Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-18680-4 — Technology in the Industrial Revolution Barbara Hahn Index More Information

Index

Pages in italics indicate an illustration.

actor-network theory (ANT), 9 Armley Mills, 130 Age of Exploration, 33–34 See also Gott, Benjamin; wool and Age of Revolutions, 116–17, 118 woolens agriculture, 74 Ashton Canal, 91 craft apprentices and, 51 Assize of Measures (1196), 31–32 enclosure, 52, 74, 80, 191 productivity, 23–24, 191 Baines, Edward, 103 Aire-Calder Navigation Free trade and, 165 Canal, 53 India, attitude toward, 165 Allen, Robert C., 13 myth of Industrial Revolution, 165–66, 178 Anthropocene, 17 Bank of England, 73 Anti-Corn Law leagues, 174 banks, 73, 141 See also Free Trade Bank of England, 73 apprentices See also credit factory workers, 72,77–79, 92, 115, Bean Ing mill, 130, 180, 190 See also Gott, Benjamin; wool and family labor and, 28, 51, 107, 109 woolens free labor, transition to, 109–12 Bengal, 107 machine making and, 76, 132 Bengals, 154 masters’ workshops, 49 Berg, Maxine, 11, 16, 140 See also guilds; labor, child; legislation; Blackpool, 181 patriarchy; workshops bleaching, 50 Arkwright system, 71 See also cloth production New England and, 123 boom and bust cycle, 141–42, 162 proliferation of, 74 See also capitalism slave labor for cotton and, 102 Boulton & Watt, 88, 97, 121, 130 variations on, 124 Boulton, Matthew, 95 Arkwright, Richard Bridgewater Canal, 91, 95, 102 biographical information, 64 Brown family of Rhode Island, 123, 128 Calico Acts and, 69–70 business organization credit for Industrial Revolution, corporations, deﬁned, 125 64, 185 incorporation, 125, 171, 173 labor force of, 110 individual ownership, 100 licensing, 60, 71–75 joint-stock companies, 100, 171, 172 myth of, 57, 64, 185 monopolies, 28–29 patents, 71–75, 84 trading companies, 35–37 steam engine, use of, 96 See also domestic production; Dutch East weavers, housing for, 78 India Company (VOC); East India See also factory; water-frames Company (EIC); guilds; workshops

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218 Index

calico, 40 elites, and luxury goods, 30 Calico Acts (1701, 1721), 51, 70, 152 See also sumptuary laws and Indian cottons, global market formation, 117–18, 138–40 for, 108 industrialist class, 117, 164 Manchester, rise of, 91 middle class, 148, 189 repeal of, 85–86, 185 Peterloo and formation of, 138–40 wool and worsted protections, 86 political activities, 137, 160 Calico Craze, 16, 41, 51 working class, 135–37, 140, 160–62, Callico Madams, 51 181 canals, 53 See also collective bargaining; Aire-Calder Navigation Canal, 53 Combination Acts (1799, 1800) Ashton Canal, 91 clockmaker’s work, 76 early use of, 189 cloth markets, 52–54 factory location and, 97, 98 Cloth Hall, Leeds, 54, 55, 182, 183 Leeds and Liverpool Canal, 102 yarns, 129 Mersey and Irwell Navigation Act cloth production (1721), 91 bleaching, 50 railroads and, 147, 166 carding, 25, 49, 64, 65–67, 77, 88, Rochdale Canal, 91 128, 133 steam engines and, 97 combing, 48, 128 See also railroads; transportation cropping, 44, 69, 129 Cannadine, David, 14 dyeing, 26, 50, 85–86, 216 capitalism, 100, 141–42 ﬁnishing, 25, 31, 69 deﬁnition of, 7 fulling, 26, 31–32 historiography, 10 knitting frames, 44, 134 Middle Ages, 31–32 printing, 50, 85–86 See also capitalism, industrial; putting-out system, 47–50 mercantilism silk (throwing), 65, 113 capitalism, industrial spinning, 25 capital investments, 169, 171, 172 stocking frames, 44 examples of, 51, 188–91 water-frames, 64–67, 66 mercantilism, persistence of, 178 weaving (silk), persistence of han- preexisting economic structures dloom, 157 See plantations cloth types workshops and, 109 Bengals, 154 capitalism, laissez-faire,mythof,1,175–79, calico, 40 185 muslins, 154 See also Free Trade; Smith, Adam silk and silk blends, 31, 46 capitalism, proprietary, 127 See also cotton; fustian; linen; wool and capital-labor substitution, 79 woolens; worsteds carding, 25, 49, 64, 65–67, 77, 88, 128 coal, 12, 91, 144 See also cloth production cost of, 95, 97 Carding engines, 72,74 versus waterfalls, 144 Carnot, Sadi, 145 See also steam engines Cartwright, Edmund, 155 collective bargaining, 139 Chambers of Commerce, 173 and working class, 140 Chartism, 135, 160 Combination Acts (1799, 1800), 117, 131 Chase, Malcolm, 1820 (2013), 17 and incorporation, 171 china, 34, 36 repeal of (1824), 139, 160, 171 chintz, 40 combing, 48, 128 Church of England See also cloth production apprentices and poor laws, 69, 77 commerce, 100–2 dissent from, 118, 161 consumer culture, 33–34, 36, 182, 183, 189 class sumptuary laws and, 30, 34, 41 consciousness, 137, 140 See also fashion; Paisley shawls

Index 219

consumption, separation from production, drought, 142 4, 161 See also water power contextualist analysis, 8–9, 11 Dutch East India Company (VOC), 36, 40 Corn Laws, 74, 137, 142 dyeing, 26, 50, 85–86 landed gentry, benefit to, 174 bleaching, 50 repeal of, 175, 185 See also cloth production See also Anti-Corn Law leagues; Free Trade East India Company (EIC) corporations See also capitalism; mercantilism See business organization British empire and, 150 cotton government, functioning as, 37, 107, 150 adoption of in England, 40–41 Indian cloth and, 36, 43 blends, 50 Industrial Revolution, credit for, 40–41 cultivation of, 104 Industrial Revolution, responds to, 108 economic impact of, 2 joint-stock company, 171 government prohibition against, 70 North American customers, 41, 102, 108 importation of, 2, 102, 103, 104 shawls and, 152, 163 in Middle Ages, 30 slave trade and, 41–42 mechanization, relation to other fibers, Edgerton, David, 10 86–89, 128 efficiency price of, 104 definition of, 121 processing of meaning of, 146 See spinning; weaving term, changing meaning of, 85–86 profitability of, 70 enclosure, 52, 74, 80, 191 trade in, 36 energy vertical integration of, 168 comparisons between power systems, weaving, 156 120, 121 See also East India Company (EIC); See also efficiency; thermodynamics Indian cloth; Liverpool Cotton Engels, Friedrich, 136, 179 Brokers’ Association; slavery; engineering firms, 76, 132 United States cotton brokers factory emergence of, 101 Arkwright-style, 71–75, 72 cotton mills buildings, growth of, 94 and steam engines, 96, 97, 98 definition of, 68 credit, 31, 73, 141 division of labor and, 169 See also banks; boom and bust invention of, 64, 68–69, 190 cycle meaning of, 67 Crompton, Samuel, 81–82, 84 plantation as precursor, 186 See also spinning mules See also labor, industrial; mass produc- cropping, 44, 69, 129 tion; putting-out system See also cloth production Factory Act (1833), 109 Crusades, 32–34 Factory Act (1847), 175 Crystal Palace, 182 fashion, 114, 162 custom-made goods, 54 as social status marker, 30, 34, 41 mechanization and, 127, 131 Darby, Abraham, 189 royals and, 40, 164 demography, 22, 23–24, 191 See also class Derbyshire, 44, 113 financial revolution Derby silk mill, 68, 113 See banks domestic production, 25–26, 169, 181 flying shuttle, 59, 113 legacy of in factories, 179 bottleneck created by, 59, 62, 155, See also factory; labor, industrial; 166 patriarchy; putting-out system Industrial Revolution, credit for, 57–60 Drinkwater, Peter, 96 See also looms; weaving

220 Index

food prices, 134, 142, 174 economic history, labor, source of, See also Corn Laws 80 France economic history, wages, 79–80 French Revolution, 73, 116–17 environmental history, 17 Napoleonic Wars, 73, 141 global history, 15 slave trade and, 42 labor history, 17 textile production of, 11, 37, 191 national history, 14 war with, 73, 108, 117, 118 science history, 14 Free Trade, 174–79, 185 Hockley Mill, 63, 74 See also Corn Laws Horsfall, William, 134 freemen housing, 77 See guilds, Middle Ages mill villages, New England, 124–27 fuller’s earth, 26 See also domestic production; Manchester fulling, 26 Hudson, Patricia, 11, 16 mechanization of (Middle Ages), 31–32 Hughes, Thomas P., 8–9 See also cloth production Humphries, Jane, 13, 17, 79 fustian, 31, 40, 50, 60, 70, 87 Hunt, Henry, 138–39 Industrial Revolution and, 113 putting-out system and, 113 imperialism, 35–36, 150, 163, 175 See also East India Company (EIC); Gama, Vasco da, 34 mercantilism General Chamber of Manufacturers, 117 incorporation gig-mills, 44, 87, 129, 132, 133 See under business organization Gott, Benjamin, 130, 132 India and apprenticeship, 131 England, relationship with, 107, See also wool and woolens 149–50, 163 government, 1, 65, 66,73 Indian cloth See also legislation; mercantilism; competition, 6, 85–86, 148, patents 163 Great Exhibition in London (1851), 182 demand for, 182 Greg, Robert Hyde, 174 designs of, 39 See also Free Trade division of labor, 43 Greg, Samuel, 73, 75, 77 domestic production, 38 labor force of, 92, 110 EIC and, 36 See also Church of England, dissent from; English language, effects on, 41 Quarry Bank mill industrialization, 149 Grifﬁn, Emma, 17 protection against, 70 guilds, 171 quality of, 43 Combination Acts, 117 regional specialties, 38 decline of, 132 slave trade and, 41–42 legacy of in factories, 179 trade, 36–40, 108 machine breaking, 134 weavers using British yarn, 149 Middle Ages, 28–29, 30, 31 See also Calico Acts; Calico Craze transformation of, 7, 117 Industrial Revolution coining of, 6 Habakkuk thesis, 13 contemporaries of, 5 Hafter, Daryl, 11, 191 cost competition and product innovation, Hargreaves, James, 74, 115 85–86, 92, 146, 147, 150 See also spinning jenny description of, 2, 64 Helmshore Mills, 128 disputed, 5–6 heterogeneous engineers, 9 mythical version, 5–6, 14, 57–58, 128, historical materialism, 179–81 165–66, 178, 186–87 historiography, 8–11, 105, 191 spreading of, 147 consumption history, 16–17 See also invention; mass production; economic history, 11–14, 106 mechanization

Index 221

industrialization payment for, 179 definition of, 4–5, 7 political representation, fight for, 148 Inikori, Joseph, 106 reelers, 94 internalist analysis, 8–9 resistance measures, traditional, 140 invention, 1, 6, 12, 20, 83–84 spending power of, 110 economic histories of, 85–86 strikes for wages, 137–38 Industrial Revolution, credit for, 57–58, United States, 124, 126 165–66, 178, 180 voluntary labor, shift to, 110 process of, extended, 94–95 See also class; domestic production; See also patents factory; labor, child; labor, division investments, 125 of; putting-out system Iron Man headstock Lancashire County, 50–54, 60, 70, 76, 91 See under spinning mules See also Manchester ironworking, 189 Landes, David, 4 Italy, 30 Latour, Bruno, 9 silk industry, 65, 68, 128 Leeds, 28, 52–54 See also cloth markets Jacobins, 117, 134 Leeds and Liverpool Canal, 102 Jacquard looms, 159, 163 legislation Joint Stock Companies Act (1856), 172 Assize of Measures (1196), 31–32 joint-stock companies Combination Acts (1799, 1800), 117, See under business organization 131, 139, 160, 171 Joint-Stock Companies Registration Act Corn Laws, 74, 137, 142, 174, 175, 185 (1844), 172 See also Free Trade journeymen, 131–32, 135, 190 Magna Carta (1215), 31 See also apprentices; guilds; workshops leisure, 4, 181–82 Lemire, Beverly, 16 Kashmiri shawls, 38, 39, 50, 152, 153, 162, limited liability, 172 163 See also business organization See also Paisley linen, 87–88 Kay, John, 155, 166 blends, 46, 50 See also flying shuttle See also fustian Kennedy, John, 92, 147 importation of, 37 See also McConnell & Kennedy vertical integration of, 168, 170 knitting frames, 44, 134 See also Marshall, John See also cloth production Liverpool, 28, 91, 101–2 Liverpool and Manchester Railway, 166 labor, child, 80, 135 Liverpool Cotton Brokers’ Association, legal restrictions on, 148 173, 178 New England mills, 123 Lombe, John, 68, 113 pauper children, 77, 109 London Corresponding Society, 117 See also apprentices Long, Pamela, 14 labor, division of, 4, 60–62 looms gendered, 72, 80, 81, 160, 167 draw looms, 114 Middle Ages, 31–32 functioning and parts, 26, 27, 58, 59 labor, industrial handlooms, persistence of, 130 autobiographies of workers, 137 inventions for, 155 capital, opposition to, 138–40 labor and, 158, 160, 167 capital, overlap with, 161 numbers in households, 49 growing numbers for, 52 powerloom adoption in Britain, 154 Irish immigrants, 167 powerloom patents, 155 job displacement, 132, 134–35, 143, powerlooms, 113 150 powerlooms and product quality, limited work hours, 175 157, 167 pauper children, apprenticeship of, 109 powerlooms and spinning mules, 167

222 Index

looms (cont.) labor and, 132, 134–35, 143, 150 powerlooms in United States, 125 laws against, 44 status, 167 Middle Ages, 31–32 See also flying shuttle; weaving reasons for, 158 Lowell, Francis Cabot, 125–27, 154, resistance to, 134–35 169, 171 mercantilism, 35–36, 100–1 Luddites, 128, 134–35 See also capitalism; imperialism luxury goods, 30, 34, 36, 162, 163, 185 Merchant Adventurers of London, 29 Lyon, France, 191 merchants, 60–62, 157 manufacturing and, 112, 129–31, machine breaking, 115, 134 178 Magna Carta (1215), 31 Middle Ages, 29 Malm, Andreas, Fossil Capital (2016), 17 Mersey and Irwell Navigation Act Manchester (1721), 91 business failures, 112 middle class canals, 97, 102 See under class celebration of industrialization, millwrights, 75–76 176–78, 182 Mokyr, Joel, 11 cotton mills in, 108 monopolies filthy, description of as, 110–12, 136 See under business organization Free Trade Hall, 176, 177 Murray, Matthew, 88, 97, 168 hinterlands, specialization in, 99, 112 muslins, 154 Liverpool, relationship with, 101, 112 map of 1824, 111 New Draperies population growth, 110–12 See worsteds printing industry, 91 North America railways, 166 cotton fabric, importation of, 108 Royal Exchange building, 178 market, 54 slavery, role in, 104, 148, 173 See also East India Company (EIC); tenements of, 136 slavery textile town, history of, 90–91 transportation, 91 Oldknow, Samuel, 60–62, 68, 77, 80, 169 See also canals; Industrial Revolution; and fashion, 114 Lancashire County Arkwright-style mill, adoption of, manufacturing 71–73, 92 definition of, 2 weavers, employment of, 114–15, 157 See also capitalism, industrial; class overlookers, 77 market towns, 28–29 Owen, Robert, 77, 169 See also Leeds Marshall, John, 87–88, 97, 168, 170 Paine, Thomas, 116 Marx, Karl, 179, 180 Paisley, 39 historical materialism and, 179–81 name of, 152 See also capitalism, industrial; class; popularity of, 152 Engels, Friedrich Paisley shawls, 153, 159, 162 mass production, 4–5, 162–64, 166 Queen Victoria and, 164 McConnell & Kennedy, 92–95, 186 Paisley village, Scotland, 160 customer innovation and feedback, boom and bust cycle and, 162 93–94 weaving tradition, 154, 159 mills on Rochdale Canal, 97, 98 paper-making, 190 weavers, employment of, 113, 157 Parthasarathi, Prasannan, 15 workers’ strikes, 115 Pasold Studies in Textile History, 16 McConnell, James, 92 patents, 65–67, 71–75, 83, 95 See also McConnell & Kennedy patriarchy, 25–28, 81, 106, 117, 159, mechanization 190 industrialization and, 4–6 persistence of, 169

Index 223

political actions and, 160 worsteds and, 47, 129 United States, 124 See also cloth production See also domestic production; plantations Paul, Lewis, 65 Quarry Bank mill, 73, 75, 77, 92 Peel, Robert, 175–76 labor force of, 109–10 Peterloo, 138–40, 176 waterwheels, continued use of, 121 response to, 160 See also Greg, Robert Hyde; Greg, Piccadilly Mill, 96 Samuel plantations apprenticeship, comparison to, 107 Radcliffe, William, 155, 166 factory, precursor to, 68, 169, 186 railroads, 147 household production, 106, 124 leisure and, 181 industrial manufacturing, precursor Liverpool and Manchester Railway, 166 to, 42 See also canals; transportation meaning of, 42 Railway Act (1844), 175 rise of, 6 Reform Act, 148 See also cotton; slavery resistance political actions, 138–40 Luddites and, 128, 134–35 Chambers of Commerce, 173 machine breaking, 115, 134 commercial and manufacturing inter- mechanization cause, 116 ests, 173 mechanization effect, 115 franchise, quest for, 135, 137, 148, 160 strikes for wages, 115 government protection for workers, tradition of, 115–16 174–79 reverse salient, 9 manufacturers’ actions, 164 Riello, Giorgio, 15, 107, 108 patriarchy and, 160 Roberts, Richard H., 142, 155 physical force, use of, 160 Rochdale Canal, 91 roots of, Age of Revolutions, 116–17 Rochdale Canal Act (1794), 97 roots of, religious radicalism, 118 Rosenband, Leonard, 11, 190 See also class; Free Trade; legislation; Royal Opera Arcade, 182 trade unions Royal Society, 83 poor law Russell, Edmund, 17 See under Church of England pottery, 189 Sagar, Henry, 128 powerlooms Salt, Titus, 169 See under looms Saltaire, 169 printing, 50, 85–86 Scranton, Philip, 127 See also cloth production shopping, 182, 183 product innovation market towns and, 28–29 cost competition versus, 85–86, 92, 146, See also cloth markets 147, 150, 161 silk definition of, 3 blends, 31, 46 shift from, 3, 95 Derby silk mill, 68 profit incentives, 79–80 French, 191 proto-industrialization Indian, 38 See putting-out system Italian, 30 putting-out system, 47–50, 51, 100 Paisley village, 154 description of, 60–61 status marker, 30, 34, 41 factory predecessor, 68 throwing, 65, 113 factory production, compared to, 67 weaving, persistence of handloom, flying shuttle and, 59 157 merchants, challenges to, 61, 71, 158 The Silk Road, 32–34, 36 processing, phases of, 60 Crusades proto-industrialization, 7 spices transformation during industrialization, 99 Slater, Samuel, 123

224 Index

slavery, 41–42, 108, 148 iron makers, early adoption of, 189 labor and plantations, 42, 102 patents, expiration of, 120 See also capitalism; labor, industrial railroads, use of, 147 Smail, John, 16 separate condensers, 96, 120 Smith, Adam, 101, 161, 171, 174, 180, 185 switch to during drought, 142 Industrial Revolution, credit for, 178 thermodynamics, development of, See also capitalism; capitalism, 145, 146 laissez-faire capitalism, myth of waterwheels, comparison to, 121, 144 Smith, Pamela, 14 workings of, 96, 146 social hierarchy See also Boulton & Watt; Watt, James Middle Ages, 24, 30 Steedman, Carolyn, 17 See also shopping; sumptuary laws stocking frames, 44 Society of Arts, 62, 83 See also cloth production spices, 34, 36 strikes, 137–38 spinning, 48 Strutt, Jedidiah, 123 ﬂyers, 44, 45 Styles, John, 16 gendered division of labor, 72, 144 sumptuary laws, 30, 34, 41 India, compared to England, 43 supply and demand Saxony Wheels, 44, 45,65 and industrialization, 4 United States, 124 systems theory, 8 water-frames and, 85–86 weaving and, in one mill, 168 Ten Hours’ movement, 175 See also cloth production; spinning jenny; tenements, 136 spinning mules; water-frames textile production, French, 191 spinning jenny the social, 9 function of, 62, 63 thermodynamics hand powered, 63 development of, 145, 146 invention of, mythical version, 57 Thomas, William, 51 persistence of, 74–76 Thompson, E. P., 17 popularity of, 84 thread, 25 product, inconsistent thread, 81, 85–86 See also spinning See also spinning; spinning mules; throwing silk, 65 water-frames tin, 76, 88 spinning mules, 143 Toynbee, Arnold, 6 invention of, mythical version, 57 trade unions, 117, 134, 140 Iron Man headstock, 142, 143, collective bargaining, 139, 140 144–45, 186 strikes, 137–38 patent, lack of, 83–84 See also class; Combination Acts (1799, popularity of, 83–85 1800); political actions powerlooms and, 167 transportation, 91, 93 product, inconsistent thread, 82 canals, building of, 53 spindles, numbers of, 94 railroads, 166 See also spinning; spinning jenny; steam engines, 147 water-frames turnpikes, 91 spinning wheels, 25, 44, 45 See also canals; railroads See also spinning; spinning jenny; spinning mules; water-frames United States spinsters, 72 cotton and, 104–5, 173 stakeholders, 9 independence, 105 steam engines, 130 industrialization, 123–28 adoption of, slow, 97, 98 See also North America; plantations; advantages of, 120 slavery coal mines, proximity to, 96 cost of operation, 97 vertical integration, 169 efﬁciency, 175 cotton, 168

Index 225

handiwork, continued use of, 131 Wedgwood, Josiah, 189 linen, 168, 170 Weisdorf, Jacob, 13 wool, 130, 169 whitesmiths, 88 Victoria Quarter shopping arcade, 183 wool and woolens Victoria, Queen of England, 150, 164, 167 blends, 30, 46 combing, 128 wages cotton, relationship to, 128 child labor, use of, 79 economic importance of, 25 gendered discrepancy, 80 export of, 25, 29 historians’ debates about, 13, 79–80 flying shuttle, adoption of, 60 purchasing power, 137 fulling, 129 reduced through mechanization, household production of, 86, 113, 129 144, 147 in Middle Ages, 29, 31–32 strikes for higher wages, 137–38 mechanization of adapted to cotton, See also class; Marx, Karl 128–30 water power, 75, 130 processing of, 25, 26, 44–46, 48, 130 See also waterwheels See also gig-mills water-frames, 66, 143 slave trade and, 42 Arkwright, and, 64 spinning, 25 cotton warp and, 70 vertical integration, 169 factory system, 65–67 weaving, powerloom, late adopters, 156 function of, 65 worsteds, comparison to, 46–47, 86, 156 invention of, 65–67 See also cloth production; worsteds invention of, myth version, 57 worker housing, 77, 78, 169–71 popularity of, 84 working class spinning jenny and, 85–86 See under class waterwheels, 31, 72 workshops, 28, 49, 100 steam engines, comparison to, 121, 144 factory predecessor, 68–69, 140 Watt, James, 95–96 persistence of, 76, 87, 109, 113, 158 credit for Industrial Revolution, 178 See also apprentices; capitalism, patents, 95, 97, 120 industrial; factory; guilds; labor, See also Boulton & Watt; steam engines industrial weavers Worshipful Company of Drapers, 29 domestic, as outside control of Worshipful Company of Framework factory, 158 Knitters, 134 domestic, wages decline, 162 worsteds pay for, decline, 162 capital, investment in raw materials, weaving, 26, 27 46, 129 fibers, variations, 156 flying shuttle, adoption of, 60 gendered, 129, 159, 160 processing of, 46, 48 hand-powered, 51, 91, 113, 154, 155, proto-industrialization, 47, 86, 113, 129 157–58 weaving, powerloom, early adopters, 156 household production, continued woolens, comparison to, 46–47, 86, 156 demand for, 113 See also cloth production; wool and intricate patterns of, 159, 162–63 woolens limitations in width, 58 Wrigley, E. A., 12 Middle Ages, 25 Wyatt, John, 65 spinning and, in one mill, 168 status, loss of, 159 yarn United States, 123–28 See spinning See also cloth production; domestic Yorkshire County production; factory; looms; vertical farm size, 47 integration worsteds, center for, 46 weaving sheds, 168–71, 170 See also Leeds