Women's Representation at Federal Legislative And

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Asian Journal of Business Management 5(3): 276-283, 2013 ISSN: 2041-8744; e-ISSN: 2041-8752 © Maxwell Scientific Organization, 2013 Submitted: April 03, 2012 Accepted: January 03, 2013 Published: June 15, 2013

Women’s Representation at Federal Legislative and Executive Bodies: A Comparative Study of Pakistan and Malaysia

Najeebullah Khan and Amanullah Khan Miankhel Department of Public Administration, School of Communication, University Sains Malaysia, Gomal University, D.I. Khan, Pakistan

Abstract: Prior research has been focused on the assessment of women representation in lower house of the parliament. This study examines an overtime growth for the descriptive representation of women in both the legislative and executive bodies of Pakistan and Malaysia. Time series plot is used to assess overtime growth of women representation since independence of the countries. The results indicate substantial increase in woman representation over the years in both the countries. However representation of women in both the legislative and executive bodies of Malaysia is better than Pakistan except lower house of the parliament, which is due to reservation of 60 seats for women in Pakistan. The results of t-test indicate that the mean difference between the two countries is significant in the upper house of the parliament but not significant only powerful in lower house of the Parliament.

Keywords: Comparison of Pakistan and Malaysia, federal legislative and executive bodies, women representation

INTRODUCTION 10.1% in Arabs, 13.2% in Pacific, 18.4% in Sub Saharan Africa and 18.7% in Asian countries in 2010 Under-representation of women in legislative (IPU, 2010). bodies has become a global issue thereby gaining Scholars explained such variations by a variety of interest of researchers of the entire world (Paxton et al., factors including institutional factors such as type of 2010; Bergh, 2009; Celis, 2009; Stockemer, 2008; government, electoral process, party system, quotas Tremblay, 2007; Whitford et al., 2007; Norris, 2006; (Paxton et al., 2010; Stockemer, 2008; Francechet and Sainsbury, 2004). Considerable work has been done in Piscopo, 2008) socio-economic factors like class- both developed (Nielsen and Morten, 2010; Paxton distinction, illiteracy, per capita income, poverty et al., 2010; Bernardi et al., 2009; Koning, 2009; (Jabeen and Muhammad Zafar, 2009; Whistler and Tremblay, 2007; Whistler and Mark, 2007; Norris, Mark, 2007) and cultural factors such as customs, 2006) and developing countries (Jabeen and traditions and religion (Bano, 2009). Factors Muhammad Zafar, 2009; Bergh, 2009; Bano, 2009; responsible for women’s overall under-representation is Davies, 2005; Allwood and Khursheed, 2004). Scholars largely common across nations while the degree of around the world are of the view that despite under- representation varies from nation to nation constituting half of the world population, the (Norris, 2006). Therefore, special measures and representation of women in the national legislature is techniques cannot bring similar outcome for all nations, only 18% and may be regarded as marginal (Krook, rather customized strategies are mandatory to overcome 2010; Bano, 2009; Wolbrecht and David, 2007). the problems of women’s under representation (Halder, Even in advance societies the representation of 2004). women has increased only marginally from 9% in 1995 Although considerable work has been done on to 16 percent in 2004 which is much lower than the women’s representation in federal legislature around critical mass of 30 percent envisaged at Beijing (Paxton the world as an individual country case study (Jabeen et al., 2010; Devlin and Robert, 2008). However, and Muhammad Zafar, 2009; Paxton et al., 2007; recently it reached to 50 percent especially in Nordic Halder, 2004; Lovenduski and Pippa, 2003) or cross countries, 19.9% in OSCE member countries countries analysis (Paxton, 1997) but less work has (excluding Nordic countries) and 22.2% in American been done on the overtime comparative analysis of societies in 2010 (IPU, 2010). The representation of women representation in both the federal legislative and women in most of the developing countries is much executive bodies in general (Krook, 2010; Stockemer, below than those of advanced countries and is about 2008; Whitford et al., 2007) and in the context of

Corresponding Author: Najeebullah Khan, Department of Public Administration, School of Communication, University Sains Malaysia, Gomal University, D.I. Khan, Pakistan 276

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Malaysia and Pakistan in particular. The analysis of million are female (Pakistan Statistical Year Book, women representation in federal legislature is valuable 2009). About 20% of the population lives below the but not comprehensive. For broader and overarching international poverty line of US$ 1.25 a day view of women representative comparative analyses of (Wikipedia, 2010). Pakistan has a multi-cultural and women representation in both the federal legislative and multi-ethnic society. Pakistan is a multilingual country executive bodies are mandatory. with more than sixty languages being spoken. English This study will fill this gap in the literature by is the official language of Pakistan while Urdu is the analyzing comparative patterns and variations of national language. Other major languages include women representation in the federal legislative and Punjabi, Pashto, Sandi, Balochi, Saraiki and Kashmiri. executive bodies of Pakistan and Malaysia. By analyzing the implications and the practical aspects of Politics of Pakistan: Under the provisions of the these measures and the problems of women at domestic constitution of Pakistan 1973 both men and women 4 and societal level this study will also suggests the enjoy equal rights of voting and contesting . The proposals to make the environment conducive for constitution not only guarantees equal fundamental implementing revolutionary steps by the government rights to every one and prohibit discrimination on the with the help of civil society and NGOs along with due basis of gender rather bound the government to provide spaces for all marginalized groups including women in cooperation of the masses. The selection of two Asian 5 countries is based on the ground that despite many the government machinery . It is also provided in the socio-economic and cultural differences the two constitution that the state shall make endeavor to ensure countries are similar in terms of legacy and current state full participation of women in all government sphere of national life (Jabeen and Muhammad Zafar, 2009; and trajectory of women's representation as both 6 countries have a parliamentary form of government Bano, 2009) . with bicameral legislature and bureaucratic structure. The parliamentary system of Pakistan provide Furthermore, both are declared Islamic states and are equal right of voting to every citizen of the state if he/she is over the age of 18 and a right of contesting if capable of being the real modern Islamic countries who he/she have a graduation degree (14 years of schooling) can exhibit the working model of peace of Islam to the and a 24 years of age for National Assembly and 30 whole world. years of age for senate (Wikipedia, 2010). National

Assembly comprises of 342 (282 directly and 60 LITERATURE REVIEW proportionally) elected members for the period of five

years unless sooner dissolved. The senate comprises of • Women in politics: reflections from Pakistan: th 100 indirectly elected members (provincial assemblies) Pakistan got independence on 14 August 1947. It for a period of fixed six years having representation on originally had two wings, West Pakistan and East the principle of provincial parity, however, one-half of Pakistan but the latter got separated in 1971 and its members retire after every three years (Yazdani, became Bangladesh. Pakistan now consists of five 2003)7. provinces (Sind, Punjab, Khyber Pukhtunkhwa 1 2 Balochistan and Gilgit Baltistan ); two federally Women and politics in Pakistan: The political status administered areas (Federally Administered of women in Pakistan varies considerably across Northern Areas (FANA) and the Federally regions, classes and locations due to demographic Administered Tribal Areas (FATA)); Azad Jammu differences, socio-economic characteristics, and the and Kashmir (AJK); and the Federal Capital Area impacts of religion and feudal/tribal nature of society (FCA) of Islamabad (Wikipedia, 2010; Stone et al., (Jabeen and Muhammad Zafar, 2009). Predominant 2006). Pakistan being a federal state is governed by male society restricts women only to household the constitution of Pakistan 1973. The constitution activities and does not allow them to interact with the allocates functions and demarcates powers between men. The political participation of women remained at federation and federating units. The constitution low priority except in the days of independence when empowered the federal government to legislate on they were involved on equal footing (Bano, 2009; matters presented in the Federal Legislative List Saiyid, 2001). The role of political parties in the 3 while the residuary powers vested to the province . mobilization of women in political environment is negligible one. The political parties and masses used Pakistan has bicameral legislature comprising on women for voting in elections. Their role with in the National Assembly (the lower house) and the senate party is limited to the organization of women wing, (the upper house) with 342 and 100 members mobilization of women in favour of party and respectively. The President is the titular head of the motivating other women for agitation and rallies. Their state while the Prime Minister is the head of the role in decision making is not only limited rather government. The population of Pakistan is 163.76 negligible (Jabeen and Muhammad Zafar, 2009; Bano, million out of which 84.98 million are male and 78.78 2009; Saiyid, 2001). 277

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Soon after independence the newly born state political awareness, dominance of elite class, granted the suffrage to women in 1947 and right of vote dominance of feudal lords and tribal led society are the in 1956 (Bano, 2009). All the three constitutions (1956, main political factors that restrict women from politics 1962 and 1973) provided for the reservation of seats for (Jabeen and Muhammad Zafar, 2009). The quota women in legislature (Yazdani, 2003). The democratic system (Murray, 2010; Paxton et al., 2010; Bano, regime of Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto (1970-1977) opened the 2009), the deprivation of women from their right of gate of all services to women and reserved 15% seats in vote, profession and freedom of expression under the National Assembly and 5% seats in Provincial umbrella of prevailing cultural and religious restrictions Assemblies (Bano, 2009). After imposing Martial law especially in tribal led societies are the legal flaws that in 1977, the then Chief Martial Law administrator refrain women to enter in political arena of a country General Zia-ul-Haq took many steps to empower (Jabeen and Muhammad Zafar, 2009; Cheema et al., women such as the establishment of women division, 2005). The prevailing cultural norms, societal traditions commission on women and the inclusion of chapter on and religious orthodoxy are the various cultural women in the sixth plan (Yazdani, 2003). However, the restriction imposed on women that exclude them from promulgation of Hadood ordinance banned women national politics (FBS, 2003). Illiteracy, limited access participation as spectators in sports, imposed purda, to education, poverty, economic dependency and suspended fundamental rights including the right to be mobility constraints are the various socio-economic free of discrimination on the basis of sex (Zaidi, 2005). factors that hinder women from the political process of In 1988 soon after becoming the first female Prime a country (UNDP, 2000). Minister of Pakistan Benazir Bhutto took many steps for the wellbeing of women like the establishment of • Women in politics: reflections from Malaysia: women ministry, women studies centre at five major Malaysia got independence on 13th August, 1957 universities, women police stations and first women and it is a federation of thirteen states and three bank but did not reserve women seats in national federal territories (Azizah, 2002). However, at the legislature (Coleman, 2004; Kamal, 2000) After time of independence there were eleven states. becoming Prime Minister of Pakistan Nawaz Sharif Two other states namely Sabah and Sarawak joined enacted the Qisas and Diyat ordinance, which was it in 1963. Sultan heads the nine states while the strongly opposed by the opposite political parties, other four states are governed by the governor human rights activists and women organizations. He appointed by the King, known as Yang Dipertuan also failed to reserve seats for women in the national Agong (YDPA) (Wikipedia, 2010). The king is legislature (Zaidi, 1999). elected by the Sultans amon themselves through In 1999, the then chief Martial law administrator, self made Council of Rules for a period of five General Parvez Musharraf, removed the democratic years8. The King and the Sultans rules in government of Nawaz Nashrif and imposed Martial accordance with the advice of Prime Ministers and Law in the country. He took mega steps to improve the the Chief Minister accordingly. The Prime Minister status of women in Pakistan. The then Parliament and the Chief Ministers are elected directly by the passed women protection bill and removed some people through general election usually held after articles of hudood ordinance, reserved 10% quota for every five years. Malaysia has a bicameral women in Central Superior Services and across the legislature comprising on House of Representative board departments and reserved 60 seats for women in (Dewan Ra’ayal) the lower house and Senate National Assembly (Cheema et al., 2005; Zaidi, 1999). (Dewan Negara) the upper house9. The House of The later decision 60% reservation was against the representative consist of 222 member elected for a natural distribution of male and female in the country period of 5 years while the Senate consist of 70 and might hamper the expected upliftment of women members (26 elected and 48 appointed) for a due to decreased competition among female due to period of 3 years (Wikipedia, 2010)10. The higher percentage reservation than male and due to population of Malaysia is about 28,908,795 possible proxy inclusion of less potential candidates including 14,712,570 male and 14,196,225 female manipulated by male due to their decreased percentage. (Wikipedia, 2010)11. Malaysia is a multicultural, multiethnic and multilingual society. The native Barriers to women representation: Although women language is Malay, which is also a national and representation in legislative bodies has been official language of Malaysia. The other frequently significantly increased over the years, however, their spoken languages are Chinese, English and Tamils. representation and participation in politics and decision making is still very limited (Paxton et al., 2010). There Politics in Malaysia: The political system of Malaysia are number of political, legal (Paxton et al., 2010), based on federal constitutional monarchy, where the socio-economic and cultural factors that restrict women King is the ceremonial head of the state with limited form political arena (Jabeen and Muhammad Zafar, discretionary powers and acts with the advice of Prime 2009; Whitford et al., 2007; Sainsbury, 2004). The Minister (Wikipedia, 2010; Azizah, 2002)12. The Prime political instability, corruption, insecurity, lack of Minister is the head of government and exercises all the 278

Asian J. Bus. Manage., 5(3): 276-283, 2013 powers of the federation (UNDP, 2007). The federal Pakistan and Malaysia. The growth rate of women constitution of the state guarantee full freedom and representation in lower house (National extend equal right of voting (if he/she is over the age of Assembly/House of representatives) of both the 13 21) and election for Senate (not less than 21 years of countries since their independence is evaluated. Also age for house of representation and Malaysian citizen, the growth of women representation in the upper house must not be a prison sentenced for a year or longer, (the Senate) from (1994-2009) and (1995-2009) is must not have been fined MYR 2,000 or more), every evaluated for Pakistan and Malaysia respectively member of the state irrespective of gender, race, 14 because data was available for that period. The religion and class . The role of constitutions is limited ministerial positions categorized at two levels such as as the government is based on Westminster system Federal/Cabinet Ministers and Minister for (Azizah, 2002). State/Deputy Ministers and bureaucratic positions from

two and four levels such as Secretary General and Women and politics in Malaysia: Since the Deputy Secretary General for Malaysia and Secretary, independence of the country in 1957, women are Additional Secretary, Joint Secretary and Deputy enjoying the right of vote and holding offices (Ariffin, Secretary for Pakistan to cover top level managerial 1999). Half of the registered voters in the country are positions. The data are drawn from the IPU (2010) and women and are actively participation in national Inter-Parliament Union’s PARLINE data base politics. They are providing their full supports to their supplemented additionally by the work of Bano (2009) male counterparts in raising funds, running election and UNDP (2007) and the government websites. campaigns and inspiring lady voters to come and vote during national elections (Azizah, 2002). Women Measures: We used time series plot to show the trends always remain in front of election campaign, party in the growth of women representation overtime in procession, agitation and strikes. Despite such federal legislature while bar chart and tables to depicts significant role of the women, their representation in % of women representation at ministerial and national politics is very limited (UNDP, 2007). bureaucratic level. Time series plot analyze change over Generally male enjoyed more political powers than time by focusing on intra-country change-estimating women in Malaysian society. Historically in Malaysia both starting positions (intercepts) and trends (slopes) all the top politician, leading businessmen and religious for each country. As an example, consider Fig. 1, which practitioners were the male. presents women's political representation in the lower and upper house of the federal legislature of Pakistan Barriers of women representation: Despite the and Malaysia since their independence 1947-2010 and government supportive policies for the advancement of 1955-2010. T-test was used to test the mean difference women to different aspects of social life, women are between Pakistani and Malaysian women representation under presented in many areas particularly in decision in both legislative and executive branches of the making position in governments. Such under Federal government. presentation is due to many factors like political, religious and socio-cultural (UNDP, 2007). Although RESULTS prevailing political culture in Malaysia is very conducive for the women to participate in political Women representation in lower house of Pakistan activities, however, their limited representation in and Malaysia since independence: Figure 1 shows the decision making bodies limiting their platform to raise overall women representation of both the countries women issues and critical mass or collective bargaining from their date of independence. The data reveals power in key positions to effectively influence the significant difference in women’s legislative policy-making process of the country (Ariffin, 1999). representation in the lower house of the federal Traditionally the religious and cultural environment of legislature of the two countries. Women representation the country restricts women to domestic matters than to increased significantly in Pakistan as compare to political matters (Azizah, 2002). Predominantly male Malaysia. In Pakistan the women representation has society doesn’t allow women to work outside rather reached to 22.22% in the year 2008 whereas in the retained women in the boundaries of house to work for same period women representation in Malaysia is 9.9. the wellbeing of family members. Consequently, Increased women representation in Pakistan is the result women had little opportunities to develop their skill in of positive policy of the then government to reserve 60 public domain (Ariffin, 1999). seats for women in National Assembly of Pakistan15 (Jabeen and Muhammad Zafar, 2009; Suri, 2007), DATA AND MEASURES whereas non-reservation of seats for women is the main cause of limited women representation in Malaysia Data: In this study the analysis is done for the growth (UNDP, 2007). of women representation at the federal legislative and The in-depth analysis of data indicates inconsistent executive bodies of the two Asian countries namely trends in the growth of women representation in both 279

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Total membership Table 1: The application of t-test for women representation in lower Women representation 342 342 house 350 342 342 Directly elected Mean difference Elected to reserved seats 300 ------Pakistan Malaysia 250 217 217 210 217 Depended (N = 15) (N = 14) t* df p a

t variable a 200 156 217 217 Women 26.27 11.21 1.714 27 0.098 D 156 150 representation 80 144 t*-test is two tailed 100 30 Table 2: The application of t-test for women representation in senate 50 Mean difference 0 ------Pakistan Malaysia 7 5 2 5 2 7 5 8 0 3 7 2 8 9 0 Year 4 5 6 6 7 7 8 8 9 9 9 0 0 0 1 Depended (N = 15) (N = 14) t* df p 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 variable Country 1 Pakistan Women 11.12 24.33 2.883 7 0.024 representation

Total membership compared to Pakistan consistent increase in women Women representation representation has been found in Malaysia except 250 Directly elected 222 222 222 Elected to reserved seats 319 during the year 1988 (5.11%) and 1990 (5.00%) when 192 193 slight decrease in women representation has been 200 176 180 154 154 recorded. 144 Previous studies considered (a) the political

a 150

t a 104 104 instability and (b) expiry of the provision of women D 100 reserved quota were the main factors responsible for such inconsistent growth of women representation in 50 52 14 14 20 22 22 22 Pakistan (Bano, 2009). The political instability was 1 2 2 2 7 8 9 9 emerged when in 1979 the then Chief Martial Law 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 administrator General Zia-ul-Haq imposed second

5 2 5 2 7 5 8 0 3 7 2 8 9 0 Year 5 6 6 7 7 8 8 9 9 9 0 0 0 1 Martial Law in the country and suspended the 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 constitution and all fundamental rights. However in Malaysia Country 1 1985, he decided to hold election for National

Assembly, though nonparty basis and doubled women’s Fig. 1: Comparative woman representation in the lower house of federal legislature of Pakistan and Malaysia reserved quota to (20%), which remained continued during the election of 1988 but this provision expired Country 1 before the election of 1990 elections and has not been 30 1 revived until 2000 (Bano, 2009). Despite steady 2 25 increase in women representation from the sole representation in 1955 to 22 currently, Malaysian 20 s

l women’s share in the lower house of the parliament has w o 15 not yet surpassed the acceptable level of 30% which is P perceived as critical criterion in impacting decision 10 making process set by international agencies like Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action 1995. 5

0 Mean difference of Pakistan and Malaysia: To 4 7 3 6 9 5 8 4 9 measure the mean difference between the two countries Year 9 9 0 0 0 9 9 0 0 9 9 0 0 0 9 9 0 0 1 1 2 2 2 1 1 2 2 in respect of women representation in the lower house Country 5 Pakistan Malaysia of Federal legislature, t-test was performed. The result Fig. 2: Comparative women representation in senate of shows that the mean difference of Pakistan and Pakistan and Malaysia Malaysian is not significant but powerful as the p-value = 0.98 (Table 1). the country particularly in Pakistan. In 1947 the women representation was 6% but it dropped down to zero in Women representation in upper house of Pakistan 1955 and reached to 3.8% in 1962). It took for about 26 and Malaysia since independence: Figure 2 shows years (from 1962 to 1988) to move from 3.8% to 11.1% comparative percentage of women representation in (in 1988). Women representation was dropped to .9% in senate (the upper house) of both the countries. Data 1990, moved upward and went to 1.8% and 2.8% (in reveals significant growth in the % of women 1993 and1997 respectively) and finally jumped to representation over the years in both the countries. 21.645 and 22.22% in 2002 and 2008 respectively. As However, percentage of women representation (28.13%

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Table 3: Comparative women representation at top level managerial positions Pakistan Malaysia ------Managerial Positions Total Women representation % Managerial positions Total Women representation % Secretary 48 4 8.33 Secretary general 21 1 4.76 Additional secretary 28 0 0 Deputy secretary general 44 9 20.45 Joint secretary 60 1 1.66 ------Deputy secretary 106 6 5.66 ------

50 Pakistan 45 Malaysia 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 F/C Ministers % of Women MFS/Dministers % of Women

Fig. 3: Comparative women representation at ministerial positions in 2009) in upper house of Malaysia is much higher representation at the top level management of both the than the % of women (17% in 2009) in senate of countries. From the results we can see that Pakistan has Pakistan. Women representation in the upper house of more women representation at Secretary Level, while Malaysia was 17.4% in 1995 and went to 26.1% in Malaysia has more women representation at Deputy 1998 which was a remarkable increase. There was a Secretary General level. Pakistan has 8 (8.33%) women slight decrease in women representation in 2004 out of 48 Secretaries whereas Malaysia has only 1 (25.7%) however jumped to 28.13 in 2008 showing (4.76%) women out of 21 Secretary General. In contrast steady growth of women representation in Malaysia. As Malaysia has 9 (20.45%) women out of 44 Deputy compared to Malaysia women representation in the Secretary Generals whereas Pakistan has no women out upper house of the parliament of Pakistan was less. It of 28 Additional Secretaries, 1 (1.66%) out of 60 Joint was about 2.3 in 1994 and remained at this figure until Secretaries and 6 (5.66%) out of 106 Deputy 2002 and then jumped to 17% in 2003 and remained Secretaries. unchanged since then.

CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION Mean difference of Pakistan and Malaysia: To measure the mean difference of two countries in respect Present study found substantial growth in women of women representation in the upper house of Federal representation over the years in both the countries. The legislature, t-test was used. The result reveals that the mean difference of Pakistan and Malaysian is findings of the study are in consistent with the findings significant with p =0.24 (Table 2). of Paxton et al. (2010) which found substantial increase in the growth of women representation in the lower Women representation in executive branch: house of the federal legislature. The growth rate of Women representation in ministries: Figure 3 women representation in lower house of the parliament indicates % of women representation at ministerial of Pakistan is much higher than Malaysia, which is due level of the two countries. The comparison of two to the reservation of seats for women. The study countries shows that % of women representation at confirms and supports the findings that ministerial level is high in Malaysia than Pakistan. Out quota/reservation of seats for women have greater of 30 Cabinet Minister 2 are the women (6.67%) in impacts on the growth of women representation in Malaysia, where out of 44 Federal Ministers only 1 is national legislature (Paxton et al., 2010; Suri, 2007). women (2.27%). Furthermore Malaysia has 8 (20.51%) The mean difference between countries is not women Deputy Ministers out of 39, where as Pakistan statistically significant but powerful which left has only 3 (15.79%) out of 19 Minister for states. untouched by the previous research. Study found considerable overtime increase of Women representation in federal bureaucracy: women representation in the upper house of the federal Table 3 shows a comparative % of women legislature of both the countries, which remained 281

Asian J. Bus. Manage., 5(3): 276-283, 2013 untouched in the existing literature. However Malaysia Devlin, C. and E. Robert, 2008. The effect of increased is leading in this front by having more women in the women’s representation in parliament: The case of upper house as compared to its counterparts. This is due Rwanda. Parliament. Affairs, 61(2): 237-254. to nomination of senators by the Yang di-Pertuan FBS (Federal Bureau of Statistics), 2003. Gender Agong (king) of Malaysian, which is not practiced in Statistics in Pakistan. RETA, 6007: Enhancing Pakistan. In Malaysia each of the thirteen states Social and Gender Statistics, Bangkok, Thailand. indirectly elects 2 senators while the remaining has Francechet, S. and J.M. Piscopo, 2008. Gender quotas been appointed by the king (Wikipedia, 2010). This and women representation. Polit. Gen., 4(3): confirms the plea of previous studies that special quota 393-425. or appointed/nomination of women has positive impacts Halder, N., 2004. Female representation in parliamnet: on the growth rate of women representation in the A case study from Bangladesh. New Zealand J. national legislature (UNDP, 2007). Research at hand Asian Stud., 6(1): 27-63. found higher representation of Malaysian women in the IPU (Inter Parliamentary Union), 2010. Women in top managerial level (federal bureaucracy), especially at National Parliaments: Situation as of (online). the post of Deputy Secretary General than Pakistani Inter-Parliamentary Union. Retrieved from: http:// women which is due to high literacy rate and increased www. ipu.org/wmn-e/classif.htm (Accessed on: levels of women in the workforce (Stockemer, 2008; May 24, 2010). Matland, 1998). Jabeen, N. and I.J. Muhammad Zafar, 2009. Gender and

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in Sweden: Discursive politics and institutional th presence. Scandinavian Polit. Stud., 27(1): 65-87. 1 Law makers approve the name in 18 amendment Saiyid, D., 2001. Women in politics-problems of of the constitution passed on April 8, 2010 2 On 29 August 2009, the Gilgit-Baltistan participation: A case study of Pakistan. ISSI J., Empowerment and Self-Governance Order 2009, 21(2). was passed by the Pakistani cabinet and later Stockemer, D., 2008. Women's representation: A signed by the country's President. comparison between Europe and the Americas. 3 18th amendments enhances provincial autonomy by Politics, 28(2): 65-73. abolishing concurrent list where both federation Stone, R.N., R. Ebel, S. Ignatova and R. Kalid, 2006. and federating units could legislate Assessment Report Pakistan Devolution Support 4 Article 25 of the constitution of 1973 Program. Retrieved from: http:// urbaninstitute. 5 Article 27 of the constitution of 1973 org/Uploaded (Accessed on: January 01, 2007). 6 Article 34 of the constitution of 1973 Suri, K.C., 2007. Political Parties in South Asia: The 7 Article 50 of the Constitution stipulates a Majlis-e- Challenge of Change, South Asia Regional Report Shoora (Parliament) of Pakistan consisting of the Based on Research and Dialogue with Political President and two Houses to be known respectively Parties. Retrieved from: http://www.idea.int/parties as the National Assembly and the Senate. The (Accessed on: May 23, 2010). Constitution provides for a Parliamentary form of Tremblay, M., 2007. Democracy, representation and Government with a bicameral legislature. Senate, women: A comparative Analysis. Democracy, the Upper House was first formed in 1973. The 14(7): 533-553. membership of the Senate, which was originally UNDP, 2000. Human Development Report. Oxford 45, was raised to 63 in 1977 and to 87 in 1985. The University Press, New York. membership of the Senate was raised from 87 to UNDP, 2007. Measuring and Monitoring Gender 100 in 2002. Equality: Malaysian’s Gender Gap Index. Ministry 8 See Article 32 (3) of the federal constitution of of Women, Family and Community Development, Malaysia Malaysia. 9 See Article 44 of the federal constitution of Whistler, D.E. and C.E. Mark, 2007. A rational choice Malaysia approach to explaining policy preferences and 10 See Article 45 (1) and 46 (1) of the federal concern for representing women among state constitution of Malaysia legislators. Polit. Pol., 38(1): 25-51. 11 Data was retrieved through http:// www. epu. Whitford, A.B., M.W. Vicky and G.B. Mercedes, 2007. gov.my/html/themes/epu/images/common/pdf/eco- Descriptive representation and policymaking stat/pdf/1.2.5.pdf, accessed June 1, 2010. authority: Evidence from women in cabinets and 12 See Article 40a (1) of the federal constitution of bureaucracies. Governance, 20(4): 559-580. Malaysia Wikipedia, 2010. Pakistan the free Wikipedia. 13 See Article 119 (1) of the federal constitution of Retrieved from: http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/ Malaysia Pakistan (Accesses on: May 25, 2010). 14 See Article 8 (1-5) of the federal constitution of Wolbrecht, C. and E.C. David, 2007. Leading by Malaysia example: Female members of parliament as 15 Sixty seats in the National Assembly of Pakistan political role models. Am. J Polit. Sci., 51(4): have to be filled through Proportional 921-941. Representation (PR) based on the percentage of Yazdani, F., 2003. Women’s representation in local popular vote received by the different parties in government in Pakistan: Impact analysis and future general elections. Only parties which secure at policy implications. Centre for Policy Studies, least 5% of votes are eligible to nominate women Central European University. candidates. These 60 seats are not reserved within Zaidi, S.A., 1999. Issues in Pakistan’s Economy. the general seats, but are in addition or parallel to Oxford University Press, Karachi. the 272 directly elected general.

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