94105 685 MarketStreet,Suite620 National CouncilonCrimeand 702–784–6628 (fax) 702–784–6012 Reno, NV89507 P.O. Box8970 University ofNevada National CouncilofJuvenileand Education intheLaw(NICEL) (NCJA) (NCASAA) Advocate Association Delinquency (NCCD) Family CourtJudges(NCJFCJ)

● ● ● ● ● ●●● ●●●● ● ● ●● ●●●●●●●Policies/Regulations/Laws ●●

●●●●●● ●● ●●●● ●●●●●●●●● Gun-Related Issues

Gang-Related Issues

C–9 Drug-Related Issues

Youth-Based Prevention Programs

Anti-Violence Initiatives

School-Related Initiatives

●●● Child Victimization Issues

●●●●●● Community Mobilization

Statistics and Research

Public Relations/Media Strategies

Training/Technical Assistance

Publications

Program Evaluation

Clearinghouse Services/ Dissemination 703–836–7269 (fax) 703–549–5305 Alexandria, VA 22314 222 SouthWashington Street Law-Related EducationinJuvenile National OfficeforSocialResponsibility 202–639–0511 (fax) 202–639–0597 Washington, DC20004 1319 FStreetNW., Suite1001 National NetworkofChildren’s 202–662–1755 (fax) 202–662–1748 Washington, DC20005 740 15thStreetNW., 9thFloor National LegalResourceCenterfor 202–626–3043 (fax) 202–626–3000 Washington, DC20004 1301 Pennsylvania Avenue NW., Suite550 National LeagueofCities(NLC) 606–622–2333 (fax) 606–622–6259 Richmond, KY40475 301 PerkinsBuilding National JuvenileDetention 202–466–4769 (fax) 202–466–4764 Washington, DC20036–4502 1726 MStreetNW., Suite500 National InstituteforDispute 301–251–5212 (fax) 800–851–3420 Rockville, MD20849–6000 P.O. Box6000 National CriminalJusticeReference National InstituteofJustice Justice Settings Advocacy Centers,Inc.(NNCAC) Child Welfare Services Association (NJDA) Resolution (NIDR) Service (NCJRS)

● ●●● ● ●● ●●●●●●●● ● Policies/Regulations/Laws

● ●●● ●●●● ●●●● ●●●●● Gun-Related Issues

Gang-Related Issues

C–10 Drug-Related Issues ● ●●●● ●●● ●●● ●● Youth-Based Prevention Programs

Anti-Violence Initiatives

School-Related Initiatives

●●●● Child Victimization Issues

Community Mobilization

●●●●● Statistics and Research

Public Relations/Media Strategies

Training/Technical Assistance

Publications

Program Evaluation

Clearinghouse Services/ Dissemination 703–838–7590 (fax) 703–838–6722 Alexandria, VA 22314 1680 DukeStreet National SchoolBoards Association 205–534–6883 (fax) 205–534–6868 800–KIDS–006 Huntsville, AL35801 2204 WhitesburgDrive,Suite200 National ResourceCenteronChild 303–792–5333 (fax) 303–792–9900 800–227–5242 Englewood, CO80112–5117 63 InvernessDriveEast National ResourceCenteronChild 312–341–9361 (fax) 312–341–0900 Chicago, IL60604 200 SouthMichigan Avenue, 16thFloor National ResourceCenterforFamily 319–335–2204 (fax) 319–335–2200 Iowa City, IA 52242–1223 112 NorthHall School ofSocialWork University ofIowa National ResourceCenterfor 312–670–6783 (fax) 312–670–6782 Chicago, IL 60611–3690 330 NorthWabash, Suite 2100 National PTA 202–462–2255 (fax) 202–232–6682 800–TRY–NOVA Washington, DC20010 1757 ParkRoad,NW. National OrganizationforVictim (NSBA) (NRCCSA) Sexual Abuse Abuse andNeglect(NRCCAN) Support Programs Family-Centered Practice Assistance (NOVA)

●●● ● ● ● ●● ● ●● ●●●●●● ● ●● ● ●●● ● ●● Policies/Regulations/Laws

●●●●●●●●● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●● Gun-Related Issues

Gang-Related Issues

C–11 Drug-Related Issues

●●●●● Youth-Based Prevention Programs

●●● ● ●● Anti-Violence Initiatives

●●● School-Related Initiatives

Child Victimization Issues

Community Mobilization

Statistics and Research

Public Relations/Media Strategies

Training/Technical Assistance

Publications

Program Evaluation

Clearinghouse Services/ Dissemination 215–387–9513 (fax) 215–387–9500 Philadelphia, PA 19104 4000 ChestnutStreet,SecondFloor Northeast RegionalChildren’s 904–386–5356 (fax) 904–385–0600 Tallahassee, FL 32317 P.O. Box12729 Institute forIntergovernmentalResearch National Youth GangCenter 202–775–9733 (fax) 202–659–1064 Washington, DC20036 1001 Connecticut Avenue NW., Suite719 National Youth EmploymentCoalition 703–276–2889 (fax) 703–276–2880 Arlington, VA 22201 2111 Boulevard,Suite300 Wilson National Victim Center 303–451–1049 (fax) 303–457–9947 Northglenn, CO80233 11990 GrantStreet,Suite318 National Training andTechnical 703–519–8567 (fax) 703–836–7827 Alexandria, VA 22314–3490 1450 DukeStreet National Sheriffs’ Association (NSA) 805–373–9277 (fax) 805–373–9977 Westlake Village,CA 91362 4165 ThousandOaksBoulevard,Suite290 Pepperdine University National SchoolSafetyCenter(NSSC) Advocacy Center (NYEC) Assistance Center

●●● ●● ●●●●●●●●●●● ● ●● ● ● ●●●● ●● ● Policies/Regulations/Laws

Gun-Related Issues

●● Gang-Related Issues

C–12 Drug-Related Issues

●●●●●● Youth-Based Prevention Programs

Anti-Violence Initiatives

School-Related Initiatives

Child Victimization Issues

Community Mobilization

Statistics and Research

Public Relations/Media Strategies

● Training/Technical Assistance

Publications

Program Evaluation

Clearinghouse Services/ Dissemination 202–659–9149 (fax) 202–833–1460 Washington, DC20037 1001 22ndStreetNW., Suite200 Police Foundation 202–466–7826 (fax) 202–466–7820 Washington, DC20036 1120 Connecticut Avenue NW., Suite930 Police ExecutiveResearchForum 202–638–2919 202–638–2898 Washington, DC20005 1511 KStreetNW., Suite611 Phi Alpha DeltaPublicServiceCenter 212–922–1570 (fax) 212–922–1560 New York, 10174 NY 405 Lexington Avenue, 16thFloor Partnership foraDrug-Free America 415–282–2563 (fax) 415–285–1793 San Francisco,CA 94110 San FranciscoGeneralHospital Pacific CenterforViolence Prevention 301–251–5212 (fax) 800–666–3332 Rockville, MD20849–6000 P.O. Box6000 Drugs andCrimeClearinghouse Office ofNationalDrugControlPolicy 301–251–5212 (fax) 800–638–8736 Rockville, MD20849–6000 P.O. Box6000 Juvenile JusticeClearinghouse Office ofJuvenileJusticeand 301–251–5212 (fax) 800–627–6872 Rockville, MD20849–6000 P.O. Box6000 Office forVictims ofCrimeResourceCenter Office forVictims ofCrime(OVC) Delinquency Prevention(OJJDP)

●●●●●●● ● ●● ●●●●● ●●●● Policies/Regulations/Laws

●●●●●●●●● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●● ●●● ●● ● Gun-Related Issues

Gang-Related Issues C–13 ● Drug-Related Issues

Youth-Based Prevention Programs

● ●●●●●● ● ● ● ●● ●● Anti-Violence Initiatives

School-Related Initiatives

●●●●●● Child Victimization Issues

Community Mobilization

Statistics and Research

Public Relations/Media Strategies

Training/Technical Assistance

Publications

Program Evaluation

Clearinghouse Services/ Dissemination 415–956–9022 (fax) 415–543–3379 San Francisco,CA94104 114 SansomeStreet,Suite950 Youth LawCenter 305–670–3805 (fax) 305–670–2409 Miami, FL33156 9300 SouthDadelandBoulevard TowersDadeland North,Suite100 Youth CrimeWatchof America 510–444–6195 (fax) 510–444–6191 Oakland, CA94609 3012 Summit Avenue, Suite3670 Summit MedicalCenter YOUTH ALIVE! 203–785–6860 (fax) 203–785–7047 New Haven,CT06510 47 CollegeStreet,Suite218 Child-Centered CommunityPolicingProgram Yale ChildStudyCenter 719–543–0383 800–582–2203 Pueblo, CO81003 301 West 13th Western RegionalChildren’s 801–581–5872 801–581–7718 Salt LakeCity, UT 84112 215 HPER-N Health EducationDepartment Family StrengtheningPrograms University ofUtah 205–533–0523 (fax) 800–747–8122 Huntsville, AL35801 2204 WhitesburgDrive,Suite201 Southern RegionalChildren’s Advocacy Center Advocacy Center

●● ● ● ● ●● ●● ● ●● ● Policies/Regulations/Laws

●●●● ●●●●● ● ● ● ●● ●● ● ● ●● Gun-Related Issues

Gang-Related Issues C–14 ●●● ●●● ● ●●●●● ●● Drug-Related Issues

●●● ● ●● Youth-Based Prevention Programs

Anti-Violence Initiatives

School-Related Initiatives ●● ●● ●●●● ● ●● Child Victimization Issues

Community Mobilization

Statistics and Research

Public Relations/Media Strategies

Training/Technical Assistance

Publications

Program Evaluation

Clearinghouse Services/ Dissemination Appendix D Reports of Selected Commissions and Task Forces The following reports that include NCJ numbers are available from the National Criminal Justice Reference Service (NCJRS). For further information, see Appendix F or call the Juvenile Justice Clearinghouse (800–638–8736).

American Bar Association. 1993 advocates responsible parent- This report offers recommenda- (July). America’s Children at Risk: A hood, the guarantee of quality tions for transforming the educa- National Agenda for Legal Action. childcare choices, the availabil- tion of young adolescents in NCJ 152284. ity of good health and protec- middle schools through strate- tion, and the mobilization of gies such as creating smaller This report was produced by communities to support young learning environments, assign- the American Bar Association children and their families. ing an adult adviser for each stu- Presidential Working Group dent, educating students about on the Unmet Legal Needs of Carnegie Council on Adolescent healthy lifestyles, teaching citi- Children and Their Families. It Development. 1994 (April). A Mat- zenship, grouping students for recommends reforms in legal ter of Time: Risk and Opportunity in learning, providing flexible representation and advocacy of the Out-of-School Hours. scheduling, giving teachers children and their families. The greater influence in the class- This publication presents the report proposes improvements room, developing expert teach- research findings of the Carnegie for assistance to working par- ers, ensuring access to health Council on Adolescent Develop- ents, housing, education, child services, keeping parents in- ment’s Task Force on Youth welfare, families in the courts, formed, providing opportunities Development and Community juvenile justice and children in for youth service, and expanding Programs. The task force con- institutions, and child support. career guidance. The report ducted an extensive review of urges educators, parents, health- American Correctional Association existing research and programs, care professionals, youth-serving Victims Committee. 1994 (August). focus group discussions with and community organizations, Report and Recommendations on Vic- young adolescents, interviews States, and the President to tims of Juvenile Crime. NCJ 159768. with youth development leaders consider the Council’s recom- from national organizations, an mendations and to reevaluate This report offers an assessment exploratory study of indepen- education policy for adolescents. of the current status of victims of dent youth agencies, 12 commis- juvenile offenders. It includes 16 sioned papers, and reports of site Centers for Disease Control and recommendations designed to visits to programs. It highlights Prevention. 1994 (June). Healthy increase efforts among juvenile the potential of community People 2000: National Health Promo- justice officials and victim serv- organizations to support youth tion and Disease Prevention Objec- ice professionals to meet the development and provides rec- tives. Review 1993. Hyattsville, Md.: needs of the growing victim ommendations for community National Center for Health Statis- population. programs and their key partners tics, U.S. Department of Health and in strengthening community Carnegie Corporation of New York. Human Services. NCJ 152389. programs for youth. 1994 (August). Starting Points: This report describes the major Meeting the Needs of Our Youngest Carnegie Council on Adolescent activities of the U.S. Public Children. Development. 1990 (January). Turn- Health Service in 22 priority ing Points: Preparing American Youth Prepared by the Carnegie Task areas outlined in Healthy People for the 21st Century. NCJ 119895. Force on Meeting the Needs 2000: National Health Promotion of Young Children, this report and Disease Prevention Objectives,

D–1 a framework laid out in 1990 for Children’s Legislative Agenda 1994: birth to age 5 and for teenagers actions by the public and private Budget Updates and Issue Briefs. 1994. at high risk for pregnancy; re- sectors to achieve a healthier Washington, D.C.: Child Welfare structure the public education Nation by the year 2000. League of America, Inc. system; and provide comprehen- NCJ 148471. sive educational, employment, Child Welfare League of America, health, and social services pro- Inc. 1994. Research agenda for child This legislative agenda of the grams for disadvantaged stu- welfare. Journal of the Child Welfare Child Welfare League of America dents and dropouts. The report League of America 73(5):303. outlines and documents essential includes descriptions of existing NCJ 151423. investments that must be made programs that are implementing to protect and care for abused promising strategies to address This article describes the cre- and neglected children and the needs of disadvantaged ation of the National Council troubled families. children. on Research in Child Welfare, which originated as a result Cocozza, J.J., ed. 1992 (November). Contract With America’s Children. of the Child Welfare League Responding to the Mental Health 1994 (December). Oakland, Calif.: of America’s national collo- Needs of Youth in the Juvenile Justice Children Now. quium in February 1990. The System. Washington, D.C.: The Na- colloquium sought to advance tional Coalition for the Mentally Ill The Contract With America’s Chil- knowledge in the child welfare in the Criminal Justice System. dren was drawn up by Children field and developed a research NCJ 151847. Now, a national nonpartisan agenda to enhance child welfare policy and advocacy group for practices and public policies This monograph was produced children; the Benton Foundation; targeting children and their as a result of a National Work and the Coalition for America’s families. Session, convened to address Children. Supported by more mental health services provided than 100 national organizations, Children’s Defense Fund. 1994. to youth in the juvenile justice the contract articulates 10 prin- Wasting America’s Future: The system at the Federal, State, and ciples that policymakers should Children’s Defense Fund Report on local levels. It explores 11 priori- honor as they enact policy re- the Costs of Child Poverty. Boston, ties that emerged from the work forms. It advocates putting chil- Mass.: Beacon Press. session to improve services and dren first and valuing all youth. guide policies. The contract also addresses This book examines the negative health, education, and safety effects of poverty on a child’s Committee for Economic De- issues; family preservation; health, academic achievement, velopment. Research and Policy working families; job training; and future earning potential. It Committee. 1989. Children in community responsibility; and provides an overview of what Need: Investment Strategies for the leadership accountability. money can buy for children and Educationally Disadvantaged. families: food, shelter, opportu- Crime Prevention in America: Founda- This report calls for a new nities to learn, a decent neigh- tions for Action. 1990. Washington, partnership among businesses, borhood, healthcare, recreation, D.C.: National Crime Prevention schools, communities, and transportation, and economic Council. NCJ 142312. opportunities. The book argues individuals to foster the health, that an end to poverty is pos- education, and well-being of dis- This publication seeks to inspire sible and economically feasible advantaged children. To improve community-based action to re- (in terms of costs to taxpayers the outlook for this burgeoning duce the crime that plagues the and the Government), especially population, the report recom- Nation. It includes principles when poverty’s damaging, long- mends that policymakers adopt developed by more than 130 term economic and social effects a three-part strategy: develop national, Federal, and State are considered. prevention and early interven- organizations. Examples used tion programs for children from to illustrate these principles were

D–2 selected to represent geographi- Kids Count Data Book: State Profiles of sets forth recommendations for cally diverse communities, Child Well-Being. 1994. Baltimore, individual action, public- and problems, and solutions. Md.: The Anne E. Casey Founda- private-sector policies, and tion. NCJ 148416. program development. Eron, L.D., J. Gentry, and P. Schlegel, eds. 1994 (February). This is a report of a national National Commission on Children. Reason to Hope: A Psychological and State-by-State effort to track 1991. Speaking of Kids: A National Perspective on Violence and Youth. the status of youth in the United Survey of Children and Parents. Wash- 1994. Washington, D.C.: American States and provide benchmarks ington, D.C.: U.S. Government Psychological Association. of child well-being. It includes Printing Office. NCJ 158633. data on educational, social, economic, and physical characteris- This report is based on the Na- This is Volume Two of the Com- tics of children. tional Commission on Children’s mission on Youth and Violence national opinion research proj- Report, a compilation of papers Murder in America: An IACP Summit ect. It examines changes in on violence and youth prepared Report. 1995 (February). Alexandria, American family life and deals by psychologists with expertise Va.: International Association of with perceptions of family life, in youth violence. This work is Chiefs of Police. NCJ 156236. parent-child relationships, time based on findings from more pressures, family structure than 50 years of research, which This is the working draft of the matters, worries and fears, has shown that human aggres- International Association of and support for teenagers. The sion is learned, that learning al- Chiefs of Police Murder Summit report concludes with recom- ternative nonviolent behavior is on November 19, 1994. It calls mendations for supporting and possible, and that no single fac- for new or expanded initiatives strengthening families, ensuring tor influences violent behavior. in the areas of law enforcement; income security, supporting the Commission members identified community and government; transition to adulthood, and the individual and environmen- legislation; and education and creating a good moral climate tal factors that can be changed to training. for children. prevent potentially volatile situa- National Commission on Children. tions from escalating into violent National Council of Juvenile and 1991. Beyond Rhetoric: A New Ameri- acts. The document offers guide- Family Court Judges. 1984 (Sum- can Agenda for Children and Families. lines for reducing violence in mer). The juvenile court and serious Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government children’s lives. offenders: 38 recommendations. Printing Office. NCJ 142184. Juvenile and Family Court Journal. The Forgotten Half: Non-College Youth NCJ 096101. This report provides a basis for in America. 1988 (January). Wash- developing national policy on ington, D.C.: The William T. Grant This article details recommenda- America’s children and families. Foundation Commission on Work, tions developed and approved Prepared by the National Com- Family, and Citizenship. by the members of the National mission on Children, a bipartisan NCJ 112535. Council of Juvenile and Family group established by public law Court Judges on July 12, 1984, This report examines the societal “to serve as a forum on behalf of at their annual conference in and economic implications for the children of the Nation,” the Colorado. Its recommendations the significant number of youth report focuses on problems of are designed to respond to who do not go to college. It the Nation’s children and their some of the most controversial proposes recommendations families by examining the rela- and significant issues facing on continuing education and tionships among health, educa- courts and the public with re- job training, completing the tion, income security, and other gard to serious juvenile offend- transition from school to the forms of support at each stage ers. Recommendations cover workforce, and expanding of a child’s development. It disposition policies, causes and employment and promotional prevention of juvenile crime, opportunities.

D–3 dispositional guidelines, transfer reduce crime, violence, and This report contains 26 recom- to adult criminal court, confi- drug availability; enhance pro- mendations of the U.S. Advisory dentiality, treatment consider- gram flexibility and efficiency; Board on Child Abuse and Ne- ations, specific programs, and and strengthen interdiction glect, which was asked to recom- resources. and international efforts by mend a national policy to reduce empowering communities, im- and prevent child abuse fatali- The National Education Goals Report: proving prevention and treat- ties, changes to achieve an effec- Building a Nation of Learners. 1994. ment, fighting hardcore drug tive Federal role in implementing Washington, D.C.: National Educa- use, and increasing program the policy, and reforms needed tion Goals Panel. efforts in source countries. to improve data collection about child abuse and neglect fatalities. This report consists of three The State of America’s Children documents. National Data Volume Yearbook. 1994. Washington, D.C.: Violence and Youth: Psychology’s and State Data Volume include Children’s Defense Fund. Response. 1993. Washington, D.C.: comprehensive sets of measures NCJ 156057. American Psychological Associa- to describe educational progress tion. NCJ 147390. at the national and State levels. This annual yearbook includes The central document, 1994 data on family income, health, Volume One of the Commission Goals Report, focuses on 16 children and families in crisis, on Youth and Violence Report indicators to communicate childcare, early childhood devel- summarizes the proceedings to parents, educators, and opment, housing and hopeless- and highlights key findings. policymakers what needs to ness, hunger and nutrition, The Commission provides spe- be done to reach the desired adolescent pregnancy preven- cific recommendations for psy- educational goals. tion, youth development, and chological research and broad violence. public policy recommendations National Governors’ Association. to prevent or mitigate the effects Kids in Trouble: Coordinating Social An Urgent Call . . . for a National Plan of youth violence. It advocates and Correctional Service Systems for for Children and Their Families. 1993. early childhood intervention, Youth. Washington, D.C.: Commit- Washington, D.C.: Child Welfare school-based educational tee on Justice and Public Safety, Na- League of America, Inc. programs, cultural diversity tional Governors’ Association. awareness, positive media in- This report is designed as a blue- NCJ 137269. volvement, firearms prevention, print to chart a new course for drug and alcohol prevention, This report provides an over- America’s children and families. education programs on hate view of innovative approaches It includes a vision for children crimes, control of mob violence, to program design and coordina- and families and a role for Gov- and professional involvement of tion of services for delinquent ernment; a set of principles to psychologists in youth violence youth. It describes several pro- guide Government programs and reduction. grams that are considered exem- services for children and their plary and that can be adapted to families; and an implementation Violence: Report to the President the needs of all communities. strategy to ensure timely and and Domestic Policy Council. 1994 beneficial results of a (January). Washington, D.C.: Office of National Drug Control national children’s agenda. Interdepartmental Working Group Policy. 1995 (February). National on Violence. NCJ 159325. Drug Control Strategy 1995: U.S. Advisory Board on Child Strengthening Communities’ Response Abuse and Neglect. 1995 (April). This report was prepared by to Drugs and Crime. Washington, A Nation’s Shame: Fatal Child Abuse representatives from the U.S. D.C.: Office of the President. NCJ and Neglect in the United States. Departments of Agriculture, 152700. Washington, D.C.: Administration Education, Health and Human for Children and Families, U.S. Services, Housing and Urban The President’s 1995 strategy Department of Health and Human Development, Justice, and Labor; contains action plans to reduce Services. NCJ 157013. and the Office of National Drug the demand for illicit drugs;

D–4 Control Policy. It addresses the and sexual assault. One sub- Denver, CO, Nebraska, and following violence-related topics: group focused on places where Washington, D.C., to develop firearms, media, juvenile crime violent acts occur, and the Cities broad-based, coordinated anti- and violence, schools, youth de- Project worked with State and violence initiatives in their velopment, family violence, hate local officials in Atlanta, GA, communities. violence, ethnic conflict, gangs,

D–5 Appendix E Program Catalogs and Directories The following reports that include NCJ numbers are available from the National Criminal Justice Reference Service (NCJRS). For further information, see Appendix F or call the Juvenile Justice Clearinghouse (800–638–8736).

ACCESS ERIC. 1993 (May). ERIC numbers, Federal contacts, legis- organizations that deal with Directory of Education-Related Infor- lative references, State clearing- drug prevention, including mation Centers. Washington, D.C.: houses, and selected national Federal agencies, provides U.S. Department of Education. resources. overviews of initiatives and strategies as well as contact in- This directory lists more than Catalogue of Hope: Crime Prevention formation at the national, State, 400 organizations that provide Programs for At-Risk Children. 1994 and local levels. information relevant to educa- (April). Washington, D.C.: U.S. Sen- tion. Each entry includes contact ate Judiciary Committee Majority Clearinghouse on Child Abuse and information, a brief description Staff, U.S. Congress. NCJ 148952. Neglect Information. 1992. A Guide of the program or organization, to Funding Resources for Child Abuse audience served, and access pro- The catalog introduces success- and Neglect and Family Violence Pro- cedures. A subject index pro- ful programs for at-risk children grams. Washington, D.C.: U.S. De- vides quick reference to specific that have been implemented partment of Health and Human subjects and relevant resource across the Nation. Programs Services. NCJ 140551. centers for education-related include alternatives to gangs, requests. drugs, and the streets; the This is a detailed sourcebook on reduction of juvenile recidivism; funding within the Federal Gov- American Youth Work Center. 1993 mentoring and school-based ernment for projects and pro- (December). The North American programs; police officers as pre- grams that address child abuse Directory of Programs for Runaways, vention partners; the prevention and neglect, domestic violence, Homeless Youth, and Missing Chil- and treatment of drug abuse; elder abuse and neglect, and dren. Washington, D.C.: Center for and family support and preser- other forms of family violence. Substance Abuse Prevention, Office vation. It provides brief descrip- It provides brief descriptions of of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency tions of the programs as well each Federal agency; sources of Prevention, and Centers for Disease as contact information and funding; examples of discretion- Control and Prevention. objectives to provide outlets for ary grants and contracts funded NCJ 146843. children who are at risk. in the past; and some eligibility requirements and agency priori- This directory provides State- Citizen’s Alcohol and Other Drug Pre- ties related to funding activities, by-State profiles of more than vention Directory: Resources for Get- programs, and initiatives. It in- 450 programs serving runaways, ting Involved. 1990. Washington, cludes additional sources of homeless youth, and missing D.C.: Center for Substance Abuse information publications, infor- children. Each profile contains Prevention, U.S. Department of mation clearinghouses, resource contact information and the Health and Human Services. centers, national organizations, number of youth served by each NCJ 127527. computerized data bases, Fed- program/agency annually. eral regional contacts, and State This directory is an excellent Additionally, resources are contacts. provided for practitioners contact resource for citizens who and professionals who work want to get involved with drug Communities Creating Change: Exem- with youth, including hotline prevention efforts. The compre- plary Alcohol and Other Drug Preven- hensive listing of agencies and tion Programs. 1991. Rockville, Md.:

E–1 Center for Substance Abuse Pre- This directory contains infor- supported the goals of the OJJDP vention, U.S. Department of Health mation on 158 criminal justice Act during FY 1989. This com- and Human Services. NCJ 130078. organizations that provide infor- prehensive overview of Federal mation services on a national, re- initiatives for juvenile justice and This document profiles 10 exem- gional, and/or statewide basis. delinquency prevention includes plary alcohol and other drug Additionally, it lists Criminal Jus- information on more than 260 prevention programs as models tice Information Exchange (CJIE) programs directed to the needs that can be replicated or adapted members, State criminal justice of delinquent juveniles. in communities throughout the representatives, and Federal Nation. Each program listed Information Centers. Federal Interagency Ad Hoc works with high-risk youth and Committee on Health Promotion their parents, teachers, and the Directory of Victim Assistance Pro- Through the Schools. 1992. Healthy greater community. Honorable grams and Resources, 1994 Edition. Schools: A Directory of Federal Pro- mention programs are also 1994. Washington, D.C.: National grams and Activities Related to Health listed. Organization for Victim Assistance. Promotion Through the Schools. Wash- NCJ 159767. ington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Correctional and Juvenile Justice Health and Human Services. Training Directory of North America This directory lists victim pro- NCJ 143041. 1990. 1990. Richmond, Ky.: Depart- grams and services throughout ment of Correctional Services the United States. Organized by This directory describes 112 Fed- Training Resource Center, Eastern State, city, and program, it is an eral programs and 35 federally Kentucky University. NCJ 139504. excellent resource for local assis- supported clearinghouses or in- tance services or programs. formation centers that address This directory provides infor- activities for health promotion in mation and contacts for State Disposition Resource Manual. 1990. elementary or secondary schools. correctional training programs Washington, D.C.: National Council Each program description in- as well as Federal, military, of Juvenile and Family Court cludes areas of emphasis, pro- Canadian, and English/Welsh Judges. NCJ 137693. gram components and subject training programs. matter, youth and adult target This manual previews exemplary groups, a narrative summary, Costello, L., ed. 1995. Part of the programs that have shown prom- and contact information. Solution: Creative Alternatives for ising and/or positive results for Youth. Washington, D.C.: National juveniles. It includes projects that Federal Juvenile Delinquency Pro- Assembly of State Arts Agencies. address prevention, diversion, grams 1988, 12th Analysis & Evalua- NCJ 152982. probation, neglect, abuse, cus- tion. 1988. Washington, D.C.: Office tody, family violence, and after- of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Part of a series, this publication care as well as a State-by-State Prevention, U.S. Department of shares the success stories of 11 program index. Each program Justice. NCJ 115786. organizations that use the arts, profile contains information on with assistance from the Na- the client population served, ob- This overview of federally initi- tional Endowment for the Arts, jectives, a program description, ated efforts to reduce juvenile to combat problems of teenage information on effectiveness, and delinquency lists programs pregnancy, violence, drug abuse, contact information. funded and projects underway, and dropouts. The collection in- along with funding amounts and cludes contact information for Federal Agency Juvenile Delinquency objectives for each program. each of the programs studied Development Statements. 1992 (Au- and profiles additional State and gust). Washington, D.C.: Office of The Gould-Wysinger Awards: A regional projects. Juvenile Justice and Delinquency tradition of excellence. OJJDP Model Prevention, U.S. Department of Programs 1993. 1994 (February). Ju- Directory of Criminal Justice Informa- Justice. NCJ 134926. venile Justice Bulletin. Washington, tion Sources, 9th Edition 1994. 1994. D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice and National Institute of Justice, U.S. This report describes the pro- Delinquency Prevention, U.S. De- Department of Justice. NCJ 144767. grams, legislation, policies, and partment of Justice. NCJ 146840. practices of Federal agencies that

E–2 The Gould-Wysinger Awards This document contains listings This directory contains two ma- were established by the Office by State of domestic and family jor sections: a matrix that shows of Juvenile Justice and Delin- violence programs funded by the the locations of public and pri- quency Prevention in 1992 to Bureau of Justice Assistance. It is vate comprehensive community- recognize local achievements in a source for initiating and repli- based violence prevention and improving the juvenile justice cating innovative programs and economic development initia- system and helping the Nation’s improving existing programs. It tives, and program descriptions youth. This bulletin annually provides contact information, of private and Federal initiatives. highlights award-winning pro- program descriptions, and target The matrix lists States and juris- grams and includes local contact populations. dictions where initiatives are information. located as well as Federal de- Justice Research and Statistics Asso- partments and foundations and Help for Children From Infancy to ciation. State and Local Programs: the initiatives they sponsor, such Adulthood: A National Directory of Focus on What Works. Volume I. as Enterprise Communities, Fed- Hotlines, Helplines, Organizations, 1994. Washington, D.C.: Bureau of eral Empowerment Zones, PACT Agencies, and Other Resources, 4th Justice Assistance, U.S. Department sites, and major philanthropic Edition 1989. 1989. Rocky River of Justice. NCJ 157143. initiatives. Each initiative has a Publishers. NCJ 154577. local, interdisciplinary planning Effective State and local pro- board focused on the needs of This book provides referral gramming policies are cataloged at-risk children and families. sources and contact information and described in this volume. Contact information is provided on commissions, agencies, and Programs are listed under four with each program description. organizations. Topics include major headings: rural issues and child safety, teens in distress, programs; treatment, rehabilita- National Court Appointed Special abused and missing children, tion, and education; the under- Advocates Association. 1992. 1992– children’s health, and parenting. standing and combating of 1993 Directory of Court Appointed violence; and the prevention of Special Advocate Programs. Washing- Howell, J.C., ed. 1995 (May). Guide drug abuse and violent crime. ton, D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice for Implementing the Comprehensive and Delinquency Prevention, U.S. Strategy for Serious, Violent, and Juvenile Delinquency Development Department of Justice. NCJ 152326. Chronic Juvenile Offenders. Washing- Statements: A Report on Federal Pro- ton, D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice grams. 1994 (November). Washing- In 1991, more than 28,000 indi- and Delinquency Prevention, U.S. ton, D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice viduals acted as Court Appointed Department of Justice. NCJ 153681. and Delinquency Prevention, U.S. Special Advocates (CASA’s) for Department of Justice. NCJ 150712. children who were abused, ne- This document provides pro- glected, or abandoned by their gram information to address the This report contains the annual families. This directory lists alpha- rise in violent juvenile crime. It statements of 18 Federal agen- betically the 520 CASA programs surveys research that addresses cies that administer juvenile in the 49 participating States. community mobilization, needs delinquency programs. The assessment of communities, and statements describe policies, National Directory of Children, Youth, identification of prevention and programs, and practices of each and Families Services, 9th Edition intervention activities in a agency and detail how these 1993–94. 1993. National Directory graduated sanctions model. agencies meet the mandates of Children, Youth, and Families and advance the goals of the Ju- Services. NCJ 143508. Justice Research and Statistics venile Justice and Delinquency Association. 1994. Domestic and Prevention Act. This three-part directory includes Family Violence: Highlighted Programs information on human services from the State Annual Reports 1994. Matrix of Community-Based Initia- provided by States, counties, and Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Justice tives. 1995. Washington, D.C.: Office major cities; “who’s who” in Fed- Assistance, U.S. Department of of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency eral children, youth, and families Justice. NCJ 150549. Prevention, U.S. Department of programs, national clearing- Justice. NCJ 154816. houses, resource centers, and

E–3 organizations; and buyers’ re- juvenile detention facilities. It in- This directory lists contact infor- sources for specialized services cludes contact information for mation for wardens/administra- and products available in the wardens and administrators of tors of more than 4,000 adult field. Information on how each juvenile State correctional de- and juvenile State correctional State renders its services as well partments, institutions, pro- departments, institutions, pro- as a listing of State hotlines and grams, and probation and grams, and probation and pa- emergency reporting numbers parole/aftercare services. role/aftercare services. It are also provided. includes statistical summaries National Listing of Children’s Advo- on capital expenditures and National Directory of Domestic Vio- cacy Centers 1996. 1996 (January). projects, inmate populations, lence Programs: A Guide to Commu- Alexandria, Va.: National Network adult programs, and personnel. nity Shelter, Safe Home, and Service of Children’s Advocacy Centers. Programs. 1994. Washington, Office of National Drug Control D.C.: National Coalition Against A useful reference for legal serv- Policy. 1991 (April). Directory of Fed- Domestic Violence. NCJ 160049. ices for children, advocates of eral Anti-Drug Grants. Washington, children’s rights, crisis interven- D.C.: U.S. Government Printing This directory provides a State- tion organizations, counselors, Office. NCJ 140794. by-State listing of programs and temporary shelters, this that serve battered women and document provides listings by This directory outlines national their children. Information on State of Children’s Advocacy drug control programs funded 24-hour hotlines, safe houses, Centers, accompanied by contact by the U.S. Departments of counseling, shelters, legal serv- information. (Note: Some listings Education, Health and Human ices, and services/counseling are tentative sites.) Services, Housing and Urban programs for batterers is in- Development, Justice, and Labor. cluded. Additionally, the direc- The National Victims Resource Direc- Funding opportunities by these tory includes listings of State tory 1994. 1994. Rockville, Md.: Of- departments include demonstra- domestic violence coalitions fice for Victims of Crime Resource tion grants, emergency grants, and national information and re- Center. NCJ 123837. State and local grants, regional source centers. centers, and community part- This resource directory contains nerships for substance abuse listings for victim-serving agen- National Directory of Juvenile Restitu- prevention and education. cies, clearinghouses, and re- tion Programs 1987, Restitution Appendixes give information source centers. It describes the Training and Technical Assistance on State contacts for formula functions of each organization (RESTTA). 1987. Washington, grants, drug-free schools, and listed, the type and degree of D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice community grants; block grant support available to victims of and Delinquency Prevention, U.S. contacts; and State liaisons for crime, State victim compensation Department of Justice. NCJ 105188. the Job Training Partnership Act. boards, victim/witness assis- This directory lists juvenile resti- tance programs, State domestic Partnerships Against Violence. 1995. tution programs by State and in- violence coalitions, and State Resource Guide Volumes 1 and 2. cludes information on types of chapters of the National Com- Washington, D.C.: U.S. Govern- services provided, when they mittee to Prevent Child Abuse. ment Printing Office. NCJ 150044 were established, and brief de- Federal clearinghouses and in- and NCJ 150045. scriptions of programs and formation centers are listed for goals. victim-relevant requests. This guide integrates information on a wide range of programs National Juvenile Detention Directory National Directory of Juvenile and and resources addressing the is- 1992. 1992. Washington, D.C.: Adult Correctional Departments, Insti- sue of violence in the United American Correctional Association. tutions, Agencies and Paroling Au- States. Volume 1, Promising Pro- NCJ 136153. thorities 1994 . 1993. Washington, grams, highlights 600 programs D.C.: American Correctional Asso- developed by Government agen- This comprehensive directory ciation. NCJ 148411. cies, private foundations, reli- provides information relevant to gious and fraternal associations,

E–4 and community organizations. signs of success, funding, and Reingold, J.R., and B.R. Frank. Volume 2, Information Sources, challenges. Lists of resource or- 1993 (November). Targeting Youth: Funding, and Technical Assistance, ganizations and program contact The Sourcebook for Federal Policies offers sources for direct help, information are included. and Programs. Flint, Mich.: Charles curriculums and teaching mate- Stewart Mott Foundation. rials, and funding. The entries Public Health Service Office of NCJ 147546. are also available on the Internet Disease Prevention and Health Pro- (gopher:pavnet.esusda.gov) and motion. 1994. Prevention: Federal This document lists youth on WordPerfect 5.1 and ASCII Programs and Progress ’93/’94. Wash- programs administered by disks. The Partnerships Against ington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Federal Government agencies Violence Network (PAVNET) Health and Human Services. and includes a description of is an automated resource sys- each agency’s funding alloca- This biennial report on preven- tem providing anti-crime infor- tions to States. Clearinghouse tion-related activities of the mation. Accessible through information; resource organiza- Federal Government provides the Internet and in hard copy, tions; a selected bibliography; a comprehensive listing of U.S. PAVNET is a data bank on an index of programs by topic; Public Health Service, Adminis- violence reduction programs and and information on the funding tration on Aging, Administration includes promising programs, organizations, sponsors, and for Children and Families, and funding sources, how programs authors of the sourcebook are Healthcare Financing Adminis- operate, audiences served, evalu- also provided. tration prevention programs. ation results, and contacts for The report highlights model Smith, A. 1992. Thirty-Eight Proven further information. prevention programs for minori- Ways You Can Stop Youthful Violence. PAVNET Online User’s Guide. ties, gives an overview of the na- Big Brothers/Big Sisters of New Research in Action. 1995 (March). tional health status, provides York City, NY. NCJ 139887. Washington, D.C.: National Insti- prevention program summaries Based on a survey compiled tute of Justice, U.S. Department by agency, and displays the re- by Big Brothers/Big Sisters of of Justice. NCJ 152057. sources spent on prevention by the U.S. Department of Health New York City, this document This publication introduces and Human Services. profiles the programs of 38 PAVNET Online to users, provid- organizations that have proven ing an overview of information Reducing Youth Gun Violence: An successful in stopping youthful available through PAVNET Overview of Programs and Initiatives. violence. Each organization de- Online as well as technical 1996. Washington, D.C.: Office of scribes its successes and the pro- information about accessing and Juvenile Justice and Delinquency grams it would like to expand using PAVNET Online through Prevention, U.S. Department of or implement. the Internet. It includes a glos- Justice. NCJ 154303. State Drug Resources: 1994 National sary of terms and a selected This report provides a summary Directory. 1994. Washington D.C.: bibliography. of Federal and State legislation Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Preventing Violence: Program Ideas designed to reduce youth gun Department of Justice. NCJ 147709. and Examples. 1992. Washington, violence. It also presents research A comprehensive resource D.C.: National Crime Prevention findings on this issue from the manual, this guide provides con- Council. NCJ 136251. public health, criminology, and sociology fields. It includes de- tact information for State offices This volume profiles 27 violence scriptions of prevention and of policy, criminal justice, health, prevention programs operating intervention programs and and education. The appendixes at local or State levels and sug- directories of youth gun violence list Federal information centers gests actions that communities programs and national organiza- and clearinghouses. and community members can tions working to prevent gun Substance Abuse Residential Treatment take to prevent or stop violence. possession and use by youth. Centers for Teens. 1990. Phoenix, Each program description in- Ariz.: Oryx Press. NCJ 121154. cludes setting, focus, strategies,

E–5 This resource offers a State-by- based on risk factors and strate- School Boards Association sur- State listing of teen substance gies employed. The report convey on school violence. It pro- abuse treatment facilities and cludes with recommendations for vides addresses, sizes, and types hotlines, treatment methods, ad- research as well as program and of districts in which schools are dictions/disorders treated, and policy actions designed to im- located, categorized by State types of client services offered. prove the effectiveness of anti- and district. Indexes are provided for quick violence interventions that will reference to specific types of pro- significantly impact the problem What Works: Promising Interventions grams or specific State centers. of juvenile violence. in Juvenile Justice. 1994 (October). Program Report. Washington, D.C.: Tolan, P., and N. Guerra. 1994 Violence in the Schools: How America’s Office of Juvenile Justice and Delin- (July). What Works in Reducing Ado- School Boards Are Safeguarding Your quency Prevention, U.S. Depart- lescent Violence: An Empirical Review Children. 1993. Alexandria, Va.: Na- ment of Justice. NCJ 150858. of the Field. Boulder, Colo.: The Cen- tional School Boards Association. ter for the Study and Prevention of NCJ 157000. This catalog lists 425 effective Violence. NCJ 152910. prevention, intervention, and This audit of the ways school treatment programs for youth. This examination of anti- boards address violence in Each entry includes contact in- violence programs explores schools is divided into three sec- formation, target population, epidemiological considerations tions: the problem of juvenile program type, structure, staff, associated with adolescent violence and how school boards budget, program summary, violence. The study includes must keep schools safe; descrip- evaluation, and other informa- a review of risk literature high- tions of the ways schools are ad- tion. The catalog also includes a lighting promising targets for dressing the problem of violence; local contact for each program intervention and presents out- and listings of school districts listed. comes of evaluation efforts that responded to the National

E–6 Appendix F Annotated Bibliography

This annotated bibliography lists all The Juvenile Justice Clearinghouse: list that provides subscribers with documents that are referenced in • Acquires more than 1,000 new timely and relevant juvenile the Action Plan and other useful re- titles on juvenile justice each justice information directly from sources. It is organized by section year. OJJDP. Participation in JUVJUST is corresponding to the Action Plan. free, although users must have ac- Entries are listed in alphabetical • Maintains a toll-free number for cess to Internet E-mail. Subscribers order by author’s last name; if no information requests. can receive the service by following author is identified, the publication these steps: is listed by title or the organization • Provides onsite reference and that published it. Each entry in- library services and prepares 1. Send an E-mail message to: cludes a brief annotation. specialized responses to informa- [email protected] tion requests. The National Criminal Justice Ref- (please use lowercase letters only). erence Service (NCJRS) Research • Collects, synthesizes, and dis- and Information Center offers many seminates information on all 2. Leave the subject line blank. publications listed in the Action areas of juvenile justice. Plan. NCJ (National Criminal 3. In the body of the message, type: Justice) numbers indicate that • Offers electronic access to news subscribe juvjust your name the document is maintained in and announcements from OJJDP. (For example: subscribe juvjust the Research and Information Cen- john doe) ter, which makes many of these • Distributes a variety of OJJDP and other publications. publications available on micro- National Criminal fiche, through paper reproduction, If you would like more information, or interlibrary loan. Justice Reference call or write: Service Online Juvenile Justice Juvenile Justice Clearinghouse NCJRS Gopher Clearinghouse 1600 Research Boulevard The NCJRS gopher menus provide As a service of the U.S. Department Rockville, MD 20850 OJJDP information and direct links of Justice’s Office of Juvenile Jus- 800–638–8736 to the NCJRS Bulletin Board and tice and Delinquency Prevention international criminal justice re- (OJJDP), the Juvenile Justice Clear- Electronic Bulletin Board sources. The gopher address is: inghouse (JJC), a component of 301–738–8895 ncjrs.aspensys.com:71 NCJRS, welcomes the opportunity to help you obtain publications and JUVJUST: The OJJDP NCJRS World Wide Web information useful to the field of (WWW) juvenile justice. Through JJC, OJJDP Juvenile Justice Listserv This service provides a graphical collects and disseminates agency interface to NCJRS information publications, research findings, and OJJDP invites you to subscribe and international criminal justice program evaluations. electronically to its listserv. OJJDP resources. The address for the and NCJRS offer a new service, NCJRS WWW is: JUVJUST, an electronic mailing http://ncjrs.aspensys.com:81/ ncjrshome.html

F–1 NCJRS Anonymous FTP 3. Type your E-mail address. E-mail for Information When you connect to the NCJRS For example: [email protected] First-time users can send an E-mail FTP site, you can download full System displays ftp> message to automatically receive a reply outlining the services of text publications and software. To 4. Type: cd pub/ncjrs to change the NCJRS. Send E-mail to: access FTP: directory. [email protected] 1. From your system type: ftp ncjrs.aspensys.com 5. Type: get README.NCJRS to E-mail for Technical Help download the file that describes System displays a login prompt. If you need technical assistance or all the documents available at the have specific questions, please send 2. Type: anonymous FTP site, or type ls to see a list of an E-mail message to: System prompts you for your the files. [email protected] password.

F–2 Introduction and deserves a safe place to learn cleared, arrests, and law enforce- and grow; every child needs ment personnel, based on infor- Allen-Hagen, B., M. Sickmund, and and deserves a marketable skill mation provided by State and H. Snyder. 1994 (November). Juve- to use upon graduation; and local law enforcement agencies. niles and Violence: Juvenile Offending every child needs and deserves Population size is the only corre- and Victimization. Fact Sheet #19. a chance to give back to peers late of crime used in the report; Washington, D.C.: Office of Juvenile and community. This edition however, the introduction in- Justice and Delinquency Preven- of the guide also includes a net- cludes an overview of other tion, U.S. Department of Justice. work consultant directory that crime factors. The report in- NCJ FS09419. lists individuals who are willing cludes numerous tables and fig- This fact sheet presents statistical to share their expertise and ures and a description of the data and trends about juvenile experience with others. research methodology. offenders and juvenile victims of violence. Between 1988 and Delinquency Prevention Works. 1995 Guide for Implementing the Compre- 1992, juvenile arrests for violent (May). Washington, D.C.: Office of hensive Strategy for Serious, Violent, crime, juvenile gun use, weap- Juvenile Justice and Delinquency and Chronic Juvenile Offenders. 1995 ons arrests, weapons carrying, Prevention, U.S. Department of (June). OJJDP Update on Programs. and gang membership increased Justice. NCJ 155006. Juvenile Justice Bulletin. Washing- dramatically. Data are provided This publication provides a ton, D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice on juvenile victims of violent synthesis of the most current and Delinquency Prevention, U.S. crime, particularly homicide. information on programs and Department of Justice. NCJ 153571. The fact sheet also discusses strategies that seek to prevent This update presents an over- Federal approaches to child delinquency. It explains the view of the Guide for Implement- maltreatment. theory of risk-focused preven- ing the Comprehensive Strategy tion and correlates it to stages for Serious, Violent, and Chronic Cities In Schools, Inc., Seeds of Hope: of youth development and areas Juvenile Offenders, which commu- A Guide for Program Resources. 1995. of focus. It references relevant nities nationwide can use as a Alexandria, Va. research and evaluation efforts tool for addressing the problem This guide of resources that help to ground these programs and of juvenile delinquency. those involved in child rearing is provide a context for their organized into four focus areas. successful implementation. Howell, J.C., ed. 1995 (May). Guide The four focuses are Preschool/ for Implementing the Comprehensive family, School, Community, and Federal Bureau of Investigation. Strategy for Serious, Violent, and Early Intervention, which sup- 1994. Crime in the United States, Chronic Juvenile Offenders. Washing- port the basic principles of Cities 1993: Uniform Crime Reports. Wash- ton, D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice In Schools, Inc. The four prin- ington, D.C.: U.S. Department of and Delinquency Prevention, U.S. ciples are as follows: Every child Justice. NCJ 151712. Department of Justice. NCJ 153681. needs and deserves a personal, This report presents statistics This document provides a guide one-on-one relationship with a on FBI Crime Index offenses, for communities to address the caring adult; every child needs including trend data, crimes problem of juvenile delinquency.

F–3 It is divided into four major sec- whole child and family, rather This report provides the most tions. Part I provides a step-by- than provide a fragmented ap- current and reliable information step process for communities to proach to children’s services. available on the extent and na- implement the Comprehensive ture of juvenile crime and vic- Strategy that focuses on system- Snyder, H. 1994 (May). Are Juveniles timization and describes the level issues. Part II describes a Driving the Violent Crime Trends? juvenile justice system’s re- risk-focused prevention strategy Fact Sheet #16. Washington, D.C.: sponse. It focuses on how the and promising and effective Office of Juvenile Justice and Delin- system must react to the law- prevention programs for par- quency Prevention, U.S. Depart- violating behaviors of youth in a ticular age groups. Part III pro- ment of Justice. NCJ FS009416. manner that not only protects motes effective interventions for This fact sheet concludes that ju- the community and holds youth serious, violent, and chronic juveniles are not driving the vio- accountable, but also enhances venile offenders by examining lent crime trends, although their the youth’s ability to live pro- relevant research literature, set- responsibility for the growth in ductively and responsibly in the ting forth guidelines for a sys- violent crime in the United States community. tem of graduated sanctions, and has increased. describing promising programs. Wilson, J.J., and J.C. Howell. 1993. Part IV examines how juvenile Snyder, H. 1994 (May). 1992 Juvenile Comprehensive Strategy for Serious, justice practitioners can use as- Arrests. Fact Sheet #13. Washington, Violent, and Chronic Juvenile Offend- sessment and classification tools D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice and ers. Program Summary. Washing- in prevention and graduated Delinquency Prevention, U.S. De- ton, D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice sanctions programs. partment of Justice. NCJ FS009413. and Delinquency Prevention, U.S. Department of Justice. NCJ 143453. This fact sheet reports that in Moone, J. 1994 (June). Juvenile 1992, law enforcement agencies This program summary pre- Victimization: 1987–1992. Fact Sheet made 2.3 million arrests of juve- sents an overview of relevant #17. Washington, D.C.: Office of niles and that juvenile arrests statistics, research, and program Juvenile Justice and Delinquency grew at a greater rate than adult evaluations to support the de- Prevention, U.S. Department of arrests. The document provides velopment of a comprehensive Justice. NCJ FS009417. detailed statistics. strategy for serious, violent, This fact sheet notes that from and chronic juvenile offenders. 1987 to 1992, juveniles suffered Snyder, H., and M. Sickmund. 1995 General principles of the plan almost twice the victimization (May). Juvenile Offenders and Victims: include strengthening the family; rate of persons aged 25–34, and A Focus on Violence. Washington, supporting core social institu- more than 5 times the victim- D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice and tions; promoting delinquency ization rate of persons aged Delinquency Prevention, U.S. De- prevention; intervening immedi- over 35. partment of Justice. NCJ 153570. ately and effectively when delin- This statistics summary con- quent behavior occurs; and Schulman, K., and S.R. Markwood. solidates the most recent in- identifying and controlling this 1995 (July). Counties Care for Kids: formation on violent crimes group of juvenile offenders. The Programs That Work. Washington, committed by and against plan recommends the develop- D.C.: National Association of juveniles. It presents complex ment of a continuum of care for Counties. data on juvenile crime using juvenile offenders, with gradu- Programs highlighted in this clear, nontechnical writing and ated sanctions. guide provide examples of easy-to-understand graphics Wilson, J.J., and J.C. Howell. 1993 innovative and collaborative and tables. approaches that counties have (August). Serious, Violent, and successfully applied to address Snyder, H., and M. Sickmund. 1995 Chronic Juvenile Offenders: A the needs of their community’s (August). Juvenile Offenders and Vic- Comprehensive Strategy. Fact Sheet children and families. These pro- tims: A National Report. Washington, #4. Washington, D.C.: Office of grams focus on early interven- D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice and Juvenile Justice and Delinquency tion and prevention strategies Delinquency Prevention, U.S. De- Prevention, U.S. Department of that address the needs of the partment of Justice. NCJ 153569. Justice. NCJ FS009304.

F–4 This fact sheet summarizes Wood, G.E. 1995 (September). activities, special initiatives, and OJJDP’s Comprehensive Strategy for Coordinating Council on Juvenile publications. The document de- Serious, Violent, and Chronic Juve- Justice and Delinquency Prevention. scribes The National Juvenile Jus- nile Offenders, outlining key prin- Fact Sheet #31. Washington, tice Action Plan, summarizing ciples for preventing and re- D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice critical principles and objectives ducing at-risk behavior and delin- and Delinquency Prevention, for preventing delinquency, in- quency and identifying expected U.S. Department of Justice. tervening in early delinquent benefits. NCJ FS009531. behavior, and responding effec- This fact sheet details the Coor- tively to serious, violent, and dinating Council’s responsibili- chronic juvenile offenders. ties and delineates the Council’s

F–5 Section 1: article concludes that all key residential facilities and those Provide Immediate agencies responsible for juvenile maintained in community-based Intervention and offenders must take concerted programs and services. steps to ensure that obstacles to Appropriate Sanctions effective juvenile handling are Altschuler, D.M., and T.L. and Treatment for removed and that adequate re- Armstrong. 1994 (October). Inten- Delinquent Juveniles sources are available in the juve- sive Aftercare for High-Risk Juveniles: nile justice system. An Assessment. Washington, D.C.: Allen-Hagen, B. 1991 (January). Office of Juvenile Justice and Delin- Public Juvenile Facilities: Children in Altschuler, D.M., and T.L. quency Prevention, U.S. Depart- Custody 1989. OJJDP Update on Sta- Armstrong. 1995 (Summer). After- ment of Justice. NCJ 144018. tistics. Juvenile Justice Bulletin. care in the juvenile justice system: This report reviews programs Washington, D.C.: Office of Juvenile New trends and programs. Perspec- and literature concerning juve- Justice and Delinquency Preven- tives 19(3):24–29, 32–35. NCJ 157511. nile prerelease, transition, reinte- tion, U.S. Department of Justice. This article analyzes weaknesses gration, and aftercare. It includes NCJ 127189. in the aftercare phase of juvenile information on assessment and This update presents the initial corrections and outlines the classification for risk and need, findings of 1,100 public facilities Intensive Juvenile Aftercare descriptions of community- and surveyed in OJJDP’s 1989 Chil- Program (IAP) model as imple- institution-based programs, and dren in Custody census. The na- mented in Colorado, Nevada, an overview of theory-driven tional census surveyed more New Jersey, and Virginia. The interventions. than 3,200 public and private article concludes that the IAP facilities that provide custody for model is potentially more effec- Altschuler, D.M., and T.L. more than 92,000 children who tive than past aftercare programs Armstrong. 1994 (September). In- are wards of juvenile courts, because it directs increased tensive Aftercare for High-Risk Juve- juvenile corrections agencies, or attention to individualized niles: A Community Care Model. private agencies. services and treatment. Program Summary. Washington, D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice and Altschuler, D.M. 1994. Tough and Altschuler, D.M., and T.L. Delinquency Prevention, U.S. De- smart juvenile incarceration: Reinte- Armstrong. 1995 (Summer). Man- partment of Justice. NCJ 147575. grating punishment, deterrence and aging aftercare services for delin- This summary reports on the rehabilitation. Saint Louis University quents. In Glick and Goldstein, eds. interim results of OJJDP’s Public Law Review 14(1):217–237. Managing Delinquency Programs research and development NCJ 158827. That Work (with permission from initiative to assess, test, and This article reviews recent policy the American Correctional Associa- disseminate information on changes for handling juvenile tion, Lanham, Md.). NCJ 154391. theory-driven intensive aftercare offenders and recommends a rein- This book addresses the man- program models based on risk tegration-oriented institutional agement and administration of assessment. Models are for seri- corrections model that merges juvenile delinquents, including ous, violent, and chronic juvenile the use of secure confinement those incarcerated and placed in offenders who initially require and provision of aftercare. The secure confinement.

F–6 Altschuler, D.M., and T.L. Intensive Interventions with High-Risk homelessness, and adolescent Armstrong. 1994 (September). Youths. Monsey, N.Y.: Willow Tree pregnancy were the primary Intensive Aftercare for High-Risk Juve- Press, Inc. NCJ 129821. problems confronting girls and niles: Policies and Procedures. Pro- This chapter summarizes work young women in Oregon. The gram Summary. Washington, D.C.: to date in an intensive, commu- report concludes with recom- Office of Juvenile Justice and Delin- nity-based parole program for mendations to the Oregon Com- quency Prevention, U.S. Depart- high-risk juvenile offenders re- mission on Children and Youth ment of Justice. NCJ 147712. leased from secure confinement. Services for addressing these This summary describes inten- It identifies and reviews key needs. sive community-based aftercare topics and issues in juvenile in- Barton, W.H., and J.A. Butts. 1991. program initiatives designed to tensive aftercare and describes Intensive supervision alternatives help public and private correc- an aftercare intervention model. for adjudicated juveniles. In T.L. tions agencies develop and Armstrong, ed. Intensive Interven- implement effective aftercare American Correctional Association tions with High-Risk Youths. Monsey, services for serious, violent, Victims Committee. 1994 (August). N.Y.: Willow Tree Press, Inc. and chronic juvenile offenders Report and Recommendations on Vic- NCJ 129830. who initially require secure tims of Juvenile Crime. Lanham, Md.: confinement. American Correctional Association. This chapter describes a study NCJ 159768. of three inhome intensive super- Altschuler, D.M., and T.L. This report offers an assessment vision programs in Detroit, MI, Armstrong. 1992 (June). Intensive of the current status of victims of that provide alternatives to Aftercare for High-Risk Juvenile juvenile offenders. It includes 16 institutionalization for juvenile Parolees: A Model Program Design. recommendations designed to offenders. Baltimore, Md.: Institute for Policy increase efforts among juvenile Barton, W.H., and J.A. Butts. 1990. Studies, Johns Hopkins University. justice officials and victim service Accommodating innovation in a NCJ 139337. professionals to meet the needs of juvenile court. Criminal Justice Policy This document describes the the growing victim population. Review 4(2):144–158. NCJ 134134. framework for the prototype juvenile aftercare model proposed Armstrong, T.L., ed. 1991. Intensive This article examines how the for field testing, following an Interventions with High-Risk Youths. impact of three cost-effective al- assessment of community-based Monsey, N.Y.: Willow Tree Press, ternatives to juvenile institution- aftercare programs for chronic Inc. NCJ 129819. alization in Wayne County, MI, juvenile offenders released from This collection of 14 papers was diluted by the policies of residential correctional facilities. on intensive interventions with juvenile justice organizations. The proposed model addresses high-risk youth is an overview All used a mix of individual, two deficiencies of the current and evaluation of juvenile group, and family counseling; system: that institutional con- intensive supervision, program- educational and vocational sup- finement does not adequately ming issues, and specialized port; recreation; and behavioral prepare youth for return to the approaches. supervision. community and that lessons Bazemore, G. 1991. Work experi- learned in secure confinement Baggett, G., R. Donough, P. MacRae, ence and employment program- are not monitored or reinforced and S. Engel. 1990. Oregon Girls’ ming for serious juvenile offenders: outside. Advocacy Project: Final Report. Ashland, Ore.: Juvenile Justice Ad- Prospects for a “productive en- Altschuler, D.M., and T.L. visory Committee, Oregon Com- gagement” model of intensive Armstrong. 1991. Intensive after- mission on Children and Youth supervision. In T.L. Armstrong, care for the high-risk juvenile pa- Services. NCJ 151815. ed. Intensive Interventions with High- rolee: Issues and approaches in Risk Youths. Monsey, N.Y.: Willow This report presents the results reintegration and community su- Tree Press, Inc. NCJ 129823. of a year-long study that found pervision. In T.L. Armstrong, ed. that physical and sexual abuse, alcohol and drug abuse,

F–7 This chapter describes the “pro- police, the reasons for reporting Camp, G.M., and C.G. Camp. ductive engagement” approach or not reporting the crime, and 1990. Corrections Yearbook, 1990: to intensive supervision of juve- police response time. Juvenile Corrections. South Salem, nile offenders. The approach N.Y.: Criminal Justice Institute. features the systematic use of Bureau of Justice Statistics. 1994. NCJ 127005. Sourcebook of Criminal Justice Statis- employment of offenders to This report presents informa- tics—1993. 1994. Washington, D.C.: achieve public protection and tion about juvenile correctional Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. restitution to the victim and populations, institutions, pro- Department of Justice. NCJ 148211. community. grams, and personnel in 1990. This annual reference publica- It includes figures, tables, and Bazemore, G., and M.S. Umbreit. tion presents data on juvenile narrative summaries. 1994 (October). Balanced and Restor- corrections, courts, and delin- ative Justice. Program Summary. quency, including statistics and Carey, J.T., and P.D. McAnany. 1984. Washington, D.C.: Office of Juvenile characteristics on juveniles in Introduction to Juvenile Delinquency: Justice and Delinquency Preven- custody, cases processed, public Youth and the Law. Englewood Cliffs, tion, U.S. Department of Justice. opinion, and self-reports of N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc. NCJ 116445. NCJ 149727. crime. The chapters of this book are This summary describes how organized around four major Burke, V.B. 1992 (March). Reauthor- the balanced, restorative justice themes: the interaction between ization of the Juvenile Justice and model uses a community-based juvenile law and specific popular Delinquency Prevention Act: Testi- system to impose restorative and theoretical notions about mony before the House Committee sanctions such as community adolescence; the possibilities of on Education and Labor, Subcom- service, victim involvement, a better fit between theories of mittee on Human Resources, March mediation, and restitution on delinquency and policy/practice; 16, 1992. NCJ 136971. youthful offenders. The model the unintended institutional seeks to attain a balance between The director of a community- and personal consequences of the legitimate needs of the com- based center for high-risk teen- society’s ambivalent attitudes munity, the juvenile offender, age girls discusses female service toward juveniles; and the feasi- and the victim, enhancing com- needs in the juvenile justice sys- bility of integrating official and munity protection, competency tem. She recommends that girls’ unofficial modes of dispute development, and accountability. special needs be addressed in settlement. the reauthorization of the Juve- Bureau of Justice Statistics. 1992. nile Justice and Delinquency Cellini, H.R. 1994 (July). Manage- Criminal Victimization in the United Prevention Act. ment and treatment of institutional- States. Washington, D.C.: U.S. De- ized violent juveniles. Corrections partment of Justice. NCJ 145125. Butts, J.A., and H. Snyder. 1992 Today 56(4):98, 100–102. NCJ 149897. (September). Restitution and Juvenile This report provides detailed This article addresses issues Recidivism. OJJDP Update on Re- findings from the 1992 National facing security staff, correctional search. Juvenile Justice Bulletin. Crime Victimization Survey, administrators, and mental Washington, D.C.: Office of Juvenile which covers a wide range of health staff in terms of crisis Justice and Delinquency Prevention, crimes, including rape, robbery, intervention and the long-term U.S. Department of Justice. assault, personal and household management of violent juvenile NCJ 137774. larceny, household burglary, and offenders. It offers seven key motor vehicle theft. The report Using data provided to the crisis intervention steps to presents 25 data tables on the National Juvenile Court Date decrease violence. major variables measured by the Archive by State and local agen- survey, including offender, vic- cies on the processing of juvenile Chesney-Lind, M., and R.G. tim, and crime characteristics; court cases, this report explores Sheldon. 1992. Girls: Delinquency substance use by the offender; the relationship between the and Juvenile Justice. Pacific Grove, offender-victim relationship; and use of juvenile restitution and Calif.: Brooks/Cole Publishing the reporting of the crime to recidivism. Company. NCJ 137531.

F–8 This analysis of female juvenile Delinquency Prevention, U.S. concepts and the contemporary delinquency focuses on its na- Department of Justice. NCJ 153851. revolution of the juvenile justice ture and causes, details the This report presents information system. experiences of female status on juveniles taken into custody Empey, L.T., and S. Lubeck. 1971. offenders and delinquents in in 40 States and the District of The Silverlake Experiment: Testing the juvenile justice system, and Columbia. It reports on the Delinquency Theory and Community presents data supporting the number and characteristics of Intervention. Chicago, Ill.: Aldine theory that female delinquents such juveniles, the number of Publishing Company. NCJ 002850. and status offenders have differ- juveniles who died in custody ent needs from those of male and the circumstances of their This book presents a comparison offenders. deaths, and the trends demon- of community alternatives for strated by the data. Separate juvenile delinquents and the tra- Cohen, M.A. 1994. The Monetary data are presented for juvenile ditional institutional approach. Value of Saving a High-Risk Youth. nonoffenders, status offenders, Presenting a 4-year field experi- Washington, D.C.: The Urban delinquent offenders, and types ment in community-based treat- Institute. NCJ 159769. of facilities, such as secure ment of seriously disturbed This publication addresses im- detention and correctional delinquent males, it contends portant questions about juvenile facilities, jails, and lockups. that this treatment form may be programs: What are the benefits, an effective option. value, and results? The docu- Delinquency Prevention Works. 1995 ment establishes a new frame- (May). Washington, D.C.: Office of Ervin, L., and A. Schneider. 1990. work for analysis and provides Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Explaining the effects of restitution some preliminary estimates of Prevention, U.S. Department of on offenders: Results from a na- the potential benefits from inter- Justice. NCJ 155006. tional experiment in juvenile courts. In B. Galaway and J. Hudson, eds. vention programs aimed at high- See introduction for annotation. risk youth. Criminal Justice, Restitution, and Effective Practices in Juvenile Correc- Reconciliation. Monsey, N.Y.: Willow Cronin, R.C., and M. Han. 1994 tional Education: A Study of the Tree Press, Inc. NCJ 126476. (October). Boot Camps for Adult and Literature and Research 1980–1992. This chapter reports on a study Juvenile Offenders: Overview and 1994. Washington, D.C.: Office of to determine if the link between Update. Washington, D.C.: National Juvenile Justice and Delinquency restitution and reduced recidi- Institute of Justice, U.S. Department Prevention, U.S. Department of vism can be explained by deter- of Justice. NCJ 149175. Justice. NCJ 150066. rence theory, self-image theory, This publication draws on pub- This report provides a compre- or social integration theory; none lished and unpublished docu- hensive review of literature and of the theories was supported ments, a mail survey of State research on topics related to by data. Results indicated that correctional departments in all correctional education, such as both restitution and traditional 50 States and the District of programs for female offenders, juvenile programs suppress re- Columbia, and a telephone sur- law-related education, special cidivism, but the impact of resti- vey of State juvenile correction education, and community-based tution is greater than that of agencies to provide an overview programs. traditional dispositions. of current information about U.S. bootcamp programs (not Empey, L.T. 1982. American Delin- Fagan, J. 1991. The Comparative Im- including work camps) and to quency: Its Meaning and Construction. pacts of Juvenile and Criminal Court describe current research and Homewood, Ill.: The Dorsey Press. Sanctions on Adolescent Felony Of- development activities. NCJ 085102. fenders. Washington, D.C.: National Institute of Justice, U.S. Department DeComo, R., et al. 1995 (May). Juve- This book examines the causes, of Justice. NCJ 134377. niles Taken Into Custody: Fiscal Year extent, nature, and scientific explanations of delinquency in This work compares the severity, 1992. Statistics Report. Washington, certainty, and celerity of sanc- D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice and the United States. It concludes with chapters on the traditional tions for 15- and 16-year-old

F–9 adolescents charged with violent reconciliation and evaluate Habitual Juvenile Offenders: Guide- felony offenses in New Jersey’s restitution and reconciliation lines for Citizen Action and Public juvenile court with identical programs. Responses. 1991. Washington, D.C.: offenders in matched New York Office of Juvenile Justice and Delin- State communities whose cases Gemignani, R.J. 1994 (October). quency Prevention, U.S. Depart- were adjudicated in criminal Juvenile Correctional Education: A ment of Justice. NCJ 141235. Time for Change. OJJDP Update on court. This guide provides commu- Research. Washington, D.C.: Office nity information on obtaining Federal Bureau of Investigation. of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency public policy, legislative, and 1994. Crime in the United States, Prevention, U.S. Department of political responses to the prob- 1993: Uniform Crime Reports. Wash- Justice. NCJ 151264. lem of habitual juvenile offend- ington, D.C.: U.S. Department of This update recommends that ers. It includes a sample inter- Justice. NCJ 151712. teachers in correctional institu- agency agreement and sample See introduction for annotation. tions incorporate innovative legislation. teaching methods to stimulate Forst, M., J. Fagan, and T.S. Vivona. incarcerated juveniles to learn, Hawkins, J.D., and R.F. Catalano, Jr. 1989. Youth in prisons and training and it includes examples of effec- 1992. Communities That Care: Action schools: Perceptions and conse- tive educational practices. for Drug Abuse Prevention. San quences of the treatment-custody Francisco, Calif.: Jossey-Bass, Inc. dichotomy. Juvenile and Family Court Greenwood, P.W., and S. Turner. NCJ 142704. Journal 40(1):1–14. NCJ 116269. 1993 (June). Private presentence re- This book presents a communi- ports for serious juvenile offenders: Based on interviews with 59 ty mobilization strategy based Implementation issues and impacts. chronic juvenile offenders placed on the social development Justice Quarterly 10(2):229–243. in State training schools and 81 model of risk-focused preven- NCJ 145138. comparable youth sentenced to tion that has been implemented adult correctional facilities, this This article assesses the efforts in several communities to com- article presents a comparison of of the National Center on Institu- bat juvenile delinquency, sub- offenders’ perceptions of their tions and Alternatives to develop stance abuse, and violence. correctional experiences. client-specific plans, such as Beginning with leader training alternative sentencing recom- sessions, each community con- Fuller, J.R., and W.M. Norton. 1993. mendations for serious juvenile ducts an assessment of local risk Juvenile diversion: The impact of offenders. Data are presented and resiliency factors for youth program philosophy on net widen- on the Los Angeles Probation development and develops ing. Journal of Crime and Justice Department’s recommendations appropriate strategies. 16(1):29–45. NCJ 143138. for placing juveniles in Califor- This article presents theoretical nia Youth Authority institutions. Hodges, J., N. Giuliotti, and F.M. and empirical findings indicat- Porpotage II. 1994 (October). Im- ing that juvenile diversion pro- Guide to Juvenile Restitution. 1985. proving Literacy Skills of Juvenile grams based on a crime control Washington, D.C.: Office of Juvenile Detainees. Juvenile Justice Bulletin. philosophy (retribution or deter- Justice and Delinquency Preven- Washington, D.C.: Office of Juvenile rence) are less likely than treat- tion, U.S. Department of Justice. Justice and Delinquency Preven- ment-based diversion programs NCJ 098466. tion, U.S. Department of Justice. to engage in net widening. This guide presents recom- NCJ 150707. mendations for expanding and This bulletin describes programs Galaway, B., and J. Hudson, eds. improving juvenile restitution to teach illiterate youth to read Criminal Justice, Restitution, and programs. It discusses basic and write using a nontraditional, Reconciliation. 1990. Monsey, N.Y.: program decisions, models, motivational approach that gives Willow Tree Press, Inc. NCJ 126460. implementation, management them immediate positive feed- Eighteen papers discuss per- information systems, evaluation, back and encourages success. spectives on and applications and resources. The programs focus on phonics of restitution and victim offender and logically sequenced, multi- sensory lessons.

F–10 Howell, J.C., ed. 1995 (May). Guide secure bedspace for juvenile petition and detention decisions; for Implementing the Comprehensive detention and to consider and influences of gender and Strategy for Serious, Violent, and nonsecure alternatives to total race as related to taking youth Chronic Juvenile Offenders. Washing- confinement. into custody. ton, D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, U.S. Kids in Trouble: Coordinating Social Krisberg, B., J.F. Austin, and P.A. Department of Justice. NCJ 153681. and Correctional Service Systems for Steele. 1989. Unlocking Juvenile Cor- Youth. 1991. Washington, D.C.: Na- rections: Evaluating the Massachusetts See introduction for annotation. tional Governors’ Association. Department of Youth Services. Final Interdepartmental Working Group NCJ 137269. Report. San Francisco, Calif.: Na- on Violence. 1994. Violence: Report to This document provides an over- tional Council on Crime and Delin- the President and Domestic Policy view of innovative approaches to quency. NCJ 123981. Council. Washington, D.C. programs and suggests a need This report describes the struc- NCJ 159325. for a broad array of community- ture of the Massachusetts De- This report was prepared by a based approaches integrating partment of Youth Services working group comprising re- social and correctional services. (DYS) and traces the outcomes presentatives from the U.S. De- It is based on a philosophy of a for 819 youth placed under DYS partments of Agriculture, continuum of services that pro- jurisdiction in the 1980’s to deter- Education, Health and Human vides both adequate supervision mine recidivism and costs of Services, Housing and Urban and effective intervention with various DYS programs. Development, Justice, and Labor juvenile offenders. Krisberg, B., A. Bakke, D. and the Office of National Drug Krisberg, B. 1992. Juvenile Justice: Neuenfeldt, and P. Steele. 1989. Control Policy. The group di- Improving the Quality of Care. Selected Program Summaries: vided into 10 subgroups to San Francisco, Calif.: National Demonstration of Post-Adjudication address the following violence- Council on Crime and Delinquency. Non-Residential Intensive Supervision related topics: firearms, media, NCJ 141687. Programs. Washington, D.C.: Office juvenile crime and violence, of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency schools, youth development, This document offers a critical ex- Prevention, U.S. Department of family violence, hate violence, amination of the theory and prac- Justice. NCJ 150337. ethnic conflict, gangs, and sexual tice of juvenile justice. Current assault. A further subgroup fo- juvenile policies are evaluated in This work describes 11 juvenile cused on places where violent terms of whether juvenile justice intensive supervision programs acts occur, and another, the interventions respond to the needs selected for site visits by the Cities Project, worked with State of youth, especially their develop- National Council on Crime and and local officials in Atlanta, mental differences and family and Delinquency. Visits focused on Denver, Nebraska, and Washing- community contexts. how each program operated ton, D.C., to develop broad- and included interviews with Krisberg, B., and J.F. Austin. 1993. based, coordinated anti-violence program administrators, line Reinventing Juvenile Justice. New- initiatives in their communities. workers, supervisors, and bury Park, Calif.: Sage Publications. judges. Jones, M.A., and D. Steinhart. 1994 NCJ 143762. (August). Assessing the Need for Se- This book questions the survival Krisberg, B., R. DeComo, and N.C. cure Detention: A Planning Approach. of the juvenile court as it cur- Herrera. 1992. National Juvenile Cus- San Francisco, Calif.: National rently exists. It explores the so- tody Trends 1978–1989. Washington, Council on Crime and Delinquency. cial forces that have an impact D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice and NCJ 150738. on children and their families Delinquency Prevention, U.S. De- partment of Justice. NCJ 131649. This work discusses the Na- and that may be related to the tional Council on Crime and rise in violent juvenile crime. It This work provides a summary Delinquency’s six-phase strate- discusses the issues of juvenile and analysis of existing national gic planning process to help ju- justice laws and court proce- and State data on juveniles in risdictions evaluate the need for dures; influences on probation custody from 1978 to 1989. It is

F–11 based on information from stud- quency Prevention, U.S. Depart- examples from several jurisdic- ies of juveniles in both juvenile ment of Justice. NCJ 130758. tions to show how this approach facilities and adult jails and This report provides a summary works in practice. prisons. and analysis of existing national McNally, R.B. 1981. Nearly a cen- and State statistics that focus on Krisberg, B., D. Neuenfeldt, R. tury later—The child savers—Child juveniles taken into custody and Wiebush, and O. Rodriguez. 1994. advocates and the juvenile justice is based on information from Juvenile Intensive Supervision: An system (paper prepared for the studies of juveniles in both juve- Assessment. Washington, D.C.: annual meeting of the Academy nile facilities and adult jails and Office of Juvenile Justice and of Criminal Justice Services, Phila- prisons. Delinquency Prevention, U.S. delphia, Pa., March 11–14, 1981). Department of Justice. NCJ 150064. Law-Related Education for Juvenile NCJ 080064. This assessment report presents Justice Settings. 1993. Washington, This paper compares the histori- an analysis of the literature on D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice and cal development of the juvenile juvenile intensive supervision Delinquency Prevention, U.S. De- justice reform movement in the programs (ISP’s) and describes partment of Justice. NCJ 147063. late 19th century with the activi- the organization and operation This document assists juvenile ties of contemporary child advo- of several programs. It also justice practitioners in the im- cates. The study finds many makes recommendations for the plementation of law-related similarities between the groups, development of a national ISP education (LRE) programs and particularly their reliance on replication model. includes information on the ben- government intervention to efits of LRE programs their use solve social problems. Krisberg, B., D. Neuenfeldt, R. as prevention and intervention Wiebush, and O. Rodriguez. 1994 Messmer, H. 1990. Reducing the tools, and how to design and (October). Juvenile Intensive Supervi- conflict: An analysis of victim- implement an LRE curriculum sion: Planning Guide. Program Sum- offender mediation as an interac- and program. mary. Washington, D.C.: Office of tive process. In B. Galaway and J. Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Lipsey, M.W. 1992. Juvenile delin- Hudson, eds. Criminal Justice, Resti- Prevention, U.S. Department of quency treatment: A meta-analytic tution, and Reconciliation. Monsey, Justice. NCJ 150065. inquiry into the variability of ef- N.Y.: Willow Tree Press, Inc. This summary describes juvenile fects. In T.D. Cook et al., eds. Meta- NCJ 126466. intensive supervision programs Analysis for Explanation: A Casebook. This is a case study of the inter- (ISP’s), a promising intermediate New York, N.Y.: Russell Sage Foun- active process used in Bielefeld, sanction for first-time serious or dation. NCJ 150406. West Germany, in which three violent juvenile offenders who This work presents an overview juveniles, led by a social worker, are inappropriate for or fail to of a large meta-analytic survey accepted responsibility for a respond successfully to immedi- of the delinquency treatment violent attack. ate intervention; how ISP’s also research conducted during the Moone, J. 1993 (April). Children in serve as an alternative to secure past four decades. It identifies Custody 1991: Private Facilities. Fact incarceration for appropriate ju- major sources of the variability Sheet. Washington, D.C.: Office of venile offenders; and how ISP effects. interventions address the major Juvenile Justice and Delinquency causal factors identified in the Maloney D., D. Romig, and T.L. Prevention, U.S. Department of integrated social control model, Armstrong. 1988 (September). Justice. NCJ FS009302. which integrates the central com- Juvenile probation: The balanced This fact sheet presents statistics ponents of control, strain, and approach. Juvenile and Family Court related to facilities, race, gender, social learning theories. Journal 39(3):1–63. NCJ 112228. reason for custody, and age from the 1991 Children in Cus- Krisberg, B., et al. 1991 (September). This article presents the principles, methods, and benefits tody Census and the 1991 OJJDP Juveniles Taken Into Custody: Fiscal survey. Year 1990 Report. Washington, D.C.: of the balanced approach to Office of Juvenile Justice and Delin- juvenile probation and uses

F–12 Murray, C., and L. Cox. 1979. nized national professional stan- treatment, and offers policy and Beyond Probation: Juvenile Correc- dards, and it provides recom- program recommendations. tions and the Chronic Delinquent. mendations for improvement. Newbury Park, Calif.: Sage Publica- The findings followed a study of Pratt, G. 1994 (December). Commu- tions. NCJ 063396. all juvenile detention centers; re- nity-based comprehensive wrap- around treatment strategies (paper The authors of this book draw ception centers; training schools; presented at the Arizona Supreme on an evaluation of an experi- and ranches, camps, and farms. Court Juvenile Justice Research mental program in Chicago to Pierce, R. 1989. Juvenile Justice Symposium, Phoenix, Ariz.). argue that jailing chronic juve- Reform: State Experiences. Criminal nile offenders can reduce their The author discusses violence Justice Paper #4. Denver, Colo.: incidence of postrelease crime. and mental illness and concludes National Conference of State that successful, long-term juve- National Center for Juvenile Jus- Legislatures. NCJ 119948. nile rehabilitation and correction tice. Desktop Guide to Good Juvenile This report examines juvenile requires that juveniles have good Probation Practice. 1991 (March). justice system challenges facing mental health. He recommends Washington, D.C.: Office of Juve- States, alternatives to large psychopharmacological thera- nile Justice and Delinquency Pre- institutions, experiences in sev- pies and strategies for juveniles vention, U.S. Department of Justice. eral States that have embraced who need mental health treat- NCJ 128218. deinstitutionalization, and for- ment for some disorders, such as This reference manual describes mal evaluations of reform attention-deficit hyperactivity, the role of probation in the juve- effectiveness. bi-polar disorder, depression, nile justice system and instructs anxiety, and schizophrenia. Pope, C.E., and W. Feyerherm. 1993. probation officers in job-related Minorities and the Juvenile Justice Sys- Reilly, P.P. 1978 (December). What skills and practices. It serves as a tem. Research Summary. Washing- makes adolescent girls flee from reference and resource docu- ton, D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice their homes? Clinical Pediatrics ment for practitioners from in- and Delinquency Prevention, U.S. 17(12):886–893. NCJ 070260. take through supervision. Department of Justice. NCJ 145849. Case studies and analysis show Palmer, T.B. 1971 (January). This document summarizes the how individual psychotherapy California’s community treatment findings of OJJDP’s study of the and full family involvement can program for delinquent adoles- disproportionate representation effectively contribute toward cents. Journal of Research on Crime of minorities in the juvenile jus- helping runaway, troubled, and and Delinquency 8(1):74–92. tice system and offers recommen- delinquent girls. NCJ 006165. dations for future research. Restitution Experience in Youth This study suggests that institu- Pope, C.E., and W. Feyerherm. 1992. Employment: A Monograph and tionalization of delinquent ado- Minorities and the Juvenile Justice Sys- Training Guide to Jobs Components. lescents has little, if any, effect tem. Full Report. Washington, D.C.: 1989. Washington, D.C.: Office of on their parole performance. Office of Juvenile Justice and Delin- Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Parent, D., et al. 1994 (August). quency Prevention, U.S. Depart- Prevention, U.S. Department of Conditions of Confinement: Juvenile ment of Justice. NCJ 139556. Justice. NCJ 115404. Detention and Corrections Facilities: This report discusses the role that This monograph presents a Research Report. Washington, D.C.: minority status plays in the pro- model curriculum for the devel- Office of Juvenile Justice and Delin- cessing of offenders through the opment of employment pro- quency Prevention, U.S. Depart- juvenile justice system. It exam- grams within juvenile restitution ment of Justice. NCJ 145793. ines trends in minority juvenile programs. This work reports on conditions crime and case processing, re- Rivers, J., and T. Trotti. 1989. South of confinement for juveniles views research literature, ana- Carolina Delinquent Males: A Follow- throughout the United States lyzes data from two States to Up Into Adult Corrections. Columbia, and the extent to which those determine the extent of disparate S.C.: South Carolina Department conditions conform to recog- of Youth Services. NCJ 122764.

F–13 This study of 39,250 males, born Schlossman, S.L. 1977. Love and the barometer of violence in the between 1964 and 1971 and hav- American Delinquent: The Theory and United States. This fact sheet re- ing official delinquency records Practice of “Progressive” Juvenile Jus- ports that juvenile violent crime in South Carolina, reviews re- tice, 1885–1920. Chicago, Ill.: Univer- remained relatively constant cidivism in inmates and adult sity of Chicago Press. NCJ 044008. from the early 1970’s until the probationers. The author examines the origins late 1980’s when the number of and meaning of correctional re- juveniles charged with a violent Roscoe, M., and R. Morton. 1994 form movements in the United offense increased. (April). Disproportionate Minority States from the perspective of Confinement. Fact Sheet #11. Wash- Snyder, H., and M. Sickmund. 1995 legal, intellectual, and social ington, D.C.: Office of Juvenile (August). Juvenile Offenders and Vic- history. Justice and Delinquency Preven- tims: A National Report. Washington, tion, U.S. Department of Justice. Schwartz, I.M., ed. 1992. Juvenile D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice and NCJ FS009411. Justice and Public Policy: Toward a Delinquency Prevention, U.S. De- This fact sheet discusses the dis- National Agenda. New York: partment of Justice. NCJ 153569. proportionate representation of Macmillan. NCJ 138726. See introduction for annotation. minorities in secure juvenile facilities and reviews pilot sites In this book, U.S. juvenile justice Study of Tribal and Alaska Native collecting data on the problem, scholars discuss critical issues Juvenile Justice Systems. 1992 (Sum- laws and measures to reduce the facing juvenile justice in the mer). Washington, D.C.: Office of problem, and technical assis- 1990’s, including the future of the Juvenile Justice and Delinquency tance available to States and juvenile court; juvenile gangs; Prevention, U.S. Department of communities. prosecutors in the juvenile justice Justice. NCJ 148217. system; juvenile diversion; inter- This report presents an overview Roy, S. 1990. Offender-oriented agency services; the incarceration of American Indian and Alaska restitution bills: Bringing total jus- of juveniles; and issues of gender, Native juvenile justice systems, tice for victims? Federal Probation race, and ethnicity. including a historical overview, 54(3):30–36. NCJ 126411. analysis of offenses, and promis- Sheldon, R.J., and S. Tracey. 1992. This article assesses whether ing approaches. Violent female juvenile offender: total justice is attainable for vic- An ignored minority within the tims through juvenile restitutive Thomas, C.W., and S. Bilchik. 1985. juvenile justice system. Juvenile and sentencing in Michigan bills 4240 Prosecuting juveniles in criminal Family Court Journal. 43(3):33–40. and 4558. courts: A legal and empirical analy- NCJ 140054. sis. The Journal of Criminal Law and Schillo, B.A., and W.S. Davidson II. A sample of 348 adolescent girls Criminology 76(2):439–479. 1994 (Spring). Alternatives to secure referred to the Clark County, NV, NCJ 101701. detention for juvenile offenders: Juvenile Court Services in 1985 This article provides an historical The case of diversion. Journal for and 1988 for violent crimes was overview of the development of Juvenile Justice and Detention Services compared to a group of adoles- the juvenile court system, discus- 9(1):7–16. NCJ 152100. cent boys charged with similar sion of judicial decisions that This article examines the use of violent offenses. expanded the due process rights diversionary practices, such as of juveniles, and analysis of sig- Snyder, H. 1994 (May). Juvenile Vio- behavioral contracting and child nificant features of Florida’s lent Crime Arrest Rates 1972–1992. advocacy, because many research juvenile law, using empirical Fact Sheet #14. Washington, D.C.: studies show traditional juvenile data from the Dade County Office of Juvenile Justice and Delin- treatment programs are largely State Attorney’s Office. It con- quency Prevention, U.S. Depart- ineffective in reducing juvenile cludes with a discussion of the ment of Justice. NCJ FS009414. recidivism. implications for the future of ju- The FBI’s Violent Crime Index venile law in Florida and other combines four offenses—murder, jurisdictions that enact similar forcible rape, robbery, and aggra- legislation. vated assault—to provide a

F–14 Thornberry, T.P., D. Huizinga, and and policy actions to improve the of the program, contact person, R. Loeber. 1995. The prevention of effectiveness of anti-violence in- address, target population, serious delinquency and violence: terventions and to affect signifi- program type, structure, staff, Implications from the program of cantly the problem of juvenile budget, evaluation, and a pro- research on the causes and corre- violence. gram summary. lates of delinquency. In J.C. Howell et al., eds. Sourcebook on Serious, Vaughn, J.B. 1991. Use of electronic White, J.L., et al. 1985. Comparative Violent, and Chronic Juvenile Offend- monitoring with juvenile intensive Dispositions Study: Handling Danger- ers. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage supervision programs. In T.L. ous Juveniles. Executive Summary. Publications. NCJ 157405. Armstrong, ed. Intensive Interven- Washington, D.C.: Office of Juvenile tions With High-Risk Youths. Monsey, Justice and Delinquency Preven- This chapter describes the activi- N.Y.: Willow Tree Press, Inc. tion, U.S. Department of Justice. ties of the Program of Research NCJ 129825. NCJ 100295. on the Causes and Correlates of Delinquency, as developed by This chapter describes electronic This report examines the case the Office of Juvenile Justice monitoring technology and its dispositions of juveniles and and Delinquency Prevention. use with adult offenders. It pre- young adults charged with seri- It summarizes key findings sents results from a survey of ous and dangerous offenses in about the development of seri- nine juvenile intensive supervi- juvenile and adult courts. It in- ous delinquency and violence sion programs that use the cludes a literature review, a and explores policy implications technology. State-by-State analysis of stat- related to these findings. utes, and interviews and statisti- Victim-Offender Mediation in the Juve- cal research in nine cities. Tolan, P., and N. Guerra. 1994 nile Justice System. 1990. Washing- (July). What Works in Reducing Ado- ton, D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice Wiebush, R.G. 1993 (January). lescent Violence: An Empirical Review and Delinquency Prevention, U.S. Juvenile intensive supervision: of the Field. Boulder, Colo.: The Cen- Department of Justice. NCJ 120976. The impact on felony offenders di- ter for the Study and Prevention of This report summarizes survey verted from institutional placement. Violence, University of Colorado. findings that show how media- Crime and Delinquency Special Issue NCJ 152910. tion is used in the juvenile justice 39(1):68–89. NCJ 140440. This article examines anti- system. It describes programs, This article examines the violence programs and epide- examines their effectiveness, and 18-month recidivism of Lucas miological considerations associ- compares mediation with other County, OH, juvenile felony ated with adolescent violence. approaches. offenders who were placed in The study includes a review of an intensive supervision pro- What Works: Promising Interventions risk literature that highlights gram in lieu of commitment to in Juvenile Justice. 1994 (October). promising targets for interven- an institution. Program Report. Washington, D.C.: tion and presents outcomes of Office of Juvenile Justice and Delin- Wilson, J.J., and J.C. Howell. 1993. evaluation efforts based on risk quency Prevention, U.S. Depart- Comprehensive Strategy for Serious, factors and strategies. It con- ment of Justice. NCJ 150858. Violent, and Chronic Juvenile Offend- cludes with recommendations ers. Program Summary. Washing- for research, as well as program This catalog lists 425 effective juvenile delinquency prevention, ton, D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice intervention, and treatment and Delinquency Prevention, U.S. programs across the country. Department of Justice. NCJ 143453. Each entry includes the name See introduction for annotation.

F–15 Section 2: Belair, R. and G. Cooper. 1983. Pri- Bortner, M.A. 1989. Traditional Prosecute Certain vacy and Juvenile Justice Records. rhetoric, organizational realities: Serious, Violent, and Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Justice Remand of juveniles to adult court. Statistics, U.S. Department of Justice. Crime and Delinquency 35:53–73. Chronic Juvenile NCJ 084152. NCJ 100644. Offenders in Criminal This report analyzes issues asso- This article presents the case Court ciated with the collection, use, histories of 214 juveniles who Barnes, C.W., and R.S. Franz. 1989 and exchange of juvenile crimi- were remanded to criminal (March). Questionably adult: Deter- nal history records. court. Interviews with key minants and effects of the juvenile decisionmakers do not support Bishop, D.M., and C.E. Frazier. waiver decision. Justice Quarterly the traditional belief that transfer 1991. Transfer of juveniles to crimi- 6(1):117–135. NCJ 117794. to criminal court occurs to pro- nal court: A case study and analysis tect public safety and happens This article reviews data col- of prosecutorial waiver. Notre Dame only to the most intractable and lected on all youth considered Journal of Law, Ethics, and Public dangerous delinquents. for transfer to adult court over a Policy 5(2):281–302. NCJ 131555. 6-year period in a single jurisdic- This article states that pro- Butts, J.A. 1994 (October). Offenders tion. Demographic, legal, and secutorial waiver should be abol- in Juvenile Court, 1992. OJJDP Up- organizational factors were con- ished, based on its use in Florida, date on Statistics. Juvenile Justice sidered as variables in the study, and that a lack of objective and Bulletin. Washington, D.C.: Office which concluded that the seri- substantive prosecutorial guide- of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency ousness of the offense, number lines leads to unpredictable and Prevention, U.S. Department of and nature of prior offenses, and unjustifiable outcomes. Justice. NCJ 150039. prior treatment play a significant This bulletin reports on the find- role in adult court sentencing. Bishop, D.M., C.E. Frazier, and J.C. ings of the annual Juvenile Court Henretta. 1989 (April). Prosecutorial Barton, W.H., et al. 1989. Programs Statistics, 1992, which focuses on waiver: Case study of a question- for Serious and Violent Juvenile Of- the disposition of delinquency able reform. Crime and Delinquency fenders. Ann Arbor, Mich.: Center cases and formally handled sta- 35(2):179–201. NCJ 116703. for the Study of Youth Policy, Uni- tus offense cases. versity of Michigan. NCJ 125572. This article examines the practice of prosecutorial waiver in Butts, J.A. 1994 (October). Offenders This booklet describes and as- Florida, a State that grants pros- in Juvenile Court, 1991. OJJDP Up- sesses three alternatives to incar- ecutors wide latitude in the date on Statistics. Juvenile Justice ceration for serious and violent transfer of 16- and 17-year-old Bulletin. Washington, D.C.: Office offenders in Michigan, Florida, offenders to criminal court. The of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency and Utah. Recidivism rates authors found that few of the Prevention, U.S. Department of generally compared favorably to juveniles transferred were the Justice. NCJ 149729. traditional and more expensive dangerous, repeat offenders for This bulletin reports on the forms of punishment. whom waiver is designed. findings of the annual Juvenile Court Statistics, 1991, which

F–16 focuses on the disposition of de- Champion, D.J., and G.L. Mays. professionals with information on linquency cases and petitioned 1991. Transferring Juveniles to Crimi- how to more effectively prosecute status offense cases. nal Courts: Trends and Implications for repeat juvenile offenders. Criminal Justice. New York, N.Y.: Butts, J.A. 1994 (July). Delinquency Praeger Publishers. NCJ 128623. Cronin, R.C., B.B. Bourque, J.M. Cases in Juvenile Court, 1992. Fact Mell, F.E. Gragg, and A.A. This book addresses the phen- Sheet #18. Washington, D.C.: Office McGrady. 1988 (January). Evaluation omenon of transferring juveniles of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency of the Habitual Serious and Violent to criminal courts. It describes Prevention, U.S. Department of Jus- Juvenile Offender Program. Final Re- juvenile courts, juvenile offend- tice. NCJ FS009418. port. Washington, D.C.: Office of ers processed by these courts, Juvenile Justice and Delinquency This fact sheet lists serious of- and outcomes that characterize Prevention, U.S. Department of Jus- fenses in delinquency cases in most transfers. 1992 with percentage changes tice. NCJ 113561. from 1991 to 1992, and from 1988 Clarke, S.H. 1994 (Summer). In- This report presents evaluation to 1992, and offers statistics on creasing imprisonment to prevent results for the performance of the detention, intake, transfer to violent crime: Is it working? Popular Habitual Serious and Violent criminal court, and adjudication Government 16–24. NCJ 150134. Juvenile Offender Program— and deposition as well as gen- This article considers data rel- begun in 1984 to improve the der, age, and race. evant to whether increased processing and disposition of imprisonment reduces violent serious juvenile offenders—in Calhoun, J.A. 1988. Violence, Youth, crime, examines the public’s con- Miami, Milwaukee, Seattle, and and a Way Out. Washington, D.C.: cern about the dangers of crime, Washington, D.C. National Crime Prevention Coun- and discusses approaches to cil. NCJ 114543. Eigen, J.P. 1981. The determinants crime prevention. The author and impact of jurisdictional transfer This booklet is the testimony maintains that while incarcera- in Philadelphia. In J.C. Hall et al., before Congress of Jack A. tion has had some impact, other eds. Major Issues in Juvenile Justice Calhoun, Executive Director of strategies are needed to prevent Information and Training: Readings in the National Crime Prevention violent crime. The article in- Public Policy. Columbus, Ohio: Council, in which he emphasizes cludes the American Psycholo- Academy for Contemporary Prob- a comprehensive approach to gical Association’s list of charac- lems. NCJ 077327. youth violence, involving all teristics common to promising members of the community, violence prevention programs. This work examines why some especially youth. He cites isola- juveniles in Philadelphia, PA, tion—disconnection—as the Cronin, R.C., B.B. Bourque, J.M. who committed homicides and core of youth violence and other Mell, F.E. Gragg, and A.A. robberies in 1970 and 1973, re- youth problems. McGrady. 1988 (January). Evaluation spectively, were transferred to of the Habitual Serious and Violent criminal court. The author con- Champion, D.J. 1989 (October). Juvenile Offender Program. Executive tends that the overlap of charac- Teenage felons and waiver hear- Summary. Washington, D.C.: Office teristics shared by those trans- ings: Some recent trends, 1980– of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency ferred and those retained in the 1988. Crime and Delinquency Prevention, U.S. Department of juvenile court system makes cer- 35(4):577–585. NCJ 120014. Justice. NCJ 105230. tification questionable. This article analyzes recent This summary examines the Elliott, D.S. 1994 (February). Serious trends in juvenile waiver hear- effectiveness of the Habitual violent offenders: Onset, develop- ings in four States. Its findings Serious Violent Juvenile Offender mental course, and termination. conclude that hearings are in- Program, designed to target The American Society of Criminol- creasingly used so that more se- such offenders for intensive, ogy 1993 Presidential Address. rious penalties may be imposed swift prosecution and improved Criminology 32(1):1– 21. NCJ 147913. on juvenile offenders charged correctional services. The sum- with serious crimes. mary provides juvenile justice

F–17 This article considers self-report Fagan, J. 1990 (June). Treatment court. Crime and Delinquency data from the National Youth and reintegration of violent juvenile 33(2):259–286. NCJ 105135. Survey by serious and violent offenders: Experimental results. This article examines racial dif- offenders and evaluates the util- Justice Quarterly 7(2):233–263. ferences in judicial transfer deci- ity of self-report studies of seri- NCJ 128677. sions for chronically violent de- ous, violent offending in the This study presents the findings linquents in four urban juvenile general population. of the Violent Juvenile Offender courts. It found that offense char- (VJO) Program, which tested an acteristics and the defendant’s Elliott, D.S., D. Huizinga, and B. experimental dispositional op- age at time of offense are the Morse. 1986 (December). Self- tion in four sites for the treat- strongest contributors to the reported violent offending—A ment and reintegration of violent transfer decision. The results descriptive analysis of juvenile juvenile offenders. Failure and suggest that juvenile court violent offenders and their offend- arrest rates for VJO youth were judges have adopted implicit ing careers. Journal of Interpersonal lower than those for control policies reserving transfer for Violence 1(4):472–514. NCJ 104186. group youth in two of the sites. older violent offenders, espe- This article examines the find- The author states that the focus cially those charged with ings of the National Youth Sur- of correctional policy should be capital crimes. vey, conducted between 1976 reintegration and transition and 1980. One survey finding rather than lengthy confinement Fagan, J., C.J. Rudman, and E. is that self-reports show higher in State training schools with Hartstone. 1984. Intervening with levels of criminal involvement minimal supervision after violent juvenile offenders—A com- than do arrest records. release. munity reintegration model. In R. A. Mathias, ed. Violent Juvenile Of- Eron, L.D., J. Gentry, and P. Fagan, J. 1990 (March). Social and fenders—An Anthology. Washington, Schlegel, eds. 1994 (February). legal policy dimensions of violent D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice and Reason to Hope: A Psychological juvenile crime. Criminal Justice and Delinquency Prevention, U.S. De- Perspective on Violence and Youth. Behavior 17(1):93–133. NCJ 122432. partment of Justice. NCJ 095172. 1994. Washington, D.C.: American This article addresses research A community reintegration Psychological Association. showing that effective and pro- model for violent juvenile of- NCJ 158633. portionate correctional interven- fenders was constructed after a This is Volume Two of the Com- tions in the juvenile justice sys- review of treatment programs, mission on Youth and Violence tem can advance crime control pertinent literature, and evalua- report, containing papers on vio- and rehabilitative policies. tion findings. The model is lence and youth prepared by supported by the underlying psychologists with expertise in Fagan, J., and E.P. Deschenes. 1990 principles of social networking, youth violence. This work is (Summer). Determinants of judicial provision of youth opportu- based on findings from over 50 waiver decisions for violent juve- nities, social learning, and years of research, which have nile offenders. Journal of Criminal goal-oriented interventions. shown that human aggression Law and Criminology 81(2):314–347. is learned, that learning alterna- NCJ 125926. Feld, B.C. 1993 (October). Juvenile tive nonviolent behavior is pos- This article examines judicial (in)justice and the criminal court sible, and that no single factor transfer decisions for youth alternative. Crime and Delinquency influences violent behavior. charged with violent offenses in 39(4):403–424. NCJ 145063. Commission members identified four urban juvenile courts. It This article asserts that the juve- individual and environmental suggests criteria and procedures nile court has become a second- factors that can be changed to for invoking waiver as a juvenile class criminal court that punishes prevent potentially volatile sit- court sanction of last resort. delinquent offenders and waives uations from escalating into vio- serious offenders to the criminal lent acts. The document offers Fagan, J., M. Forst, and T.S. Vivona. justice system. The author sug- guidelines for reducing violence 1987 (April). Racial determinants of gests policy changes and out- in children’s lives. the judicial transfer decision: Pros- lines expected results from such ecuting violent youth in criminal changes.

F–18 Forst, M., J. Fagan, and T.S. Vivona. and young adult offenders. An Hamparian, D.M., R. Schuster, J. 1989. Youth in prisons and training analysis of case disposition pat- Davis, and J. White. 1985. The Young schools: Perceptions and conse- terns in Los Angeles, Las Vegas, Criminal Years of the Violent Few. quences of the treatment-custody and Seattle suggests that these Washington, D.C.: Office of Juvenile dichotomy. Juvenile and Family offenders are sentenced to incar- Justice and Delinquency Preven- Court Journal 40(1):1–14. ceration or State custody at least tion, U.S. Department of Justice. NCJ 116269. as frequently as other age groups NCJ 096010. See section 1 for annotation. for some offense categories and This report tracks the criminal that the seriousness of the prior careers from 1978 to mid-1983 Gillespie, L.K., and M.D. Norman. juvenile record affects the sever- of violent juvenile offenders 1984. Does certification mean ity of sentences. who were previously studied prison? Some preliminary findings from 1956 to 1960. Among the Greenwood, P.W., and F.E. Zimring. from Utah. Juvenile and Family Court report’s findings are that most 1985. One More Chance: The Pursuit Journal 35(3):23–34. NCJ 096848. violent juveniles engage in adult of Promising Intervention Strategies for criminality; a small percentage of This article examines the discre- Chronic Juvenile Offenders. Santa chronic offenders is responsible tionary practice of the prosecu- Monica, Calif.: The RAND Corpora- for a disproportionately high tor employed in making the tion. NCJ 105710. decision to initiate certification number of crimes; frequency proceedings against a youth. The This volume examines the corre- of arrest declines with age; and authors include data and find- lates of chronic delinquency, le- incarceration does not diminish ings from interviews conducted gal and ethical constraints on the crime rate, although it may with 23 juvenile court personnel. State-imposed interventions, and increase the subsequent arrest promising methods of prevention rate. Glazer, S. 1994 (February). Juvenile and rehabilitation. justice: Should violent youths get Hamparian, D.M. et al. 1978. The tougher punishments? CQ Researcher Greenwood, P.W., J. Petersilia, and Violent Few: A Study of Dangerous 4(8):171–178. NCJ 150290. F.E. Zimring. 1980 (October). Age, Juvenile Offenders. Lexington, Mass.: Crime, and Sanctions: The Transition Lexington Books, Calif.: The RAND This article examines the dra- from Juvenile to Adult Court. Santa Corporation. NCJ 052651. matic rise in violent crimes by Monica, Calif.: The RAND Corpora- This book details the social and juveniles, many of whom use tion. NCJ 074129. guns, and the secrecy in which criminal characteristics of the juvenile proceedings take place. This report studies the use of juvenile and delinquent careers It addresses the role of early in- juvenile records in adult court of 811 violent juveniles in Co- tervention for at-risk children as proceedings and the relationship lumbus, OH. It explores the rela- a means of combating juvenile between age and sanction tionships of such characteristics delinquency. severity. to identifiable violent patterns.

Greenwood, P.W. 1986. Differences Guide to Juvenile Restitution. 1985. Heuser, J.P. 1985. Juveniles Arrested in criminal behavior and court re- Washington, D.C.: Office of Juvenile for Serious Felony Crimes in Oregon sponses among juvenile and young Justice and Delinquency Prevention, and “Remanded” to Adult Criminal adult defendants. In M. Tony and U.S. Department of Justice. Courts: A Statistical Study. Salem, N. Morris, eds. Crime and Justice: An NCJ 098466. Ore.: Crime Analysis Center, Annual Review of Research. Chicago, This document presents recom- Oregon Department of Justice. Ill.: University of Chicago Press. mendations for expanding and NCJ 097782. NCJ 105150. improving juvenile restitution This work examines the comput- This essay reviews recent re- programs and discusses basic erized criminal history and search in chronic juvenile of- program decisions, models, juvenile court case files for 99 fenders, criminal careers, and implementation, management juveniles associated with 114 juvenile and criminal court information systems, evaluation, Part I felony arrests in Oregon disposition of chronic juvenile and resources. during 1980. These offenders

F–19 were subsequently remanded This book presents a balanced, This publication addresses the to criminal court. The study humane, and effective response status of juvenile records and supports the view that remanded to serious, violent, and chronic issues associated with linking offenders are usually older males delinquency. It updates and juvenile and adult records. with extensive juvenile court broadens the review of research, histories involving predatory statistical trends, and program The juvenile court and serious of- property crime. evaluations regarding juvenile fenders: 38 recommendations. 1984 crime and delinquency found in (Summer). Juvenile and Family Court Houghtalin, M., and G.L. Mays. OJJDP’s Comprehensive Strategy Journal. Reno, Nev.: National Coun- 1991. Criminal dispositions of New for Serious, Violent, and Chronic cil of Juvenile and Family Court Mexico juveniles transferred to Juvenile Offenders. In addition, Judges. NCJ 096101. adult court. Crime and Delinquency three chapters contain supple- This journal issue examines the 37:393–407. NCJ 130968. mentary contributions to the range of problems facing the This article examines the demo- comprehensive strategy, address- Nation’s juvenile courts and in- graphic, social, and legal data ing significant topics relevant to cludes recommendations made on 49 cases of juveniles trans- its implementation. by the National Council of Juve- ferred to criminal court in New nile and Family Court Judges. Mexico. Although the rationale Hunziker, D. 1995 (May). Juvenile for waiver of jurisdiction is to crime, grown-up time. State Legisla- The Juvenile Court’s Response to ensure more severe penalties, tures 21(5):14–19. NCJ 157944. Violent Crime. 1989 (January). much of the research indicates This article analyzes recent OJJDP Update on Statistics. Juve- that with the exception of violent trends to waive juveniles to nile Justice Bulletin. Washington, offenders, most transferred juve- criminal court in response to in- D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice and niles receive probation. creased violence, firearm and Delinquency Prevention, U.S. drug use, and public fear of and Department of Justice. NCJ 115338. Howell, J.C., ed. 1995 (May). Guide frustration about crime. This bulletin examines the action for Implementing the Comprehensive taken by juvenile courts against Strategy for Serious, Violent, and Interdepartmental Working Group violent crime in 12 States. Data Chronic Juvenile Offenders. Washing- on Violence. 1994. Violence: Report to indicate that half of the offenders ton, D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice the President and Domestic Policy referred to court for violent of- and Delinquency Prevention, U.S. Council. Washington, D.C. fenses are detained and that Department of Justice. NCJ 153681. NCJ 159325. courts vary considerably in See introduction for annotation. See section 1 for annotation. whether they handle such cases formally or informally and vary Howell, J.C. 1994 (October). Recent Jensen, E.L., and L.K. Metsger. 1994 in their placement of these youth gang research: Program and policy (January). Test of the deterrent ef- in residential facilities. implications. Crime and Delinquency fect of legislative waiver on violent 40(4):494–515. NCJ 151535. juvenile crime. Crime and Delin- Juvenile Justice: Juveniles Processed in This article reviews recent gang quency 40(1):96–104. NCJ 146321. Criminal Court and Case Dispositions. studies that shed light on the This article reports on a study of 1995. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Gov- extent of gang involvement in the deterrent effect of Idaho’s ernment Accounting Office. juvenile violence and drug traf- legislative waiver statute that NCJ 160051. ficking and on the accuracy of mandates automatic transfer of This report examines issues re- media inferences that gangs and some serious juvenile offenders lated to juveniles sent to criminal gang violence are increasing. to criminal court. The study con- court versus juvenile court, includes that the statute has not cluding the frequency with Howell, J.C., J.D. Hawkins, and deterred juvenile violent crime. which juveniles are sent to crimi- J. Wilson, eds. 1995. Sourcebook nal court; juvenile conviction on Serious, Violent, and Chronic Juvenile and Adult Records: One Sys- rates and sentences in criminal Offenders. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: tem, One Record? 1989. Washington, court; dispositions of juvenile Sage Publication. NCJ 157405. D.C.: Bureau of Justice Statistics, cases in juvenile court; and U.S. Department of Justice. conditions of confinement for NCJ 114947.

F–20 juveniles incarcerated in adult proceedings. New England Journal on States. It contains recommenda- correctional facilities. It also Criminal and Civil Confinement tions by the Coalition to the provides a summary of State 21(2):393–410. NCJ 158348. President, Congress, and the Ad- laws governing which juveniles This article calls for the elimina- ministrator of the Office of Juve- may be sent to criminal court. tion of confidentiality in juvenile nile Justice and Delinquency delinquency cases in order to Prevention. Juvenile Records and Recordkeeping demonstrate accomplishments, Systems. 1988. Washington, D.C.: National Directory of Juvenile Restitu- rebuild trust, and decrease the Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. tion Programs. 1987. Washington, fear that the closed system Department of Justice. NCJ 112815. D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice and fosters. This report summarizes legisla- Delinquency Prevention, U.S. De- tion and practices relating to Martin, G.A., Jr. 1993 (April). The partment of Justice. NCJ 105188. juvenile records and record delinquent and the juvenile court. Is This directory lists the names, systems. there still a place for rehabilitation? addresses, and descriptions Lay Panel Magazine V 28:6–12. of 296 juvenile restitution and Kalminov, S. 1993. Recent issues in NCJ 143298. community service programs transfer of juveniles to trial as The author analyzes recent throughout the United States. adults. Journal of Juvenile Law trends in transfer legislation in 14:106–117. NCJ 148847. Nimick, E.H., L. Szymanski, and the historical context of the H. Snyder. 1986. Juvenile Court This article discusses how the juvenile justice system in the Waiver: A Study of Juvenile Court Federal Juvenile Delinquency various States. Act, 18 U.S.C. section 5032, Cases Transferred to Criminal Court. which outlines the procedure McCarthy, F.B. 1994. The serious Washington, D.C.: Office of Juvenile for transfer of defendants from offender and juvenile court reform: Justice and Delinquency Preven- the juvenile to the criminal court The case for prosecutorial waiver of tion, U.S. Department of Justice. system, has been applied in re- juvenile court jurisdiction. St. Louis NCJ 107365. cent cases in selected jurisdic- University Law Journal 38:629–671. This study examines the auto- tions. The author concludes that NCJ 159770 mated court records of 552 juve- section 5032 must be modified This article explores the scope of nile courts in 9 States, yielding to ensure equal treatment of and concerns about the juvenile 127,162 petitioned delinquency juveniles nationwide. court’s jurisdiction and possible cases for 1982. Of these, 2,335, or alternatives for system reform. It 2 percent, were waived to crimi- Lee, L. 1994. Factors determining questions when and how juve- nal court. Factors involved in the waiver in juvenile court. Journal of nile court jurisdiction would be waiver decisions included of- Criminal Justice 22(4):329–339. relinquished. The author sug- fense seriousness, community NCJ 150741. gests that prosecutorial waiver, protection, the aggressiveness or This article examines a study if properly exercised and subject premeditation of the offense, of how the juvenile waiver to a fitting form of review, can prosecutive merit of the com- decision was applied in be a way of minimizing errors plaint, prior record, and likeli- Arizona’s Maricopa County Ju- inherent in decisions to pros- hood of rehabilitation. venile Court. Results showed ecute juveniles in criminal court. that juveniles who were waived Parent, D., et al. Conditions of Con- in a previous offense were most Myths and Realities: Meeting the Chal- finement: Juvenile Detention and Cor- likely to be waived again in suc- lenge of Serious, Violent, and Chronic rections Facilities. 1994 (August). ceeding referrals, regardless of Juvenile Offenders: 1992 Annual Washington, D.C.: Office of Juvenile the seriousness of the offense. Report. 1993. Washington, D.C.: Na- Justice and Delinquency Preven- The author discusses policy im- tional Coalition of State Juvenile tion, U.S. Department of Justice. plications of the findings. Justice Advisory Groups. NCJ 145793. NCJ 141636. This study, mandated by Con- Martin, G.A., Jr. 1995 (Summer). This report addresses the status gress, assesses conditions of ju- Open the doors: A judicial call to of juvenile justice and delin- venile detention and corrections end confidentiality in delinquency quency prevention in the United to determine the extent to which

F–21 they conform to recognized pro- This report analyzes issues asso- Juvenile Justice and Public Policy: To- fessional standards and to make ciated with the collection, use, ward a National Agenda. New York, recommendations to remedy and exchange of juvenile crimi- N.Y.: Lexington Books. NCJ 138734. identified problems. The report nal history records. This work explores the potential offers 19 recommendations for for reforming youth detention Rudman, C., E. Hartstone, J. Fagan, improvement. and training school programs. It and M. Moore. 1986 (January). Vio- discusses barriers to such change Perkins, C. 1994. National Correc- lent youth in adult court: Process and ways to overcome them. tions Reporting Program—1992. and punishment. Crime and Delin- Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Justice quency 32(1):75–96. NCJ 100645. Sickmund, M. 1994 (October). How Statistics, U.S. Department of This article examines the transfer Juveniles Get to Criminal Court. Justice. NCJ 145862. process, the rate of transfer, case OJJDP Update on Statistics. Juve- outcomes, sentences, and place- nile Justice Bulletin. Washington, This report contains 1992 data ments of transferred juveniles in D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice and collected by the National Correc- four urban areas. Delinquency Prevention, U.S. De- tions Reporting Program regard- partment of Justice. NCJ 150309. ing admissions to and releases Quinn, K.M. 1992. Waiver or trans- This bulletin uses data from the from prison as well as parole en- fer to adult court. In J. Edgerton, ed. National Juvenile Court Data tries and discharges in the par- Handbook of Psychiatric Practice in the Archive on how juveniles ar- ticipating jurisdictions. The Juvenile Court. Washington, D.C.: rived in criminal court in 1992. report’s first section addresses American Psychiatric Association. Cases can be transferred by judi- methodology, including report- NCJ 133542. ing criteria, terms, definitions, cial waiver, prosecutorial discre- offenses, and technical and ex- This chapter addresses the im- tion, or statutory exclusion from planatory notes. The second portance of psychiatric recom- juvenile court jurisdiction. In any section presents the collected mendations in determining State, one or more mechanisms data in tabular form. whether a juvenile remains in may be in place. juvenile court or is transferred Poulon, T.M., and S. Orchowsky. to criminal court. It details im- Singer, S.I. 1994. The Case Processing 1994 (January). Serious juvenile of- portant mental health issues that of Juvenile Offenders in Criminal fenders: Predicting the probability aid judicial decisionmaking. Court and Legislative Waiver in New of transfer to criminal court. Crime York State. Final Report. Washing- and Delinquency 40(1):3–17. Sanborn, J.B., Jr. 1994 (April). Certi- ton, D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice NCJ 146316. fication to criminal court: The im- and Delinquency Prevention, U.S. portant policy questions of how, Department of Justice. NCJ 148013. This study compares a random when, and why. Crime and Delin- This study of decisions on the sample of 364 serious juvenile quency 40(2):262–281. NCJ 147513. offenders, who were transferred status of juveniles in New York’s and convicted in criminal court, This article contains the views criminal justice system identifies with 363 offenders who were eli- of 100 juvenile court workers on the legal and organizational rea- gible for transfer but who were the transfer of juvenile offenders sons for bringing juveniles into retained within the juvenile jus- to criminal court. Participants the adult legal process. tice system. The authors focus on stated that limited and pure pro- legal and extralegal factors that secutorial transfer shifts incon- Singer, S.I. 1993 (April). Automatic may be involved in predicting sistency and subjectivity from waiver of juveniles and substantive whether a particular case will be the judge to the prosecutor, justice. Crime and Delinquency transferred. while legislative waiver goes to 39(2):253–261. NCJ 146363. the other extreme of not differen- This article analyzes the data Privacy and Juvenile Justice Records. tiating among offenders and the on 103 juvenile offender arrests 1982. Washington, D.C.: Bureau of types of handling they require. that occurred between Septem- Justice Statistics, U.S. Department ber 1978 and December 1985 in Schwartz, I.M., and R. Van Vleet. of Justice. NCJ 084152. Buffalo, NY. Findings seem to 1992. Public policy and the incar- support those who criticize ceration of juveniles: Directions legislative waiver by showing for the 1990’s. In I.M. Schwartz, ed.

F–22 that juvenile offenders from Strasburg, P.A. 1978. Violent Delin- Where We Stand: An Action Plan for single-parent households were quents. A Report to the Ford Foun- Dealing with Violent Juvenile Crime. more likely to face a grand jury dation from the Vera Institute of 1994. Reno, Nev.: National Council indictment than those from Justice. New York, N.Y.: Simon and of Juvenile and Family Court dual-parent families. However, Schuster. NCJ 047560. Judges. NCJ 149454. analysis also showed that all This book reports on the findings This document states the National juveniles referred to the grand of a year-long study on violent Council’s position that certain jury had been charged with offenders. It presents treatment actions should be implemented serious offenses. modalities and strategies for by State and local governments preventing juvenile violence. with financial and technical assis- Snyder, H., and J. Hutzler. 1981 Materials contained in the vol- tance and research efforts from (September). The Serious Juvenile ume include data collected by the Federal and State levels. These Offender: The Scope of the Problem the Vera Institute study and actions include ensuring that ju- and the Response of Juvenile Courts. information on three model venile courts can hold violent ju- Washington, D.C.: National Insti- programs. venile offenders fully accountable tute for Juvenile Justice and for their crimes; providing ad- Delinquency Prevention, U.S. Targeting Serious Juvenile Offenders equate resources to the juvenile Department of Justice. NCJ 084482. Can Make a Difference. 1988 (Decem- courts to conduct thorough as- The authors use data from vari- ber). OJJDP Update on Research. sessments of juveniles; and devel- ous sources, including the Na- Juvenile Justice Bulletin. Washing- oping individualized dispositions tional Crime Survey and the FBI ton, D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice for juveniles. Uniform Crime Reports, to com- and Delinquency Prevention, U.S. pare the decrease in serious crime Department of Justice. NCJ 114218. White, J., et al. 1985. The Comparative committed by juveniles with a This report details the findings Dispositions Study: Handling Danger- corresponding increase in such from a demonstration program ous Juveniles. Executive Summary. crimes by adults. Other findings designed to target serious ha- Washington, D.C.: Office of Juvenile include higher conviction rates in bitual juvenile offenders. The Justice and Delinquency Preven- juvenile courts compared to program, sponsored by OJJDP, tion, U.S. Department of Justice. criminal courts and the provision was conducted in 13 cities NCJ 100295. in nearly every State for transfer across the Nation. Among the See section 1 for annotation. to criminal court for serious of- program’s results were quicker fenders over 15 years old. resolution of cases and improved White, J., and B. Feld. 1983. Debate: victim/witness support. Should Serious Juvenile Offenders Be Snyder, H., and M. Sickmund. 1995 Handled by a Separate Juvenile Justice (August). Juvenile Offenders and Vic- Thomas, C.W., and S. Bilchik. 1985. System? Or What Criteria Determine a tims: A National Report. Washington, Prosecuting juveniles in criminal Juvenile Offender Should Be Trans- D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice and courts: A legal and empirical analy- ferred Into the Adult Justice System? Delinquency Prevention, U.S. De- sis. The Journal of Criminal Law and Cleveland, Ohio: Federation for partment of Justice. NCJ 153569. Criminology 76(2):439–479. Community Planning. NCJ 091840. See introduction for annotation. NCJ 101701. This pamphlet includes the tran- See section 1 for annotation. scription of the debate held Stevens, J.B. 1994. Federal prosecu- March 8, 1983, between two ju- tion of gangs and juveniles. Crimi- Tolan, P., and N. Guerra. 1994 venile justice policymakers. The nal Practice Manual. Washington, (July). What Works in Reducing Ado- participants gave opposing D.C.: Office of Legal Education, lescent Violence: An Empirical Review views on the merits of having a U.S. Department of Justice. of the Field. Boulder, Colo.: Center separate juvenile justice system NCJ 149521. for the Study and Prevention of for serious juvenile offenders This paper describes the role of Violence, University of Colorado. and on what criteria should be Federal prosecutors and Federal NCJ 152910. used to determine if a juvenile agencies in prosecuting juvenile See section 1 for annotation. should be transferred to the gang members and other juve- criminal court system. nile delinquents under Federal laws.

F–23 Wilson, J.J., and J.C. Howell. 1994. percent were classified as delin- self-reported involvement in Serious and violent juvenile crime: quents and divided, for the pur- crime, and other aspects of their A comprehensive strategy. Juvenile poses of the study, into one-time, lives are examined. and Family Court Journal 45(2):3–14. multiple, and chronic offenders. NCJ 149485. Zimring, F.E. 1991. Treatment of Wolfgang, M.E., R.M. Figlio, and hard cases in American juvenile This article presents the program T.P. Thornberry. 1987. From Boy to justice: In defense of discretionary background, principles, rationale, Man—From Delinquency to Crime. waiver. Notre Dame Journal of Law, and components for OJJDP’s Chicago, Ill.: University of Chicago Ethics, and Public Policy 5(2):267–280. comprehensive strategy for deal- Press. NCJ 109901. NCJ 131554. ing with serious, violent, and chronic juvenile offenders. This book is a followup to the The author argues that despite authors’ previous work Delin- its faults, discretionary juvenile Wolfgang, M.E. 1972. Delinquency in quency in a Birth Cohort (1972), court waiver is superior to alter- a Birth Cohort. Chicago, Ill.: Univer- which traced the development native methods for handling the sity of Chicago Press. NCJ 008732. of male delinquents from 10 to most serious juvenile offenders. This book summarizes a study of 18 years old in the 1945 Philadel- In the author’s opinion, substan- a group of nearly 10,000 young phia birth cohort. In this 1987 tive and procedural changes re- men in Philadelphia from their publication, a sample of the garding waiver are needed to 10th to their 18th birthdays. It original subjects is studied to guide its use, including the rec- found that approximately 65 per- age 30. Their attitudes, values, ognition of age as a factor in decent had no known contact with experiences as crime victims, termining appropriate punish- the legal system. The other 35 ment from the criminal court.

F–24 Section 3: Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Alco- advocates, and others to review Reduce Youth hol, Tobacco, and Firearms, U.S. the gun safety movement. Issues Involvement With Department of the Treasury, and include crime control, prevention U.S. Department of Housing and of firearm injury, and safety from Guns, Drugs, and Urban Development. NCJ 158835. violence. The report advocates Gangs This report discusses strategies a legislative strategy to define Abdullah, C.S., and S.R. Joseph. to target violent crime in public and mobilize the gun safety 1994. Kids and Guns: A Deadly Equa- housing, including community movement. involvement and enforcement. It tion. Miami, Fla.: Dade County Aguilar, T.E., and W.W. Munson. explains HUD and ATF coopera- Public Schools. NCJ 160052. 1992 (Spring). Leisure education tive training and funding efforts This publication presents an and counseling as intervention and includes a case study of educational program and cur- components in drug and alcohol enforcement efforts in Chicago, riculum designed to prevent treatment for adolescents. Journal IL, public housing. handgun injuries and deaths of Alcohol and Drug Education among children. Students are Adolescent Drug Use Prevention: 37(3):23–34. NCJ 137954. instructed how to analyze poten- Common Features of Promising Com- Evidence from the social psy- tially dangerous situations and munity Programs. 1992. Washington, chology of leisure and recreation to respond to them without vio- D.C.: U.S. General Accounting suggests a strong association lence. The book includes class- Office. NCJ 139051. between negative leisure experi- room strategies and followup ences and substance abuse activities. This document analyzes the design, implementation, and re- among adolescents. In this ar- Achilles Program. 1995 (September). sults of promising community- ticle, the authors propose the Washington, D.C.: Firearms En- based drug abuse prevention incorporation of leisure and forcement Division, Bureau of programs for adolescents. All education counseling in drug Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms programs contain six key fea- treatment programs. tures: a comprehensive strategy; (ATF), U.S. Department of the Allen-Hagen, B., M. Sickmund, and an indirect approach to drug use Treasury. NCJ 158834. H. Snyder. 1994 (November). Juve- prevention; youth empower- This booklet provides an over- niles and Violence: Juvenile Offending ment; youth participation; cul- view of the Achilles Program, and Victimization. Fact Sheet #19. tural sensitivity; and highly ATF’s national firearms strategy Washington, D.C.: Office of Juvenile structured activities. that focuses the Bureau’s re- Justice and Delinquency Preven- sources in communities with Advocacy Institute. 1994. Toward tion, U.S. Department of Justice. the most serious levels of gun- a Gun-Safe Society: Movement Build- NCJ FS009419. related violence and uses fire- ing Strategies. Washington, D.C.: See introduction for annotation. arms statutes to incarcerate American Academy of Pediatrics. offenders with lengthy manda- NCJ 158057. American Academy of Pediatrics, tory sentences. Committee on Adolescence. 1992. This report was developed by Firearms and adolescents. Pediatrics health professionals, children’s Addressing Violent Crime in Public 89(4):784–787. NCJ 159315. Housing Developments. 1994.

F–25 This article identifies major is- This report addresses violence Bjerregaard, B., and C. Smith. 1993 sues about adolescent firearm committed by juveniles using fire- (December). Gender differences in use. The authors encourage a arms. It recommends a compre- gang participation, delinquency, multifaceted approach to adoles- hensive program of psychological and substance use. Journal of Quan- cent firearm use that includes services, education, community titative Criminology 9(4):329–355. more restrictive legislative and involvement, alcohol and other NCJ 147908. regulatory measures; a health drug prevention programs, and This paper addresses female care focus on creating gun-safe additional research to control the gang participation, its causes, homes; identification of children juvenile violence problem. and its consequences. Rochester at risk and referral to appropri- Youth Development Study data Bahr, S.J., et al. 1993 (June). Family ate services; development of are used to compare gang par- and religious influences on adoles- community-based coalitions to ticipation and delinquent in- cent substance abuse. Youth and address the broader needs of volvement of female and male Society 24(4):443–465. NCJ 143207. public education; school curricu- adolescents. lums that provide violence pre- This article documents research vention lessons; and increased based on social control and social Blackman, P.H. 1994. Children and research on the precursors and learning theories and examines Guns: The NRA’s Perception of the correlates of firearm injuries whether there are correlations Problem and Its Policy Implications and deaths among children between adolescent substance (paper presented at the American and adolescents. abuse and family and religious Society of Criminology, Miami, Fla., factors. November 9–12, 1994). NCJ 159319. American Academy of Pediatrics, This paper summarizes the Committee on Injury and Poison Becker, T.M., L. Olson, and J. Vick. National Rifle Association’s Prevention. 1992. Firearm injuries 1993 (February). Children and fire- (NRA) perception of the issues affecting the pediatric population. arms: A gunshot injury prevention surrounding children and guns, Pediatrics 89(4):788–790. program in New Mexico. American including regulations governing NCJ 159316. Journal of Public Health 83(2):282–283. access and misuse of firearms by NCJ 159318. This article proposes prevention minors. The NRA denies a rela- strategies in the areas of firearm This article states that health tionship between legal gun own- design, regulation, product professionals should become in- ership and increases in gun- liability actions, public and par- volved in gun safety counseling, related youth violence. ent education, and legislative education programs, and legisla- measures. tive efforts geared toward reduc- Blumstein, A. 1994. Youth Violence, ing the number of loaded fire- Guns, and the Illicit-Drug Industry. American Academy of Pediatrics. arms in the home. Cooperative Pittsburgh, Pa.: Carnegie Mellon 1989. Report of a Forum on Firearms efforts should also be organized University. NCJ 157411. and Children. Elk Grove, Ill. on the State or regional level. NCJ 159314. This age-specific analysis shows the increasing incidence of fire- Benson, C. 1990 (August). Gang di- This report details the forum’s arm homicides among youth. version. Law and Order 38(8):66–68. adoption of the long-term goal of The author develops a “diffu- NCJ 125609. banning handguns, assault rifles, sion” hypothesis to explain and deadly airguns and the This article describes Citizens the increase. He reasons that as short-term goal of developing Helping Austin Neighborhood juveniles become involved in safer guns. The report also recom- Gang Environment (CHANGE), the drug trade, they acquire fire- mends coalitions of public health a gang-diversion program estab- arms because of the danger of groups, victims’ families, gun lished in 1989 by the police de- the enterprise. In turn, other control groups, police, and partment and concerned citizens youth obtain firearms for others. of Austin, TX. The program has their own protection. Increased successfully involved juveniles, violence may also be exacer- American Psychological Associa- parents, churches, and commu- bated by the problems of high tion. 1993. Violence and Youth: nity-based organizations in an levels of poverty, single-parent Psychology’s Response. Washington, effort to reduce gang violence D.C. NCJ 147390. and graffiti.

F–26 households, educational failures, nity-based programs that help reported easy access to hand- and a widespread sense of eco- prevent juvenile abuse of alcohol guns, and 6.4 percent reported nomic hopelessness. and other drugs. It asserts that having a handgun. negative behaviors can be pre- Brent, D.A., J.A. Perper, and C. vented if youth are guided in Callahan, C.M., et al. 1993 (July). Allman. 1987. Alcohol, firearms, developing positive behaviors Youth in detention and handguns. and suicide among youth: Temporal and interests. Journal of Adolescent Health 14: trends in Allegheny County, Penn- 350–355. NCJ 145351. sylvania. 1960–1983. Journal of the Butterfield, G.E., and J.L. Arnette, This article analyzes a voluntary American Medical Association eds. 1989. Weapons in Schools. anonymous survey of 89 males, 275:3369–3372. NCJ 159320. Malibu, Calif.: National School ages 15–18, who were detained This article demonstrates that Safety Center. NCJ 121807. in the King County, WA, Youth the presence of firearms in the This resource paper describes Services Center, a short-term de- home is associated with the the nature and extent of prob- tention facility. It provides increased risk of adolescent lems associated with weapons information about the frequency suicides. It concludes that physi- in schools and discusses strate- and association of handgun cians should recommend that gies for dealing with these prob- possession and firearm injuries firearms be removed from the lems, such as training educators among these males. homes of at-risk adolescents. in weapon identification and detection; providing adequate Carrie, D.A. 1993. Street Gangs. Bringing Up a Drug-Free Generation: supervision both in and outside Portland, Ore.: Pocket Press. How Communities Can Support Par- the classroom; teaching prosocial NCJ 149508. ents. 1992 (September). Washington, skills within the curriculum; This booklet is designed for D.C.: National Crime Prevention and fostering interpersonal suc- those concerned about the Council. NCJ 139327. cess in conflict resolution. Peer growth of youth gangs and their This booklet suggests things that assistance programs, as well activities. The author provides community leaders can do to as the removal of serious offend- recommendations for eliminat- help parents raise drug-free chil- ers from regular schools to pro- ing gangs from the community dren and gives examples of ways vide them with a more secure through the cooperative efforts in which these ideas are already educational placement, have of parents, schools, and youth at work around the country. contributed to the reduction in service centers. school-based intimidation. Bruce, B. 1994 (October). Armed Centers for Disease Control and and juvenile. Police 18(10):62–64, Callahan, C.M., and F.P. Rivera. Prevention. 1991. Weapon-carrying 112–113. NCJ 152189. 1992. Urban high school youth among high school students: United and handguns: A school-based This article describes techniques States, 1990. Morbidity and Mortality survey. Journal of the American Medi- and programs police can use Weekly Report 40(40):681–684. cal Association 267(22):3038–3042. to address the increasing posses- NCJ 144164. NCJ 143422. sion and use of firearms by This study provides information juveniles. This study documents self- regarding the incidence and reported handgun access and prevalence of self-reported Building Resiliency: What Works; A ownership among high school weapon-carrying among U.S. Community Guide to Preventing Alco- students in Seattle, WA. The au- high school students during hol and Other Drug Abuse Through thors’ research determines the 1990. Nearly 20 percent of the Positive Youth Development. 1994. prevalence of handgun posses- students had carried a weapon at Washington, D.C.: National Assem- sion among urban high school least once during the 30-day pe- bly of National Voluntary Health youth and investigates associa- riod. To achieve the greatest re- and Social Welfare Organizations. tions with socioeconomic status, duction in the number of NCJ 149115. ethnicity, and deviance. Thirty- weapon-carrying youth, the This manual guides profes- four percent of the students report suggests that efforts be sionals and community leaders directed at frequent weapon in the development of commu- carriers, peers, and families.

F–27 Because the fear of assault was This book investigates the phe- This article reviews data from a often claimed as the reason for nomenon of juvenile gangs in study of juvenile detainees in a carrying a firearm, the report contemporary American society southeastern State to examine suggests that programs address and places up-to-date racial data the demographic and life experi- the actual or perceived risk of about gangs into a broader histori- ence factors related to their re- victimization. cal and comparative context. ported adverse effects of alcohol and other drug use. Christoffel, K.K. 1991. Toward Crowe, A.H., and P.J. Schaefer. 1992. reducing pediatric injuries from Identifying and Intervening with Dougherty, D., et al. 1992 (May). firearms: Charting a legislative and Drug-Involved Youth, Participant Adolescent health: A report to the regulatory course. Pediatrics Manual. Durham, N.C.: American U.S. Congress. Journal of School 88(2):294–305. NCJ 145350. Probation and Parole Association. Health 62(5):167–174. NCJ 145348. U.S. pediatricians are focusing NCJ 143309. This document reports findings increasing attention on the prob- This manual for juvenile justice from a study conducted by the lem of injuries from firearms in professionals examines drug- U.S. Congress Office of Technol- children and adolescents. They involved youth and their devel- ogy Assessment. It includes encourage immediate action to opment, needs, and problems recommendations regarding reduce the frequency of injuries and discusses the environmental adolescents’ access to firearms and deaths caused by firearms. and social context in which and ways to improve their social youth live. environments. Conly, C.H. 1993 (August). Street Gangs: Current Knowledge and Strate- Curry, G.D., R.J. Fox, R.A. Ball, and Drug Abuse Among Minority Youth: gies. Issues and Practices. Washing- D. Stone. 1992. National Assessment Methodological Issues and Recent ton, D.C.: National Institute of of Law Enforcement Anti-Gang Infor- Research Advances. 1993. Rockville, Justice, U.S. Department of Justice. mation Resources: Final Report. Md.: National Institute on Drug NCJ 143290. Washington, D.C.: National Institute Abuse, U.S. Department of Health This report summarizes research of Justice, U.S. Department of and Human Services. NCJ 145370. and professional criminal justice Justice. NCJ 147399. This compilation of papers at- perspectives on gangs; describes This report documents an in- tempts to document patterns, current gang prevention, inter- crease from earlier assessments causes, and consequences of vention, and suppression strate- in the number of city police drug abuse by minority youth. gies; and presents recommenda- departments that report gang The research suggests that eco- tions for dealing with street problems. It recommends that nomic situations, unique cultural gangs at the community level. cities pay greater attention to backgrounds, and social net- gang-related crime data. works may cause drug-using Cook, P.J., et al. 1991 (May–June). behavior of minority youth to Weapons and minority youth vio- Delinquency Prevention Works. 1995 vary significantly from that of lence. Public Health Reports (May). Washington, D.C.: Office of nonminority youth. 106(3):254–258. NCJ 145349. Juvenile Justice and Delinquency This paper summarizes the dis- Prevention, U.S. Department of Drug Recognition Techniques: A cussion of a committee that ana- Justice. NCJ 147392. Training Program for Juvenile Justice lyzed the relationship between See introduction for annotation. Professionals. 1990. Update on Pro- weapons and violence among grams. Washington, D.C.: Office of youth, especially minorities, and Dembo, R., et al. 1993 (September). Juvenile Justice and Delinquency lists recommended priorities for Longitudinal study of the predictors Prevention, U.S. Department of intervention and research. of the adverse effects of alcohol and Justice. NCJ 128795. marijuana/hashish use among a This update discusses OJJDP- Covey, H.E., et al. 1992. Juvenile cohort of high-risk youth. Interna- sponsored training programs Gangs. Springfield, Ill.: Charles C. tional Journal of the Addictions that teach juvenile justice profes- Thomas. NCJ 148515. 28(11):1045–1084. NCJ 147392. sionals how to recognize when youth are under the influence of drugs or alcohol.

F–28 Drug Use Among Youth: No Simple search on the effectiveness of made backing down from argu- Answers to Guide Prevention. 1993. gun control policies; however, ments and losing face difficult Washington, D.C.: Human Re- some evidence shows that re- for youth. As a solution to these sources Division, U.S. General strictive handgun laws and two dynamics, he proposes inter- Accounting Office. NCJ 149091. mandatory sentences for firearm ventions focused on individual This publication addresses offenses work. behavior change and on building the prevalence of drug and alco- an ecology of safety. Esbensen, F., and D. Huizinga. 1993 hol use among various groups (November). Gangs, drugs, and Fagan, J. 1992. Political Economy of of juveniles; the relationship delinquency in a survey of urban Drug Dealing Among Urban Gangs. between drug and alcohol use; youth. Criminology 31(4):565–589. New York, N.Y.: Social Science Re- risk factors related to juvenile NCJ 145959. search Council. NCJ 149210. drug and alcohol use; Federal programs aimed at drug risk This report is based on an annual This study examines past and factors; and policies that might survey of male and female juve- recent data on gangs and drugs constitute a reasonable preven- niles in Denver, CO, during a 4- that examine their interrelation- tion and intervention strategy. year span. The survey results ship. It also explores the effects provide information on the of community structural change Drug Use Forecasting. 1993 Annual prevalence, demographic com- on neighborhood social pro- Report on Juvenile Arrestees/Detain- position, and criminal activities cesses that foster the emergence ees: Drugs and Crime in America’s of gangs, as well as insight into of youth gangs. Cities. Research in Brief. Washing- the process of juveniles joining ton, D.C.: National Institute of Jus- gangs. Farrell, A.D., et al. 1992. Risk factors tice, U.S. Department of Justice. for drug use in rural adolescents. NCJ 150709. Esbensen, F., et al. 1993 (May). Journal of Drug Education Gang and non-gang youth: Differ- 22(4):313–328. NCJ 141533. This report, part of a series that ences in explanatory factors. Journal explores drug use among youth- A questionnaire that assessed of Contemporary Criminal Justice ful offenders in 12 cities, shows drug use and the presence or ab- 9(2):94–116. NCJ 145076. an increase in the number of sence of 20 risk factors was used arrestees testing positive for mari- Using the Denver Youth Survey, to test the relevance of the risk- juana as well as a rise in multiple a longitudinal study of families, factor model for predicting drug drug use. It suggests collaborative the article examines characteris- use among rural adolescents. efforts that can be made at the tics of juvenile gang members. Federal Bureau of Investigation. Federal and local levels. Fagan, J. 1995. What Do We Know 1994. Crime in the United States, Elliott, D.S. 1994. Youth Violence: An About Gun Use Among Adolescents? 1993: Uniform Crime Reports. Wash- Overview. Boulder, Colo.: Center Boulder, Colo.: Center for the Study ington, D.C.: U.S. Department of for the Study and Prevention of and Prevention of Violence, Univer- Justice. NCJ 151712. Violence, University of Colorado. sity of Colorado. NCJ 160053. See introduction for annotation. NCJ 152908. Relying on gang literature, homi- Female Involvement in Gangs. 1993. This document reports that the cide data, and his own research Bethesda, Md.: Development Serv- problem with juvenile violence on juvenile violence, the author ices Group, Inc. NCJ 148558. in the 1990’s is its lethality uses a nuclear deterrent strategy caused by the increased use of to describe the “ecology of dan- This booklet summarizes the handguns. Dropouts, drug deal- ger” that pervades the lives of highlights of presentations at the ers, and individuals with prior many young people who carry forum on the Prevention of Ado- records of violent behavior are guns. He asserts that a continu- lescent Female Gang Involve- more likely to possess guns than ous sense of danger affects the ment held by the Family and are other adolescents. The vast decisionmaking and behavior of Youth Services Bureau in majority of guns used in crimes young people. Cultural dynam- Bethesda, MD, in March 1993. are obtained by theft or other ics, influenced by the gun trade, Feyerherm, W., C. Pope, and R. illegal means. There is little re- have also popularized guns and Lovell. 1992 (December). Youth

F–29 Gang Prevention and Early Interven- Fingerhut, L.A., D.D. Ingram, and This report describes 12 pro- tion Programs. Final Research Report. J.J. Feldman. 1992 (June 10). Firearm grams that offer promising, Washington, D.C.: Office of Juve- homicide among black teenage innovative, or unusual treatment nile Justice and Delinquency Pre- males in metropolitan counties: approaches for adolescents vention, U.S. Department of Justice. Comparison of death rates in two with both mental health and NCJ 145311. periods, 1983 through 1985 and substance abuse problems. This OJJDP-sponsored evalua- 1987 through 1989. Journal of the Gangs, schools, and community. tion of youth gang prevention American Medical Association 1993 (Spring). School Intervention and intervention programs in 33 267(22):3054–3058. NCJ 143424. Report 6(3). NCJ 147408. Boys and Girls Clubs confirms This study identified counties that high-risk youth involve- that had either significantly high This issue focuses on problems ment and regular attendance in or significantly low firearm hom- surrounding gangs, schools, and the Clubs’ activities are effective icide rates among black males communities. It discusses the in improving their behavior and ages 15 through 19 or that expe- role of educators in empowering performance at school. rienced a significant increase in parents to reduce the likelihood the firearm homicide rate in two that their children will join gangs Fingerhut, L.A. 1993 (March). Fire- periods in the 1980’s. and to motivate their children to arm mortality among children, leave gangs they have joined. youth, and young adults 1–34 years Fingerhut, L.A., J.C. Kleinman, E. of age, trends and current status: Godfrey, and H. Rosenberg. 1991. Greenbaum, S. 1994 (Spring/Sum- United States, 1985–1990. Advance Firearm mortality among children, mer). Drugs, delinquency, and other Data 231. NCJ 143308. youth, and young adults 1–34 years data. Juvenile Justice II(1):2–8. NCJ 148407. This report revises a National of age, trends and current status: Center for Health Statistics re- United States 1979–88. Monthly Vital This article underscores the link port documenting the level of Statistics Report 39(11). NCJ 144116. between juvenile drug use and firearm mortality among indi- This report emphasizes racial and delinquency. It summarizes find- viduals ages 1–34 from 1979 to gender differences in homicide ings of OJJDP’s Program of 1988. Newly available intercensal and suicide associated with fire- Research on the Causes and Cor- population estimates and 1990 arms among males ages 15 to 34. relates of Delinquency, which data have allowed the correction conducted longitudinal surveys of statistics for 1985 to 1988. Firearm Facts: Information on Gun of high-risk youth in Denver, Violence and Its Prevention. 1994. CO; Pittsburgh, PA; and Roches- Fingerhut, L.A., D.D. Ingram, and Rockville, Md.: Division of Mater- ter, NY. J.J. Feldman. 1992. Firearm and nal and Child Health, Public Health nonfirearm homicide among per- Service, U.S. Department of Health Greenwood, P.W. 1992 (October). sons 15 through 19 years of age. and Human Services. NCJ 149880. Substance abuse problems among high-risk youth and potential inter- Journal of the American Medical This report presents information ventions. Crime and Delinquency Association 267(22):3048–3053. and statistics on the nature, ex- 38(4):444–458. NCJ 140360. NCJ 143423. tent, costs, and prevention of This article reports that the 1989 firearms-related deaths, particu- Although overall drug use firearm homicide rate in metro- larly among children, in the among teenagers has declined politan counties was nearly five United States. significantly during the past de- times the rate in nonmetropolitan cade, adolescents raised in im- counties. Firearm homicide rates Fleisch, B. 1991. Approaches in the poverished urban communities were highest in core metropoli- Treatment of Adolescents With Emo- continue to be at high risk for tan counties (27.7/100,000), tional and Substance Abuse Problems. involvement in drug use, drug compared with nonmetropolitan Rockville, Md.: Center for Sub- sales, and serious juvenile delin- counties (2.9/100,000). Firearm stance Abuse Treatment, Substance quency. This article highlights homicide rates were highest for Abuse and Mental Health Services findings from longitudinal black males and lowest for white Administration, U.S. Department of studies that suggest preventive females in all five urbanization Health and Human Services. interventions with these youth strata for 1979 through 1989. NCJ 145307. must address a wide range of problems and needs.

F–30 Greer, C., et al. 1990. Alcohol abuse Mass.: Harvard School of Public ton, D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice and the young offender: Alcohol Health, Harvard University. and Delinquency Prevention, U.S. education as an alternative to NCJ 144016. Department of Justice. NCJ 153571. custodial sentencing. Journal of Students in the 6th through 12th See introduction for annotation. Offender Counseling, Services & grades in a random sample of Rehabilitation 15(1):131–145. U.S. public, private, and paro- Howell, J.C. 1994 (October). Recent NCJ 123652. chial schools were surveyed to gang research: Program and policy This article states that the exact determine their experiences, implications. Crime and Delinquency relationship between alcohol perceptions, and fears about 40(4):495–515. NCJ 151535. abuse and juvenile crime is not gun possession. See section 2 for annotation. clear. The authors believe that alcohol education courses, as Hatchell, B.S. 1990. Rising Above Howell, J.C. 1994 (April). Gangs. developed in England, may be a Gangs and Drugs: How to Start a Fact Sheet #12. Washington, D.C.: viable alternative to custodial Community Reclamation Project. Office of Juvenile Justice and Delin- sentencing for delinquents. Washington, D.C.: Office of Juvenile quency Prevention, U.S. Depart- Justice and Delinquency Preven- ment of Justice. NCJ FS009412. Hard Facts on Handguns. 1994. tion, U.S. Department of Justice. This fact sheet addresses the Huntington, N.Y.: Bureau for NCJ 133522. composition of gangs; their in- At-Risk Youth. NCJ 150922. This manual describes the Com- volvement with drugs, violence, Although handgun deaths in munity Reclamation Project that and weapons; and how OJJDP Australia, Sweden, Great Britain, targeted four communities in plans to combat the problem. Canada, Japan, and Switzerland Los Angeles County to develop a fell below 100 per country for a gang and drug prevention pro- Huizinga, D., et al. 1994. Urban 1-year period, the United States gram. The program established Delinquency and Substance Abuse. tallied 10,667 deaths in that same a network of community-based Washington, D.C.: Office of Juvenile year. This pamphlet presents organizations, law enforcement Justice and Delinquency Preven- facts on handgun deaths in vari- and government agencies, and tion, U.S. Department of Justice. ous countries, the risks of hand- concerned citizens to combat NCJ 146416. guns for juveniles, and steps drug use and gang activity. It There is a strong relationship juveniles should take to reduce also developed a culture-specific between the possession of illegal their risk of injury or death from strategy integrating child, par- guns and delinquency and drug a handgun. ent, and teacher training to use. Seventy-four percent of the prevent drug abuse and gang illegal gun owners commit street Harmon, M.A. 1993 (April). Reduc- activity among youth. crimes, 24 percent commit fire- ing the risk of drug involvement arms crimes, and 41 percent use among early adolescents: An evalu- Henkoff, R. 1992 (August). Kids are drugs. Boys who own legal guns ation of Drug Abuse Resistance killing, dying, bleeding. Fortune have much lower rates of delin- Education (DARE). Evaluation Re- 126(3):62–69. NCJ 159324. quency and drug use and are view 17(2):221–239. NCJ 141978. This article examines a non- even slightly less delinquent than This study compares 341 5th- experimental exploration of juve- nonowners of guns. For legal gun grade DARE students to 367 nile homicide, abuse, and suicide. owners, socialization appears to non-DARE students in order to The author suggests several strate- take place in the family. For illegal evaluate the effectiveness of the gies to reduce juvenile violence, gun owners, it seems to take place DARE Program in Charleston including parenting skills pro- on the street. County, SC. grams, anger management programs, and gun control Humphrey, K.R., and P.R. Baker. Harris, L. 1993 (September). Survey policies. 1994 (September). GREAT program: of Experiences, Perceptions, and Gang Resistance Education And Apprehensions About Guns Among Howell, J.C., ed. 1995 (May). Guide Training. FBI Law Enforcement Young People in America. Cambridge, for Implementing the Comprehensive Bulletin 63(9):1–4. NCJ 150168. Strategy for Serious, Violent, and Chronic Juvenile Offenders. Washing-

F–31 This article describes the Phoe- male and white male firearm gangs to fulfill the social role of nix, AZ, Gang Resistance Educa- victims, children’s accessibility the group and to solve problems tion and Training (GREAT) to guns, and psychological experienced in low-income com- Program, a cooperative effort by trauma and financial costs due to munities. the police department, area firearm deaths and injuries. schools, and the Bureau of Alco- Johnson, C., B. Webster, and E. hol, Tobacco, and Firearms to Joe, K. 1993. Issues in accessing and Connors. 1995 (February). Prosecut- help juveniles resist peer pres- studying ethnic youth gangs. Gang ing Gangs: A National Assessment. sure to join gangs. Journal 1(2):9–24. NCJ 147674. Research in Brief. Washington, D.C.: This article reviews the current National Institute of Justice, U.S. Inciardi, J.A., et al. 1993. Street state of research on ethnic gangs, Department of Justice. NCJ 151785. Kids, Street Drugs, Street Crime: An emphasizing the nature of such The authors present the findings Examination of Drug Use and Serious research, the principal methods of a nationwide survey of local Delinquency in Miami. Belmont, employed in these studies, and prosecutors’ approaches to gang Calif.: Wadsworth Corporation. the reasons for the uneven devel- prosecution. Also included are NCJ 146902. opment of an ethnic-specific a review of State legislation tar- To provide baseline information focus in gang-related research. geted at street gang activity on serious juvenile delinquency, and case studies of prosecution the authors conducted street in- Joe, K. 1992 (November). Chinese efforts at four sites. terviews with approximately 600 Gangs and Tongs: An Exploratory Look serious delinquents in 20 neigh- at the Connection on the West Coast Jones, M.A., and B. Krisberg. 1994. borhoods of the Miami/Dade (paper presented at the 44th annual Images and Reality: Juvenile Crime, County metropolitan area. meeting of the American Society Youth Violence, and Public Policy. of Criminology in New Orleans, San Francisco, Calif.: National Innovative Law Enforcement Training La., November 4–7, 1992). Hono- Council on Crime and Delinquency. Programs: Meeting State and Local lulu, Ha.: University of Hawaii. NCJ 149440. Needs. 1991. Juvenile Justice Bulle- NCJ 149213. The authors indicate that the tin. Washington, D.C.: Office of This document explores whether most important factor concern- Juvenile Justice and Delinquency a relationship exists between ing youth violence in general Prevention, U.S. Department of Chinese youth gangs in the San and juvenile homicide specifi- Justice. NCJ 131735. Francisco, CA, area and orga- cally during the past 10 years This bulletin describes several nized crime groups in Chinese is the availability of firearms. training programs offered by communities. Analysis is based Teenage boys in all racial and OJJDP to help law enforcement on interviews with 73 Chinese ethnic groups are more likely to agencies improve juvenile op- gang members. die from gunshot wounds than erations and services. from all natural causes com- Joe, K., and M. Chesney-Lind. 1993. bined. Both the availability and Interdepartmental Working Group Just every mother’s angel: An increasing lethality of firearms on Violence. 1994. Violence: Report to analysis of gender and ethnic varia- contribute to this violence. the President and Domestic Policy tions in youth gang membership. Council. Washington, D.C. Gender and Society 9(4):408–431. Juvenile Alcohol and Other Drug NCJ 159325. NCJ 149118. Abuse: A Guide to Federal Initiatives See section 1 for annotation. Based on interviews with 48 for Prevention, Treatment, and Control. male and female youth who be- 1992. Washington, D.C.: The Coor- Jacklin, B. 1994 (Spring). Children, longed to ethnic gangs in Ha- dinating Council on Juvenile Justice adolescents, and firearms. Options waii, this report presents an and Delinquency Prevention. 2:1–2, 14–15. NCJ 152931. analysis of the reasons males and NCJ 138741. This study uses data sources to females have for joining gangs. This work aims to help local examine firearm mortality and The research shows that even communities develop strategies morbidity rates in the United though males and females par- that address the needs of youth States, domestic rates compared ticipate in gangs for different involved with illegal drugs and to other developed countries, reasons, both genders rely on alcohol. The document describes numbers of African-American

F–32 promising programs, projects, National Adolescent Student Health and inner-city program, and and research; addresses the Survey. International Journal of the a private suburban probation problem of juvenile alcohol Addictions 27(12):1445–1464. program. and other drug abuse; and NCJ 147407. Koop, C.E., and G.D. Lundberg. lists sponsoring agencies and The National Adolescent Student 1992 (June). Violence in America: A clearinghouses for additional Health Survey, administered public health emergency. Journal of information. during 1987 and 1988, ques- the American Medical Association tioned 3,789 students from 176 Kellerman, A. 1993 (October). Gun 267(22):3075–3076. NCJ 151841. public and private schools about ownership as a risk factor for homi- violence, drug use, and victim- This article discusses the need cide in the home. New England Jour- ization. This article examines the for a public health/medical nal of Medicine 329(15):1084–1091. relationships among these topics, approach to the problem of vio- NCJ 146835. based on survey results. lence. It compares the responsi- This study found that in King bilities associated with owning County, WA, guns kept at home Klitzner, M., et al. 1993. Substance and using a firearm with those were involved in the death of a Abuse: Early Intervention for Adoles- associated with owning and household member 185 times cents. Bethesda, Md.: Pacific Insti- using a motor vehicle. The more often than in the death of a tute for Research and Evaluation. article concludes with recom- stranger. These deaths included NCJ 141401. mendations for national action. suicides, homicides, and unin- This study presents a range of Krisberg, B., R. DeComo, and N.C. tentional fatal shootings. early intervention strategies used Herrera. 1992. National Juvenile in juvenile drug prevention pro- Kennedy, D.M. 1994. Can We Keep Custody Trends: 1978–1989. Wash- grams. It profiles school, health Guns Away From Kids? Cambridge, ington, D.C.: Office of Juvenile Jus- care, juvenile justice system, and Mass.: Program in Criminal Justice tice and Delinquency Prevention, community-based programs and Policy and Management, John F. U.S. Department of Justice. includes survey data. Kennedy School of Government, NCJ 131649. Harvard University. NCJ 152025. Knox, G.W. 1992 (November). Gang See section 1 for annotation. This study examines the effec- Problems Among Asian Students (pa- tiveness of existing gun control per presented at the 44th annual Lawyers Committee on Violence. statutes and proposes a compre- meeting of the American Society of 1994. Gun Violence in New York hensive local strategy that aims Criminology in New Orleans, La., City: Problems and Solutions. New to reduce juveniles’ access to November 4–7, 1992). NCJ 148512. York, N.Y.: Lawyers Committee on Violence, Inc. NCJ 159329. guns. This paper studied 361 Asian students to ascertain whether This report proposes several Kids and Guns: A National Disgrace. traditional hypotheses of juve- alternatives for reducing the 1993. Washington, D.C.: Educa- nile gang membership are rel- number of guns in circulation, tional Fund to End Handgun Vio- evant to the gang problems of including legal penalties, evic- lence. NCJ 152551. this population. tion, and increased enforcement. Between 1985 and 1990, the number of teenagers murdered Knox, G.W., et al. 1994. Gangs and Lizotte, A.J., J.M. Tesoriero, T.P. by firearms doubled, while the Guns: A Task Force Report From the Thornberry, and M.D. Krohn. 1994 number of 15-year-old boys National Gang Crime Research Center. (March). Patterns of adolescent fire- charged with murder increased Chicago, Ill.: National Gang Crime arms ownership and use. Justice by 217 percent. This report docu- Research Center, Chicago State Uni- Quarterly 11(1):51–74. NCJ 150231. ments the rising incidence of versity. NCJ 151529. This study used data from the gun-related violence that affects Six gang researchers at three Rochester Youth Development children, including violence per- universities collaborated on this Study to analyze patterns of petrated by children. extensive study of gangs and adolescent gun possession and guns in the Midwest. The study use. Ten percent of the 9th- and Kingery, P.M., et al. 1992. Violence examines eight county jails, a 10th-grade boys studied had a and illegal drug use among adoles- Chicago, IL, public high school firearm, and 7.5 percent reported cents: Evidence from the U.S. carrying it regularly.

F–33 Loftin, C., D. McDowall, B. This analysis of more than 700 This annual survey, conducted Wiersman, and T.J. Cottey. 1991. homicides within the jurisdic- by HHS’ Substance Abuse and Effects of restrictive licensing of tions of the Los Angeles Sheriff’s Mental Health Services Adminis- handguns on homicide and suicide Department and the Los Angeles tration, estimates the prevalence in the District of Columbia. New Police Department between 1978 of legal and illegal drug use in England Journal of Medicine and mid-1982 found significant the United States and monitors 325(23):1615–1620. NCJ 133649. differences between homicides drug use trends. It is based on a This evaluation of a District of designated gang-related and representative sample of respon- Columbia law banning the pur- those that were not gang-related. dents ages 12 and older, includ- chase, sale, transfer, or possession ing persons living in households, McLellan, T., and R. Dembo. 1993. of handguns by civilians suggests dormitories, and homeless Screening and Assessment of Alcohol that, on average, 47 deaths have shelters. and Other Drug (AOD) Abusing been prevented each year since Adolescents. Rockville, Md.: Center Northrop, D., and K. Hamrick. implementation of the law. for Substance Abuse Treatment, 1990. Weapons and Minority Youth Lowry, R., et al. 1993. Violence- Substance Abuse and Mental Violence (background paper pre- related attitudes and behaviors of Health Services Administration, pared for the Forum on Youth Vio- high school students—New York U.S. Department of Health and lence in Minority Communities: City, 1992. Morbidity and Mortality Human Services. NCJ 152331. Setting the Agenda for Prevention, Weekly Report 42(40). NCJ 147422. This Treatment Improvement Pro- in Atlanta, Ga., on December 10–12, 1990). NCJ 145349. This article reprint reveals that tocol is based on three principles: during the 1991–92 school year, that adolescents deserve effective This paper reviews existing 36.1 percent of the 9th- to 12th- and appropriate care; that they and potential strategies for re- grade New York City public have a right to privacy and to ducing the misuse of weapons school students surveyed re- confidential handling of any in- by American youth. The authors ported being threatened with formation they provide; and that cite three issues that need to be physical harm. Twenty-one program staff must consider cul- addressed if effective interven- percent of students reported tural, ethnic, and gender concerns tions are to be implemented in carrying a weapon such as a in all aspects of the screening and the area of weapons misuse by gun, knife, or club during the 30 assessment process. minority youth. days preceding the survey, with National Drug Control Strategy. Office of National Drug Control 7 percent carrying a handgun. Executive Summary. 1995 (April). Policy. 1995 (February). National Madlem, M.S. 1993 (Fall). Trends Washington, D.C.: Executive Office Drug Control Strategy 1995: Strength- and issues surrounding rural ado- of the President. NCJ 152702. ening Communities’ Response to lescent alcohol and other drug This summary highlights key Drugs and Crime. Washington, D.C.: abuse. School Intervention Report points of President Clinton’s Office of the President. NCJ 152700. 7(1):11–18, 20–21. NCJ 145786. plan to reduce illicit drug use This document is the latest in a Focusing on rural areas, the and drug trafficking in the series of annual publications author notes that alcohol and United States. It presents an addressing current trends in illicit drug use rates for rural adoles- overview of the full Strategy, drug use in the United States. It cents appear to be matching or outlines the current drug situa- outlines four areas for action: re- even surpassing rates for urban tion, summarizes the Strategy’s ducing drug demand; reducing adolescents. four Action Plans, and presents crime, violence, and drug avail- Federal drug control resource ability; enhancing domestic drug Maxson, C.L., M.A. Gordon, and priorities for FY 1996. program flexibility and efficiency M.W. Klein. 1985. Differences beat the community level; and tween gang and nongang homi- 1994 National Household Survey on strengthening interdiction cides. Criminology 23(2):209–222. Drug Abuse. 1995. Washington, efforts. NCJ 102843. D.C.: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. NCJ 152438.

F–34 Osgood, D.W. 1995 (January). Prothrow-Stith, D., and M. Quinn, J.F., and B. Downs. 1995 Drugs, Alcohol, and Adolescent Vio- Weissman. 1991. Deadly Conse- (Spring). Predictors of gang violence. Boulder, Colo.: The Center quences: How Violence Is Destroying lence: The impact of drugs and for the Study and Prevention of Our Teenage Population and A Plan guns on police perceptions in nine Violence, Institute for Behavioral To Begin Solving The Problem. New states. Journal of Gang Research Sciences, University of Colorado. York, N.Y.: HarperCollins Publish- 2(3)15–27. NCJ 155155. NCJ 154812. ers. NCJ 130864. This article reports on the find- This study focuses on the connec- The authors explore the epi- ings of a survey of nine munici- tion between drug use and vio- demic of violence that exists in pal police departments that lence among 12 to 18 year olds. the Nation and is threatening a explore the effect of structural The author analyzes previous generation of young men, par- and behavioral variables on the research on this topic and pro- ticularly African-American frequency of two types of gang vides a bibliography and males living in poverty. They violence: internecine violence statistical tables. evaluate the societal factors that and violence directed at citizens contribute to the culture of vio- who were not gang-involved. Pacific Center for Violence Preven- lence. Seeing violence as a public tion. 1994. Preventing Youth Violence: health emergency, they offer con- Reducing the Impact of Drugs on Reducing Access to Firearms. San crete strategies to prevent contin- American Society. 1995 (March). Francisco, Calif. NCJ 158365. ued deaths and injuries to youth. Washington, D.C.: Office of Na- This publication argues that tional Drug Control Policy, the increasing rate of violent Pryor, D.W., and E. McGarrell. 1993 Executive Office of the President. juvenile crime in the last 10 (June). Public perceptions of youth NCJ 153765. years is parallel to a period of gang crime: An exploratory analy- This report contains charts that decreased allocation of resources sis. Youth and Society 24(4):399–418. graphically represent the steps for youth. The public health NCJ 143206. involved in the Administration’s model states that decreasing This article investigates commu- approach to addressing the prob- handgun availability is the most nity perceptions of the juvenile lems of illicit drug use and its effective means of decreasing gang problem in Indianapolis, IN, consequences. The charts demon- firearm-related injury and death. through a survey of 306 residents strate the scope of the problem Low prices, new designs, and conducted in 1984 and 1985. It and the costs of drug use. ready availability contribute to examines the effects of victimiza- youth possession of firearms. tion experiences at the hands of Reducing Youth Gun Violence: An Two psychosocial factors that youth gangs as well as the impact Overview of Programs and Initiatives. contribute to violence are the of media exposure on community 1996. Washington, D.C.: Office of youth’s incompetence (an inabil- perceptions and opinions. Juvenile Justice and Delinquency ity to understand the nature of Prevention, U.S. Department of Jus- one’s acts) and desensitization to Pulse Check: National Trends in Drug tice. NCJ 154303. the quality of one’s acts through Abuse. 1995 (Spring). Washington, This report includes a summary exposure to the media. D.C.: Office of National Drug Con- that highlights current Federal trol Policy, Executive Office of the and State legislation to reduce Price, J.H., S.M. Desmond, and President. NCJ 153826. youth gun violence and describes D. Smith. 1991 (August). A prelimi- This issue summarizes informa- state-of-the-art prevention and nary investigation of inner-city ado- tion gathered during January intervention programs as well as lescents’ perceptions of guns. Journal and February 1995 on the preva- Federal and local partnerships in of School Health 61(6):255–259. lence of drugs throughout the implementing these laws and NCJ 159333. Nation. Sources include ethno- programs. It provides a directory The authors suggest that schools graphers and epidemiologists of programs, organizations, and and health educators become working in the drug field, law research aimed at reducing gun more aware and involved in the enforcement officials, and treat- violence. prevention of gun violence. ment providers.

F–35 Responding to Drug Use and Violence: Most murders involve firearms, N.Y.: Aldine de Gruyter Publishing Helping People, Families, and Commu- and young minority men are Co. NCJ 148415. nities: A Directory and Resource at especially high risk of being This book analyzes typical pat- Guide of Public- and Private-Sector murdered with a gun. Innova- terns of gang violence and illus- Grants. 1995 (January). Washington, tions in laws, law enforcement, trates how ethnicity can affect D.C.: Office of National Drug Con- public education, and technol- gang styles. It also discusses trol Policy, Executive Office of the ogy show promise of reducing police interaction with gangs. President. NCJ 153429. gun murders by making firearms This directory outlines the Fed- less available to persons likely Schinke, S.P., et al. 1991. Effects of eral grant-making process and to use them in violence, less ac- Boys and Girls Clubs on Alcohol lists Federal grant programs as cessible in situations where vio- and Other Drug Abuse and Related well as additional programs and lence is likely to occur, or less Problems in Public Housing Projects. resources. lethal. The research indicates Rockville, Md.: Office of Substance that evaluations are needed to Abuse Prevention, U.S. Department Robertson, J.G., and J.E. Waters. test the effectiveness of these of Health and Human Services. 1994. Inner city adolescents and innovations. NCJ 143443. drug abuse. In A.R. Roberts, ed. This study evaluates the effects Critical Issues in Crime and Justice. Rowe, D.C., and B. Gulley. 1992 (May). Sibling effects on substance of Boys and Girls Clubs on chil- Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage dren and adolescents who live in Publications. NCJ 149862. use and delinquency. Criminology 30(2):217–233. NCJ 137081. public housing projects. The pri- This chapter examines problems mary focus is on the effect these associated with adolescent drug The authors of this article exam- clubs have on drug and alcohol abuse and drug dealing, particu- ined data from 418 sets of sib- use, delinquency, vandalism, and larly in poor and minority com- lings in Arizona to determine the school success. munities in large urban areas. influence of siblings on juvenile The authors discuss the relation- delinquency and drug abuse. Schonberg, S.K. 1993. Guidelines for ship between drug abuse and the Treatment of Alcohol and Other Ruttenberg, H. 1994 (May). The crime. Drug (AOD) Abusing Adolescents. limited promise of public health Rockville, Md.: Substance Abuse Roehl, J., G. Capowich, and R. methodologies to prevent youth and Mental Health Services Admin- Llaneras. 1991 (May). National violence. The Yale Law Journal istration, U.S. Department of Health Evaluation of the Systems Approach to 103:1885. NCJ 159334. and Human Services. Community Crime and Drug Preven- This article notes that although This Treatment Improvement tion. (Unpublished.) Arlington, Va.: the public health approach suc- Protocol provides guidelines to Institute of Social Analysis. cessfully changed middle-class be used by programs that design NCJ 160054. smoking behavior, it did not and deliver services to clients, This two-volume report evalu- seem to change the smoking ages 11–21, and by professionals ates the Systems Approach to habits of members of the lower who need to choose among treat- Community Crime Prevention class and may not change the ment alternatives for troubled implemented in Knoxville, TN; violent behavior of the lower young people. New Haven, CT; Jacksonville, class. Although the public health FL; and Tucson, AZ. The authors approach may reduce the lethal- Shapiro, J.P., R.L. Dorman, B.M. found that particular elements of ity of violence, it is question- Burkey, and C.J. Welker. 1993. each city’s approach were suc- able whether it will reduce the Attitudes Toward Guns and Violence cessful in reducing rates of drug- incidence of violence. Rather, in Third- Through Twelfth-Grade related and other crime. the Nation must collectively Youth. Cleveland, Ohio: The strengthen its will to improve the Guidance Center. NCJ 159336. circumstances of children, youth, Roth, J.A. 1994 (February). Firearms This document compares youth and young adults. and Violence. Research in Brief. attitudes toward firearms used Washington, D.C.: National Insti- Sanders, W.B. 1994. Gangbangs and for hunting with those used tute of Justice, U.S. Department of for violence. It recommends Justice. NCJ 145533. Drive-bys: Grounded Culture and Juvenile Gang Violence. Hawthorne, education and intervention for young children.

F–36 Sheley, J.F. 1994. Drug activity and convincing youth that they homicides in an area where the firearms possession and use by ju- can survive in their neighbor- homicide rate was 20 times higher veniles. Journal of Drug Issues hoods unarmed. The authors than the national average. Signifi- 24(3):363–382. NCJ 150557. recommend that efforts to cant reductions in gun crimes oc- Using survey data from juveniles change a culture of violence curred as a result of the directed incarcerated in maximum secu- must be directed toward the police patrol. rity reformatories, this article family, community, and society. Sloan, J.H., et al. 1990. Handgun analyzes gun use and possession Sheley, J.F., and J.D. Wright. 1992 regulations, crime, assaults, and among juveniles involved in the (June). Youth, Guns, and Violence homicide: A tale of two cities. Gun use and distribution of drugs. in Urban America (paper presented Control Debate 1990:195–205. Sheley, J.F., and J.D. Wright. at the National Conference on NCJ 127644. 1993 (December). Gun Acquisition Prosecution Strategies Against The cities of Seattle, WA, and and Possession in Selected Juvenile Armed Criminals and Gang Vio- Vancouver, BC, were studied over Samples. Research in Brief. Wash- lence: Federal, State, and Local Co- a 7-year period to understand the ington, D.C.: National Institute of ordination, June 9–11, 1992, San relationship between firearm Justice and Office of Juvenile Justice Diego, Calif.). Washington, D.C.: regulations and community rates and Delinquency Prevention, U.S. National Institute of Justice, U.S. of homicide. The study suggests Department of Justice. NCJ 145326. Department of Justice. NCJ 138725. that a modest restriction of citi- This brief details results about Results from a survey of 835 zens’ access to firearms is associ- the extent of prior gun posses- male inmates in 6 juvenile cor- ated with lower rates of homicide. sion by incarcerated youth and rectional facilities across the Decreased availability of hand- students. The researchers con- country and 753 male students in guns did not result in a direct cluded that the primary chal- 10 inner city public high schools shift to homicide by other means. lenge is convincing youth they near the correctional institutions Smith, D., and B. Lautman. 1990. A can survive in their neighbor- surveyed were used to study the Generation Under the Gun: A Statisti- hoods without being armed. types, numbers, and logistics of juvenile firearms use. cal Analysis of Youth Firearm Murder Sheley, J.F., and J.D. Wright. 1993 in America. Washington, D.C.: Cen- (Autumn). Motivations for gun Sheley, J.F., J.D. Wright, and M.D. ter to Prevent Handgun Violence. possession and carrying among Smith. 1993. Firearms, Violence, and NCJ 159337. serious juvenile offenders. Behav- Youth: A Report of Research Find- The authors’ analysis of exposi- ioral Sciences and the Law 11(4): ings—Final. Washington, D.C.: tory data provides the basis for 375–388. NCJ 147139. Office of Juvenile Justice and Delin- recommendations for reducing quency Prevention, U.S. Department the availability of guns, espe- Survey data collected from 835 of Justice. NCJ 147858. male juveniles incarcerated in cially in the home. They also maximum security reformatories Using data from males in juve- recommend cooperation among were used to analyze motiva- nile correctional facilities and parents, educators, lawmakers, tions behind gun possession inner-city public high schools, and law enforcement officials to and carrying. this report analyzes where, how, educate about the dangers of and why juveniles acquire, carry, gun use, reduce the availability Sheley, J.F., J.D. Wright, and Z.T. and use firearms. of firearms, and punish offend- McGee. 1992 (June). Gun-related ers quickly and severely. violence in and around inner-city Sherman, L.W., J.W. Shaw, and D.P. schools. American Journal of Diseases Rogan. 1995 (January). The Kansas Snyder, H., and M. Sickmund. 1995 of Children 46(6):677–768. City Gun Experiment. Research in (August). Juvenile Offenders and Vic- NCJ 146005. Brief. Washington, D.C.: National tims: A National Report. Washington, Institute of Justice, U.S. Department D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice and This study focuses on serious of Justice. NCJ 150855. Delinquency Prevention, U.S. De- juvenile offenders and students partment of Justice. NCJ 153569. from schools in high-risk areas This brief evaluates a police patrol who reported they carried guns project designed to reduce gun See introduction for annotation. for self-protection. The funda- violence, drive-by shootings, and mental policy problem involves

F–37 Snyder, H., and M. Sickmund. 1995 Summary. Washington, D.C.: Office assessment, model program de- (May). Juvenile Offenders and Vic- of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency velopment, technical assistance, tims: A Focus on Violence. Washing- Prevention, U.S. Department of Jus- and dissemination. ton, D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice tice. NCJ 149629. Stevens, J.B. 1994. Federal prosecu- and Delinquency Prevention, U.S. The National Youth Gang Sup- tion of gangs and juveniles. Crimi- Department of Justice. NCJ 153570. pression and Intervention Pro- nal Practice Manual. Washington, See introduction for annotation. gram conducted a comprehensive D.C.: Office of Legal Education, national survey of organized U.S. Department of Justice. Spergel, I. 1995 (June). The Youth agency and community group NCJ 149521. Gang Problem: A Community responses to gang problems. This Approach. New York, N.Y.: Oxford research summary describes the The author describes the role University Press. NCJ 158897. survey’s findings, provides policy the FBI and other Federal agen- This comprehensive study and program recommendations, cies play with local law enforce- describes the scope and serious- and suggests strategies for cities ment agencies in investigating ness of the gang problem, the with chronic and emerging gang gang activity and drug-related complex relationship between problems. violence and in prosecuting gang members and drug activity, juvenile gang members and the structure of gangs and the Spergel, I. 1993. Gang Suppression other juvenile delinquents demographics of gang members, and Intervention: An Assessment. Chi- under Federal law. the process of gang life, and cago, Ill.: School of Social Service Straight Talk About Risks: A Pre-K–12 other aspects of youth gangs. Administration, University of Chi- Curriculum for Preventing Gun Vio- The book also looks at what cago. NCJ 146494. lence, English-Spanish Bilingual Edi- has been done and what needs This report provides an exten- tion. 1992. Washington, D.C.: Center to be done about the problem, sive review of the research litera- to Prevent Handgun Violence. including local community ture available on the youth gang NCJ 143303. mobilization and national policy. phenomenon and contains a summary and conclusions re- This curriculum, known as the Spergel, I. 1994 (October). Gang garding the nature of the prob- STAR (Straight Talk About Risks) Suppression and Intervention: Com- lem, promising intervention program, was developed for munity Models. Research Summary. strategies, and possible courses prekindergarten through 12th- Washington, D.C.: Office of Juve- for further research. It suggests grade levels. It strives to reduce nile Justice and Delinquency Pre- that communities need to imple- the potential for children and vention, U.S. Department of Justice. ment a comprehensive policy to teenagers to be injured or killed NCJ 148202. address gang problems. by gunfire. Based on the National Youth Sugarmann, J., and K. Rand. 1994. Gang Suppression and Interven- Spergel, I., et al. 1990 (June). Na- Cease fire. Rolling Stone 677:30–42. tion Program, this research sum- tional youth gang suppression NCJ 147980. mary presents a set of policies and intervention program. Juvenile and procedures for the design of Justice Bulletin. Washington, D.C.: This report suggests a regulatory community efforts by police, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delin- approach to gun control that re- prosecutors, judges, probation quency Prevention, U.S. Depart- quires individuals dedicated to and parole officers, schools, com- ment of Justice. NCJ 130917. reducing firearms violence to re- munity-based agencies, and a This bulletin describes the Na- assess their understanding of the range of grassroots agencies. It tional Youth Gang Suppression issue. Some of the steps include presents a framework for creating and Intervention Program, a establishment of a long-term effective approaches for reducing research and development pro- public education media campaign the problem of youth gangs. gram established in 1987 by to change public perception of OJJDP to address policy and gun violence; support for research Spergel, I., et al. 1994 (October). programs. The program is carry- into firearms violence, causes, Gang Suppression and Intervention: ing out a four-stage process of effects, and economic costs; and Problem and Response. Research

F–38 recruitment of individuals and This paper examines the preva- controlling gang activities and organizations not traditionally lence of guns in the United examines the harmful impacts involved in the debate. States, concluding that guns of- upon youth and the community. fer a substantial net benefit to Suppression of Drug Abuse in Schools society. It argues against more Torok, W.C., and K.S. Trump. 1994 Program: A Resource Guide for Imple- stringent gun controls and bans, (May). Gang intervention: Police menting Prevention, Suppression, and recommending enforcement of and school collaboration. FBI Law Intervention Programs. 1988. San existing gun laws and existing Enforcement Bulletin 63(5):13–16. Francisco, Calif.: National Council laws against violent crime. NCJ 149366. on Crime and Delinquency. This article examines the work NCJ 122956. Tatem-Kelley, B. 1994 (July). A of the Youth Gang Unit of the This manual presents guidelines Comprehensive Strategy to Address Cleveland, OH, public school for establishing a program to America’s Gang Problem. Washing- system. Collaborating with the prevent, suppress, and intervene ton, D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice city police department’s Youth/ in drug abuse in schools and and Delinquency Prevention, U.S. Gang Unit, the school gang unit communities by addressing both Department of Justice. NCJ 160057. consists of 4 school security the demand and supply sides of This paper summarizes the work officers and a coordinator and the drug problem. of OJJDP’s Gang Task Force that serves 127 schools with more reviewed OJJDP-sponsored gang than 73,000 students. A Survey of Experiences, Perceptions, projects, assessed the program and Apprehensions About Guns development and future research Treanor, W.W., and M. Bijlefeld. Among Young People in America. implications of recent gang re- 1989. Kids and Guns: A Child Safety 1993. New York, N.Y.: Louis Harris search, formulated recommenda- Scandal. Washington, D.C.: Ameri- and Associates, Inc. and LH Re- tions for future OJJDP gang can Youth Work Center and Educa- search, Inc. NCJ 144016. strategies, examined the history tional Fund to End Handgun This work presents the results of of the amended gang legislation, Violence. NCJ 111607. two national opinion polls of and conducted interviews with This booklet examines issues adults’ and children’s attitudes selected Federal program man- surrounding the problem of toward guns and their experi- agers about current and planned firearms and child safety, includ- ences with them. The polls un- gang initiatives. ing statistics about the nature derscore deep fear and concern and prevalence of the problem about gun violence and Ameri- Taylor, C.S. 1993. Girls, Gangs, and a discussion of prevention cans’ desire to do something Women, and Drugs. East Lansing, strategies. about the epidemic. Mich.: Michigan State University Press. NCJ 147359. Tromanhauser, E., and G. Knox. Survey of experiences, perceptions, This book focuses on a large 1992. Gangs in Juvenile Corrections: and apprehensions about guns segment of Detroit’s African- Fighting, Drug Abuse, and Other among young people in America. American female population Health Risks. Chicago, Ill.: National 1993 (September). Youth Record and shows that girls and young Commission of Correctional Health 5(16):2–8. NCJ 146058. women who have become a force Care. NCJ 148540. This survey profiles elementary, in the drug culture and urban In 1991, data were obtained from middle, and high school stu- gang life view their involvement a sample of 1,801 juveniles con- dents’ experiences with guns, as self-empowering. fined in 44 juvenile correctional and their attitudes toward them. facilities in 5 States to analyze Teen Gangs. 1993. Northfield, Minn.: gang membership. Suter, E.A., W.C. Waters, and G.B. Life Skills Education. NCJ 148091. Murray, et al. 1995. Violence in This pamphlet explains the Urban Street Gang Enforcement Opera- America: Effective solutions. Journal history and current nature of tions Manual. Forthcoming. Washing- of the Medical Association of Georgia. juvenile gangs. It suggests ap- ton, D.C.: Bureau of Justice Assis- 85:253–263. NCJ 160056. proaches for preventing and tance, U.S. Department of Justice.

F–39 This manual outlines effective and 40 percent carried guns. Key sample of students in 10 inner- gang enforcement policies and risk factors for knife-carrying city public high schools near procedures to control the grow- were being threatened with a the correctional facilities who ing problem of street gangs and knife, getting into fights, and not answered a survey on youth gang-related violence in urban believing that having a weapon firearm use and behavior. and suburban areas. increases the carrier’s risk of injury. Gun-carrying was associ- Youth Gang Drug Prevention Pro- Van Kammen, W., and R. Loeber. ated with having been arrested, gram. 1993. Female Involvement in 1994. Delinquency, Drug Use and the knowing more victims of vio- Gangs. Washington, D.C.: Adminis- Onset of Adolescent Drug Dealing. lence, starting fights, and being tration for Children, Youth, and Pittsburgh, Pa.: University of Pitts- willing to justify shooting Families, U.S. Department of Health burgh. NCJ 159340. someone. and Human Services. NCJ 148558. The authors link youth firearm This report explores issues per- possession to drug selling, using Winfree, L.T., Jr., G.L. Mays, and T. taining to female involvement data from a Pittsburgh youth Vigil-Backstrom. 1994 (June). Youth in gangs. It summarizes the study. They conclude that a gangs and incarcerated delinquents: highlights of presentations made reduction in the number of Exploring the ties between gang at the Prevention of Adolescent juveniles selling drugs is likely membership, delinquency, and so- Female Gang Involvement to reduce the carrying of con- cial learning theory. Justice Quarterly Forum, March 24–25, 1993. cealed weapons, particularly 11(2):229–256. NCJ 150588. guns. Data collected from incarcerated Zimmer, K., and S. Fedyniak. 1993 juveniles in New Mexico in 1991 (March). Suburban gangs: a police/ Vrgora, F. 1992. Gangs: The Death of formed this article’s analysis of school collaborative approach. Our Society. Rockville, Md.: the conceptual and empirical Quarterly 12–13. NCJ 148932. National Institute of Justice, U.S. links among membership in Following two violent incidents Department of Justice. NCJ 149138. youth gangs, juvenile delin- in Lakewood, OH, community This report describes major U.S. quency, and Akers’s social members and school officials gangs and their distinctive fea- learning theory. began to address their problem tures and behavior patterns. It with gangs. Their solution fos- explores signs that indicate to Working with Youth in High-Risk En- tered interaction between police parents a child's involvement vironments: Experiences in Prevention. and school officials and led to in gang activity, and suggests 1992. Rockville, Md.: Alcohol, Drug the disruption of gang activity. intervention tactics that may be Abuse, and Mental Health Admin- This article also discusses the effective. istration, U.S. Department of Health denial and overreaction that and Human Services. NCJ 146078. accompanied this episode. Webster, D.W., P.S. Gainer, and H.R. This monograph describes drug Champion. 1993 (November). abuse prevention programs sup- Zimring, F.E. 1986. Gun control. Weapon-carrying among inner-city ported by the Office for Sub- Bulletin of the New York Academy of junior high school students: Defen- stance Abuse Prevention to help Medicine 62:615–621. NCJ 102812. sive behavior vs. aggressive delin- youth and their families. This article explores drawbacks quency. American Journal of Public to several approaches to gun Health 83(11):1604–1608. Wright, J.D., et al. 1992 (November- control. It concludes that local NCJ 159341. December). Kids, guns, and killing gun control initiatives must have This study assesses associations fields. Society 30(1):84–89. State and Federal support if they between beliefs and experiences NCJ 140211. are to succeed. related to weapon-carrying This article analyzes data from among youth. Among 7th-grade youth in maximum security ju- Zimring, F.E. 1993 (Winter). Policy males, 48 percent had carried venile correctional facilities in research on firearms and violence. knives, and 23 percent had car- 4 States (California, Louisiana, Health Affairs 12(4):109–122. ried guns. Forty-five percent of Illinois, and New Jersey) and a NCJ 148073. 8th-grade males carried knives,

F–40 This author suggests that public on the Causes and Prevention of Vio- parts: Federal restrictions on health professionals, in collabo- lence. New Haven, Conn.: Yale handgun transfers that amount to ration with social scientists and University Press. NCJ 097468. permissive licensing and registra- criminologists, can make a sig- This paper describes the status tion; wide variation in State and nificant contribution to research of research and policy on guns municipal handgun possession on the nature and extent of fire- and gun violence since the 1968 and transfer regulation; and in- arm control. Violence Commission’s report. creased Federal law enforcement Using the past 30 years as a assistance to States and cities at- Zimring, F.E. 1985. Violence and guide, the author argues that the tempting to enforce more restric- firearms policy. In L.A. Curtis, ed. future will bring a national hand- tive laws than the Federal American Violence and Public Policy: gun strategy composed of three minimum. An Update of the National Commission

F–41 Section 4: New York, N.Y.: Office of the Camp, G.M., and C.G. Camp. 1990. Provide Opportunities Coordinator of Criminal Justice, Corrections Yearbook: Juvenile Correc- for Children and Youth Office of the Mayor, City of New tions. South Salem, N.Y.: Criminal York. NCJ 094768. Justice Institute. NCJ 127005. Anderson, M.L.C. 1994 (January– This study of absenteeism and See section 1 for annotation. February). High juvenile crime rate: delinquency incidents among A look at mentoring as a preventive students in New York City Carnegie Council on Adolescent strategy. Criminal Law Bulletin schools underscored the need for Development. 1994 (April). A Mat- 30(1):54–75. NCJ 146970. students and the community to ter of Time: Risk and Opportunity in This article considers social sci- be involved in designing and the Out-of-School Hours. New York, ence studies of the causes of ju- implementing student behavior N.Y.: Carnegie Foundation. venile crime and possible points and discipline rules. NCJ 160059. of intervention and suggests Prepared by the Carnegie Task components of an efficient Beyond Convictions: Prosecutors as Force on Meeting the Needs of mentoring program. Community Leaders in the War on Young Children, this report ad- Drugs. 1993. Alexandria, Va.: vocates responsible parenthood, Austin, C.P., Sr. 1994 (August). Fo- American Prosecutors Research the guarantee of quality child- cusing on schools: The police fight Institute. NCJ 145339. care choices, the availability of back. Corrections Today 56(5):78, 80– This book is based on the conclu- good health and protection, and 82. NCJ 150243. sion that law enforcement efforts the mobilization of communities This article describes programs are only part of the solution to to support young children and that place law enforcement offic- drug abuse and that prosecutors their families. ers in schools, through national can provide anti-drug leadership programs such as DARE, to teach in education, prevention, and Carter, S.L. 1994. Evaluation Report for students the consequences of irre- treatment efforts. The chapters The New Mexico Center for Dispute sponsible behavior and the ways include an overview of 36 pro- Resolution: Mediation in the Schools students can contribute to society. secutorial anti-drug initiatives Program, 1993–1994 School Year. nationwide as well as information Albuquerque, N. Mex.: New Mexico Barnes, L. 1992 (Fall–Winter). Police on identifying, developing, and Center for Dispute Resolution. officers at heart of the Bigs in Blue obtaining resources. NCJ 160060. program. Big Brothers/Big Sisters This report is based on surveys of America. NCJ 160058. Blackman, P.H. 1994. Children and of students, teachers, and admin- This publication describes an in- Guns: The NRA’s Perception of the istrators of 104 schools in New novative mentoring program in Problem and Its Policy Implications Mexico. It focuses on dispute Warren County, NJ, that matches (paper presented at the American resolution program impact on at-risk youth with mentors from Society of Criminology, Miami, Fla., student behavior, school vio- the police department. November 9–12, 1994). NCJ 159319. lence, school disciplinary prac- See section 3 for annotation. tices, and student awareness of Beach, C. 1983. Truancy and Stu- mediation and conflict resolution dent Delinquency: A Pilot Study.

F–42 concepts and strategies. It in- Delinquency Prevention Through This manual previews exem- cludes instruments for use by Targeted Outreach. 1994. New York, plary programs that have shown other programs and researchers. N.Y.: Boys and Girls Clubs of promising and/or positive re- America. NCJ 150338. sults for juveniles. It includes Cohen, M.A. 1994. The Monetary This publication describes Tar- projects that address prevention, Value of Saving a High-Risk Youth. geted Outreach, a program used diversion, probation, neglect, Washington, D.C.: The Urban by more than 200 Boys and Girls abuse, custody, family violence, Institute. NCJ 160061. Clubs of America. It is designed and aftercare as well as a State- See section 1 for annotation. to serve youth at risk of becom- by-State program index. Each ing delinquent. program profile contains infor- Cohen, R. 1995. Students Resolving mation on the client population Conflict: Peer Mediation in Schools. Delinquency Prevention Works. 1995 served, objectives, a program Glenview, Ill.: GoodYear Books. (May). Washington, D.C.: Office of description, information on This book is a comprehensive, Juvenile Justice and Delinquency effectiveness, and contact step-by-step technical assistance Prevention, U.S. Department of information. manual for designing, imple- Justice. NCJ 155006. Drug Abuse Resistance Education menting, and evaluating a peer See introduction for annotation. (DARE) Regional Training Center mediation program. Much of the Policy Board’s Manual for Training information is also applicable to DeJong, W. 1994. Building the Peace: Law Enforcement Officers in the other conflict resolution models. The Resolving Conflict Creatively Pro- DARE Program. 1991. Los Angeles, The book includes 12 conflict gram (RCCP). Washington, D.C.: Calif.: Los Angeles Unified School resolution lessons and a wide National Institute of Justice, U.S. District. NCJ 129758. variety of useful program forms. Department of Justice. NCJ 149549. This publication helps mentors/ This publication introduces the Consultation on Afterschool Programs. trainers in the DARE program to basic concepts and strategies of 1994. Washington, D.C.: Carnegie prepare law enforcement officers violence prevention in the RCCP Council on Adolescent Develop- to present the DARE curriculum program. The author reviews the ment. NCJ 153304. in schools. The manual presents program philosophy and pro- a detailed 9-day agenda for This Carnegie Council on Ado- vides brief summaries of each of teaching the methodology that lescent Development report fo- the 15 curriculum units. Criminal has become the hallmark of the cuses on central issues in the justice involvement, training, DARE curriculum. development, sustainability, and evaluation, and program costs effectiveness of afterschool pro- are also examined. Drug Use Among Youth: No Simple grams for youth and on identify- Answers to Guide Prevention. 1993. ing strategies to promote Diebolt, A., and L. Herlache. 1991 Washington, D.C.: Human Re- effective programs. (March). The School Psychologist as a sources Division, U.S. General Ac- Consultant in Truancy Prevention. counting Office. NCJ 149091. Creighton, A., and P. Kivel. 1992. Tempe, Ariz.: Arizona State Univer- Helping Teens Stop Violence. sity. NCJ 149523. See section 3 for annotation. Alameda, Calif.: Hunter House Inc. This paper discusses factors that NCJ 144309. Dryfoos, J.G. 1990. Adolescents at must be considered in imple- Risk: Prevalence and Prevention. This publication is designed menting a truancy prevention London, England: Oxford Univer- for counselors, educators, and program, such as low self-esteem sity Press. NCJ 130103. parents who are interested in and social skills. It concludes that helping adolescents escape a multidisciplinary approach to This study of youth looks at four the patterns of social violence truancy is effective. problem areas: delinquency, caused by long-standing imbal- pregnancy, substance abuse, and ances in society. The manual Disposition Resource Manual. 1990. school failure. The author consid- outlines a class curriculum on Washington, D.C.: National Council ers how risky behaviors interre- family and relationship violence of Juvenile and Family Court late and which prevention and prevention. Judges. NCJ 137693. intervention strategies are effective.

F–43 Evans, T.W. 1993. Mentors: Making a Development, a prospective This article researches five 1987 Difference in Our Public Schools. longitudinal survey of 411 and 1988 exemplary programs in Princeton, N.J.: Peterson’s Guides. London, England, males be- Michigan, Massachusetts, and NCJ 160062. tween the ages of 8 and 32. Maine, in which senior citizens This publication profiles and at-risk youth were paired in Farrington, D.P., et al. 1988. Final mentoring efforts by celebrities, intergenerational programs. Report of the Onset Working Group business leaders, activists, edu- Program on Human Development and Gangs, schools, and community. cators, and other citizens. It Criminal Behavior. Castine, Maine: 1993 (Spring). School Intervention includes an extensive list of Castine Research Corporation. Report 6(3):complete issue. resources. NCJ 121570. NCJ 147408. Farrington, D.P. 1994. Delinquency This report considers possible See section 3 for annotation. Prevention in the First Few Years of interventions that might prevent Life (plenary address given at the or reverse deviant behavior. It Given the Opportunity: How Three Fourth European Conference on also examines factors, such as Communities Engaged Teens As Re- Law and Psychology, Barcelona, age of onset, that may predict sources in Drug Abuse Prevention. Spain, April 1994). Cambridge, future criminal activity. It con- 1992. Washington, D.C.: National England: Institute of Criminology, cludes that one of the best pre- Crime Prevention Council. University of Cambridge. dictors of a future criminal career NCJ 159771. NCJ 152340. is the age at which the first This book describes the Teens This book uses findings from offense occurs. as Resources Against Drugs random experiments to outline project that offers youth the op- Forlaw, B., and M. Hessel. 1993. juvenile delinquency prevention portunity to identify a local drug Juvenile crime prevention: Curfews methods that can be imple- prevention problem, design strat- and youth services. Issues and mented with youth up to age 6. egies to address it, and obtain Options 1(5):complete issue. funding to underwrite it. Teens Farrington, D.P. 1992. Explaining NCJ 152387. in New York City, Evansville the beginning, progress, and ending This publication discusses the (IN), and several communities of antisocial behavior from birth to role of curfews and youth serv- in South Carolina were successful adulthood. In J. McCord, ed. Fact, ices programs in preventing in making positive changes in Frameworks, and Forecasts: Advances juvenile delinquency. their communities. in Criminological Theory. Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Publishers, Freedman, M. 1995. Making the Most Goals 2000: A World-Class Education Rutgers State University. of Mentoring. Unpublished report. for Every Child. 1994. Washington, NCJ 136092. Interagency Council on Mentoring. D.C.: U.S. Department of Education. Washington, D.C.: Corporation for NCJ 160064. Based on data of men from a National Service. NCJ 160063. working-class area of London, This document offers general England, this article explains This report states that the rising information on the Goals 2000: how early anti-social behavior interest in mentoring is a posi- Educate America Act and pro- predicts later criminal behavior tive phenomenon. Youth need vides questions to help educa- and violence. Children who dis- contact with caring adults tors and parents plan courses play anti-social behavior have a from the community, through of action in their communities. higher risk of criminal and vio- mentoring programs and volun- Ten elements of developing a lent behavior as adults. teers who can help reduce the local action plan are described, isolation that some youth experi- and suggestions are given for Farrington, D.P. 1989 (Summer). ence. The paper proposes a developing partnerships. Early predictors of adolescent ag- three-part strategy that fortifies gression and adult violence. the mentoring process. Greenberg, M.T., C.A. Kusche, E.T. Violence and Victims 4(2):79–100. Cook, and J.P. Quamma. 1995. Pro- NCJ 118307. Freedman, M. 1990 (Winter). Part- moting emotional competence in ners in growth: Elder mentors and school-aged children: The effects of This article describes the Cam- at-risk youth. School Safety 1990: bridge Study in Delinquent 8–10. NCJ 122434.

F–44 the PATHS curriculum. Development Hawkins, J.D., and R.F. Catalano, strategies for determining men- and Psychopathology 7:117–136. Jr. 1992. Communities That Care: tor home placement for juvenile NCJ 160065. Action For Drug Abuse Prevention. offenders and its performance This study examined the impact San Francisco, Calif.: Jossey-Bass, since implementation in 1990. of the Promoting Alternative Inc. NCJ 142704. Heard, C.A. 1990 (December). Thinking Strategies (PATHS) See section 1 for annotation. Preliminary development of the curriculum on the emotional probation mentor home program: development of students in Hawkins, J.D., and J.G. Weis. 1980. A community-based model. Federal the Seattle, WA, area. Results The Social Development Model: An Probation 54(4):51–56. NCJ 127692. showed that PATHS was effec- Integrated Approach to Delinquency tive in helping youth under- Prevention. Seattle, Wash.: Center This article profiles the Allen stand and manage emotional for Law and Justice, University of County (Fort Wayne, IN) Juve- experiences. Washington. NCJ 086245. nile Probation Department’s This document articulates how Probation Mentor Home Pro- Hamburg, B.A. 1990. Life Skills existing social institutions can gram for nonviolent youthful Training: Preventive Interventions prevent youth crime without offenders and discusses roles for Young Adolescents. Washington, recourse to the formal legal au- and responsibilities of the youth, D.C.: Carnegie Council on Adoles- thority of the juvenile court. Em- natural and mentor families, the cent Development. NCJ 126402. phasis is on social development probation department, the men- This publication describes the for the juvenile. tor home coordinator, and the life skills concept and its core mentor home probation officer. elements. It analyzes established Hawkins, J.D., et al. 1986. Child- Hebert, E.E. 1993 (November). intervention programs for ado- hood predictors of adolescent Doing Something About Children at lescents under the categories substance abuse: Toward an Risk. Research in Action. Washing- of school- and community- empirically grounded theory. ton, D.C.: National Institute of based programs and evaluates In S. Griswold-Ezekoye et al., Justice, U.S. Department of Justice. promising new concepts. eds. Childhood and Chemical Abuse: Prevention and Intervention. NCJ 145124. Hawkins, J.D., and R.F. Catalano, Jr. NCJ 110668. This document reports on the 1993. Communities That Care: Risk- This chapter examines etiological Children at Risk (CAR) program Focused Prevention Using the Social research based on the social de- in Austin, TX. Program elements Development Strategy: An Approach velopment approach that identi- include case management, com- to Reducing Adolescent Problem Be- fies family, school, and peer munity policing, safe passages, haviors. Seattle, Wash.: Develop- group as three general contexts drug-free zones, and individual mental Research and Programs, Inc. in which the social bond is and family counseling. In addi- NCJ 143996. formed. It examines the etiology tion, the six cities that imple- This publication presents a com- of drug use and abuse among mented the CAR program have munity mobilization strategy children and adolescents and added unique components in based on the social development describes the pathways of youth response to local needs and model of risk-focused preven- drug behaviors between initial resources. tion that has been implemented and regular use. Howell, J.C., ed. 1995 (May). Guide in several communities to com- for Implementing the Comprehensive bat juvenile delinquency, sub- Heard, C.A. 1992 (Fall). Strategies Strategy for Serious, Violent, and stance abuse, and violence. for determining mentor home Chronic Juvenile Offenders. Washing- Beginning with key leader train- placement for juvenile offenders: A ton, D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice ing sessions, each community community-based model. Journal for and Delinquency Prevention, U.S. conducts an assessment of local Juvenile Justice and Detention Services Department of Justice. NCJ 153681. risk and resiliency factors for 7(2):1–6. NCJ 141791. youth development and devel- This article describes the Allen See introduction for annotation. ops strategies accordingly. Superior Court Juvenile Proba- tion Department’s innovative

F–45 Howitt, P.S., and E.A. Moore. 1993. Drawing on the findings of dem- mining the most effective Pay now so you won’t pay later: onstration programs in DARE, family-focused and parenting The effectiveness of prevention this brief describes program ele- intervention strategies designed programming in the fight to reduce ments and performance stand- to prevent delinquency in high- delinquency. Juvenile and Family ards and offers step-by-step risk youth. Twenty-six exemplary Court Journal 44(2):57–67. guidance to help communities programs are described according NCJ 143665. develop DARE in their schools. to target population, history, ob- This article provides background jectives, strategies, staffing, and Jones, M.A., and B. Krisberg. 1994. on community-based delin- resources. Images and Reality: Juvenile Crime, quency prevention programs Youth Violence, and Public Policy. San Levine, B. 1993 (August 16). and describes the operations Francisco, Calif.: National Council Tracking Truants. Los Angeles Times, of the Oakland County, MI, on Crime and Delinquency. p. E–1. NJC 160066. Probate Court Youth Assistance NCJ 149440. casework services program. It This article describes a Los includes the findings of the See section 3 for annotation. Angeles, CA, anti-truancy pro- program evaluation. gram designed by the head of Juvenile Delinquency: Children at the District Attorney’s juvenile Huizinga, D., F. Esbensen, and Risk, Children in Need. 1992. division. The program uses A.W. Weiher. 1991 (Spring). Are Northfield, Minn.: Life Skills Edu- deputy district attorneys to keep there multiple paths to delin- cation. NCJ 148093. kids in school and off the streets. quency? Journal of Criminal Law This pamphlet examines the na- The attorney meets with school and Criminology 82(1):83–118. ture and causes of juvenile delin- faculty and parents of students NCJ 131770. quency and suggests actions for who are regularly absent or This article uses a typological adults to help prevent juvenile tardy. approach to make a preliminary delinquency. Lipsey, M.W. 1992. Juvenile delin- examination of the existence of Kramer, P. 1993. Dynamics of Rela- quency treatment: A meta-analytic multiple paths leading to delin- tionships: A Guide for Developing inquiry into the variability of ef- quency. Although criminological Self-Esteem and Social Skills for Teens fects. In T.D. Cook et al., eds. Meta- research and theory generally and Young Adults: Teacher’s Manual. Analysis for Explanation: A Casebook. proceed with the orientation, Silver Spring, Md.: Equal Partners. New York, N.Y.: Russell Sage Foun- if not the assumption, that delin- NCJ 146791. dation. NCJ 150406. quency is the result of some series of events common to all delin- This manual describes curricu- See section 1 for annotation. quents, this investigation suggests lums designed to take a proactive Loftin, C., D. McDowall, B. that youth who become delin- approach to preventing juvenile Wierseman, and T.J. Cottey. 1991. quent have diverse backgrounds. delinquency and enabling youth to lead lives free of drugs and Effects of restrictive licensing of Hunter, R. 1993. Law-Related Educa- violence. These programs teach handguns on homicide and suicide tion: A Means of Preventing Violence skills, attitudes, and behavior in the District of Columbia. New in Intractable Conflicts. Menlo Park, patterns that will enable youth England Journal of Medicine Calif.: William and Flora Hewlett to have effective relationships. 325(23):1615–1620. NCJ 133649. Foundation. NCJ 152390. See section 3 for annotation. Kumpfer, K. 1993 (September). This publication discusses risk Strengthening America’s Families: LoSciuto, L. and T.N. Townsend. factors for juvenile delinquency Promising Parenting Strategies for 1994. An Outcome Evaluation of and the role of law-related edu- Delinquency Prevention: User’s Guide. “Across Ages”; An Intergenerational cation as a means of preventing Washington, D.C.: Office of Juvenile Mentoring Program. Philadelphia, violence in conflicts. Justice and Delinquency Preven- Pa.: Institute for Survey Research. Implementing Project DARE: Drug tion, U.S. Department of Justice. NCJ 160067. Abuse Resistance Education. 1988. NCJ 140781. This study reports outcome Newton, Mass.: Education Develop- These two volumes assist pro- evaluation results from the ment Center Distribution Center. gram planners, policymakers, first 2 years of an ongoing NCJ 115417. and service providers in deter-

F–46 intergenerational mentoring and innovative approaches to the OJJDP and Boys and Girls Clubs of program entitled Across Ages. problem and prevention of juve- America: Public Housing and High- The program, which targets nile delinquency. Risk Youth. 1991. Update on Pro- high-risk youth, aims to increase grams. Washington, D.C.: Office of students’ self-esteem and sense National Center for Education Juvenile Justice and Delinquency of connection with parents, Statistics. National Education Prevention, U.S. Department of schools, and the community Longitudinal Study of 1988: A Profile Justice. NCJ 128412. of an American Eighth Grader. 1990. and to reduce students’ use This update describes successful Washington, D.C.: Office of Educa- of alcohol, tobacco, and other delinquency prevention initia- tional Research and Improvement, drugs. tives developed and imple- U.S. Department of Education. mented by OJJDP and the Boys Mendel, R.A. 1995. Prevention or NCJ 160069. and Girls Clubs of America, Pork? A Hard-Headed Look at Youth- This report is a nationally repre- including Targeted Outreach, Oriented Anti-Crime Programs. sentative sample of eighth-grade SMART Moves, and the Drug Washington, D.C.: American Youth students in public and private Demand Reduction Program. Policy Forum. NCJ 153371. schools. Data provide measures This publication summarizes the of student performance and Olds, D.L., et al. 1993. Effect of evidence regarding prevention’s allow analysis of the students’ prenatal and infancy nurse home proper place in a national crime attitudes and activities. visitation on government spending. control strategy. It details a wide Medical Care 31(2):155–174. variety of programs and strate- National Center for Health Statis- NCJ 159027. tics. 1994. Healthy People 2000: gies that reduce youth criminal- This article summarizes the Public Health Service Action. Wash- ity and examines whether longer findings of a study that shows ington, D.C.: Office of the Surgeon sentences or more prison con- that frequent home visitation General, U.S. Department of Health struction will reduce crime by nurses during pregnancy and Human Services. NCJ 152389. significantly in the absence of and the first 2 years of a child’s effective prevention efforts. This report describes the major life can significantly reduce activities of the U.S. Public many health and social problems Mentors make opportunities real. Health Service in 22 priority commonly associated with 1992 (Spring). Home Front. Wash- areas outlined in Healthy People childbearing among adolescent, ington, D.C.: U.S. Department of 2000: National Health Promotion unmarried, and low-income Housing and Urban Development. and Disease Prevention Objectives. parents. NCJ 160068. This framework was laid out in This article examines the differ- 1990 for actions by the public Pennell, S., C. Curtis, B. McCardell, ent purposes, benefits, guiding and private sectors to achieve and P. Kuchinsky. 1981 (July). principles, and successes of a healthier Nation by the year Truancy Project Evaluation: Final mentoring programs. It lists re- 2000. Report. San Diego, Calif.: Criminal sources and contact information. Justice Unit, San Diego Association New approach to runaway, truant, of Governments. NCJ 080659. National agenda for children: On substance abusing and beyond This report of three California the front lines with Attorney Gen- control children. 1990. Juvenile and school district truancy projects eral Janet Reno. 1993 (Fall–Winter). Family Court Journal 41(3B):9–49. evaluated a twofold approach to Juvenile Justice 1(2):complete issue. NCJ 125922. truancy: telephoning parents of NCJ 145300. This article discusses mediation students who were absent from This journal covers a number of and other informal methods of school and providing counseling issues in the field of juvenile jus- providing assistance to children and problemsolving services to tice, including Attorney General and their families in confronting individual students. Janet Reno’s call for a National and resolving personal and fam- Agenda for Children, the Na- ily problems. These methods Platt, B. 1988. Retirees serve as tional Youth Service Program are offered as alternatives to mentors to young offenders. Aging proposed by President Clinton, adjudication and formal court 357:14–16. NCJ 125375. resolution.

F–47 This article profiles The Work Roth, J., and J.M. Hendrickson. 1991 in America. Washington, D.C.: Cen- Connection, a subsidiary of the (April). Schools and youth organi- ter to Prevent Handgun Violence. International Union of Electrical zations: Empowering adolescents NCJ 159337. Workers, AFL-CIO, that matches to confront high-risk behavior. See section 3 for annotation. retirees as mentors with young Phi Delta Kappa 72(8):619–622. adult offenders under an alterna- NCJ 133992. Smith, M. 1993 (Spring). Mediation tive sentencing arrangement. This article argues for collab- in juvenile justice settings. Journal Case narratives are provided. oration between schools and for Juvenile Justice and Detention community-based youth organi- Services 8(1):51–55. NCJ 143988. Prothrow-Stith, D. 1992 (June). Can zations to prevent youth from physicians help curb adolescent This article describes how developing socially dysfunc- violence? Hospital Practice 1992: mediation has been used in tional behaviors such as sub- 193–207. NCJ 138612. parent-juvenile conflicts, victim- stance abuse and irresponsible offender restitution agreements, This article identifies violence by sexual behavior. conflict resolution in juvenile and among adolescents as a sig- corrections facilities, school- nificant public health epidemic Roundtree, G.A., C.E. Grenier, based conflicts, and conflicts in which physicians should be- and V.L. Hoffman. 1993. Parental between rival juvenile gangs. come involved by diagnosing assessment of behavioral change and treating youth at high risk after children’s participation in a Steiner, P. 1994 (February). Delin- for violent behavior. delinquency prevention program. quency Prevention. Fact Sheet #6. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation Washington, D.C.: Office of Juvenile Reducing Youth Violence: Coordinated 19(1/2):113–130. NCJ 141525. Justice and Delinquency Preven- Federal Efforts and Early Intervention This article reports on a study tion, U.S. Department of Justice. Strategies Could Help. 1992 (March). that investigates whether a NCJ FS009406. Washington, D.C.: U.S. General Ac- community-based juvenile delin- counting Office, U.S. Department of This fact sheet examines Title V quency prevention program can Justice. NCJ 137678. Initiative, Incentive Grants for be effective with multiple-prob- Local Delinquency Prevention This copy of GAO’s testimony lem, at-risk youth. The study Programs, as established by before Congress discusses the is based on a theoretical model Congress in 1992, to amend the scope of the problem of juvenile integrating social control with Juvenile Justice and Delinquency violence, characteristics of youth social learning concepts. Prevention Act of 1974. It out- at risk of committing serious lines OJJDP funding guidelines, crime, promising early preven- School Safety: Promising Initiatives for timetable, and eligibility require- tion strategies, and current Fed- Addressing School Violence. 1995 ments for Title V Delinquency eral funding to prevent juvenile (April). Washington, D.C.: U.S. Prevention Programs. It also delinquency and violence. General Accounting Office. details the training and technical NCJ 160070. assistance available for commu- Rosenfeld, R., and S. Decker. 1993. This report explores promising nities interested in developing Where public health and law en- programs used by four schools a comprehensive delinquency forcement meet: Monitoring and to curb violence and identifies prevention program. preventing youth violence. Ameri- key characteristics typically can Journal of Police 12(3):11–57. associated with effective school- Stephens, R.D., S. Greenbaum, and NCJ 151301. based violence-prevention R.W. Garrison. 1988. Increasing Stu- This article proposes the use of a programs. It also examines dent Attendance: NSSC Resource Pa- complementary approach to vio- federally sponsored evaluations per. Sacramento, Calif.: National lence prevention among juve- of violence-prevention programs School Safety Center, Pepperdine niles involving both public operating in schools. University. NCJ 136283. health and law enforcement. This book provides recommen- Smith, D., and B. Lautman. 1990. A dations to solve the problems Generation Under the Gun: A Statisti- of truancy, student drop-out, cal Analysis of Youth Firearm Murder and delinquency. Truancy

F–48 prevention, intervention, and Implications from the program of Truancy, Chronic Absenteeism and response strategies are included research on the causes and corre- Dropping Out. 1989. York, Pa.: as well as model legislative lates of delinquency. In J.C. Howell William Gladden Foundation. programs. et al., eds. Sourcebook on Serious, NCJ 149422. Violent, and Chronic Juvenile Offend- This booklet provides informa- Steward, M., et al. 1994 (August). ers. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage tion on the nature and causes Violence stoppers. State Government Publications. NCJ 157405. of school truancy and offers rec- News 37(8):28–33. NCJ 150060. See section 1 for annotation. ommendations and checklists This article profiles innovative for steps parents and school ad- programs in Missouri, New Tierney, J.P., and A.Y. Branch. 1992. ministrators can take to reduce York, and Washington that help College Students As Mentors For truancy and student drop-out prevent juvenile delinquency At-Risk Youth: A Study of Six Campus problems. and youth violence by pairing Partners in Learning Programs. Phila- juvenile delinquents with col- delphia, Pa.: Public/Private Ven- Violence as a Public Health Problem: lege students. tures. NCJ 144221. Developing Culturally Appropriate This publication evaluates col- Prevention Strategies for Adolescents Sugarmann, J., and K. Rand. 1994. lege-based mentoring programs and Children. 1992. Washington, Cease fire. Rolling Stone 677:30–42. over a 4-year period. Questions D.C.: U.S. Department of Health NCJ 147980. focus on time and emotional and Human Services. NCJ 149671. See section 3 for annotation. commitment, integration possi- This publication compiles eight bilities, characteristic behaviors papers and working group rec- Summer Jobs for Youth—A Public/ of successful adult roles, commit- ommendations from the pro- Private Campaign—Project Adminis- ment of resources, and shifts in ceedings of the 1992 Public trator Handbook: A Technical Assis- youth and adult attitudes after Health Social Work Maternal tance Guide for Developing Summer participation. and Child Health Institute held Jobs for Youth in the Private Sector. in Pittsburgh, PA, April 26–29, Albany, N.Y.: New York State Title V Incentive Grants for Local 1992. Division for Youth. NCJ 095447. Delinquency Prevention Programs. This technical assistance guide 1995. Washington, D.C.: Office of Weis, J.G., and D. Hawkins. 1981. offers suggestions for strength- Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Preventing Delinquency. Seattle, ening youth summer employ- Prevention, U.S. Department of Wash.: Center for Law and Justice, ment opportunities. Justice. NCJ 154020. University of Washington. This report to Congress presents NCJ 080810. Talking With Youth About Prevention: Title V funding as a stimulus for This report examines the inci- A Teaching Guide for Law Enforce- local units of government to pool dence of juvenile delinquency ment and Others. 1992. Washington, available community services to and presents a history of juvenile D.C.: National Crime Prevention design and implement compre- delinquency prevention efforts. Council. NCJ 142260. hensive risk-focused plans that It provides an experimental test This comprehensive volume prevent young people from be- of a comprehensive prevention helps law enforcement person- coming involved in the juvenile model and offers research design nel and others to prepare and justice system. for evaluating selected delin- deliver presentations to young quency prevention programs. children and teens about per- Tolan, P., and N. Guerra. 1994 (July). sonal security, prevention of What Works in Reducing Adolescent Weis, J., and J. Sederstrom. 1981. alcohol and other drug use, Violence: An Empirical Review of the The Prevention of Serious Delin- and prevention of many types Field. Boulder, Colo.: The Center quency: What To Do? Seattle, Wash.: of crime. for the Study and Prevention of Center for the Assessment of Violence, University of Colorado. Delinquent Behavior and Its Pre- Thornberry, T.P., D. Huizinga, and NCJ 152910. vention, University of Washington. R. Loeber. 1995. The prevention of See section 1 for annotation. NCJ 079691. serious delinquency and violence:

F–49 This report suggests that juvenile This preliminary anti-truancy policy and program responses to offenders be categorized as seri- program evaluation shows that the causes and consequences of ous and less serious offenders improved classroom instruction, violence. It also describes roles and that prevention strategies extracurricular activities, cultural for health care providers in pre- be placed within the context of enrichment, career counseling, venting violence and promoting what is known about prevention and summer outreach for high- healthy adolescent development. in general and the correlates and risk children can improve school causes of delinquency. It reviews attendance and reduce disciplin- Zimmer, J.A. 1993. We Can Work It causation theories, explores char- ary referrals. Out: Problem Solving Through Media- acteristics of juvenile offenders tion. National Crime Prevention and their crimes, and develops Zeldin, S., and H. Spivak. 1993. Vio- Council and National Institute for a set of theoretically grounded lence Prevention and Youth Develop- Education in the Law. Washington, intervention strategies. ment: Implications for the Medical D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice and Clinician. Washington, D.C.: Acad- Delinquency Prevention, U.S. De- Yap, K.O., and J. Pollard. 1992 emy for Educational Development, partment of Justice. NCJ 145156. (October). A Preliminary Evaluation Inc. NCJ 143940. This training manual is designed of the Self Enhancement, Inc. (SEI) This publication focuses on vio- to expand the use of mediation Program. Portland, Ore.: Northwest lence committed by adolescents skills in conflict management. It Regional Educational Lab. against other adolescents and includes 8 lesson plans and 17 NCJ 160071. examines research on adolescent scenarios for use in learning and violence. The authors seek to cre- practicing mediation skills. ate a framework for reorienting

F–50 Section 5: are likely to become aggressive Summary Report. Lansing, Mich.: Break the Cycle of and violent adolescents and Michigan Department of Social Violence by young adults. Programs that Services. NCJ 160072. prevent parents from becoming Addressing Youth This analysis reports on the ef- involved in crime could prevent fectiveness of the Families’ First Victimization, Abuse, their children from becoming Program that offers an alterna- and Neglect criminals. tive to out-of-home placement of children. In this program, private Addressing Confidentiality of Records Barthel, J. 1992. For Children’s Sake: contractor social service agencies in Searches for Missing Children. 1995 The Promise of Family Preservation. provide time-limited in-home (February). Final Report. Washing- New York, N.Y.: Edna McConnell family services designed to ton, D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice Clark Foundation. NCJ 136387. and Delinquency Prevention, U.S. strengthen and preserve the The family preservation move- Department of Justice. NCJ 155183. family unit. The evaluation ment is based on the premise found that the program was This report is designed to assess that children need permanent, well-supported, effective in and make recommendations safe families. This report exam- preserving families, and cost about law enforcement access ines characteristics of family effective when compared with to children’s records held by preservation programs, program foster care services. schools, hospitals, child welfare evaluation, child welfare legisla- agencies, and shelters. It also tion efforts, and funding for Bridging the Child Welfare and Juve- includes a State-by-State break- child welfare services. nile Justice Systems. 1995 (June). Ju- down of the various legal re- venile Justice Bulletin. Washington, straints on and requirements Bastian, L.D., and B.M. Taylor. 1994 D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice and for the release of agency record (December). Young Black Male Vic- Delinquency Prevention, U.S. De- information in missing children tims. Crime Data Brief. Washington, partment of Justice. NCJ 152155. cases. D.C.: Bureau of Justice Statistics, This bulletin highlights the coor- U.S. Department of Justice. dination of Federal efforts focus- Bank, L., G.R. Patterson, and J.B. NCJ 147004. Reid. 1987 (Spring). Delinquency ing on family preservation, early This brief reviews the findings prevention through training parents intervention, delinquency pre- of the National Crime Victim- in family management. Behavior vention, and improvement of the ization Survey that show that Analyst 10(1):75–82. NCJ 111563. court’s response to children’s young African-American males needs. This article examines how paren- have a significantly higher prob- tal attitudes about and involve- ability of being victims of violent Cantelon, S.L. 1994 (March). Family ment in crime affect the attitudes crime than other members of the Strengthening for High-Risk Youth. and behavior of children. Chil- population. Fact Sheet #8. Washington, D.C.: dren whose parents are aggres- Office of Juvenile Justice and Delin- sive and who witness or are Bergquist, C., G. Pope, and K. quency Prevention, U.S. Depart- victims of violence in the home Corliss. 1995 (June). Evaluation of ment of Justice. NCJ FS009408. Michigan’s Families First Program.

F–51 This fact sheet summarizes This report examines and syn- counties in 1988. Findings show Strengthening America’s Families: thesizes empirical research on that 16 percent of murder victims Promising Parenting Strategies for the link between child abuse and were members of the defendant’s Delinquency Prevention, written juvenile delinquency and offers family; 64 percent were mur- in September 1993. (See annota- recommendations for policy and dered by friends or acquaint- tion under K. Kumpfer in this future research. ances; and 20 percent were killed section.) by strangers. Child Maltreatment 1992: Reports CASA: Court Appointed Special Ad- From the States to the National Center Delany-Shabazz, R. 1995 (June). vocate for Children . . . A Child’s Voice on Child Abuse and Neglect. 1994. VOCA: Helping Victims of Child in Court. 1988. Juvenile Justice Bul- McLean, Va.: National Center Abuse. Fact Sheet #26. Washington, letin. Washington, D.C.: Office of on Child Abuse and Neglect. D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice and Juvenile Justice and Delinquency NCJ 149527. Delinquency Prevention, U.S. De- Prevention, U.S. Department of This report presents data col- partment of Justice. NCJ FS009526. Justice. NCJ 111392. lected from child abuse and This fact sheet highlights the This bulletin describes the neglect reports investigated Victims of Child Abuse (VOCA) CASA program of providing by State agencies in 1992 and Act and the development and volunteers to act as advocates provides trend data for 1990 implementation of regional and before the court system for through 1992. Figures, appended local children’s advocacy centers. allegedly abused, neglected, tables, and State-by-State pro- or abandoned children. CASA gram information are included. Delinquency Prevention Works. 1995 volunteers can effectively and (May). Washington, D.C.: Office of inexpensively investigate place- Collier, W.V., and R.H. Hill. 1993 Juvenile Justice and Delinquency ment needs for these children (June). Family Ties, Intensive Family Prevention, U.S. Department of and articulate those needs before Preservation Services Program: An Justice. NCJ 155006. the court. Evaluation Report. New York, N.Y.: See introduction for annotation. Department of Juvenile Justice, City Checkoway, B., and J. Finn. 1992. of New York. NCJ 145613. Eron, L.D., J. Gentry, and P. Young People as Community Builders. This evaluation reports on the Schlegel, eds. 1994. Reason to Hope: Ann Arbor, Mich.: Center for effectiveness of the Family Ties A Psychosocial Perspective on Violence the Study of Youth Policy, School program that is designed to avert and Youth. Washington, D.C.: of Social Work, University of juvenile placements and reduce American Psychological Associa- Michigan. NCJ 146437. recidivism. The findings show tion. NCJ 158633. This report presents the results that the program averted from See section 2 for annotation. of a pilot study of community- placement 65 percent of the juve- based youth initiatives. Case nile cases referred by the Family Family Strengthening in Preventing studies on each initiative include Court, reduced recidivism by 80 Delinquency: A Literature Review. background information on the percent for the first 12 months, 1994. Washington, D.C.: Office of initiative, description of activi- was highly cost-beneficial, and Juvenile Justice and Delinquency ties and achievements, and was liked by the youth and par- Prevention, U.S. Department of analysis of factors affecting parents who entered the program. Justice. NCJ 150222. ticipation. The report identifies This report examines literature Dawson, J., and P. Langan. 1994. common themes found in these on family structure and its rela- Murder in Families. Bureau of Justice programs. tionship to the development Statistics Special Report. Washing- of delinquency in juveniles. It Child Abuse: Prelude to Delinquency? ton, D.C.: Bureau of Justice Statis- also reviews family strengthen- 1985. Washington, D.C.: Office of tics, U.S. Department of Justice. ing approaches and models and Juvenile Justice and Delinquency NCJ 143498. the current status of family Prevention, U.S. Department of This document provides a sur- strengthening programming. Justice. NCJ 104275. vey of homicide cases disposed in courts in 33 large urban

F–52 Farrington, D.P., et al. 1990. Ad- Office of Juvenile Justice and This article details expansion vancing knowledge about the Delinquency Prevention, U.S. of youth involvement in onset of delinquency and crime. Department of Justice. NCJ 139731. community service activities In B.B. Lahey and A.E. Kazdin, This handbook offers guidance by describing programs that eds. Advances in Clinical Child Psy- in establishing and operating involve youth from a variety chology. Washington, D.C.: National victim/witness assistance of economic backgrounds. Institute of Justice, U.S. Department programs in the juvenile justice Descriptions and addresses of of Justice. NCJ 146110. system. It identifies model pro- 3 programs and addresses of This chapter shows that the best grams and provides resources 10 resource organizations are predictors of adolescent aggres- for additional information. included. sion and subsequent violent and Justice Programs on Family Violence. criminal behavior were measures Howell, J.C., ed. 1995 (May). Guide 1995 (June). Unpublished. Washing- of economic deprivation, family for Implementing the Comprehensive ton, D.C.: Family Violence Working criminality, poor child-rearing, Strategy for Serious Violent, and Group, Office of Justice Programs, school failure, hyperactivity, Chronic Juvenile Offenders. Washing- U.S. Department of Justice. attention deficit, and anti-social ton, D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice NCJ 160076. child behavior. and Delinquency Prevention, U.S. Department of Justice. NCJ 153681. This unpublished report from Goldstein, A.P., et al. 1989. Reducing See introduction for annotation. the Family Violence Working Delinquency: Intervention in the Com- Group in DOJ’s Office of Justice munity. Fairview Park, N.Y.: Hwalick, M. 1992 (August). 1992 Programs outlines the efforts of Pergamon Press. NCJ 128560. Evaluation of Teens, Crime, and the the various Federal Family Vio- This book describes the compo- Community. Bingham Farms, Mich.: lence Program offices to identify nents and administration of Social Program Evaluators and issues, coordinate planning and Aggression Replacement Train- Consultants, Inc. NCJ 160074. funding, and disseminate information about violence against ing, which is designed to alter This report describes the Teens, spouses and children. the behavior of delinquent juve- Crime, and the Community niles to facilitate their positive (TCC) program, analyzing its Kaye, C.B. 1989. Community serv- functioning in the community. effectiveness in preventing ice—with a smile. School Safety 1989 juvenile crime. Hardin, M. 1992. Judicial Implemen- (Spring):4–7. NCJ 119224. tation of Permanency Planning Jencks, C. 1992. Rethinking Social This article indicates that a grow- Reform: One Court That Works. Policy: Race, Poverty, and the ing number of organizations and Washington, D.C.: American Bar Underclass. Cambridge, Mass.: school-based youth community Association. NCJ 160073. Harvard University Press. service programs is helping This book describes the Hamilton NCJ 160075. students develop individual and social responsibility. It in- County Juvenile Court in Cincin- This book critiques equal oppor- cludes examples of programs nati, OH, which is considered a tunity and affirmative action and guidelines for starting a state-of-the-art court for efficient plans; considers ghetto culture, project. case management, strong admin- the politics of heredity, and istration, sufficient resources, growth of the African-American Klaus, P.A., and M.R. Rand. 1984 thorough hearings, and a high underclass; and states that the (April). Family Violence. Special Re- level of judicial expertise. This safety net for single mothers port. Washington, D.C.: Bureau of book discusses costs, staffing, undermines traditional social Justice Statistics, U.S. Department organization, and the court’s norms about work and marriage of Justice. NCJ 093449. hearing process. and that welfare in its current form is a social policy error. This report looks at the findings Helping Victims and Witnesses in the about family violence from the Juvenile Justice System: A Program Johnson, C. 1990. Youth service: Be- National Crime Survey and con- Handbook. 1991. Washington, D.C.: yond noblesse oblige. School Safety siders the difficulties in estimat- 1990 (Winter):12–14. NCJ 122435. ing the extent of family violence

F–53 in the United States. Victims de- Washington, D.C.: American Youth This report provides a basis for scribe experiences with family Policy Forum. NCJ 153371. developing national policy on violence in response to questions See section 4 for annotation. America’s children and families. not specifically designed to Published by the National Com- explore the subject. Moone, J. 1994 (June). Juvenile mission on Children, a bipartisan Victimization: 1987–1992. Fact Sheet group established by Public Law Kumpfer, K. 1993 (September). #17. Washington, D.C.: Office of 100–203 “to serve as a forum Strengthening America’s Families: Juvenile Justice and Delinquency on behalf of the children of the Promising Parenting Strategies for Prevention, U.S. Department of Jus- Nation,” the report focuses on Delinquency Prevention: User’s Guide. tice. NCJ FS009417. problems of children and their Washington, D.C.: Office of Juve- families by examining the rela- See introduction for annotation. nile Justice and Delinquency Pre- tionships among health, educa- vention, U.S. Department of Justice. A Nation’s Shame: Fatal Child Abuse tion, income security, and other NCJ 140781. and Neglect in the United States: forms of support at each stage See section 4 for annotation. A Report of the U.S. Advisory Board of a child’s development. It on Child Abuse and Neglect. 1995. sets forth recommendations for Lake, E.S. 1993 (Spring). Explora- Washington, D.C.: Administration individual action, public- and tion of the violent victim experi- for Children and Families, U.S. private-sector policies, and ences of female offenders. Violence Department of Health and Human program development. and Victims 8(1):41–52. NCJ 145798. Services. NCJ 157013. National Council of Juvenile and This article examines violent This report contains 26 recom- Family Court Judges. 1991. Recom- childhood and adult experiences mendations of the U.S. Advisory mendations for a Model Family Court: of 83 female inmates. It explores Board on Child Abuse and Ne- A Report from the National Family the possible links between vic- glect, which was asked to recom- Court Symposium. Reno, Nev. timization and offenses, and it mend a national policy to reduce NCJ 137883. measures physical abuse by par- and prevent child abuse. ents, sexual assault by relatives, The Council advocates a justice physical assault by spouse or National Child Abuse and Neglect system capable of addressing live-in partner, physical assault Data System. 1993. Working Paper 2: problems in dysfunctional by stranger, sexual assault by 1991 Summary Data Component. families. In this report, it recom- stranger, and robbery. Washington, D.C.: National Center mends integrating separate court on Child Abuse and Neglect, U.S. divisions charged with adjudi- Lally, J.R., and M.M. Segal. 1994. Department of Health and Human cating these problems into one Infants, toddlers and violence: De- Services. NCJ 143998. court division to effect a more veloping a community response. In efficient and humane court This document details data col- J.D. Osofsky and E. Fenichel, eds. operation. Caring for Infants and Toddlers in Vio- lected by State child protective lent Environments: Hurt, Healing, and services agencies that were re- Nelson, K.E. 1990. Family-based Hope. Washington, D.C.: National corded on the National Child services for juvenile offenders. Institute of Justice, U.S. Department Abuse and Neglect Data System Children and Youth Services Review of Justice. NCJ 145969. (NCANDS) Summary Data 12(3):193–212. NCJ 129914. Component Form for 1991. Col- This article examines family This paper provides guidelines lected between August and Oc- characteristics, service character- for the development of a child- tober 1992, data were used to istics, and treatment outcomes care program that provides a develop and refine the approach for 159 families referred for safe haven for children living in to collecting national informa- status offenses or juvenile violent communities. Findings tion on child maltreatment. are taken from the Family Devel- delinquency to 8 family-based opment Program, sponsored by National Commission on Children. placement prevention programs. Syracuse University. 1991. Beyond Rhetoric: A New Ameri- Findings support use of family- can Agenda for Children and Families. based services for juvenile justice Mendel, R.A. 1995. Prevention or Final Report. Washington, D.C.: problems. Pork? A Hard-Headed Look at Youth- U.S. Government Printing Office. Oriented Anti-Crime Programs. NCJ 132443.

F–54 Nelson, K.E., and M.J. Landsman. other products available from single forums for addressing 1992. Family-based services for the Center for the Improvement family matters and to coordinate juvenile offenders. In K.E. Nelson of Child Caring (CICC). It also court actions in family cases. and M.J. Landsman, eds. Alterna- presents a schedule of CICC- tive Models of Family Preservation: sponsored parenting instructor School Crime: A National Crime Family-Based Services in Context. training workshops. Victimization Survey Report. 1991 Springfield, Ill.: Charles C. Thomas. (September). Washington, D.C.: NCJ 143831. Preserving families to prevent Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. delinquency. 1992 (April). OJJDP Department of Justice. NCJ 131645. This chapter details research that Model Programs. Juvenile Justice has indicated that family- and This document presents a sum- Bulletin. Washington, D.C.: Office community-based alternatives mary of responses to the Na- of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency are essential to the successful tional Crime Victimization Prevention, U.S. Department of treatment of juvenile offenders. Survey. Justice. NCJ 136397. Data were examined to evaluate Schwartz, I.M., J.A. Rendon, and the effectiveness of these forms This bulletin describes elements C.–M. Hsieh. 1994 (September/ of treatment. of three programs found suitable for State and local replication October). Is child maltreatment a Olds, D.L., et al. 1993. Effect of and inclusion in OJJDP training leading cause of delinquency? Jour- prenatal and infancy nurse home and technical assistance pro- nal of the Child Welfare League of visitation on government spending. grams. Programs are Targeted America 73(5):639–655. NCJ 151432. Medical Care 31(2):155–174. Outreach, Court Appointed Exploring the assumption that NCJ 159027. Special Advocates (CASA), and child maltreatment is a major See section 4 for annotation. Permanent Families for Abused cause of juvenile delinquency, and Neglected Children. The the authors conclude that exist- Olds, D.L., et al. Forthcoming. The bulletin also specifies criteria ing research is inconclusive and potential for reducing anti-social used to identify model delin- flawed. To formulate a coherent behavior with a program of prena- quency prevention programs. strategy for solving the juvenile tal and early childhood home crime problem, quality research visitation. Denver, Colo.: Preven- ProKids: Speaking Up for Abused and is needed, including the use of tion Research Center for Family Neglected Children in Hamilton, Ohio matched control groups for com- and Child Health and Home (brochure). 1994. Cincinnati, Ohio: parison purposes, control for so- Visitation 2000. NCJ 160077. ProKids. NCJ 160078. cioeconomic factors in study This unpublished document This brochure describes the samples, and separation of abuse considers the impact of home ProKids organization, which categories and status offenses visitation on three risk factors develops volunteer programs from other criminal offenses. for conduct disorder, anti-social for court appointed special advo- Snyder, H. and M. Sickmund. 1995 behavior, and violence. Home cates in the Cincinnati area and (August). Juvenile Offenders and Vic- visitation has been documented nationwide. tims: A National Report. Washington, as reducing maternal substance Rubin, H.T., and V.E. Flango. 1992. D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice and abuse during pregnancy; reduc- Court Coordination of Family Cases. Delinquency Prevention, U.S. De- ing child maltreatment; and Williamsburg, Va.: National Center partment of Justice. NCJ 153569. reducing family size, closely for State Courts. NCJ 140642. spaced pregnancies, and chronic See introduction for annotation. welfare dependence. This report analyzes families who come to court for divorce, Speaking of Kids: A National Survey of Parent Training and Family Life juvenile delinquency, or child Children and Parents. 1991. Washing- Catalog. 1994. Studio City, Calif.: abuse and neglect matters. It re- ton, D.C.: National Commission on Center for the Improvement of veals that a significant portion of Children. NCJ 160079. Child Caring. NCJ 151286. these families had been to court This report is based on the This catalog highlights a variety for another family-related matter National Commission on of parenting-related publica- during the previous 5 years. It Children’s national opinion tions, training materials, and indicates the need to establish research project. The report

F–55 examines changes in family life This fact sheet uses data from the Using Agency Records To Find Miss- and documents perceptions Rochester Youth Development ing Children: A Guide for Law En- of family life, parent-child rela- Study to analyze the relationship forcement. 1996. Program Summary. tionships, time pressures, family between juveniles who had been Washington, D.C.: Office of Juvenile structure matters, worries and direct victims of child maltreat- Justice and Delinquency Preven- fears, and support for teenagers. ment and subsequent involve- tion, U.S. Department of Justice. It concludes with recommen- ment in violence. Incidence of NCJ 154633. dations for supporting and violence among this group is This guide contains information strengthening families, ensuring significantly higher than that and ideas designed to assist law income security, supporting the of subjects who were not mal- enforcement officers in obtaining transition to adulthood, and treated. Adolescents growing up and using records from various creating a moral climate for in homes that have violence be- human service providers in or- children. tween the partners, generalized der to locate missing children. hostility, or child maltreatment It discusses mandated and vol- Study Findings: Study of National also have higher rates of self- untary access to records from Incidence and Prevalence of Child reported violence. schools, medical care providers, Abuse and Neglect. 1988. Washing- child welfare agencies, and ton, D.C.: National Center on Child Thornberry, T., D. Huizinga, and shelters. Abuse and Neglect, U.S. Depart- R. Loeber. 1995. The prevention of ment of Health and Human Serv- serious delinquency and violence: When a Child Reports a Crime: En- ices. NCJ 120295. Implications from the program of couraging Children To Report Crime This study shows that the in- research on the causes and corre- and Responding Appropriately When crease in child abuse and neglect lates of delinquency. In J.C. Howell They Do. 1992 (August). Washing- reporting between 1980 and et al., eds. Sourcebook on Serious, ton, D.C.: National Crime Preven- 1986 is probably not due to an Violent, and Chronic Juvenile Offend- tion Council. NCJ 139302. actual increase in these areas ers. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage Publications. NCJ 157405. This handbook seeks to help but to greater recognition of members of the law enforcement the problem by community See section 1 for annotation. community as well as profes- professionals. sionals in other fields who work Toby, J., and A. Scrupski. 1991 (Win- with young people. It includes Teenage Victims: A National Crime ter). Community service as alterna- sections on citizen reporting Survey Report. 1991 (May). Wash- tive discipline. School Safety 1991 obligations, how to encourage ington, D.C.: Bureau of Justice Sta- (Winter):12–15. NCJ 128474. appropriate reporting, cultural tistics, U.S. Department of Justice. This article concludes that com- sensitivity, and how to teach NCJ 128129. munity service is an appropriate children sound reporting This report summarizes the intermediate sanction for delin- practices. National Crime Survey data quent behavior in schools, being obtained from household inter- more severe than afterschool de- Widom, C.S. 1995 (March). Victims views. It estimates that 1.9 mil- tention or in-school suspension of Childhood Sexual Abuse—Later lion violent victimizations were and less severe than long-term Criminal Consequences. Research in sustained by 28.1 million teenag- suspension or expulsion. Brief. Washington, D.C.: National ers in 1988. It indicates that Institute of Justice, U.S. Department teenagers are more vulnerable Tolan, P., and N. Guerra. 1994 of Justice. NCJ 151525. (July). What Works in Reducing Ado- than adults to both violence and This document examines the lescent Violence: An Empirical Review property crime. criminal consequences in adult- of the Field. Boulder, Colo.: The Cen- hood of childhood sexual abuse. Thornberry, T.P. 1994 (December). ter for the Study and Prevention of It tracks individuals who experi- Violent Families and Youth Violence. Violence, University of Colorado. enced sexual abuse, using official Fact Sheet #21. Washington, D.C.: NCJ 152910. records of arrest and juvenile Office of Juvenile Justice and Delin- See section 1 for annotation. detention to examine their subse- quency Prevention, U.S. Depart- quent criminal behavior. The ment of Justice. NCJ FS009421. study found that although all

F–56 types of abuse and neglect in This article compares a large Wright, K.N., and K.E. Wright. childhood put people at greater sample of physical and sexual 1994 (May). Family Life, Delinquency, risk for arrest at a later time, vic- abuse cases with a matched con- and Crime: A Policymaker’s Guide. tims of sexual abuse are no more trol group. Findings showed that Research Summary. Washington, likely than other victims to although there were not higher D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice and become involved in crime. rates of adult arrests for child Delinquency Prevention, U.S. De- abuse and neglect, there were partment of Justice. NCJ 140517. Widom, C.S. 1992 (October). The more instances of adult criminal- This summary describes how Cycle of Violence. Research in Brief. ity and violent offenses when positive parental involvement Washington, D.C.: National Insti- compared with the control deters delinquency, while its ab- tute of Justice, U.S. Department of group. sence or negative involvement Justice. NCJ 136607. fosters misconduct. Children Widom, C.S. 1989. Does violence This document examines the hy- who are rejected by their parents, beget violence? A critical examina- pothesis of an intergenerational who grow up in homes with tion of the literature. Psychological transmission of violence, draw- considerable conflict, or who Bulletin 106(1):3–28. NCJ 142384. ing on data from the disciplines are inadequately supervised of psychology, sociology, psy- This article presents a critical ex- are at greatest risk of becoming chiatry, social work, and nursing. amination of several hypotheses delinquent. Although physical abuse experi- regarding the cycle of violence. enced as a child leads signifi- The author concludes that exist- Zingraff, M.T., et al. 1993 (May). cantly to later violent behavior, ing knowledge of the long-term Child maltreatment and youthful findings failed to show that consequences of abusive home problem behavior. Criminology every abused or neglected environments is limited and 31(2):173–202. NCJ 142584. child will become delinquent, makes recommendations for This article describes the re- criminal, or violent. further research. search design that examined the correlation between child mal- Widom, C.S. 1989 (July). Child Wilson, J.J., and J.C. Howell. 1993. treatment and serious youth abuse, neglect, and adult behavior: Comprehensive Strategy for Serious, problem behavior that attracts Research design and findings on Violent, and Chronic Juvenile Offend- the attention of juvenile justice criminality, violence, and child ers. Program Summary. Washing- authorities. Overall experience of abuse. American Journal of ton, D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice maltreatment, but not the spe- Orthopsychiatry 59(3):355–367. and Delinquency Prevention, U.S. cific type or frequency, places NCJ 120866. Department of Justice. NCJ 143453. children at a statistically higher See introduction for annotation. risk of problem behavior.

F–57 Section 6: cities in Indiana model the con- Creating a Climate of Hope: Ten Neigh- Strengthen and cept, and the book includes borhoods Tackle the Drug Crisis. 1992. Mobilize Communities evaluation results. Washington, D.C.: National Crime Prevention Council. NCJ 136253. Charting Success: A Workbook for De- Anderson, E. 1990. Street Wise: Based on the national demon- veloping Crime Prevention and Other Race, Class, and Change in an Urban stration program Community Community Service Projects. 1989. Community. Chicago, Ill.: University Responses to Drug Abuse, this Washington, D.C.: National Crime of Chicago Press. NCJ 149158. report details the results of a Prevention Council. NCJ 139533. This book is based on fieldwork 30-month project devoted to in two urban communities— This manual is designed to aid preventing drug abuse in com- one African American and low adolescents and adults in devel- munities. Law enforcement, par- income, the other racially mixed oping projects to reduce crime ents, schools, and businesses but middle to upper income. It and the fear of crime; assist were among those involved in assesses local street life, cultural crime victims; and make the this effort. influences on behavior, and community a safer, better place group relationships. The author to live, work, and attend school. Cronin, R.C. 1994 (May). Innovative found that despite striking dif- Projects are formulated to en- Community Partnerships: Working ferences, African Americans and courage youth involvement. Together for Change. Program Sum- whites share many community mary. Washington, D.C.: Office of Checkoway, B., and J. Finn. 1992. attitudes, especially concerning Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Young People as Community Builders. public safety. Prevention, U.S. Department of Ann Arbor, Mich.: Center for the Justice. NCJ 147483. Study of Youth Policy, School of So- Calhoun, J.A. 1988. Violence, Youth, This is a review of innovative cial Work, University of Michigan. and a Way Out. Washington, D.C.: approaches in community polic- NCJ 146437. National Crime Prevention Council. ing that have opened lines of NCJ 114543. See section 5 for annotation. communication between law en- See section 2 for annotation. forcement and communities. The Cops Helping Kids: Teaching Pre- program summary spotlights schoolers Violence Prevention and Changing Perspectives: Youth As coordinated efforts between Safety. 1994. Washington, D.C.: Resources. 1990. Washington, D.C.: community policing and human National Crime Prevention Council. National Crime Prevention Council. service initiatives in troubled NCJ 156936. NCJ 160080. neighborhoods in Dade County, This book describes approaches This workbook is to help police FL; Lansing, MI; and Norfolk, to help communities engage officers and deputy sheriffs teach VA. The summary also high- youth as a means to solve com- violence prevention and per- lights potential replication issues munity problems. The program sonal safety techniques to 4- and for other jurisdictions to consider is based on delivery of positive 5-year-old children. Many activi- in implementing cooperative, services by youth to their peers ties use McGruff®, the “crime community-based efforts. rather than the delivery of serv- dog,” and Scruff®, his nephew, ices by adults to youth. Three to communicate important DeJong, W. 1994. Preventing Inter- safety lessons to preschoolers. personal Violence Among Youth: An Introduction to School, Community,

F–58 and Mass Media Strategies. Washing- Getting Together To Fight Crime: How Helping Communities Mobilize ton, D.C.: National Institute of Working With Others Can Help You Against Crime, Drugs, and Other Justice, U.S. Department of Justice. Build a Safer and Better Community. Problems. 1992 (December). Wash- NCJ 150484. 1992. Washington, D.C.: National ington, D.C.: National Crime This report reviews current Crime Prevention Council. Prevention Council. NCJ 142041. school, community, and mass NCJ 133969. This booklet provides 21 lessons media strategies for violence This how-to booklet for commu- on community mobilization prevention among youth, de- nity organization and mobiliza- gathered from the experiences scribes promising programs now tion helps neighbors rid their of many communities nation- in operation, and recommends communities of problems with wide. It concludes with how to ways in which police and other gangs, guns, drugs, and violence use the experiences of other com- criminal justice professionals can with the help of law enforcement munities, how to get started to become involved. and other agencies. mobilize a community, and how to sustain the effort and be Finding Funds and Building Support Given the Opportunity: How Three successful. for Community Crime Prevention. Communities Engaged Teens as Re- 1993 (September). Washington, sources in Drug Abuse Prevention. How Communities Can Bring Up D.C.: National Crime Prevention 1992 (March). Washington, D.C.: Youth Free From Fear and Violence. Council. NCJ 160081. National Crime Prevention Council. 1995 (July). Washington, D.C.: This booklet helps local jurisdic- NCJ 159771. National Crime Prevention Council. tions secure funding for crime See section 4 for annotation. NCJ 158378. prevention programs through This book describes the extent of the Edward Byrne Memorial Goldstein, A.P., et al. 1989. Reducing the violence problem, including System Improvement and Drug Delinquency: Intervention in the Com- the cost to communities; identi- Control Formula Grant Program munity. Fairfew View Park, N.Y.: fies key causes; presents success- and through other Federal fund- Pergamon Press. NCJ 128560. ful strategies; and outlines how ing sources, including public See section 5 for annotation. many communities have effec- housing anti-drug grants, drug- tively worked to create safer, free schools and communities Habitual Juvenile Offenders: Guide- violence-free environments for grants, community development lines for Citizen Action and Public youth. It highlights several suc- block grants, juvenile justice de- Responses. 1991. Washington, D.C.: cessful programs that can serve linquency prevention grants, Office of Juvenile Justice and as community models. youth gang drug prevention Delinquency Prevention, U.S. grants, and anti-child abuse Department of Justice. NCJ 141235. Howell, J.C., ed. 1995 (May). Guide for Implementing the Comprehensive grants. This publication provides infor- Strategy for Serious, Violent, and mation and guidelines for action Garbarino, J., K. Kostelny, and N. Chronic Juvenile Offenders. Washing- that may be used by the public Dubrow. 1991. Chicago: The war ton, D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice to obtain public policy, legisla- close to home. In J. Garbarino et al. and Delinquency Prevention, U.S. tive, and political responses to No Place To Be a Child: Growing Up Department of Justice. NCJ 153681. the problem of habitual juvenile in a War Zone. Lexington, Mass.: offenders. It includes a sample See introduction for annotation. Lexington Books. NCJ 147320. interagency agreement and This article demonstrates that sample legislation. Interdepartmental Working Group the escalating level of violence on Violence. 1994. Violence: Report to associated with drugs, gangs, Hawkins, J.D., and R.F. Catalano, Jr. the President and Domestic Policy and organized crime, particu- 1993. Communities That Care: Risk- Council. Washington, D.C. larly in urban areas such as Focused Prevention Using the Social NCJ 159325. Chicago, IL, is having a pro- Development Strategy: An Approach See section 1 for annotation. found effect on poor children to Reducing Adolescent Problem who live in public housing Behaviors. Seattle, Wash.: Develop- Isaacs, M.R. 1992. Violence: The Im- developments. mental Research and Programs, Inc. pact of Community Violence on Afri- NCJ 143996. can American Children and Families. See section 4 for annotation.

F–59 Arlington, Va.: National Center for Making Children, Families, and Com- for Community Action. Atlanta, Ga.: Education in Maternal and Child munities Safer From Violence. 1995 Centers for Disease Control and Health. NCJ 148142. (September). Washington, D.C.: Prevention. NCJ 147035. This book includes summaries National Crime Prevention Council. This publication identifies target of presentations at a 1991 NCJ 159773. groups, settings, and strategies workshop on collaborative This book for families—adults for community-based juvenile approaches to violence preven- and children—outlines ways violence prevention efforts. tion and intervention. Topics in- to make communities safer It offers suggestions for imple- clude a cultural perspective from violence, particularly gun- mentation and provides recom- on African-American violence, related violence. It provides mendations for evaluation of descriptions and evaluations practical information for strategies. of anti-violence programs, strengthening communities, programs focused on youth including building partnerships National Crime Prevention Council. and families, the failure of the between residents and law 1995 (December). 350 Tested Strate- mental health system in treating enforcement, ensuring that serv- gies To Prevent Crime: A Resource for African-American youth, and a ices are available for victims Municipal Agencies and Community review of research on the impact of violence, finding alternatives Groups. Washington, D.C.: Bureau of violence on children. to violence for youth, and learn- of Justice Assistance, U.S. Depart- ing about firearms and other ment of Justice. Jencks, C. 1992. Rethinking Social weapons laws. It concludes with This resource describes 350 Policy: Race, Poverty, and the a checklist for violence preven- strategies that have been imple- Underclass. Cambridge, Mass.: tion and a list of resources for mented by communities to pre- Harvard University Press. community assistance. vent crime. The strategies are NCJ 160075. grouped into topic-specific sec- See section 5 for annotation. Matrix of Community-Based Initia- tions that include community tives. 1996 (March). Washington, mobilization, youth, economic Johnson, C. 1990 (Winter). Youth D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice and development, violence, and service: Beyond noblesse oblige. Delinquency Prevention, U.S. De- drugs. Each strategy is explained School Safety. 12–14. NCJ 122435. partment of Justice. NCJ 154816. in detail, defining the problem See section 5 for annotation. This document presents in addressed, the key components graph format a collection and partnerships, potential ob- Kaye, C.B. 1989. Community serv- of public and private compre- stacles, noted successes, and ice—with a smile. School Safety. 1989 hensive community-based vio- methods for applying the strat- (Spring): 4–7. NCJ 119224. lence prevention and economic egy. Local contact information See section 5 for annotation. development initiatives that can is provided for every strategy. assist in delinquency prevention Local and Community Strategies To efforts. National Crime Prevention Council. Prevent Crime. 1995. Washington, 1994 (September). Working as Part- D.C.: National Crime Prevention Merry, S.E. 1981. Urban Danger: Life ners With Community Groups. BJA Council. NCJ 159772. in a Neighborhood of Strangers. Phila- Community Partnerships Bulletin. delphia, Pa.: Temple University Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Justice This book is a comprehensive Press. NCJ 079698. Assistance, U.S. Department of compendium of effective strate- Justice. NCJ 148458. gies that have reduced crime in This book presents findings local communities. Organized from research that explored This bulletin explores how part- by type of strategy, the chapters the different ways people from nerships between law enforce- give detailed program informa- various ethnic backgrounds in a ment and community groups can tion, including local contacts high-crime urban environment reduce crime, alleviate the fear for additional information. The perceive danger. of crime, and develop a stronger book is valuable for a range of sense of community unity. It ad- National Center for Injury Preven- crime-related problems faced dresses approaches for working tion and Control. 1993. The Preven- by communities of all sizes. with diverse groups and over- tion of Youth Violence: A Framework coming obstacles to cooperation.

F–60 National Crime Prevention Coun- communities. Through programs for success. The programs are cil. 1994 (August). Partnerships To such as Learn and Serve Amer- divided into the following cat- Prevent Youth Violence. BJA Commu- ica (for school-age youth) and egories: youth helping youth; nity Partnerships Bulletin. Wash- AmeriCorps (a national service support for young women; ington, D.C.: Bureau of Justice program), neighborhoods have adult-youth connections; last- Assistance, U.S. Department of experienced improvements in chance programs; and peace and Justice. NCJ 148459. both physical and social aspects. healing efforts. This work identifies alliances Neighborhood-Oriented Policing in Planning Is a Verb. 1988. Washing- that police agencies can form Rural Communities: A Program Plan- ton, D.C.: National Crime Preven- with existing institutions, such ning Guide. 1994 (August). Washing- tion Council. NCJ 126221. as schools, parent groups, neigh- ton, D.C.: Bureau of Justice borhood associations, and This book examines why plan- Assistance, U.S. Department of service organizations, to direct ning is vital and suggests some Justice. NCJ 143709. youth away from violence and principles and techniques to crime. These affiliations pro- This monograph targets citizens make planning a dynamic proc- vide youth with educational, and law enforcement officials in ess. It also provides a case study recreational, and anti-crime rural and small-town settings. exercise and a resource guide. alternatives. Community engagement and problemsolving are key to han- A Police Guide to Surveying Citizens National Research Council and dling public safety concerns, in- and Their Environment. 1993 (Octo- John F. Kennedy School of Govern- cluding drug abuse, violence, ber). Washington, D.C.: Bureau of ment, Harvard University. 1994. and disorder. Justice Assistance, U.S. Department Violence in Urban America: Mobiliz- of Justice. NCJ 143711. ing a Response. Washington, D.C.: Not Alone, Not Afraid: United Against This monograph shows the im- National Academy Press. Crime. 1993 (April). Washington, portance of police surveys con- NCJ 148221. D.C.: National Crime Prevention ducted in communities. Included Council. NCJ 144389. This book resulted from a con- is information on selecting a ference on urban violence that This book, in English and Span- sample group, questioning re- included mayors, Federal ish, teaches neighborhood resi- spondents, interpreting results, agency officials, and experts dents how to unite effectively and shaping policy through who analyzed the problem of against local criminal activity surveys. violence in cities and developed by improving personal safety, The President’s Community Enter- recommendations for effective working with other residents, prise Board. 1994 (January). Build- roles for Federal, State, and and asking for help from crime ing Communities: Together. Guidebook: local governments as well as prevention and other groups. Federal Programs, and companion for families and communities It emphasizes that crime preven- pieces: Guidebook: Strategic Planning in addressing local violence tion begins with individual and Empowerment Zones and Enter- problems. effort. prise Communities Application Guide. National Service and Public Safety: Payton, B. 1994 (September). The Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department Partnerships for Safer Communities. Challenge: Preventing Youth Violence. of Housing and Urban Develop- 1994 (March). Washington, D.C.: Washington, D.C.: Children’s ment and U.S. Department of National Crime Prevention Coun- Defense Fund. NCJ 156579. Agriculture. NCJ 160082. cil. NCJ 146842. This book outlines anti-violence This list of Federal programs as- As a result of the National and programs in Oakland, CA; Pine sisting community-based strate- Community Service Trust Act Bluff, AR; and Washington, gic planning for Empowerment of 1993, public safety representa- DC. The programs demonstrate Zones and Enterprise Communi- tives and the national service that two key elements—commit- ties provides program descrip- movement joined forces to ment to youth and connections tions, activities, and agency prevent crime and strengthen to caring adults—are essential contacts.

F–61 Preventing Violence: Program Ideas Snyder, H., and M. Sickmund. 1995 This kit contains a variety of re- and Examples. 1992. Washington, (August). Juvenile Offenders and Vic- producible materials for teen-led D.C.: National Crime Prevention tims: A National Report. Washington, projects to prevent crime in com- Council. NCJ 136251. D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice and munities. Materials include fact This book on strategies to pre- Delinquency Prevention, U.S. De- sheets, brochures, bulletins, and vent violence stresses a combina- partment of Justice. NCJ 153569. ideas for local projects that have tion of individual action and See introduction for annotation. been successful in the national local partnerships. It lists a vari- Teens, Crime, and the Commu- ety of successful local programs Spergel, I., et al. 1994 (October). nity Program created by the Na- that include activities on college Gang Suppression and Intervention: tional Crime Prevention Council campuses, efforts to address gun Community Models. Research Sum- and the National Institute for safety awareness, and anti-child mary. Washington, D.C.: Office of Citizen Education in the Law. abuse education. Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, U.S. Department of Toby, J., and A. Scrupski. 1991 (Win- 1994 Report to Congress: Title V In- Justice. NCJ 148202. ter). Community service as alternative discipline. School Safety 1991 centive Grants for Local Delinquency See section 3 for annotation. Prevention Programs. 1995 (March). (Winter):12–15. NCJ 128474. Washington, D.C.: Office of Juvenile Stop the Violence: Start Something. See section 5 for annotation. Justice and Delinquency Preven- 1991. Washington, D.C.: National tion, U.S. Department of Justice. Crime Prevention Council. Uniting Communities Through Crime NCJ 154020. NCJ 145595. Prevention. 1994. Special Focus. Washington, D.C.: National Crime This report discusses the Title V This booklet outlines ways to Prevention Council. NCJ 151380. Incentive Grants Program under stop local violence. It includes the Juvenile Justice and Delin- 10 things adults can teach kids This special focus report details quency Prevention Act of 1974. about resolving conflict nonvio- elements of crime prevention The report summarizes high- lently, 10 things individuals can programs, community groups lights of program activities and do to avoid violent situations, that take part in such programs, accomplishments during the and 10 things neighborhoods and characteristics of successful first year of its implementation, can do to achieve a nonviolent programs. It includes resources OJJDP’s efforts to foster inter- environment. for the implementation of crime agency coordination of delin- prevention programs. quency prevention activities, Taking the Offensive To Prevent Crime: Wilson, W.J. 1987. The Truly and recommendations for future How Seven Cities Did It. 1994 (April). Disadvantaged: The Inner City, Title V Program activities. Washington, D.C.: National Crime Prevention Council. NCJ 151532. the Underclass, and Public Policy. Rosenbaum, D.P., et al. 1994. Com- Chicago, Ill.: University of Chicago This book describes the partner- munity Responses to Drug Abuse: A Press. NCJ 127579. ship of seven Texas mayors who Program Evaluation. Washington, identified and attacked common This book examines social D.C.: National Institute of Justice, crime problems. They success- change in inner-city neighbor- U.S. Department of Justice. fully improved residents’ quality hoods, including problems of NCJ 145945. of life by implementing crime violent crime, out-of-wedlock This evaluation report describes prevention programs with short- births, female-headed families, the effectiveness of grassroots and long-term goals in an 18- and welfare dependency. The organizations in 10 cities in month T–CAP (Texas City author concludes that race- their responses to drug-related Action Plan To Prevent Crime) specific policies, such as affir- problems. It assesses specific campaign. mative action, are inadequate strategies used by these cities to address the problems of the to reduce drug abuse and fear Teens, Crime, and the Community. urban underclass. He recom- and to improve the quality of 1994. Washington, D.C.: National mends a comprehensive pub- neighborhoods. Crime Prevention Council. lic policy agenda to improve NCJ 151709. inner-city quality of life.

F–62 Wilson, J.J., and J.C. Howell. 1993. Working Together To Stop the Violence: This McGruff® anti-violence kit A Comprehensive Strategy for Serious, A Blueprint for Safer Communities. includes a variety of materials Violent, and Chronic Juvenile Offend- 1994 (June). Washington, D.C.: Na- for communities to use during ers. Program Summary. Washing- tional Crime Prevention Council. local anti-crime campaigns. Re- ton, D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice NCJ 149682. sources include reproducible and Delinquency Prevention, U.S. brochures, articles, and posters. Department of Justice. NCJ 143453. See introduction for annotation.

F–63 Section 7: ing juveniles charged with law DeComo, R., et al. 1995 (May). Juve- Support the violations (delinquency or status niles Taken Into Custody: Fiscal Year Development of offenses). 1992. Statistics Report. Washington, D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice Innovative Approaches Coldren, J.C., and T. Bynam. 1989. and Delinquency Prevention, U.S. to Research and Evaluating Juvenile Justice Programs: Department of Justice. NCJ 153851. A Design Monograph for State Plan- Evaluation See section 1 for annotation. ners. Washington, D.C.: Office of Board on Children and Families Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Drug Use Forecasting. 1993 Annual and Committee on National Statis- Prevention, U.S. Department of Report on Juvenile Arrestees/Detain- tics, Commission on Behavioral and Justice. NCJ 135817. ees: Drugs and Crime in America’s Social Sciences, National Research This monograph explains evalu- Cities. 1994 (November). Research Council and Institute of Medicine. ation strategies to State juvenile in Brief. Washington, D.C.: National 1995. Integrating Federal Statistics on justice specialists, State advisory Institute of Justice, U.S. Department Children: Report of a Workshop. Wash- groups, juvenile program admin- of Justice. NCJ 150709. ington, D.C.: National Academy istrators, and others interested Press. NCJ 158632. See section 3 for annotation. in learning more about the pro- This workshop report examines cesses and outcomes produced Elliott, D.S., D. Huizinga, and B. the adequacy of Federal juvenile by Formula Grants projects un- Morse. 1986. Self-reported violent statistics in the areas of child de- der the Federal Juvenile Justice offending: A descriptive analysis velopment in the context of fam- and Delinquency Prevention Act. of juvenile violent offenders and ily and community resources, their offending careers. Journal of children’s transition to school, Conrad, D., and D. Hedin. 1987. Interpersonal Violence 1:472–514. educational attainment and tran- Youth Service: A Guidebook for NCJ 104186. sition into employment, monitor- Developing and Operating Effective This article examines self-report ing changes in health care, and Programs. Washington, D.C.: data from the National Youth interpersonal violence involving Independent Sector. NCJ 139052. Survey between 1976 and 1980, children and families. This manual provides back- which showed important differ- ground information and instruc- Butts, J.A., et al. 1995. Juvenile Court ences from arrest data about tions to persons who want to Statistics 1992. Washington, D.C.: the prevalence and patterns of begin, expand, or promote Office of Juvenile Justice and Delin- violent offending. Self-reports programs of youth community quency Prevention, U.S. Depart- showed higher levels of criminal service. The emphasis is on ment of Justice. NCJ 154168. involvement than did arrest school-based programs. records. This report describes delinquency and status offense Delinquency Prevention Works. 1995 Federal Bureau of Investigation. cases handled by U.S. courts (May). Washington, D.C.: Office of 1994. Crime in the United States, with juvenile jurisdiction Juvenile Justice and Delinquency 1993: Uniform Crime Reports. between 1988 and 1992. The Prevention, U.S. Department of Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department report focuses on cases involv- Justice. NCJ 155006. of Justice. NCJ 151712. See introduction for annotation. See introduction for annotation.

F–64 Hatfield, J.M. 1994. Developing Huizinga, D., R. Loeber, and T. This fact sheet summarizes the Performance Measures for Criminal Thornberry. 1994. Urban Delinquency February 1993 Census of Public Justice Programs: Assessment and and Substance Abuse. Washington, Juvenile Detention, Correctional, Evaluation Handbook Series No. 2. D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice and and Shelter Facilities, including Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Justice Delinquency Prevention, U.S. De- information on facility and juve- Assistance, U.S. Department of partment of Justice. NCJ 146416. nile characteristics. The census is Justice. NCJ 148453. See section 3 for annotation. conducted biennially for OJJDP. This guide was designed to as- National Longitudinal Surveys sist in the effective evaluation of Linney, J.A., and A. Wandersman. Handbook 1995. Center for Human programs funded under the 1994. Prevention Plus III: Assessing Resources Research, The Ohio State Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1988. It Alcohol and Other Drug Prevention University. Columbus, Ohio: Bu- notes that effective evaluation of Programs at the School and Commu- reau of Labor Statistics, U.S. De- criminal justice programs de- nity Level. Rockville, Md.: Office of partment of Labor. pends on the availability of ad- Substance Abuse Prevention, U.S. Department of Health and Human equate financial resources, the Contact the U.S. Department of Services. NCJ 159774. purpose of the program evalua- Labor (202–606–7828). tion, and the type of program This workbook provides a step- being evaluated. by-step approach to assessing 1994 Report to Congress: Title V In- alcohol and other drug preven- centive Grants for Local Delinquency Hawkins, J.D., and R.F. Catalano, Jr. tion programs at school and Prevention Programs. 1995 (March). 1993. Communities That Care: Risk- community levels. Washington, D.C.: Office of Juvenile Focused Prevention Using the Social Justice and Delinquency Preven- Development Strategy; An Approach Lynch, J.P., B. Allen-Hagen, and S. tion, U.S. Department of Justice. to Reducing Adolescent Problem Be- Lindgren. 1989. National Assessment NCJ 154020. haviors. Seattle, Wash.: Develop- of Juvenile Justice Statistics: An See section 6 for annotation. mental Research and Programs, Inc. Agenda for Action. Washington, D.C.: NCJ 143996. Office of Juvenile Justice and Delin- Rutman, L. 1980. Planning Useful See section 4 for annotation. quency Prevention, U.S. Depart- Evaluations—Evaluability Assess- ment of Justice. NCJ 119764. ment. Newbury Park, Calif.: Sage Hawkins, J.D., and B. Nederhood. This comprehensive assessment Publications. NCJ 067317. 1987. Handbook for Evaluating Drug of the quality and usefulness Evaluability assessment is a and Alcohol Prevention Programs: of existing national statistics on process used increasingly by Staff/Team Evaluation of Prevention juvenile victims and offenders the United States and Canadian Programs (STEPP). Washington, concludes that accurate and ad- Governments to document pro- D.C.: REZA, Inc. NCJ 111657. equate information about juve- gram objectives, performance, This handbook discusses the niles is lacking for the purposes and information, estimate Staff/Team Evaluation of Pre- of effective policymaking and progress, and identify needed vention Programs (STEPP), a research. changes. six-step methodology by which the evaluation of drug and Mendel, R.A. 1995. Prevention or Snyder, H., and M. Sickmund. 1994 alcohol prevention programs Pork? A Hard-Headed Look at Youth- (January). Developing a National Ju- is conducted. Oriented Anti-Crime Programs. Wash- venile Justice Statistical Program. ington, D.C.: American Youth Policy Pittsburgh, Pa.: National Center for Howell, J.C., ed. 1995 (May). Guide Forum. NCJ 153371. Juvenile Justice. NCJ 158758. for Implementing the Comprehensive See section 4 for annotation. This publication describes the Strategy for Serious, Violent, and Federal three-track approach Chronic Juvenile Offenders. Washing- Moone, J. 1995. Juveniles in Public to developing an integrated ton, D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice Facilities, 1993. Fact Sheet #25. national juvenile justice statistics and Delinquency Prevention, U.S. Washington, D.C.: Office of Juvenile program—the Statistics Develop- Department of Justice. NCJ 153681. Justice and Delinquency Prevention, ment Track, the Dissemination U.S. Department of Justice. See introduction for annotation. Track, and the Systems Develop- NCJ FS009525. ment Track.

F–65 Spergel, I. 1995 (June). The Youth Tolan, P., and N. Guerra. 1994 Widom, C.S. 1995 (March). Victims Gang Problem: A Community (July). What Works in Reducing Ado- of Child Sexual Abuse—Later Criminal Approach. New York, N.Y.: Oxford lescent Violence: An Empirical Review Consequences. Washington, D.C.: University Press. NCJ 158897. of the Field. Boulder, Colo.: The Cen- National Institute of Justice, U.S. See section 3 for annotation. ter for the Study and Prevention of Department of Justice. NCJ 151525. Violence, University of Colorado. See section 5 for annotation. Thornberry, T.P., D. Huizinga, and NCJ 152910. R. Loeber. 1995. The prevention of See section 1 for annotation. Wilson, J.J., and J.C. Howell. 1993. serious delinquency and violence: Comprehensive Strategy for Serious, Implications from the program What, Me Evaluate? A Basic Evalua- Violent, and Chronic Juvenile Offend- of research on the causes and corre- tion Guide for Citizen Crime Preven- ers. Program Summary. Washington, lates of delinquency. In J.C. Howell tion Programs. 1986. Washington, D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice et al., eds. Sourcebook on Serious, D.C.: National Crime Prevention and Delinquency Prevention, U.S. Violent, and Chronic Juvenile Offend- Council. NCJ 102933. Department of Justice. NCJ 143453. ers. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage Written for crime prevention See introduction for annotation. Publications. NCJ 157405. practitioners with little or no See section 1 for annotation. statistical training, this guide to Zill, N., J.L. Peterson, and K. Moore. program evaluation addresses 1984. Improving National Statistics on Title V Incentive Grants for Local the benefits of evaluation, goal- Children, Youth, and Families: A Re- Delinquency Prevention Programs. setting, basic tests and compari- port on Recommendations Made at the 1995. Washington, D.C.: Office of sons, survey techniques, use of Interagency Conference on Child and Juvenile Justice and Delinquency community resources, and report Family Statistics. Washington, D.C.: Prevention, U.S. Department of writing and formatting. Child Trends, Inc. NCJ 160083. Justice. NCJ 154020. This document includes recom- See section 4 for annotation. Widom, C.S. 1992 (October). The mendations by Child Trends, Cycle of Violence. Washington, D.C.: Inc., for improving the Federal National Institute of Justice, U.S. statistical data base on children Department of Justice. NCJ 136607. and families. See section 5 for annotation.

F–66 Section 8: DeJong, W., and L. Wallack. 1992 This publication discusses the Implement an (Winter). The role of the designated evaluation, through sample sur- Aggressive Public driver programs in the prevention veys, of the impact and cost- of alcohol impaired driving: A criti- effectiveness of the National Outreach Campaign cal reassessment. Health Education Citizens’ Crime Prevention on Effective Strategies Quarterly 19(4): 429–42. NCJ 160084. Media Campaign’s activities in To Combat Juvenile This article reviews the desig- producing and disseminating Violence nated driver concept and current public service announcements. debate about its role in prevent- The surveys were conducted American Academy of Pediatrics, ing drunk driving. The authors during the spring of 1991. Committee on Adolescence. 1992. encourage a renewed focus on Firearms and adolescents. Pediatrics Partner with the Media To Build Safer sobriety checkpoints, strict en- 89(4):784–787. NCJ 159315. Communities: An Action Kit. 1995. forcement of laws against alco- Washington, D.C.: National Crime See section 3 for annotation. hol sales to minors, increased Prevention Council and The Adver- excise taxes, and other public Centers for Disease Control and tising Council, Inc. NCJ 156820. policy initiatives. Prevention. 1991. Weapon-carrying This kit was developed to help among high school students: United Fingerhut, L.A., J.C. Kleinman, E. individuals and organizations at States, 1990. Morbidity and Mortality Godfrey, and H. Rosenberg. 1991. the community level to build on Weekly Report 40(40):681–684. Firearm mortality among children, the National Citizen’s Crime Pre- NCJ 144164. youth, and young adults 1–34 years vention Campaign. It contains See section 3 for annotation. of age, trends and current status: background information, strat- United States 1979–88. Monthly Vital egy suggestions, and activity and Christoffel, K.K. 1991. Toward re- Statistics Report 39(11). NCJ 144116. program ideas to engage the ducing pediatric injuries from fire- See section 3 for annotation. mass communications media as arms: Charting a legislative and long-term partners in preventing regulatory course. Pediatrics Interdepartmental Working Group crime. 88(2):294–305. NCJ 145350. on Violence. 1994. Violence: Report to Sugarmann, J., and K. Rand. 1994. See section 3 for annotation. the President and Domestic Policy Council. Washington, D.C. Cease fire. Rolling Stone 677:30–42. DeJong, W. 1994. Preventing NCJ 159325. NCJ 147980. Interpersonal Violence Among Youth: See section 1 for annotation. See section 3 for annotation. An Introduction to School, Commu- nity, and Mass Media Strategies. O’Keefe, G.J., et al. 1993. The Social Treanor, W.W., and M. Bijlefeld. Washington, D.C.: National Insti- Impact of the National Citizens’ Crime 1989. Kids and Guns: A Child Safety tute of Justice, U.S. Department of Prevention Campaign. Washington, Scandal. Washington, D.C.: Ameri- Justice. NCJ 150484. D.C.: Bureau of Justice Assistance, can Youth Work Center and Educa- tional Fund to End Handgun See section 6 for annotation. U.S. Department of Justice. NCJ 144533. Violence. NCJ 111607. See section 3 for annotation.

F–67 Working Together To Stop the Violence: This McGruff® anti-violence anti-crime campaigns. Resources A Blueprint for Safer Communities. kit, developed for Crime Preven- include reproducible brochures, 1994. Washington, D.C.: National tion Month, includes organizing sample press releases and Crime Prevention Council. tips and a variety of materials for articles for local media, and NCJ 151467. communities to use during local posters.

F–68 Conclusion Garbarino, J., K. Kostelny, and N. Dubrow. 1991. Chicago: The War Close to Home. In J. Garbarino et al. No Place To Be a Child: Growing Up in a War Zone. Lexington, Mass.: Lexington Books. NCJ 148593. See section 6 for annotation.

F–69 Conclusion

Reduce Tomorrow’s violence to urban war zones where Although this Action Plan cannot more than one in four children have include all sources of guidance on Violence: Take witnessed a homicide. Garbarino the suggested strategies or current Action Today concludes: “Environmental danger research, the Appendixes contain of this magnitude is equaled only extensive references regarding In a healthy society, citizens should in the lives of children who live in model programs, program evalua- neither have to fear for the safety situations of armed conflict.”1 tions, delinquency research, and of youth nor fear being victimized juvenile justice statistics. by them. Today, however, many It is disheartening to see the grow- children are exposed to the threat ing numbers of violent youth who Self-assessment or external evalua- of violence in their homes, schools, value neither their own lives nor tion is critical to success in this and neighborhoods. At an alarming those of their victims. In this Action field. The Coordinating Council rate, the entrepreneurial talents Plan, the Coordinating Council urges all communities to find a and skills of some of our brightest has presented its broad vision for clear way to measure and demon- youngsters are employed in the reforming the juvenile justice sys- strate the outcome of the actions lucrative but lethal trade of distrib- tem and strengthening communi- they take to address their juvenile uting illegal substances. They war ties to reduce both the number of violence and delinquency problem. with each other, deface buildings, juvenile victims and the number terrorize neighborhoods, and en- of juvenile offenders. The vision is The Nation can ill afford to make gage in other malicious acts. Youth- responsive in terms of advocating the wrong choices. The Action Plan ful prostitutes and runaways live in intensified law enforcement and presents examples of community the streets, merchants are robbed at prosecution of serious, violent, and commitment to solutions that work. gunpoint, and the elderly are at- chronic juvenile offenders and re- We have an opportunity to build tacked. Easy access to guns has sponsible in terms of advancing on these accomplishments and added to the lethality of juvenile strategies to bolster the system of implement them in our own violence. support and intervention for those communities. children and youth confronted Researcher and child advocate Endnote by violence in their communities, James Garbarino likens American their schools, and their homes. 1. Garbarino, J., K. Kostlny, and N. communities plagued by gang Dubrow. 1991. No Place To Be a Child: Growing Up in a War Zone. Lexington, Mass.: Lexington Books.

105 ii U.S. Department of Justice Office of Justice Programs SPECIAL FOURTH CLASS RATE POSTAGE & FEES PAID Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention DOJ/OJJDP Permit No. G–91 Washington, D.C. 20531 Official Business Penalty for Private Use $300

NCJ 157106