Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences

Quaternary Evolution of the Basin: Implications on Tectonics and Palaeonvironments of the Central North Anatolian Shear Zone

Journal: Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences

Manuscript ID cjes-2018-0306.R2

Manuscript Type: Article

Date Submitted by the 03-Apr-2019 Author:

Complete List of Authors: Erturaç, Mehmet; Sakarya Universitesi, Department of Geography; Sakarya University, Research, Development and Application Center (SARGEM-MALTA) Erdal, Ozan;Draft Teknik Universitesi, Eurasia Institute of Earth Sciences Sunal, Gürsel; Istanbul Technical University, Department of Geology Tüysüz, Okan; Istanbul Teknik Universitesi, Department of Geology Şen, Şevket; Sorbonne Universités, CR2P-UMR 7202 CNRS-MNHN

Suluova Basin, North Anatolian Shear Zone, Shear Zone, Keyword: Quaternary Palaeoenvironment

Is the invited manuscript for Understanding tectonic processes and their consequences: A tribute to consideration in a Special A.M. Celal Sengor Issue? :

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1 Quaternary Evolution of the Suluova Basin: Implications on Tectonics and

2 Palaeonvironments of the Central North Anatolian Shear Zone

3 Mehmet Korhan Erturaç1,2, Ozan Erdal3, Gürsel Sunal4, Okan Tüysüz3, Şevket Şen5

4 1 Sakarya University, Department of Geography, 54187 Sakarya,

5 2 Sakarya University Research, Development and Application Center (SARGEM-MALTA), 54187 6 Sakarya, Turkey

7 3 İstanbul Technical University, Eurasia Institute of Earth Sciences, 34469, İstanbul, Turkey

8 4 İstanbul Technical University, Department of Geological Engineering, 34469, İstanbul, Turkey

9 5 Sorbonne Universités, CR2P-UMR 7202 CNRS-MNHN, 8 rue Buffon, 75005 Paris, France.

10 Abstract

11 The Suluova Basin is a prominent memberDraft of the wide transtensional Amasya Shear Zone, located 12 at the central part of the North Anatolian Shear Zone. This basin is crucial and provides well- 13 resolved data in order to understand the evolution of transtensional tectonic zones as well as the 14 morphological and paleoenvironmental changes of North Anatolia during the Quaternary.

15 Analysis of detailed stratigraphical sections, faulting data and paleontology reveals that 16 the Suluova Basin has started to evolve as a closed half-graben along the NW-SE-trending, SW- 17 dipping basin bounding fault zone with normal slip in the early Quaternary. Initial sedimentation 18 mode of the basin was dominated by alluvial-fan facies associations. Progressive basin subsidence 19 resulted in an expansion of a fresh water lake at the basin depocenter as faults propagated 20 westwards. Further extension in the basin were caused to initiate the E-W-trending southern 21 tectonic boundary. Newly created accommodation space hosted a vast fresh water lake during the 22 (~1.8-0.78 Ma) acting as a refugia for a rich faunal assemblage of large and small land 23 .

24 The conditions prior to the onset of Middle (MIS19, ~0.79 Ma) is marked with 25 increasing regional erosion where paleo-Lake Suluova was captured by the regional river system. 26 Synchronously, the next phase of the shear zone formation was introduced with E-W trending 27 dextral and NE-SW trending sinistral strike-slip faults, cross cutting the former basin structure,

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28 forming new depocenters. These faults are still active with noticeable seismic activity and 29 comprise future risks for the major cities of the region.

30 Keywords: Suluova Basin, North Anatolian Shear Zone, Amasya Shear Zone, Quaternary 31 Palaeoenvironment

32 Introduction

33 The North Anatolian Fault (NAF) is a 1400 km long continental transform fault characterized by 34 right-lateral strike-slip motion. The NAF forms the northern boundary and accommodates 21 35 mm/year westward extrusion of the Anatolian Plate (Fig. 1A). The fault extends between 26° and 36 40° E longitudes and forms a broad arc roughly parallel to the coast of the within a vast 37 shear zone (the North Anatolian Shear Zone or Keriogen; Şengör et al. 2005, 2019) overprinting 38 Tethyan subduction-accretion complexes (Fig. 1A). The first visible perturbations to the smooth 39 geometry of the NAF main strand are, at around 34-37°E longitude, two main synthetic splay fault 40 zones that bifurcate from the main fault lineDraft and strike through the Anatolian Plate (Fig 1B, Erturaç 41 and Tüysüz 2012). Those secondary faults show remarkable morphological expressions 42 accompanied by elongated basins and significant microseismicity (Fig. 1B). The NAF, together 43 with these splay faults, form a broad wedge-shaped shear zone, reaching up to 90 km in width and 44 150 km length, hereby called the Amasya Shear Zone (ASZ, Erturaç and Tüysüz 2012).

45 The fault pattern of the ASZ shows a typical “half fish-bone” or “horse-tail” geometry (Şengör 46 and Barka 1992; Şengör et al. 2019). The components of this geometry are the central convex bend 47 of the NAF main strand and its E-W-trending synthetic splays (Şengör 1979; Barka and Kadinsky- 48 Cade 1988) the Ezinepazar-Sungurlu Fault Zone (EzFZ; Erturaç and Tüysüz 2012) and the 49 Suluova Fault System (SFS, Şaroğlu and Arpat 1979; Erturaç and Tüysüz 2012; Rojay and 50 Koçyiğit 2012). Activity of these faults controlled the evolution of narrow uplifts reaching up to 51 2000 meters (such as the Akdağ and Tavşan Mt.’s) and wide basins (the Suluova and Amasya 52 basins). The active segments of the NAFZ, bounding the ASZ, was ruptured by successive 53 earthquakes in 1939 (Mw: 7.9), 1942 (Mw: 7.2, 1 in Fig 1B) and 1943 (Mw: 7.3, 2 in Fig. 1B) 54 (McKenzie 1972). The seismic activity within the ASZ is marked with moderate sized earthquakes 55 such as 1996 event (Mw: 5.7; 3 in Fig. 1B, Pınar et al. 1998) which ruptured NE-SW trending 56 sinistral Salhan Fault (Erturaç et al. 2009). There were a series of earthquakes on the active faults

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57 within the ASZ and the bounding NAFZ until today where Karasozen et al. (2014) have studied 58 the microseismicity within the ASZ between 2006 and 2008. By calculating the focal mechanism 59 of 112 earthquakes, they have defined five distinct zones of deformation with changing stress 60 directions along the major faults (Fig 1B). Block modelling of GPS velocity vectors (Yavasoğlu 61 et al. 2011) yielded 25.5±1.8 mm/yr total slip rate for the ASZ where the NAF main strand 62 accompanied 80% of total slip. These data indicate strain partitioning between the NAFZ main 63 strand and its splays within the ASZ.

64 Fig.1

65 Sedimentary record of tectonically-controlled basins includes valuable information on both timing 66 and changes of the tectonic regime and also provide insights for faunal and environmental changes. 67 The Suluova Basin (SB) stands as the most prominent morphotectonic element of the ASZ, which 68 records the complete Quaternary history of this portion of the NASZ. We performed an extensive 69 field survey for mapping the SB fill toDraft reveal the evolutionary steps of formation by means of 70 sedimentary architecture and depositional environment as well as tectonic control. The chronology 71 of the basin is built using detailed micro and macro mammal paleontology.

72 Regional Settings

73 The SB is a prominent depression located in North Central Anatolia within the Central Pontide 74 Mountain Range. It is one of the largest intermontane basins within the southern Black Sea domain. 75 The shape of the basin resembles a deformed E-W-oriented right trapezoid covering an area of 76 ~560 km2 (Fig. 2). The geometry of this trapezoid can be defined with its acute (45°) and obtuse 77 (135°) angles with dimensions of the long (40 km) and the short axes (23 km). Northeastern, 78 northern and southern sides of the basin are bounded by the segments of the Bayırlı Fault Zone 79 (BFZ), the Fault Zone (MFZ) and the Eraslan Fault Zone (EFZ), respectively (Fig. 2). 80 The activity of the Suluova Fault cuts and offsets this trapezoid for 10 km and its 7 km long right 81 hand step over caused further extension that is marked by formation of a new pull-apart basin (~60 82 km2) at southeast corner of the SB. Although the basin fill reaches up to 750 m asl, its modern flat- 83 plane lies in between 550-450 meters of elevation with tilting to the SE. The basin is surrounded 84 by the Akdağ Mt. (2067 m) to the northeast, the Tavşan Mt. to north (1907 m) and the Çakır Mt. 85 (1200 m) to the south (Fig. 2).

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86 The basin is today drained by the Tersakan River covering 2637 km2 watershed. The main stream 87 originates as an outlet of the Lake Ladik, a pull-apart basin on the North Anatolian Fault, then 88 flows to the south inside a 200 m deep Havza gorge merging with its first tributary, the Derinöz 89 River. Another tributary, the Salhan River joins the Tersakan River at southeast to the recent 90 depocenter of the SB (Fig. 2). The river then flows through the narrow Boğazköy gorge (~400 m 91 average depth) where it joins the Yeşilırmak (Iris) River which is one of the major river systems 92 draining from Northern Anatolia to the Black Sea. All these rivers incised their valleys 93 significantly during the middle-late Pleistocene (Fig. 2).

94 Fig 2.

95 The basement rocks of the basin are the geological formations of the Tokat Massif of the Sakarya 96 Zone (Şengör and Yılmaz 1981; Yılmaz et al. 1997, Okay and Tüysüz 1999). The pre-Neogene 97 rocks of the basin consist mainly Lower Eocene limestones of the Çekerek Formation (Tçek) to 98 the south and northeast where coal bearingDraft clastic rocks of the Çeltek Formation (Tçel) expose 99 only at northeast. The Middle Eocene volcanics of the Merzifon Group (Tmer; Keskin et al. 2008) 100 can be observed in a wide region surrounding the western half of the SB. The Yeşilırmak 101 Metamorphics (TRy, Tüysüz 1996) are exposed to the south, Lower micritic 102 limestones of the Soğukçam Formation (Csog, Tüysüz 1996) and Upper Cretaceous volcanics 103 /volcanoclastics of the Lokman Formation (Clok, Gülmez and Genç 2015) are exposed at northeast 104 and east-northeast parts of the basin respectively. All of these formations have provided clastics 105 forming the basin fill during the Quaternary. The presence of deposits is controversial 106 within the SB. We have not observed any outcrop of pre-Quaternary sediments to be attributed to 107 pre-Suluova Basin; however, Rojay and Koçyiğit (2012) interpreted limited exposures of 108 mudstones overlain by recent alluvial fans as Miocene lacustrine deposits without any stratigraphic 109 or age control. Kayseri and Akgün (2008), have studied palynology of a coal bearing clastic 110 sequence at distant WSW of the SB (Alıcık, Fig. 2), constraining it to a Middle Miocene age.

111 Methods

112 In order to define the sedimentary facies and determine the depositional environments, we 113 measured vertical sections in the basin. The classification is based on Miall (2006) and Blair and 114 McPherson (1994) where sedimentary units are classified according to their grain size, lithofacies,

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115 and sedimentary structures. Fig. 3 illustrate the symbols chosen to represent the lithology and 116 sedimentary structures observed and plotted on measured sections. We discussed the details of 15 117 measured sections representing the sedimentary architecture of the NE, S and SW portions of the 118 SB as seen in Figs. 4 and 6, which are described in detail in the following section. The modelling 119 of the initial steps (half-graben) of the SB is adapted from Schlische and Anders (1996) and 120 Withjack et al. (2002).

121 Fig. 3

122 To determine the state of stress tensor, which is an indicator of changes in the tectonic regime 123 controlling the formation of the SB, we collected a dataset from the faults deforming the basin 124 infill. Application of kinematic analysis requires precise measurements on the strike, dip of the 125 fault plane, sense of slip and trend and plunge of slickenlines (Angelier 1994). The analysis of 126 these dataset reveals the orientation of maximum (σ1), minimum (σ3) and intermediate (σ2) stress 127 directions, the major components of theDraft stress tensor, the mean shear stress value (τmean) and ratio 128 φ: (σ2- σ3/σ1-σ3) (Ramsey and Lisle 2000). We used various methods developed for kinematic 129 analysis: (i) the graphical methods such as the P-T Axis (Turner 1953), the M-Plane Girdle 130 (Angelier 1979) and (ii) numerical methods such as the Minimized Shear Stress Variation 131 (Michael, 1984); the Minimized Non-slip Shear Stress (Angelier 1994), and the Minimized Non- 132 slip Shear Stress in Reduced σ-Space (Fry 1999). For analysis, we used Stereonett (Johannes 2000) 133 for graphical and MyFault 1.03© software for mathematical methods. The dataset is grouped 134 primarily based on location, age of the deformed stratigraphic units, and cross-cutting 135 relationships. Within each dataset we also constructed movement (M) planes of each fault (Sunal 136 and Tüysüz 2002) for further separation of the incompatible datasets.

137 Beds within the measured sections with a potential preserving mammal fragments are marked for 138 later sampling. The total amount of sediment inspected had reached over a tonne. These sediments 139 were screen-washed on metal sieves of 0.5 mm2 mesh sizes. Samples were sorted-out under a 140 binocular microscope, micromammal molars were measured in millimetres with Leica EZ4 HD 141 and Dino-Lite USB microscopes’ software, large specimens with Vernier caliper of 0.01 mm 142 precision. Drawings were performed via camera lucida. Scanning Electron Microscope 143 photographs were taken at Metallurgical and Materials Engineering Department of Istanbul 144 Technical University.

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145 The nomenclature and measurements for cricetines are adapted after Mein and Freudenthal (1971), 146 for arvicolines after van der Meulen (1974), Carls and Rabeder (1988), Rekovets and Nadachowski 147 (1995), Abbassi et al. (1998), for murines after García-Alix et al. (2009), for giraffid after Gentry 148 et al. (1999). 149 Abbreviations: AL, anterior lobe; BRA, buccal re-entrant angle; BSA, buccal salient angle; KA, 150 Kamışlı; KE, Kızıleğrek; KO, Kerimoğlu; KU, Kurnaz; L, length; LRA, lingual re-entrant angle; 151 LSA, lingual salient angle; M1-M3 denote upper molars, m1-m3 lower molars; min., minimum; 152 PL, posterior lobe; SDQ, enamel thickness differentiation quotient; T, triangles; W, width; YP, 153 Yolpınar.

154 Stratigraphy of the Suluova Basin

155 The sediment fill of the SB is classified into seven formations by using lithology, depositional 156 environment, sediment source region, fossil content and finally the fault segment which controlled 157 the sedimentation. These formations form the Suluova Group (Qs; Rojay and Koçyiğit 2012), and 158 were deposited throughout the QuaternaryDraft We describe each formation and the changes in 159 depositional facies by using measured sections from the northwest (Fig. 4) and south-southwest 160 (Fig. 7) parts of the basin. The descriptive pictures from these sections are presented in Figs. 5 and 161 8.

162 Fig. 4

163 The Değirmendere Formation (Qsd)

164 The oldest units of the basin are observed at east-northeast part of the SB, namely the 165 Değirmendere Formation (Qsd). The measurable exposures are limited to road cuts where natural 166 sections are disturbed by landslides. The formation has a faulted contact with the Eocene Çekerek 167 Formation (Tcek) and is overlain by the Yolpınar Formation (Qsy) with an erosional contact. The 168 formation could be observed at the base of the Gerger and Sivri sections (see Fig. 2 for section 169 locations and Fig. 4 for measured sections). The sections start with intercalation of coarse grained 170 gravel-cobble beds of channel deposits intercalated with thin silt-clay and paleosol levels, tilted 171 ~2° towards northwest. All these layers have a distinct purple-red color indicating clast derivation 172 from the Upper Cretaceous Lokman Formation (Clok). These limited outcrops indicate that the 173 Değirmendere Formation represents the proximal to medial part of an alluvial fan, revealing the

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174 initial steps of opening of a closed half-basin by the activity of the Bayırlı Fault Zone (BFZ-I). The 175 depositional sequence is terminated by a spatially continuous and well-developed paleosol layer. 176 There is no age constraint on this formation.

177 The Yolpınar Formation (Qsy)

178 After a quiescence in deposition, the Yolpınar Formation (Qsy) began with a 50-meter thick 179 sequence of fluvial channels and filled with rounded blocks and cobbles (Gerger section, Fig. 4) 180 overlying the Qsd. The dominant clast lithology changes from the Lokman Formation to the 181 Çekerek Formation, giving the formation grey to orange color. At the base of the Qsy, the 182 maximum clast size exceeds 50 cm in diameter. To the top of the section, the thickness of channel 183 deposits decreases and the deposits are represented by intercalations of coarse pebble and sand 184 layers with soil formation in between (Fig. 5 A). In the Kutlu Section (Fig. 4), the unconformable 185 contact between the limestones of the Çekerek Formation and coarse basal sediments of the 186 Yolpınar Formation is observed. Here theDraft blocks are carbonate cemented (Fig 5B) and the section 187 exhibits syn-sedimentary faulting. To the northwest at Sivri Section (Figs. 2 and 4), we observe 188 coarse to fine-grained pebble beds of channel deposits intercalated with coarse sand and silty layers 189 and two distinct paleosol formations. Towards top of the section the bedding thickness and the 190 grain sizes decrease (Fig 5C). This sedimentary architecture reveals the onset of sheet flood 191 deposition by distributary channels of the medial to distal part of an alluvial fan. In the Kurnaz 192 Section (Fig. 4D) a thick clay deposit rich in organic material represents a swamp environment 193 and is overlain by a fine-grained channel deposits and silty coarse sand deposits. In this section 194 macro and micro mammal remains yielded the first age constraint for the basin stratigraphy.

195 Fig. 5

196 Close to the basin depocenter, in the Kerimoğlu Section (Fig. 4E), an intercalation of fine grained 197 sediments withwell-developed cross stratification and mollusk remains indicating a low energy 198 environment of swamps and also providing clues of the development of a freshwater lake were 199 observed (Fig. 5 D). The Kerimoğlu Section has also a layer, with abundant micromammal and 200 fish remains, providing information on both age and environment of this unit. This section 201 continues for at least 100 meters or more as the Eraslan Formation. The Kurnaz and Kerimoğlu 202 sections reveal distal parts of a wide alluvial fan network, increased water input to the closed basin, 203 and introduction of a freshwater lake.

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204 The sedimentary environment during the initial steps and opening of the SB is simplified in Fig. 205 6. Here we provide an interpreted cross section based on the measured sections, Gerger, Sivri, 206 Kutlu and Kerimoğlu. The formation described above are placed according to their positions, 207 sedimentary facies and related segment of the Bayırlı Fault Zone (BFZ). The model represents a 208 large scale network of alluvial fans. The field distribution of the formations reveals that the 209 associated normal fault (BFZ) has migrated gradually to northeast, enabling the basin to expand. 210 This fault migration is also shown by the change in the dominant clast lithology of the basin 211 sediments. Close to the faulted mountain front (Akdağ Mt.), block-cobble-sized sediments are 212 deposited, whereas towards the depocenter of the basin to the southwest, gradual facies changes 213 are observed in all measured sections, intercalations of fine grained channel deposits exhibiting 214 cross bedding and eventually silt and clay layers. All these facies indicate proximal to distal 215 portions of the alluvial fan network environment. 216 Fig. 6 Draft 217 The Eraslan Formation (Qse)

218 Two measured sections, namely Armutlu Sections (I and II), which represents the northeast 219 deposits of the Eraslan Formation are obtained from an open-pit coal mine where the Pleistocene 220 cover is excavated to reach the coal bearing Lower Eocene Çeltek Formation (Tcel). Each section 221 starts with an angular unconformity over various facies of the Tcel (Fig. 4 I and II). The altitude 222 of the base of the sections declines 40 m and could be related to either paleotopography or the 223 normal activity resolved on the splays of the BFZ. Each section consists of a sequence of fine- 224 grained sediments, intercalation of horizontally continuous fine-coarse sand, silty clay (Fig. 5 E). 225 The average thickness of the bedding is ~1 meter. At the top of the section layers include abundant 226 in-situ mollusk remains such as Unio sp., Pisidium sp. and Valvata sp. of which identifications are 227 provided by B. A. Gümüş (pers. commun., 2018) indicating fresh water lake environment. These 228 layers also show macro mammal remains and a complete M3 molar of Mammuthus trogontherii 229 (Albayrak and Lister, 2012). According to the stratigraphic position and depositional environment, 230 these sediments are attributed to an extensive fresh water lake, namely the paleo-Lake Suluova.

231 The Gerger and Kutlu sections end up by the coarse-grained and sub-rounded immature clasts, 232 interpreted as colluvium deposits (Fig. 4). In these deposits another major shift in clast lithology 233 is observed, which was solely fed by limestones of the Akdağ Mt. These layers present

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234 large scale cross bedding of cobbles, intercalated with clay beds. To the southwest, the sediment 235 size gets finer and bedding gets thinner. These deposits are interpreted as representing a high 236 energy environment of an alluvial fan, controlled by the activity of the Bayırlı Fault (III). The unit 237 is considered as the Akören Member (Qsea), stratigraphically equivalent of the Eraslan Formation 238 (Qse), and interpreted as a fan delta environment connected to the paleo-Lake Suluova.

239 Fig. 7

240 Fig. 7 exhibits five measured sections from the east to the west of the southern part of the SB. The 241 first three sections, Eraslan, Yuvala and Beyazıt, start with an apparent unconformity over the 242 paleosol developed on the Triassic basement (TRy, Fig. 8 A) and the Eocene limestones (Tcek; 243 Fig. 8 F). The elevation of the base ranges from east (527 m) to west (650 m) and continues up to 244 ~700 meters. Besides the paleotopography, we may assume that the amount of normal slip of the 245 EFZ decreases from east to the west. Except the basal gravels and infrequent channel intrusions, 246 all sections exhibit fine-grained sand andDraft silty sand beds, showing cross bedding, mollusk and 247 macro/micro mammal remains (Fig. 8 B and C). However, most of sandy layers appear to be 248 carbonate rich and therefore observed as cemented indicating carbonate precipitation (Fig. 8 C- 249 E). The sedimentary architecture of these sections reveals various depositional environments of 250 the well-developed palaeo-Lake Suluova and can be correlated with Armutlu Sections at NE. The 251 coarse-grained fluvial channels observed within the fine-grained coastal and shallow lake deposits 252 indicate advancing of rivers towards the basin when the lake level drops (Fig 7 and Fig. 8B).

253 The Kamışlı Formation (Qsk)

254 The Eraslan Formation is conformably overlain by the Kamışlı Formation (Qsk). It is identified 255 by distinct change in sediment color, from light yellow to greyish white of the Qse to dark yellow 256 to brown of the Qsk. The section illustrated in Fig. 7 comprises lacustrine silt and clay facies of 257 the formation. Up in the section, the facies gradually changes into moderate-low energy fluvial 258 environment where gravel channels erode fine grained laminated lake deposits (Fig 8 G). The total 259 thickness of the formation exceeds 100 m. The surface morphology of the formation (Fig. 2) 260 indicates a broad semi-conical alluvial fan and the apex of the fan exceeds 1100 m elevation. This 261 morphology should have developed at the latest stages of the formation where today the 262 sedimentary units could not be observed directly. The Qsk also represents the initiation of the 263 Salhan River draining into the paleo-Lake Suluova (Fig. 2). This caused an apparent change in

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264 both the facies and the clast lithology. After the end (capture) of the paleo-Lake Suluova, this 265 formation continued sedimentation adapting to changing depositional environment. The formation 266 of the Qsk is related with the Salhan Fault, a NE-SW-trending sinistral fault with normal 267 component. The activity of this fault possibly led to the capture of Salhan River to the SB and 268 continuous subsidence favored thickening of the deposits. The Qsk is unconformably overlain by 269 the Salhan Formation (Qfs).

270 Fig. 8

271 The Harmanağılı Formation (Qsh)

272 In the easternmost portion of the basin, another distinct sedimentary unit is observed to the north 273 of the active depocenter of the SB (Fig. 2). This unit is bounded to the north by the Suluova Fault 274 and separated from the Değirmendere and Yolpınar formations (Fig. 13 A) and the basement rocks. 275 The properties of this unit is observed within a 25 m-long section at Yolpınar Village (Fig. 7) 276 where the unit comprises intercalation ofDraft rounded coarse-medium-grained pebbles and sand bars 277 with horizontal silt to fine sand deposits (Fig. 8 H). This sequence, with the maturity of the coarse 278 grain clasts, channel and sand bar structures indicates continuous fluvial deposition from braided 279 to meandering river environments. Up in the section, a mollusk-bearing silty clay bed yielded an 280 Equus molar and some , providing the youngest age of sedimentation in the SB. These 281 deposits are named as the Harmanağılı Formation (Qsh) representing the initiation of the Suluova 282 Fault and the new pull-apart basin. Although highly eroded by rivers, the base of the formation is 283 not observed in the sections. Therefore, we interpret that the amount of normal slip of the Suluova 284 Fault exceeds 50 meters

285 In the easternmost portion of the SB, away from the active depocenter, a small sedimentary unit is 286 observed (Fig. 2). The observed section of this unit starts with an unconformity over the Lokman 287 Formation. It is composed of intercalation of a meter thick clast supported, poorly sorted and 288 rounded coarse pebble and blocks and a 1-2 meter-thick package of coarse sand and fine pebble 289 with silt, fine sand beds, reaching 75 m thickness. All the clasts are purple to brown colored 290 volcanics and yellow limestones from the Lokman (Clok) and Çeltek (Tcek) formations. The unit 291 is considered as the Lap Member (Qshl), stratigraphically equivalent of the Harmanağılı Formation 292 (Qsh), and is interpreted as a debris flow deposit formed under control of the Suluova Fault.

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293 The Derinöz (Qfd) and Salhan (Qfd) Formations

294 The major rivers draining from NE and SW parts of the SB (the Derinöz and Salhan rivers, 295 respectively), incises through limestone dominated, thick layers of semi-rounded blocks and 296 pebbles intercalated with silty clay and fine sand sediments, unconformably overlying the 297 basement rocks. The grain size decreases towards the top of the sections and the thickness (max 298 50 meters) and the grain size of these deposits decreases along the flow direction of the modern 299 rivers. Surface morphology and exposures of these formations exhibit broad semi-conical shape 300 and the sedimentary architecture is interpreted as mass flow and sheet flood deposits, all 301 advocating alluvial fan formation. The deposits of these fans are named as the Derinöz (Qfd) and 302 Salhan formations (Qfs) (Figs. 2 and 12). The luminescence dating of the sediments reveals that 303 the fan formation was initiated at ca. 150 ka for the Qfd and 100 ka for the Qfs (Erturac 2010). 304 The initiation of erosion of these alluvial fans are dated as ca. 30 ka, which are compatible with 305 adjacent terrace formation indicating an increase in water supply, causing erosion, prior to the 306 LGM (Erturaç and Kıyak 2017), which Draftis defined as a cold but humid period for central Anatolia 307 (Sarıkaya et al. 2011).

308 Paleontology

309 Kurnaz locality (KU; Yolpınar Formation) 310 Kalymnomys sp. (Fig. 9A): The unique M2 (L=2.06, W=1.1) is rootless and belongs to a medium 311 sized . Confluent AL and T2–T4, the lack of cementum, wide and deep reentrant angles and 312 regular enamel thickness point out to the Kalymnomys. Tips of AL and LSA3 are blunt. 313 Kalymnomys major (Kuss and Storch 1978) from Kalymnos Island (Greece) has a smaller M2, 314 with narrower dentin field confluence, and the tips of LRA2 and BRA2 are not curved backward. 315 This species was also reported from two localities in Turkey, Hamamayagi and Kumbasi (cf.) by 316 Ünay and de Bruijn 1998 and Ünay et al. 2001. Kalymnomys sp. is documented from the latest 317 Villanyian Degirmendere, Havutçulu and Bıçakçı localities in Anatolia (Ünay et al. 1995, 2001; 318 van den Hoek Ostende et al. 2015a). Kalymnomys specimens from these localities in Turkey are 319 described only by m1 or M3 in addition to their illustration and measurements. Concerned molars 320 are clearly smaller than Kalymnomys major. Van den Hoek Ostende et al. (2015a) stated that the 321 Bıçakçı form is probably ancestral to K. major. Because of the scarcity of material, especially in 322 the lack of m1 and M3, we consider Kurnaz M2 as Kalymnomys sp., having slightly greater size

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323 than Kalymnomys major from Kalymnos Island and possibly much greater than the specimens 324 from other localities in Turkey. Therefore, we are cautious to suggest an age for Kurnaz locality, 325 younger than Bıçakçı and similar with that of Kalymnos, i.e., early Biharian. 326 327 Sivatherium sp. (Fig. 10A–B): Lower m2 (L=51.4; W1=24.4–27.4 / W2=25.7–28) and m3 328 (L=64.1; W1=23.2–27.4 / W2=25.5–28) are hypsodont, rectangular, finely rippled and moderately 329 worn selenodont molars with well-developed third lobe on m3. Ribs of metaconid and entoconid 330 on m2 and m3 are weak. Mesostylids and metastylids are thin but well protruding buccaly. An 331 entostylid is well marked on the m3. There is neither basal pillar (ectostylid) not cingulid. The 332 dentine field of metaconid and protoconid is mesially confluent on both molars but broader on m2. 333 Fossettes are compressed, still open on m3. The third lobe of m3 is obliquely settled compared to 334 the mesiodistal axis of the tooth, elongate, and marked disto-bucally by a rather strong stylid. Only 335 posterior root of m2 is preserved. 336 The systematics of giraffid genera and Draftspecies are mainly defined after cranial and post-cranial 337 elements, and in some extant based on dental characters (Gentry et al. 1999; Harris et al. 2010). 338 Following the molar characteristics used by Bhatti et al. (2012), the overall morphology 339 (selenodont molars, hypsodonty degree, rippled enamel, overall size) of the two molars from 340 Kurnaz fits the family . The great size of these molars exceeds most late Miocene and 341 Quaternary giraffids and appears similar to that of Sivatherium giganteum from the early 342 Pleistocene of Siwaliks (e.g., Colbert 1935, p. 345; Khan et al. 2011, tabl. 1). The subfamily 343 Sivatheriinae includes three genera, , and Sivatherium, although a 344 synonymy is suggested between the first two genera and (e.g., Colbert 1935, 345 p.342; Geraads and Güleç 1999; Khan et al. 2014). The molars from Kurnaz are larger than late 346 Miocene Bramatherium megacephalum and B. grande from the Middle Siwaliks, except one m3 347 (Khan et al. 2014, tabl. 2) and also differs at generic level in having much more lingually directed 348 metastylid, much rounded buccal conids on m2, postmetacristid shorter than preentocristid, weakly 349 developed posterior stylids and cingulids on m3 (Khan et al. 2014). 350 In Turkey, a distal horn fragment from “Quaternary sands and gravels” near Edirne was referred 351 to Sivatherium giganteum (Abel 1904), a fragmentary skull from the Upper Miocene of Kavakdere 352 () is described as Bramatherium sp. (Geraads and Güleç 1999) and Helladotherium is 353 known in Turkey from several Upper Miocene localities (e.g., Gentry 2003; Kostopoulos and

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354 Saraç 2005). However, remains of Kurnaz sivathere are cautiously attributed to Sivatherium sp. 355 based on the similarities in size and molar pattern with Sivatherium sp. from the Pleistocene of 356 Punjab (Upper Siwaliks; Khan et al. 2011). S. giganteum is known in the Siwaliks from 2.5 Ma to 357 0.78 Ma (Patnaik and Nanda 2010) but the presence of Kalymnomys molar would limit the age of 358 Kurnaz locality to early Pleistocene. The presence of a Pleistocene giraffid in Anatolia is first 359 reported in the present study, except the mention of Macedonitherium martinii at Gülyazi 360 (Sickenberg et al. 1975) which is alternatively correlated to late Pliocene or early Pleistocene. 361 362 Kerimoğlu Locality (KO; Yolpınar Formation) 363 (Allophaiomys) cf. nutiensis Chaline, 1972 (Fig. 9B–G): All molars are rootless and have 364 abundant cementum in re-entrant angles. M1 (L=2.11, W=1.06) is formed by AL and four 365 alternating closed salient triangles (T1–T4). The enamel lacks on lateral edges of AL, T1 and 366 posterior to T4. There is no significant enamel differentiation. 367 The M3 (L=1.74, W=0.82, p=0.94, WP=0.7)Draft has rather a complex occlusal surface with AL 368 followed by confluent T2–T3 couplets and broadly confluent T4–T5 and T7-posterior cap. T7 is 369 well distinct and comparable to T5 in size. BSA4 is not formed. The enamel free areas are at the 370 buccal and lingual sides of AL and at the posterior of PC. 371 The lower m2 (L=1.4, W=0.93) has a posterior lobe and four alternating triangles, more or less 372 confluent T2 and T3, wide and posteriorly blunt T4, deeper buccal re-entrant angles than lingual 373 ones. The negative enamel differentiation is prominent. The enamel lacks broadly on triangles tips 374 of PL and on the mesial edge. 375 All of three m3 (L=1.34–1.38, W=0.67–0.79) display dentine confluence of T1–T2 and T3–T4 376 couplets, enamel lacking on lateral sides of PL. 377 Based on the complex pattern of M3 (Fig. 9C) with presence of T7 and its size, this vole presents 378 affinities with M. (M.) arvalis from the Umurlu locality (early Toringian) in the adjacent Niksar 379 Basin (Erdal et al. 2018a, fig. 5B.3, tabl. 2 and 5). However, the latter is different in having much 380 prominent positive enamel differentiation and less confluent dentine field between T2–T3. Some 381 other species such as M. (Terricola) arvalidens or M. (Stenocranius) gregaloides showing similar 382 M3 complexity (cf. Rekovets and Nadachowski 1995) are rather co-oocuring in Mimomys savini 383 bearing layers, thus a priori much younger than Kerimoğlu where Mimomys cf. pliocaenicus is 384 present.

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385 The M3, which is the most characteristic tooth, was compared with many Microtus (Allophaiomys) 386 spp. The most similar species is M. (A.) nutiensis from the early Biharian Çaybaşı locality in the 387 Adapazarı Basin (Ünay et al. 2001; pl. II) in having similar occlusal complexity, thinner and less 388 remarkable enamel differentiation as well as overlapping measurements. Consequently, the 389 smallest arvicoline from Kerimoğlu is cautiously ascribed as M. (A.) cf. nutiensis. 390 391 Mimomys cf. pliocaenicus Forsyth Major, 1902 (Fig. 9H–K): All molars are hypsodont and display 392 Mimomys-type enamel differentiation. The crown cementum is abundant in re-entrant angles. 393 The M1 (L=3.15, W=1.85, PA-index=8.62) has wide triangles, anterior lobe followed by 394 alternating T1–T4; wider BSA2 than BSA1; enamel lacking on labial and lingual blunt edge of 395 AL and on tips of T2 and T4; salient angles with rounded tips; anterosinus, distosinus, protosinus 396 and anterosinulus reaching the occlusal surface (Fig. 9H’’–H’’’) and two roots where the anterior 397 ones are fused (Fig. 9H’). 398 The M2 (L=2.05, W=1.39) has a wide anteriorDraft lobe and alternating T2–T4; overall robust enamel 399 which lacks on tips of AL and posterior to T4; anterosinulus, protosinus and distosinus reaching 400 the chewing surface (Fig. 9I’’–I’’’); curved corner on postero-ventral side. The incision of roots 401 indicates that there should be at least three or four roots (Fig. 9I’). 402 Both m2 (L=2.26–2.3, W=1.33–1.52, HH-index=7.2) display posterior lobe and four alternating 403 triangles; variably confluent dentine field between T1 and T2 (Fig. 9J–K); wide connection on T3– 404 T4; enamel corruption on tips of PL; continuous hyposinuid; three roots incisions. 405 Although neither m1 nor M3 is present, many characters of these molars, such as presence of roots, 406 high degree of hypsodonty, abundant cementum in re-entrant angles, Mimomys-type enamel 407 differentiation, relatively thick enamels and great size, point out a Mimomys species. Based on 408 descriptions and drawings of Mimomys pliocaenicus from Tegelen in the Netherlands (Tesakov 409 1998) and Mimomys ostramosensis from Osztramos-3 (Hungary) and Schernfeld (Germany) 410 localities (Jánossy and van der Meulen 1975; Carls and Rabeder 1988), the Kerimoğlu specimens 411 morphologically match to both species with some minor differences on measurements. Calculated 412 PA-index and HH-index (after Carls and Rabeder 1988) are closer to upper limit of M1 and m2 413 from Schernfeld, and overlap with M2, but greater than that of Tegelen and Osztramos-3. Tesakov 414 (1998) stresses that HH-index higher than 5.5 would signify M. ostramosensis (synonym of M. 415 pliocaenicus sensu Maul and Markova 2007) dating the latest MN17 (Tesakov 1998, fig. 54).

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416 Considering the presence of m1 and M3 is crucial for arvicoline identification, we attribute the 417 available specimens carefully to Mimomys cf. pliocaenicus until new material is gathered. 418 419 Apodemus cf. dominans Kretzoi, 1959 (Fig. 11A): The only material M1 (L=1.95, W=1.23) is 420 medium sized, elongated and moderately worn. The t1 is fused to t2, posteriorly situated in regard 421 to t3 and possess a faint spur directed toward t5. The t3 is fused to t2, smaller than t1 and displays 422 a salient spur close to the base of t5. The t1bis, t2bis and any accessory cusps are absent. The t4 is 423 laterally elongate and in backward position compared to t6. The latter is mesially directed and 424 equal in size to t4. The valley between t3 and t6 is the widest. The t9 and t12 are not observable 425 due to damage. However, the ring-like connection between t4-t5-t6-t9-t8 and t7 appears to be 426 present. The t7 is separate from t4. Only anterior root is preserved and ventro-mesially oblique. 427 The presence of t7 and overall pattern permit us to attribute that this molar to the genus Apodemus. 428 Concerning the size, the M1 from Kerimoğlu falls well within the range of small-medium sized 429 Apodemus spp. (see Erdal et al. 2018a, fig.6A).Draft This M1 differs from A. flavicollis or A. sylvaticus 430 in having of t1 and t4 backward relative to t3 and t6 respectively, connection between t7 and t8 as 431 well as t6-t9-t8 despite the early state of attrition. A. atavus, known in many localities in Europe 432 and Anatolia spanning in age from latest Turolian to early Biharian, differs from the Kerimoğlu 433 wood mouse in having a t7 isolated from t8, t4 in anterior or equivalent position to t6 and more 434 mesially oriented t4 (e.g., Fejfar and Storch 1990; Ünay and de Bruijn 1998; García-Alix et al. 435 2008, 2009; Colombero et al. 2014; van den Hoek Ostende et al. 2015a). A. dominans, on the other 436 hand, is similar to the present material in having t7 fused to t8, lingually elongated t4 at backward 437 position compared to t6, which is more or less mesially directed (e.g., Pasquier 1974; de Bruijn 438 and van der Meulen 1975; Sen 1977; Ünay and de Bruijn 1998; Popov 2004; Vasileiadou et al. 439 2012). Strikingly, the M1 of A. dominans from the Lower Pliocene of Mahmutlar displays the 440 exact morphology and perfect size match (Sen et al. 2018) but as reminded recently by van den 441 Hoek Ostende et al. (2015b), the age range of the species covers MN13–MN17 of which the age 442 of the Kerimoğlu is a part as discussed in the next section. Due to insufficient material we carefully 443 confer the Kerimoğlu Apodemus to A. cf. dominans. 444 445 Remarks. Kerimoğlu faunal complex provides a possible age range between the latest Villanyian– 446 early Biharian, or roughly 1.8–1.4 Ma, which is deduced from latest occurrence age of Mimomys

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447 pliocaenicus/ostramosensis (Maul and Markova 2007) and the minimum age for the first 448 occurrence of the advanced Allophaiomys nutiensis (Chaline et al. 1999). However, the co- 449 occurence of M. pliocaenicus/ostramosensis and Allophaiomys nutiensis is not observed in 450 European localities. On the other hand, Quaternary faunas are poorly documented in 451 Anatolia (Erdal 2017). Given that age range, Kerimoğlu locality must be much older than Çaybaşı 452 locality (Adapazarı Basin) bearing A. nutiensis (Ünay et al. 2001). 453 454 Kamışlı Locality (KA; Eraslan Formation) 455 ?Equus sp. (Fig. 10C): The only material available from the Kamışlı, a distal half of p3, probably 456 belongs to Equus, but not characteristic enough for species identification. Therefore, the age of the 457 locality is not certain, although stratigraphically it is older than Kerimoğlu, and correlative with 458 Kızıleğrek localities (Fig. 12). 459 460 Kızıleğrek Locality (KE; Eraslan Formation)Draft 461 Mesocricetus aff. arameus Bate, 1943 (Fig. 9M–O): Highly corroded mandible lacks diagnostic 462 features, whereas three molars have still preserved many distinctive characters. The narrowest 463 molar m1 (L=1.94, W=1.18) has a low, clover shaped anterolophid which is connected to 464 metaconid and protoconid via anterolophulid. The mesolophid is faintly developed; mesosinusid 465 is equally wide and deep as sinusid; posterolophid is well developed and curved antero-lingually 466 to reach the base of entoconid. 467 The m2 (L=1.92, W=1.23) displays a robust labial anterolophid. The lingual anterolophid is faint. 468 The mesosinusid is clearly interrupted by a mesolophid curved anterolingually. As on m1, the 469 posterolophid encloses the posterosinusid but less protruded posteriorly. 470 The m3 (L=2.03, W=1.38) displays a deep protosinusid due to the strong labial anterolophid. The 471 mesolophid and ectolophid are similar to that of m2. The posterosinusid is deep and narrow, 472 enclosed by posterolophid. 473 The hamster from Kızıleğrek can be securely referred to Mesocricetus in having a mesolophid and 474 greater size than of Allocricetus or Cricetulus spp. and smaller than of Cricetus spp. (e.g., Popov 475 1994, 2000, 2017; van den Hoek Ostende et al. 2015a). Kızıleğrek Mesocricetus differs from M. 476 primitivus in having much robust m3 compared to m1–m2, m2 rectangular rather than 477 subrectangular (e.g., Sen 1977; Ünay and de Bruijn 1998; Suata-Alpaslan et al. 2010; van den

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478 Hoek Ostende et al. 2015a). The m1 and m3 are slightly smaller than in (?) M. brandti (e.g., Hír 479 1992; Krystufek and Vohralik 2009; see Yolpınar in this study). The Kızıleğrek hamster is similar 480 to M. arameus from Kalymnos (Kuss and Storch 1978) and differs from M. brandti in having 481 broad and low connection between anteroconid and protoconid-metaconid complex, posteriorly 482 shifted lingual cuspids on m2 (cf. Kuss and Storch 1978; Krystufek and Vohralik 2009), absence 483 of lingual anterolophid and narrover distal part and narrower posterosinusid on m3 (cf. Kuss and 484 Storch 1978; Krystufek and Vohralik 2009). Despite the poor preservation state, the pattern and 485 size of these molars are similar to those of M. aramaeus Kalymnos Island in Greece. This species 486 points out early Biharian as age of the locality. 487 488 Yolpınar Locality (YP; Kamışlı Formation) 489 Mesocricetus cf. brandti Nehring, 1898 (Fig. 11B–C): Two m3 (L=2.09–2.23, W=1.38–1.42) from 490 this locality have elongated rectangular outline, slightly narrower but elongate talonid compared 491 to trigonid and wide mesosinusid. ProtoconidDraft and hypoconid are shifted posteriorly compared to 492 metaconid and entoconid, labial anterolophid is prominent and reaches the base of protoconid 493 forming a deep and wide protosinusid, and mesolophid moderately long and directed towards 494 metaconid. These molars have two roots. 495 The size and pattern of these molars point out the genus Mesocricetus, which is smaller than 496 Cricetus and greater than Allocricetus and Cricetulus (e.g., Popov 1994, 2000, 2017; van den Hoek 497 Ostende et al. 2015a; Sen et al. 2018). It differs from M. primitivus from Pliocene–Pleistocene of 498 Anatolia in having greater size and much elongated and less narrower talonid, posteriorly oriented 499 lingual cuspids rather than transverse, strong and anteriorly protruded labial anterolophid, wider 500 protosinusid, posterosinusid and anteriorly oblique mesolophid (e.g., Sen 1977; Ünay and de 501 Bruijn 1998; Suata-Alpaslan et al. 2010; van den Hoek Ostende et al. 2015a). The Yolpınar 502 hamster differs also from M. arameus from the early Biharian of Kalymnos Island (Kuss and 503 Storch 1978) by its greater size. 504 The extant species M. brandti and M. auratus, also known in fossil in Anatolia, display many 505 interpecific similarities on tooth morphology which results in that some authors consider M. 506 brandti as synonym of M. auratus (e.g., Hír 1992; Suata-Alpaslan et al. 2011) whereas some others 507 make the distinction based on molecular phylogeny, biogeography and morphology (e.g., 508 Neumann et al. 2006, 2017; Krystufek and Vohralik 2009; Erdal et al. 2018a, b). The

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509 measurements of Yolpınar material fit well to that of M. auratus from the Holocene localities of 510 Meydan (Hír 1992) and to M. brandti of Tepecik-Çiftlik (Erdal et al. 2018b) but much greater than 511 extant form of M. auratus from the Northern Syria (see Shehab et al. 1999; Krystufek and Vohralik 512 2009). As a result, the Yolpınar hamster should be cautiously identified as Mesocricetus cf. 513 brandti, which would enhance the idea that this species exists in the Amasya region and adjacent 514 Niksar Basin since early Toringian (Erdal et al. 2018a). 515 516 Arvicola cf. mosbachensis Schmidtgen, 1911 (Fig. 9L): Hypsodont, rootless and large vole first 517 lower molar (L=3.14 min., W=1.44, a=1.32, b=0.62, c=0.36, A/L~39.4, SDQm1 after 5 triangles: 518 144.78) is formed by a broad and simple anteroconid complex with widely confluent AC1 and T4- 519 T5, followed by three alternating triangles. The posterior lobe is missing. Lingual triangles are 520 much voluminous than the labial ones. The cementum is faintly present in re-entrant angles. There 521 is negative enamel thickness. 522 Simple occlusal morphology, rootless conditionDraft and great size of the specimen are compared with 523 Arvicola spp., which are still poorly known in the Pleistocene of Anatolia. Arvicola mosbachensis, 524 which was reported from the Lower Toringian Umurlu locality in the Niksar Basin, adjacent to 525 Suluova, displays many similarities in morphology and measurements with the Yolpınar water 526 vole (Erdal et al. 2018a). For instance, values such as width, A/L and B/W are greatly overlapping 527 except smaller length and lower C/W (25%) in the Yolpınar specimen, in addition to SDQm1 528 values being much higher by 144% than Umurlu Arvicola m1 (SDQm1 mean: 119%). According 529 to Maul et al. (2000, 2014), higher SDQm1 values and smaller length of the Yolpınar m1 are within 530 the range of Mosbach-2 material, and might indicate somewhat older age than Umurlu locality, 531 which is dated as latest Biharian–early Toringian. Note that in eastern part of Anatolia, in Tatvan 532 village west to the Van Lake, Röttger (1987) studied SDQ values of five specimens of extant A. 533 amphibius persicus which display similar values to A. mosbachensis. It is deeply discussed in Erdal 534 et al. (2018a, p. 86 and 96) and it is beyond the scope of this current study. 535 536 Equus sp. (Fig. 10D): The distal part of a first phalanx possibly belongs to Equus sp. due to its 537 dimensions (transverse diameter = 97 mm; articular transverse diameter = 75 mm; maximum 538 anteroposterior diameter = 90 mm; articular anteroposterior diameter = 80mm). 539

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540 Chronology of the Suluova Basin

541 The stratigraphical positions of the Suluova Group are outlined in stratigraphical columnar section 542 (Fig. 12) representing the facies changes and relevant depositional environment. Identification of 543 the mammal fossils gathered from various positions of the basin enabled us to correlate these 544 formations in geological time scale by means of MN-MNQ Zones and mammal ages. The first age 545 constraints are from the Kurnaz locality (KU) at the NE of the basin (Fig. 2 and Fig. 4) revealing 546 late Villanyian age (MN17-MNQ-18; ~2 Ma). This age dates the upward fining floodplain 547 litofacies of the Yolpınar Formation. The introduction of the palaeo-Lake Suluova and related 548 deposits are dated with the Kerimoğlu (KO) fauna as Late Villanyian-Early Biharian (MNQ 18- 549 19; ~1.7 Ma). The fossil fauna from the Kızıleğrek (KE) and the Kamışlı (KA) localities reveal 550 MNQ 19-21 (~1.3-0.8 Ma) ages for the uppermost part of the Suluova lacustrine succession (the 551 Eraslan Formation). The Yolpınar fauna indicate a Lower Toringian (MNQ 22-23, ~0.5 Ma) age 552 for the uppermost levels of the Harmanağılı Formation (Fig. 12). These ages also constrains the 553 initiation and termination of the basin boundingDraft faults and also the initiation of the Suluova Fault.

554 Fig. 12

555 Within these time constraints we can assume that the SB started to open at the latest Pliocene or 556 early Quaternary and initial alluvial fans are deposited until ~2 Ma. The paleo-Lake Suluova 557 existed in a range between 1.7 to 0.8 Ma marking the climate of the region during early-middle 558 Pleistocene transition. Fluvial deposition reigns afterwards until recent. The luminescence ages 559 reported by Erturac (2010) indicate that alluvial fan development at northeast (Qfd) and southwest 560 (Qfs) portions of the SB initiated at 100 and ~150 ka respectively which both eroded at ca. 30 ka.

561 Faults and Paleostress Analysis

562 All the faults that are controlled the evolution of the SB are regarded as the members Suluova Fault 563 System (SFS) which are evidenced by mapping, morphological indicators and active seismicity. 564 The basin bounding Bayırlı (BFZ) Merzifon (MFZ) and Eraslan Fault Zones (EFZ) are considered 565 inactive, whereas the dextral Suluova and the sinistral Salhan Faults are the active branches of the 566 SFS. The SFS is linked to the North Anatolian Fault with the Taşova and the Esençay faults (Fig. 567 1, Erturaç and Tüysüz 2012).

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568 Fig. 13 shows three distinct panoramas from major faults observed within the sedimentary record 569 of the SB. The Suluova Fault (Fig. 2), the most prominent segment of the SFS, is clearly observed 570 between the oldest sediments of the basin, the Değirmendere (Qsd) and Yolpınar (Qsy) formations 571 and the youngest Harmanağılı Formation (Qsh) as a shear zone (Fig. 13 A). Fault plane and 572 slicken-line measurements indicate pure right-lateral strike-slip faulting (see inset stereonet). This 573 region also hosts the YP mammal site, constraining the age of upper levels of the Qsh as late 574 Biharian-early Toringian (Fig 4. and Fig. 12).

575 Fig 13.

576 The geometry of the Eraslan Fault Zone can be observed at the southeast of the SB (Fig 13 B). 577 Here, the Eraslan Formation (Qse) crops out as fine grained horizontal layers overlying the 578 basement (Tcek and Tmer) where the contact is offset vertically for 50 meters on the EFZ-2, 579 increasing the sediment thickness from 20 m (Fig 7, Kızıleğrek) to 70 meters. This section 580 indicates deepening of the basin and migrationDraft of the fault to the north. This site also hosts the KE 581 micromammal site.

582 The Salhan Fault (Fig. 1 and Fig 2) is a NE-SW trending sinistral fault formed within the latest 583 stages of the ASZ. The section in Fig 13 C is close to the Karacadede Section (Fig. 7) exhibiting 584 NNE trending, post-sedimentary, conjugate normal faults (see inset stereonet) that separate the 585 Eraslan and Kamışlı formations showing intense deformation of this portion of the basin, which is 586 still active. The close-up of this section is detailed in Fig 16.

587 The Bayırlı and the Merzifon Fault Zones

588 The Bayırlı Fault Zone (BFZ, Fig. 2) is a NW-trending, SW-dipping normal fault with a dextral 589 component. It controlled the evolutionary steps of the basin from wedge shaped closed half-graben 590 to the fully developed shape as it is today. The total vertical offset of the fault zone could be 591 determined from the sediment thickness (~300 m). The fault has three branches, each controlled 592 specific sedimentary formation to develop as an alluvial fan network. The BZF-1 strikes N65°W 593 and controlled the Değirmendere Formation, the BFZ-2 strikes N60°W and controlled deposition 594 of the Yolpınar Formation. The last segment, the BFZ-3 strikes N40°W and controlled the 595 deposition of the Eraslan Formation. The evolution of these segments revealed that the BFZ 596 propagated towards NW while rotating in clockwise sense, causing further extension of the basin.

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597 The Merzifon Fault Zone (MFZ, Fig. 2) is an E-W-trending dextral strike-slip fault with normal 598 component. Its activity is marked with distinct morphological expression and control on the 599 deposition of basin sediments. The activity of the fault caused the strata of the Değirmendere 600 Formation to tilt towards the NW.

601 The kinematic properties of the BFZ and MFZ were investigated by using a fault dataset collected 602 from the Değirmendere and Yolpınar formations (Fig. 2). Among 38 measured fault planes only 603 23 provided striation to calculate the stress tensor (Fig. 14A). The dataset includes WNW striking 604 dextral, NW-SE-directed normal and N-S oriented sinistral normal faulting. We used graphical 605 (Fig. 14B-C) and mathematical methods (Fig. 14D) to reveal the components of stress tensor and 606 direction of extension during the opening phase of the basin. The distribution of M-planes of the

607 faults (Fig. 14C) suggests a 25° difference in the direction of σ3 from N17°E to N42°E which is 608 compatible with the bending of the Bayırlı Fault Zone, measured as 25° on its mapped strike. 609 Nevertheless we interpreted the dataset as a whole, where the best fit was achieved by using

610 minimized shear stress variation methodDraft (Michael, 1984) yielded σ1: 142/80, σ2: 318/10, σ3: 48/1, 611 φ: 0.38 for stress tensor (Fig. 14E -F). This solution implies near vertical maximum stress direction 612 and the domination of N48°E directed extension direction compatible with regional stress tensor. 613 The rotation of stress tensor caused the formation of a new segment of the BFZ at its pinned SE 614 tip and propagate to NW while the slip at previous segment fades.

615 Fig. 14

616 The Eraslan Fault Zone

617 The Eraslan Fault Zone (EFZ) is an E-W-trending dextral strike-slip fault zone with a normal 618 component, exhibiting an extensional splay geometry to the west and consisting of three major 619 branches (Fig. 2) evolved towards NW. The EFZ accompanied the southward extension of the SB, 620 during the Early Pleistocene (~1.5 Ma). The total vertical activity of the fault zone exceeds 200 m. 621 Fig. 13B represents the east looking view of the Eraslan Fault Zone (EFZ-2) and the interpreted 622 block model. Here the contact between the Lower Eocene limestones (Tcek) and the Middle 623 Eocene volcanics (Tmer) are offset vertically, causing further subsidence of the basin and therefore 624 increasing the thickness of the lacustrine sediments.

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625 To reveal the stress tensor controlling the formation of the EFZ, a kinematic dataset was collected 626 from the faulted sections, mainly from the Eraslan Formation and partly from the Kamışlı 627 Formation, at south and southwest parts of the SB. Most of these faults are syn-sedimentary growth 628 faults. The dataset is rather homogenous and the majority is NW-SE trending normal faults where 629 some has slight dextral slip. Among 30 measured fault planes only 14 provided reliable striations 630 to calculate the stress tensor (Fig. 15A). We used graphical and mathematical methods to reveal 631 the components of stress tensor and direction of extension during the second phase of the basin 632 evolution, the Eraslan Fault Zone (EFZ). The distributions of M-planes suggest a slight clockwise

633 (CW) deviation in the direction of σ3, advocating the rotation of branches of the EFZ (Fig. 15B). 634 We interpreted the dataset as a whole where the best fit was achieved by using minimized shear

635 stress variation (Michael 1984) and yielded σ1: 338/88, σ2: 148/2, σ3: 238/0, φ: 0.18 for stress 636 tensor (Fig. 15 C-D). 637 Fig. 15 Draft 638 The Suluova Fault

639 The youngest fault cross cutting and deforming the SB is named as the Suluova Fault (SuF). It is 640 an E-W-oriented dextral strike-slip fault. It enters the basin as a four distinct en-echelon step-overs 641 of ~500 meters where the last step-over is a kilometer long (Fig. 2). These step-overs caused the 642 formation of the recent Suluova pull-apart basin. The fault extends for ~30 km as a single strand 643 then bifurcates into several branches. Aside from its morphological expression, the Suluova Fault 644 is evidenced by direct field observation at the village of Yolpınar where it separates the oldest 645 units of the SB (Qsd and Qsy) from the youngest (Qsh) at the southeast part of the basin (Fig. 646 13A). This contact is evidenced with the development of a 5 m wide shear zone where the fault 647 plane(s) preserve distinct pure dextral strike-slip faulting. The Suluova Fault offset the eastern 648 most extend of the previous basin fill (Eraslan Formation) for 6.5 km in right lateral sense of slip.

649 The Salhan Fault

650 The Salhan Fault, is a N47°E-trending, NE-dipping sinistral strike-slip fault with normal 651 component within the Suluova Fault System. It has evolved in the last phases of deposition of the 652 Suluova Group (Middle Pleistocene, ~1 Ma) and is still active. The offset of the fault could be 653 measured from the distinct horizontal (1500 m) and vertical (80 m) seperation of the Eraslan

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654 Formation and the EFZ (Fig. 2). We represent a faulted section close to Karacadede (Fig. 2), which 655 exhibits NNE trending conjugate faults separating the Eraslan and Kamışlı formations (Fig. 13C). 656 The Salhan Fault has ruptured in 1996 with an Mw: 5.7 earthquake (Fig. 1). The distribution of 657 surface cracks (Demirtaş 1998), aftershocks (Pınar et al. 1998) and preliminary INSAR analysis 658 (Erturaç et al. 2009) advocate the NE-SW trend and sinistral mechanism of the Salhan Fault. The 659 Salhan Fault has been regarded as an “X” shear in Reidel geometry (Tchalenko 1970; Dresen 660 1991), which forms at the final stages of the evolution of a typical strike-slip shear zone.

661 To understand the kinematics and evolution of the Salhan Fault, we collected a kinematic dataset 662 from the exposures of the Suluova Group, the Eraslan and the Kamışlı formations to the west of 663 the fault, which is deformed by brittle faulting. The dataset consist of 72 fault planes, both syn and 664 post depositional in nature, with 32 striations. The analysis of this dataset is outlined in Fig. 16. 665 The faulted section represented in Fig. 16A reveals the faulted contact between the Eraslan and 666 the Kamışlı formations and the ~1 m thick shear zone. We interpreted this section (Fig. 16B) and 667 expressed the relationships with deformingDraft faults (see the green shaded stereonet in Fig 16). The 668 fault labelled as “1” is a syn-sedimentary normal fault developed within the Eraslan Formation 669 and compatible with stress resolved on EFZ. Faults “2” and “3” cut the previous faulting and 670 related sedimentation, therefore indicates a younger activity. These faults differ in orientation as 671 well. The interpretation of this section acted as a key to decipher the sophisticated distribution of 672 the kinematic dataset (Fig. 16C). We calculated the M-planes of 32 fault plane with striations (Fig. 673 16 D). The separation of these M-planes resulted into two distinct datasets, where the second has 674 three different components (Fig. 16E). The kinematic analysis of these datasets revealed that the 675 first phase of deformation is compatible with the EFZ revealing NE-SW extension direction. The 676 analysis of the second phase by using Minimized Non-slip Shear Stress in Reduced σ –Space 677 method (Fry, 1999) yielded a reverse extension direction. Its first sub-phase yielded components 678 of stress tensor as σ1:46/46, σ2:228/44 σ3:137/1 Φ: 0.82, the second sub-phase as σ1:214/71, 679 σ2:25/19, σ3:116/3 Φ: 0.66, and the third phase as σ1:12/79, σ2:181/11 and σ3:271/2 Φ: 0.52. This 680 analysis also implies 45° counterclockwise rotation of the σ3 stress tensor during the second phase.

681 Fig. 16

682 Discussion

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683 Stratigraphy of the SB indicates a complex basin formation under control of internal and external 684 processes of the earth and provides a new insight on regional paleogeography. Evolution of the 685 faults within the ASZ caused formation and further extension of the basin, where climate changes 686 and river capture process led to the deposition of different sedimentary units. The SB hosts a 687 continuous sedimentary record during the Quaternary and stands as a key locality to investigate 688 the faunal and climate changes for north central Anatolia such as the onset of the Quaternary, 689 middle Pleistocene transition (MPT) and the onset of the glacial periods with ~100 ka duration.

690 Tectonic controls on the evolution of the basin

691 We modeled the steps of the basin formation in Fig. 17 where each step is represented with a 692 simplified block diagram, a map view and a cross section for the defined time interval. 693 Relationships among basin capacity (incremental accommodation space), sediment supply, and 694 water supply are represented as measured jars (adapted from Withjack et al. 2002). The basin 695 evolution was in fact controlled by twoDraft fault systems. Positions and characteristics of the 696 stratigraphical units shows that the SB started to open as a closed half-graben under the control of 697 NW-trending, SW-dipping Bayırlı Fault Zone (BFZ). The distribution of sedimentary units allows 698 us to discriminate three distinct segment of the BFZ, pinned tip to the SE and propagating tip to 699 the NW. The first stage of the faulting (BFZ-1) was N65°W directed and most probably being 700 initiated at 3.0 Ma (Fig. 17A). The sense of the slip along the fault is oblique, normal with slight 701 dextral component and controlled the formation of an alluvial fan, namely the Değirmendere 702 Formation, during 2.5-2.3 Ma (Fig. 17B). At that time frame sediment yield was higher than basin 703 capacity. At third step, the BFZ-2 evolved to strike as N60°W and with increasing basin capacity 704 and sediment yield, controlled the rejuvenation and extension of the alluvial fan network and 705 deposition of the Yolpınar Formation (Fig. 17C). At this time frame, backward erosion of riverine 706 network captured the Eocene Çekerek Formation, changing the dominant clast lithology. Between 707 2.0-1.7 Ma, the further extension of the basin and increased water supply initiated to the formation 708 of a lake at the center. The BFZ-2 was synchronous and accompanied with the Eraslan Fault Zone 709 (EFZ) to the south, controlling the extension of the basin (Fig 17D). During the Middle Pleistocene 710 Transition (MPT; 1.7-0.8 Ma) the SB became a wide lacustrine environment. The extension of the 711 lake is bounded from NE by the N40°W striking BFZ-3 and further deepened by ENE-striking

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712 EFZ-2 (Fig. 17 E). EFZ was also pinned at east and propagated westwards and produced a new 713 segment while the stress field rotated in clockwise sense.

714 Fig 17

715 The onset of Middle Pleistocene (0.8 Ma) is marked with the termination of the activity on the 716 basin boundary faults and the formation of the E-W trending dextral Suluova Fault at the center of 717 the basin (Fig 17 E). This change in the tectonic environment leads to the formation of a new pull- 718 apart basin. Since the Middle-Late Pleistocene, SuF advanced to the west and caused formation of 719 new depressions, where first the Harmanağılı Formation (Qsh) and today the recent alluvial and 720 fluvial sedimentation takes act (Fig. 17 F). The activity of SuF is quantified by the lateral (E-W) 721 offset of the former basin sediments for 6 km and further N-S extension 7 km by forming a of new 722 pull-apart basin of 60 km2 at southeast corner of the SB. Regarding the age constraints from the 723 Qsh, we can attribute ~7.5 mm/year long term geological slip rate resolved on the fault. This 724 indicates a major slip partitioning betweenDraft the NAF and the SuF, at least for the region between 725 35°30’E and 36°E latitudes for the last 800 ka.

726 The further evolution of the shear zone introduced the Salhan Fault, a NE-SW trending, west 727 dipping, sinistral in nature with normal component. Long term activity resolved on the Salhan 728 Fault offset the structures of the basin and controlled the deposition of the Kamışlı Formation from 729 ~1 Ma until ~150 ka. The 1.5 km sinistral offset of the basin bounding faults (EFZ) with the Salhan 730 Fault indicates 1.5 mm/year slip-rate for the fault.

731 Climatic Influence

732 The reconstruction of Quaternary climate is based upon the sedimentary architecture and the fossil 733 record (mammal and preliminarily mollusk fossils). During the initiation of the basin, the climate 734 was rather dry. The rivers feeding the alluvial fans of the Değirmendere and Yolpınar formations 735 were subjected to stage fluctuations and alternating periods of erosion and deposition which are 736 reflected in channel-fill sequences. The well-developed paleosol sequences formed in between the 737 very coarse grained channel fill are observed along the Gerger, Kutlu and Sivri sections indicate 738 the migration of active channel and possibly a pause in sedimentation.

739 Fig 17(cont.)

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740 The faunal association from five localities allow us to make some assumptions concerning the past 741 environment. For instance, the palaeoenvironment of Sivatherium (KU) is reported as grasslands 742 and well-watered landscape with much warmer temperature for the early part of Early Pleistocene 743 (MN17–MNQ18) which results in local extinction of the large browsers afterwards with colder 744 climate in Siwaliks (Patnaik and Nanda 2010, p.134). The environmental preference of 745 Kalymnomys on the other hand, is not well known but based on actual relatives (e.g., Lagurus 746 lagurus) it is thought that should be rather dry steppe dweller (Alçiçek et al. 2017, p.242). The 747 floodplain deposits at the Kurnaz locality would support the former hypothesis in addition to 748 environmental changes with the presence of palaeo-lake at the younger Kerimoğlu locality which 749 would point out rather warmer climate.

750 The Kerimoğlu locality, as it is important for the formation of a paleo-lake which is also supported 751 by the remains of unidentified fossil fish teeth, represents an environment surrounded with 752 deciduous woodland and bushy vegetation covers with streams and marsh-like areas by the 753 presence of large vole Mimomys cf. pliocaenicusDraft/, Apodemus cf. dominans and possibly Microtus 754 (A.) cf. nutiensis although the latter is related with open environments (Siori and Sala 2007; van 755 den Hoek Ostende et al. 2015a; Erdal et al. 2018a; Sen et al. 2018).

756 The macromammal remains at Kamışlı have been previously reported by Sickenberg and Tobien 757 (1971, p.60–61) where faunal elements including Equus sp. point out steppe environment crossed 758 by forest along the water courses and lakes. A complete right M3 of Mammuthus trogontherii from 759 Armutlu locality at NE part of the basin (Fig. 2 and AR in Fig. 4) is reported by Albayrak and 760 Lister (2012). Suluova is on the route of the Pleistocene dispersion of steppe Mammoth which 761 originated from central Asia (Kahlke 2014) and this finding can be correlated by the earliest 762 occurrence of eastern European relatives (~0.8 Ma, Muttoni et al. 2015; Krijgsman et al. 2019) 763 thus supports the age of the upper levels of the Eraslan Formation. The rich fauna listed by 764 Sickenberg and Tobien (1971), Albayrak and Lister (2012) and in this study indicate that shores 765 of the paleo-Lake Suluova acted as refugia (cf. Stewart et al. 2010) supplying favorable conditions 766 for temperate species of large mammals during the increased aridity of MPT prior to MIS 22.

767 Shifts in regional precipitation and water income into the basin caused variations in lake level. We 768 can observe the magnitude of changes along the measured sections where slight changes modified 769 the depositional units. When there is an apparent drop in lake level, riverine channels intrude to

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770 lake depositing coarse grain sediments exhibiting fluvial architecture. Sharp boundaries between 771 the facies suggest that response to climate change was rapid. Organic-rich silty/clayey sediments 772 correspond to a “drowning” period when the lake expanded and deepened before carbonate 773 precipitation could catch up. The carbonated sandy layers indicate that humid climate reigns during 774 overall lake formation (Hostetler 1995; Boggs 2001). Unio sp., Pisidium sp. and Valvata sp. 775 remains from Kamışlı and Kızıleğrek localities indicate fresh water with rich vegetation 776 environment for paleo-Lake Suluova. The other species are terrestrial and hygrophila molluscs 777 (Pupilloidea) such as, Vallonia sp?, Daudebardia sp. and Carpathica sp. that indicates humid 778 environment. Following the MPT, the basin and the paleo-Lake Suluova was captured from 779 southeast part by the Yeşilırmak River. The timing is compatible with the MIS 22 (0.87 Ma), the 780 onset of first Pleistocene glaciation in the Alps (Muttoni et al. 2003) and the first significant glacio- 781 eustatic low-stand of the Black Sea (early Chaudian, Krijgsman et al. 2019). The Black Sea level 782 drop should have forced the river system to erode backwards leading way to the capture of paleo- 783 Lake Suluova at today’s Boğazköy GorgeDraft (Fig. 17E-F). After this significant step in basin 784 evolution, the lake should have drained almost instantly and the unconsolidated sediments of the 785 basin started to erode with advancing river valleys (Fig. 2). This event also initiated the deep 786 erosion within its gorges such as Havza and Boğazköy. When the base level was stabilized, fluvial 787 clastics of the Harmanağılı Formation started deposition.

788 The presence of Mesocricetus spp. at Kızıleğrek and Yolpınar localities would indicate somewhat 789 dry, semi-arid steppes covered by sparse vegetation (Krystufek and Vahralik 2009). Note that 790 Anatolia play an important role for the evolution of Mesocricetus during the Middle Pleistocene, 791 which is favored by alternating dry periods and spreading lakes causing steppe-corridors for 792 hamster’s dispersals and adaptations (Neumann et al. 2017). On the other hand, Arvicola findings 793 together with Mesocricetus as in the Niksar Basin (Erdal et al. 2018a), demonstrate rather a mixture 794 of steppe-like environments with water streams for that youngest locality to the east of SB (Fig. 795 2).

796 Conclusions

797 Stratigraphic, mammal palaeontology and structural studies in the Suluova Basin (SB), that is 798 located at the hearth of the Amasya Shear Zone (ASZ) as a part of North Anatolian Keriogen, 799 revealed complex basin formation during the Quaternary interval;

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800 - During the early Quaternary, the SB opened as a closed basin where alluvial fans developed, 801 the fossil fauna indicates that these alluvial fans were covered with a mixture of grasslands and 802 indicates a well-watered landscape in dry steppe environments

803 - During the latest Villanyian–early Biharian, the freshwater paleo-lake Suluova was formed, 804 surrounded by deciduous woodland and bushy vegetation covers with streams and marsh-like 805 areas. During this time period, the SB was acting as refugia, supplying favorable conditions for 806 temperate species of large and small mammals during the increased aridity of MPT.

807 - The paleo-lake Suluova was captured and immediately drained by the Yeşilırmak River, during 808 MIS 22 (0.87 Ma), responding to the first significant glacio-eustatic low-stand of the Black Sea. 809 The late Biharian environment is marked with fluvial sedimentation, a mixture of steppe-like 810 environments with water streams with sparse vegetation, as it is today.

811 - At the early stages of the region, the basin bounding oblique faults measured within the basin 812 sediments exhibit a NNE-SSW directedDraft extension direction, which rotated in time in a clockwise 813 sense.

814 - The next phase of the shear zone formation was introduced with the E-W trending dextral 815 (Suluova Fault) and NE-SW trending sinistral (Salhan Fault) strike-slip faults, cross cutting the 816 former basin sediments and forming new depocenters at ca. 800 ka.

817 - The amount of cumulative offset on the former basin structure, accommodated by the Suluova 818 Fault is measured as 6 km. Therefore, the long term geological slip rate resolved on the fault can 819 be estimated as ~7.5 mm/year. This indicates a major slip partitioning within the ASZ, at least 820 for the region between 35°30’E and 36°E latitudes.

821 - The active faults within the ASZ exhibit a noticeable seismic activity and comprise future risks 822 for the major cities of the region.

823

824 Acknowledgements

825 We thank Government of Amasya for supporting field studies and local sentients Hasan Varış, 826 Aydın Babacan for logistics. Burçin Aşkım Gümüş (Gazi University) for preliminary identification

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827 of mollusk fauna and paleoenvironmental analysis. Ozan Erdal is supported by TUBITAK Grant 828 (115Y132). The authors are thankful to Gültekin Göller, Barış Yavaş and Hüseyin Sezer 829 (Metallurgical and Materials Engineering Department, İTÜ, Turkey) for SEM photographs, to 830 Dimitris S. Kostopoulos (Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece) for helping in identification 831 of macromammals and to Hilal Okur and Batuhan Ersoy (Sakarya University) for the helping 832 during the fieldwork. The constructive comments of John Dewey, Ali Polat, Cihat Alçiçek and 833 two anonymous reviewers greatly improved the previous version of this article. This study is 834 partially supported by TUBITAK (115Y132) and ITU-BAP (39925) grants and parts of PhD 835 dissertation of both MKE (2010) and OE (2019) under supervision of Okan Tüysüz and Sevket 836 Sen respectively.

837 References

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1069 Rojay, B., 1993. Tectonostratigraphy and Neotectonic Characteristics of the Southern Margin of Merzifon- 1070 Suluova Basin. (Central Pontides, Amasya). Unpublished Phd Thesis. METU, Ankara, pp. 214. 1071 Rojay, B., and Koçyiğit, A. 2012. An Active Composite Pull-apart Basin within the Central Part of the 1072 North Anatolian Fault System: the Merzifon-Suluova Basin, Turkey. Turkish Journal of Earth 1073 Sciences, 21(4): 473–496. doi:10.3906/yer-1001-36. 1074 Röttger, U., 1987. Schmelzbandbreiten an Molaren von Schermäusen (Arvicola Lacépède, 1799). Bonner 1075 zoologische Beiträge, 38: 95–105. 1076 Sarıkaya, M. A., Çiner, A., and Zreda, M. (2011). Quaternary Glaciations of Turkey. In Quaternary 1077 glaciations-extent and chronology: a closer look (Vol. 15). Edited by Ehlers, J., Gibbard, P. L., 1078 & Hughes, P. D. 393–403. Elsevier. doi:10.1016/b978-0-444-53447-7.00030-1 1079 Schlische, R.W., and Anders, M.H. 1996. Stratigraphic effects and tectonic implications of the growth of 1080 normal faults and extensional basins. In Reconstructing the History of Basin and Range 1081 Extension Using Sedimentology and Stratigraphy. Edited by K.K. Beratan. Geological Society 1082 of America Special Paper, 303: 183–203. 1083 Schmidtgen, O. 1911. Über Reste von Wühlmäusen aus dem Mosbacher Sand. Notizblätter des Vereins für 1084 Erdkunde und der Großherzoglichen geologischen LandesAnstalt, 4(32): 185–193, Darmstadt. 1085 Sen, S. 1977. La faune de rongeurs Pliocènes de Çalta (Ankara, Turquie). Bulletin du Muséum National 1086 d’Histoire Naturelle, Sciences de la Terre 61, 3(465): 89–171. 1087 Sen, S., Karadenizli, L., Antoine, P.-O., andDraft Saraç, G. 2018. Late Miocene− early Pliocene rodents and 1088 lagomorphs (Mammalia) from the southern part of Çankırı Basin, Turkey. Journal of 1089 Paleontology, 1–23. doi:10.1017/jpa.2018.60. 1090 Shehab, A.H., Kowalski, K., and Daoud, A. 1999. Biometrical remarks on the golden hamster Mesocricetus 1091 auratus (Waterhouse, 1839) (Cricetidae, Rodentia) from Ebla (northern Syria). Acta Zoologica 1092 Cracoviensia, 42: 403– 406. 1093 Sickenberg, O., and Tobien, H. 1971. New Neogene and lower Quaternary vertebrate faunas in Turkey. 1094 Newsletters on Stratigraphy. 1(3): 51–61. 1095 Sickenberg, O., Becker-Platen, J. D., Benda, L., Berg, D., Engesser, B., Gaziry, W., Heissig, K., 1096 Hünermann, K. A., Sondaar, P. Y., Schmidt-Kittler, N., Staesche, U., Steffens, P. and Tobien, 1097 H. 1975. Die Gliederung des höheren Jungtertiärs und Altquartärs in der Turkei nach 1098 Vertebraten und ihre Bedeutung für die internationale Neogen-Stratigraphie. Geologische 1099 Jahrbuch B, 15: 1–167, Hannover. 1100 Siori, M.S., and Sala, B. 2007. The mammal fauna from the late early Biharian site of Castagnone (Northern 1101 Monferrato, Piedmont, NW Italy). Geobios, 40(2): 207–217. doi: 10.1016/j.geobios. 1102 2006.05.005. 1103 Suata-Alpaslan, F. 2010. The paleoecology of the continental early Pliocene of the eastern Mediterranean, 1104 a construction based on rodents. Fen Bilimleri Dergisi, 31(2): 29–48. 1105 Suata-Alpaslan, F. 2011. Paleoenvironment and age of the Middle Pleistocene site of Gölbaşı (near 1106 Adıyaman, southeastern Turkey): a reconstruction based on rodents. Eurasian Journal of 1107 Anthropology, 2(1): 48−53. 1108 Sunal, G., and Tüysüz, O. 2002. Paleo-stress analyses of Tertiary post-collisional structures in the Western 1109 Pontides: Northern Turkey. Geological Magazine, Cambridge Press, 139(3): 343–359. 1110 doi:10.1017/s0016756802006489.

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1111 Stewart, J.R., Lister, A.M., Barnes, I., and Dalén, L. 2010. Refugia revisited: individualistic responses of 1112 species in space and time. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological 1113 Sciences, 277(1682): 661–671. doi:10.1098/rspb.2009.1272. 1114 Şaroğlu, F., and Arpat, E. 1979. Türkiye’deki Bazı Önemli Genç Tektonik Olaylar. Türkiye Jeoloji Kurumu 1115 Bülteni, 18(1): 91–101. 1116 Şengör, A.M.C. 1979. The North Anatolian Transform Fault: its age, offset and tectonic significance. 1117 Journal of Geolological Society of London, 136: 269–82. 1118 Şengör, A.M.C., and Yılmaz Y. 1981. Tethyan evolution of Turkey: A plate tectonic approach. 1119 Tectonophysics, 75(3–4): 181–243. 1120 Şengör, A.M.C., and Barka, A.A., 1992. Evolution of escape related strike slip systems: Implications for 1121 disruption of collusional orogens. 29th International Geological Congress, 21 August-3 1122 September, 1992, Kyoto Japan. Abstracts Vol.1, I-2-56, O-1, 1721. 1123 Şengör, A.M.C., Tüysüz, O., İmren, C., Sakınç, M., Eyidoğan, H., Görür, N., Le Pichon X., and Rangin, C. 1124 2005. The North Anatolian Fault: A New Look. Annual Review Earth Planet. Sciences, 33: 1– 1125 75. 1126 Şengör, A.M.C., Zabcı, C., and Natal’in B. 2019. Continental Transform Faults: Congruence and 1127 Incongruence with Normal Plate Kinematics, Chapter 9. In Transform Plate Boundaries and 1128 Fracture Zones. Edited by J.C. Duarte. Elsevier, pp. 169–247. doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-812064- 1129 4.00009-8. Draft 1130 Tchalenko J.S., 1970. Similarities between shear zones of different magnitudes. Geological Society of 1131 America Bulletin, 81, 1625–40. 1132 Tesakov, A.S. 1998. Voles of the Tegelen fauna. Mededelingen Nederlands Instituut Voor Toegepaste 1133 Geowetenschappen, 60: 71–134. 1134 Turner, F.J., 1953. Nature and dynamic interpretation of deformation lamellae in calcite of three marbles. 1135 American Journal of Science, 251, 276–98. 1136 Tüysüz, O. 1996. Amasya ve Çevresinin Jeolojisi, Türkiye 11. Petrol Kongresi Kitabı, Ankara, pp. 32–48. 1137 Ünay, E., and de Bruijn, H. 1998. Plio-Pleistocene rodents and lagomorphs from Anatolia. Mededelingen 1138 Nederlands Instituut voor Toegepaste Geowetenschappen, 60: 431–66. 1139 Ünay, E., Göktaş, F., Hakyemez, Y., and Avşar, M. 1995. Dating the sediments exposed at the northern 1140 part of the Büyük Menderes Graben (Turkey) on the basis of Arvicolidae (Rodentia, 1141 Mammalia). Geological Bulletin of Turkey, 38(2): 63–68. 1142 Ünay, E., Emre, Ö., Erkal, T., and Keçer, M. 2001. The Rodent fauna from the Adapazarı pull-apart basin 1143 (NW Anatolia): its bearing on the age of the North Anatolian Fault. Geodinamica Acta, 14: 169– 1144 175. doi:10.1016/s0985-3111(00)01063-9. 1145 Vasileiadou, K., Konidaris, G., and Koufos, G. D. 2012. New data on the micromammalian locality of 1146 Kessani (Thrace, Greece) at the Mio-Pliocene boundary. Palaeobiodiversity and 1147 Palaeoenvironments, 92(2): 211–237. doi:10.1007/s12549-012-0075-7. 1148 Withjack, M.O., Schlische, R.W., and Olsen, P.E. 2002. Rift-basin structure and its influence on 1149 sedimentary systems. In Sedimentation in Continental Rifts. Edited by R. Renaut and G.M. 1150 Ashley, SEPM, pp. 57–81. doi:10.2110/pec.02.73.0057

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1151 Yavaşoğlu, H., Tarı, E., Tüysüz, O., Çakır, Z., and Ergintav, S. 2011. Determining and modeling tectonic 1152 movements along the central part of the North Anatolian Fault (Turkey) using geodetic 1153 measurements. Journal of Geodynamics, 51(5): 339–343. doi:10.1016/j.jog.2010.07.003. 1154 Yılmaz, Y., Tüysüz, O., Yiğitbaş, E., Genç, Ş.C., and Şengör, A.M.C. 1997. Geology and tectonic 1155 evolution of the Pontides. In Regional and Petroleum Geology of the Black Sea and Surrounding Region. 1156 Edited by A.G. Robinson. Memoir, vol. 68, American Association of Petroleum Geologists, pp. 183–226. 1157 Figure Captions

1158 Figure 1. Tectonic setting and location of study area. (A) Active tectonic settings of Eastern 1159 Mediterranean region showing the location of Amasya Shear Zone (ASZ) on the North Anatolian 1160 Shear Zone (NASZ). The tectonic blocks are compiled from Reilinger et al. (2006) and Djamour 1161 et al. (2011). (B) Active faults, GPS velocity vectors (McClusky, et al. 2000; Yavaşoğlu et al. 1162 2011), microseismicity focal mechanism of earthquakes (M>4.0; ISC), calculated principal stress 1163 directions (Karasozen et al. 2014), earthquake surface ruptures and tectonic basins within the ASZ 1164 (Modified after Erturaç and Tüysüz 2012).

1165 Figure 2. Quaternary geology and tectonicDraft map of the Suluova Basin showing the distribution of 1166 formations of Suluova Group, locations of measured sections and micrommamal sites.

1167 Figure 3. Key for symbols used for litofacies and sedimentary structures of measured sections

1168 Figure 4. Measured stratigraphic sections at the NE part of the Suluova Basin, for section 1169 locations see Fig. 2, for symbol explanations Fig. 3.

1170 Figure 1. Field panoramas of sedimentary record at NE part of the Suluova Basin, for locations 1171 see Fig. 4.

1172 Figure 6. Model for depositional environment during the initial steps of basin formation for the 1173 NE part of the Suluova Basin.

1174 Figure 7. Measured stratigraphic sections at the south and southwestern part of the Suluova 1175 Basin, for section locations see Fig. 2 and for Fig. 3 for symbol explanations.

1176 Figure 8. Field panoramas of sedimentary record at the south and southwest parts of the Suluova 1177 Basin, for locations see Fig. 7.

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1178 Figure 9. Arvicolines (A–K) and a cricetine (M–O) from the Suluova Basin. (A) M2 of 1179 Kalymnomys sp. from Kurnaz (KU-3). (B–G) upper and lower molars of Microtus (Allophaiomys) 1180 cf. nutiensis from Kerimoğlu; (B) M1 (KO-1); (C) M3 (KO-2); (D) m2 (KO-3); (E–G) m3 (KO- 1181 4–6). (H–K) Mimomys cf. pliocaenicus from Kerimoğlu; (H) M1 occlusal (KO-7), (H’) ventral, 1182 (H’’) buccal and (H’’’) lingual views; (I) M2 occlusal (KO-8), (I’) ventral, (I’’) buccal and (I’’’) 1183 lingual views; (J–K) m2 occlusal (KO-9 and KO-10), (J’ and K’) ventral views. (L) m1 of Arvicola 1184 cf. mosbachensis from Yolpınar locality (YP-1); (M–O), Mesocricetus aff. arameus from 1185 Kızıleğrek locality, (M) m1, (N) m2 and (O) m3. Horizontal scale is 2 mm, verticals are 1 mm, for 1186 lateral and occlusal views, respectively. 1187 1188 Figure 10. Large mammal remains from the Suluova Basin. (A–B) lower molars Sivatherium sp. 1189 from Kurnaz locality; (A) occlusal, (A’) buccal and (A’’) lingual view of m2 (KU-1), (B) occlusal, 1190 (B’) buccal and (B’’) lingual views of m3 (KU-2). (C) posterior part of p3 of ?Equus sp. (KA-1) 1191 from Kamışlı locality. (D) dorsal viewDraft of distal part of first phalanx of Equus sp. (YP-4) from 1192 Yolpınar locality, (D’) anterior and (D’’) posterior view. Scale bars equal to 20 mm; vertical for 1193 giraffid, horizontal for equid specimens. 1194 1195 Figure 11. Murine and cricetine specimens from the Suluova Basin. (A) Apodemus cf. dominans 1196 M1 (KO-11) from Kerimoğlu. (B–C) Mesocricetus cf. brandti m3s from Yolpınar (YP-2 and YP- 1197 3). Scale bar is for 1 mm. 1198 1199 Figure 12. Generalized stratigraphical columnar section of the Quaternary Suluova Basin 1200 representing the timing and relationships between the formations of Suluova Group and the 1201 depositional environment. The δ18O record is adapted from Lisieki and Raymo (2005).

1202 Figure 13. Panorama and block models of the major faults observed in the Suluova Basin. 1203 Stereonet plots indicate measured fault planes and slip lineations. (A) The Suluova Fault at the 1204 Yolpınar Village, showing the uncorformable contact between the Değirmendere (Qsd) and 1205 Yolpınar (Qsy) formations and the faulted contact with the Harmanağılı Formation (Qsh). (B) 1206 Panorama of the Eraslan Fault Zone at southwest part of the Suluova Basin, showing the 1207 unconformable contact between the Eraslan Formation (Qse) and Eocene Çekerek (Tcek)

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1208 Formation. (C) A panorama showing the post-depositional conjugate faulting formed within the 1209 Eraslan (Qse) and Kamışlı (Qsk) formations after the initiation of the Salhan Fault.

1210 Figure 14. Kinematic analysis of the faults observed at the northeast side of the Suluova Basin 1211 controlled by the Bayırlı Fault Zone. (A) Stereonet showing 23 fault planes and striations, (B) 1212 right dihedral display of the faults and positions of principal stress axis, σ1 and σ3, (C) 1213 Movement planes of the faults showing an apparent change in extension direction, (D) Mohr 1214 diagram of paleostress calculation by using simple shear tensor average (P-T) method and (E) 1215 calculated average principal stress directions.

1216 Figure 15. Kinematic analysis of the faults observed at the southern part of the Suluova Basin 1217 controlled by the Eraslan Fault Zone. (A) Stereonet showing a kinematic dataset of 14 fault 1218 planes and striations, (B) right dihedral display of the faults and positions of principal stress axis, 1219 σ1 and σ3, (C) Movement planes of the faults showing an apparent change in extension 1220 direction, (D) M Plane Girdle method forDraft calculation stress directions, (E) Mohr diagram of 1221 paleostress calculated by using simple shear tensor average (P-T) method, (E) calculated average 1222 principal stress directions.

1223 Figure 16. (A) Panorama of the faulted contact between the Eraslan and Kamışlı formations at 1224 the Karacadede Section, (B) interpretation of the faulted section, stereonet showing the fault 1225 planes and slip lineations. (C) Stereonet plot showing 72 fault planes and 32 striations measured 1226 at the region. (D) Movement planes of all faults. (E) Separation of kinematic data by using 1227 movement planes into two major deformation phases where the second phase showing three sub- 1228 phases. (F) Display of the principal stress directions (σ1, σ2 and σ3) calculated by using simple 1229 shear tensor average (P-T) method for each phase.

1230 Figure 17. Models of evolutionary steps of the Suluova Basin during the Early Pleistocene. Each 1231 time frame is represented with a map view, block model and cross section. Relationships among 1232 basin capacity (incremental accommodation space), sediment supply, and water supply are 1233 represented as measured jars.

1234 Figure 17 (cont.). Models of evolutionary steps of the Suluova Basin during the Middle-Late 1235 Pleistocene.

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Draft

Figure 1. Tectonic setting and location of study area. (A) Active tectonic settings of Eastern Mediterranean region showing the location of Amasya Shear Zone (ASZ) on the North Anatolian Shear Zone (NASZ). The tectonic blocks are compiled from Reilinger et al. (2006) and Djamour et al. (2011). (B) Active faults, GPS velocity vectors (McClusky, et al. 2000; Yavaşoğlu et al. 2011), microseismicity focal mechanism of earthquakes (M>4.0; ISC), calculated principal stress directions (Karasozen et al. 2014), earthquake surface ruptures and tectonic basins within the ASZ (Modified after Erturaç and Tüysüz 2012).

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Figure 2. Quaternary geology and tectonic map of the Suluova Basin showing the distribution of formations of Suluova Group, locations of measured sections and micrommamal sites.

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Figure 3. Key for symbols used for litofacies and sedimentary structures of measured sections

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Figure 4. Measured stratigraphic sections at the NE part of the Suluova Basin, for section locations see Fig. 2, for symbol explanations Fig. 3.

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Figure 5. Field panoramas of sedimentary recordDraft at NE part of the Suluova Basin, for locations see Figure 4.

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Figure 6. Model for depositional environment during the initial steps of basin formation for the NE part of the Suluova Basin.

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Figure 7. Measured stratigraphic sections at the south and southwestern part of the Suluova Basin, for section locations see Fig. 2 and for Fig. 3 for symbol explanations.

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Figure 8. Field panoramas of sedimentary record at S and SW part of the Suluova Basin, for locations see DraftFigure 7.

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Figure 9. Arvicolines (A–K) and a cricetine (M–O) from the Suluova Basin. (A) M2 of Kalymnomys sp. from Kurnaz (KU-3). (B–G) upper and lower molars of Microtus (Allophaiomys) cf. nutiensis from Kerimoğlu; (B) M1 (KO-1); (C) M3 (KO-2); (D) m2 (KO-3); (E–G) m3 (KO-4–6). (H–K) Mimomys cf. pliocaenicus from Kerimoğlu; (H) M1 occlusal (KO-7), (H’) ventral, (H’’) buccal and (H’’’) lingual views; (I) M2 occlusal (KO-8), (I’) ventral, (I’’) buccal and (I’’’) lingual views; (J–K) m2 occlusal (KO-9 and KO-10), (J’ and K’) ventral views. (L) m1 of Arvicola cf. mosbachensis from Yolpınar locality (YP-1); (M–O), Mesocricetus aff. arameus from Kızıleğrek locality, (M) m1, (N) m2 and (O) m3. Horizontal scale is 2 mm, verticals are 1 mm, for lateral and occlusal views, respectively.

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Figure 10. Large mammal remains from the Suluova Basin. (A–B) lower molars Sivatherium sp. from Kurnaz locality; (A) occlusal, (A’) buccal and (A’’) lingual view of m2 (KU-1), (B) occlusal, (B’) buccal and (B’’) lingual views of m3 (KU-2). (C) posterior part of p3 of ?Equus sp. (KA-1) from Kamışlı locality. (D) dorsal view of distal part of first phalanx of Equus sp. (YP-4) from Yolpınar locality, (D’) anterior and (D’’) posterior view. Scale bars equal to 20 mm; vertical for giraffid, horizontal for equid specimens.

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Figure 11. Murine and cricetine specimens from the Suluova Basin. (A) Apodemus cf. dominans M1 (KO-11) from Kerimoğlu. (B–C) Mesocricetus cf. brandti m3s from Yolpınar (YP-2 and YP-3). Scale bar is for 1 mm. Draft

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Draft

Generalized stratigraphical columnar section of the Quaternary Suluova Basin representing the timing and relationships between the formations of Suluova Group and the depositional environment. The δ18O record is adapted from Lisieki and Raymo (2005).

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Figure 13. Panorama and block models of the major faults observed in the Suluova Basin. Stereonet plots indicate measured fault planes and slip lineations. (A) The Suluova Fault at the Yolpınar Village, showing the uncorformable contact between the Değirmendere (Qsd) and Yolpınar (Qsy) formations and the faulted contact with the Harmanağılı Formation (Qsh). (B) Panorama of the Eraslan Fault Zone at southwest part of the Suluova Basin, showing the unconformableDraft contact between the Eraslan Formation (Qse) and Eocene Çekerek (Tcek) Formation. (C) A panorama showing the post-depositional conjugate faulting formed within the Eraslan (Qse) and Kamışlı (Qsk) formations after the initiation of the Salhan Fault.

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Figure 14. Kinematic analysis of the faults observed at the NE side of the Suluova Basin controlled by the Bayırlı Fault Zone. (A) Stereonet showing 23 fault planes and striations, (B) right dihedral display of the faults and positions of principal stress axis, σ1 and σ3, (C) Movement planes of the faults showing an apparent change in extension direction, (D) Mohr diagram of paleostress calculation by using simple shear tensor average (P-T) method and (E) calculated average principal stress directions.

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Figure 15. Kinematic analysis of the faults observed at the southern part of the Suluova Basin controlled by the Eraslan Fault Zone. (A) Stereonet showing a kinematic dataset of 14 fault planes and striations, (B) right dihedral display of the faults and positions of principal stress axis, σ1 and σ3, (C) Movement planes of the faults showing an apparent change in extension direction, (D) M Plane Girdle method for calculation stress directions, (E) Mohr diagram of paleostress calculated by using simple shear tensor average (P-T) method, (E) calculated average principal stress directions.

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Figure 16. (A) Panorama of the faulted contact of the Eraslan and Kamışlı formations at Karacadede locality, (B) interpretation of the faulted section, stereonet showing the fault planes and slip lineations. (C) Stereonet plot showing 72 fault planes and 32 striationsDraft measured at the region. (D) Movement planes of all faults. (E) Separation of kinematic data by using movement planes into two major deformation phases where the second phase showing three sub-phases. (F) Display of the principal stress directions (σ1, σ2 and σ3) calculated by using simple shear tensor average (P-T) method for each phase.

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Figure 17. Models of evolutionary steps of the Suluova Basin during the Early Pleistocene. Each time frame is represented with a map view, block model and cross section. Relationships among basin capacity (incremental accommodation space), sediment supply, and water supply are represented as measured jars.

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Figure 17 (cont.). Models of evolutionary steps of the Suluova Basin during the Middle-Late Pleistocene.

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