Medicine’s Lunar Legacies

Zaheer Toodayan*

Fifty years have now passed since Man first walked on the Moon and nothing quite so pioneer- ing as the Apollo 11 mission has been accomplished since. The anniversary provides a suitable setting in which to reflect upon Earth’s only natural satellite, and for those whose lives predom- inantly revolve around healthcare, a useful opportunity to review the historical associations between medicine and the Moon. After providing some brief background information about the Moon’s craters and the nomenclature that applies to them, this monograph considers those physicians who made important contributions to selenology and presents a comprehensive tab- ulation of all eponymous lunar craters that are associated with the medical profession.

In vain to do individuals hope for immortality, Origins of the Moon and Craters or any patent from oblivion, in preservations below the Moon. It is thought that the Moon – Luna in Latin – was creat- – Sir Thomas Browne (1605-1682), ed in the aftermath of a violent cosmic collision.2 The Hydriotaphia, Urne-Buriall, 1658.1 giant-impact hypothesis postulates that around 4.5 bil- lion years ago, a Mars-sized protoplanet named Theia3 ur Moon, the brightest celestial object in the collided with the young Earth and the material that night sky, has captured the imaginations of was ejected into orbit subsequently accreted to create Oonlookers in all ages. Its tranquility and re- the new Moon.4, 5, 6 moteness have enticed the adventurous spirit of Man, whose wanderlust culminated in a sensational series of There are a variety of craters that punctuate the lunar lunar landings fifty years ago. But even before Man surface with features corresponding to their age and lay foot upon it, the Moon was a metaphor for the mechanism of formation (Figure 1). Studies of lunar heroic and idyllic, and when the science of selenog- rocks and minerals suggest that many larger craters raphy first began this same sentiment found its way and impact basins8 were formed during a period of into systems of lunar nomenclature. A conspicuous intense instability in the solar system, around 3.9 bil- manifestation of this reverential tradition is the epon- lion years ago, which resulted in numerous massive ymous identification of the Moon’s craters. Bearing asteroid collisions with the rocky planets and their the names of distinguished doctors and medical scien- satellites.9 Populations of younger craters originated tists, many craters collectively chronicle the important more recently, in the last one billion years or so, and milestones and scientific breakthroughs that revolu- such craters are characterised by bright unweathered tionized modern medicine. ray systems of ejecta.10

Before we consider its medical associations, let us first All lunar craters were created through hypervelocity11 review how the Moon and its craters were formed, the impacts with meteorites, asteroids and derivatives of principles that govern visibility of the Moon’s surface, comets. Impacts between solid objects at these tre- and the historical development of lunar nomenclature. mendous speeds results in a series of high-energy events that excavate the target surface to form an im- pact crater. The craters are forged by a variety of forc- es during and shortly after impact, including melting, * Dr Zaheer Toodayan is a Basic Physician Trainee from Brisbane, vaporisation and the ejection and displacement of ma- Australia. Correspondence: [email protected]. terial from both projectile and target. In larger craters, Full Moon at dawn. The proximity of the Moon to the horizon creates two interesting effects – the illusion of a larger diameter gravitational forces may induce rim collapse and uplift and a warmer hue. Photo taken by author on 18th June 2019 from of the central meltrock within the transient cavity, re- Calamvale, Brisbane. sulting in complex crater configurations.12 9 Z. Toodayan

Figure 1: The crater rich plains of the central and southern highlands as seen through an eight-inch Newtonian telescope. Shadowing accentuates details of craters near the lunar terminator. The larger craters at the extreme left of the image are Hipparchus (150 km, seen partially) and Albategnius (129 km), both complex craters with central formations. Younger cra- ters can be seen overlying older ones, whilst craters near the Moon’s southern limb (extreme right in this photo) demonstrate significant foreshortening.7 Photograph taken by author on 10th August 2016.

Visibility of the Lunar Surface The extent of the Moon’s near-side that appears illu- minated to observers on Earth changes with the lunar Not all of the lunar craters are visible from Earth. Over phase. Although the sun-facing half of the Moon is time, tidal forces have caused the Moon to adopt a syn- always lit by sunlight, the changing position of the chronous rotation about our planet; that is, it takes the Moon in its orbit around Earth produces different per- same time for the Moon to complete a rotation about its spectives of this illuminated hemisphere, creating the own axis as it does to complete one revolution around lunar phases. The Moon’s phase waxes and wanes be- Earth. This results in the Moon always presenting the tween an unilluminated new Moon and a completely same hemisphere towards Earth (the near-side) with illuminated full Moon over the course of a lunar month the opposite hemisphere remaining unseen.13 Even so, (Figure 2). The shadowing effects created by the lunar due to the phenomenon of optical libration, slightly terminator, the demarcation band between lunar day more than fifty percent of the lunar surface is visible and night, allows for better appreciation of the Moon’s to observers during a lunar cycle. Libration exposes finer surface details. The first visions of the far-side an additional nine percent or so of the Moon’s surface of the Moon, the side that is always facing away from beyond the rim of the main disc and occurs due to the Earth, were provided by the Soviet Luna 3 space probe inherent geometry and dynamics of the Earth-Moon on 7th October 1959.17 system – the mild eccentricity of the Moon’s orbit (li- bration in longitude), the inclination of its orbital plane and axis of rotation (libration in latitude), the parallax A Brief History of Lunar Nomenclature created by the displacement of the Earth’s surface (and the Earth-bound observer) over the course of a single Man has probably had names for the Moon and its night (diurnal libration), and the small variation in the most visible features ever since language first originat- Moon’s speed of rotation about its polar axis as a result ed, but describing the Moon became a truly scientific of the tidal bulge of its nearside (physical libration).14 exercise with the invention of the telescope. Shortly

10 Osleriana Medicine’s Lunar Legacies

Figure 2: Phases of the Moon as seen from the southern hemisphere. The central lower image shows a thin waxing crescent, occurring shortly after a new Moon.15 The Moon’s face becomes increasingly illuminated thereafter, as demonstrated in the left to right progression of images: a broader waxing crescent, first quarter (semi-illuminated), waxing gibbous and full Moon – this semi-cycle occuring over approximately one fortnight. Following a full Moon, which occurs when its orbit places it farthest away from the Sun, the phases wane in a reverse order until a new Moon is made once again, completing the lunar cycle. An entire cycle of lunar phases (a lunation) defines the synodic (lunar) month, which is a period of about 29.5 days.16 Individual photographs taken by the author between August 2016 and April 2018. thereafter, in 1610, the Italian polymath Galileo Galilei The first true lunar cartograph20 is attributed to the (1564-1602) published some of the first telescope-as- Spanish astronomer Michael Florent van Langren sisted sketches of the lunar surface in his astronomical (1598-1675) – Royal Mathematician and Cosmogra- treatise Siderius Nuncius.18 In analysing the details pher to King Philip IV – whose 1645 engraved map of highlighted by the Moon’s terminator, Galileo noted the Moon entitled Plenilunii Lumina Austriaca Philip- the topographical diversity of the lunar landscape and pica (Figure 3) identified its various surface features asserted the existence of mountains and valleys there- for the first time.21, 22 In accordance with the Plutar- on. He was the first to see, write about, and illustrate chian view that perpetuated the notion of the Moon the Moon’s many craters; structures he called “small as a second Earth,23 Langrenus’ map distinguished the spots” in order to distinguish them from the “great or dark lunar seas (Maria, singular Mare) from the bright- ancient spots” (the Maria) readily visible from Earth.19 er surrounding lands (Terrae, singular Terra). Com- plying with royal instruction24 he also systematically Following Galileo, the improving optics of astronom- designated craters with the names of ‘illustrious men’21 ical telescopes in seventeenth century Europe enabled and ‘foreigners of excellence in the sciences’25 – his increasingly accurate observations of the lunar surface. ‘Land of Dignity’ (‘Terra Dignitatus’) was populated Alongside these advances, the astronomers of the age with identities of Catholic significance26 and the names recorded progressively detailed maps of the Moon to of a selection of influential stargazers were clustered describe, communicate, and distribute their findings. in the ‘Sea of Astronomy’ (‘Mare Astronomicum’).27 Of the many efforts undertaken in this emerging sci- ence of selenography, the contributions of some key Langrenus’ nomenclature was not adopted by Johannes astronomers played a pivotal role in establishing the Hevelius (1611-1687), the eminent Polish astrono- convention by which the Moon’s topographical fea- mer who discovered the longitudinal libration of the tures were classified and named. Moon28 and described seven of our modern constel-

July 2019 11 Z. Toodayan

Figure 3: The first true map of the Moon by Michael Florent van Langren. This map, titled Plenilunii lumina Austriaca Philippica (The Luminaries of Felipe of Austria on the Full Moon), was published in Brussels in 1645. Consistent with their natural appearance, the Mare assume a darker shade than the Terrae. Craters are given eponymous designations and quota- tions from the ancients are incorporated around the centrepiece. From the Digital Museum of Planetary Mapping.

12 Osleriana Medicine’s Lunar Legacies

a b

Figure 4: a) Johannes Hevelius, the ‘father of lunar topology’. This oil-on-canvas portrait by the Baroque painter Andreas Stech (1635-1697) depicts the Polish astronomer around 1677, aged sixty-six. The portrait was donated to Oxford University by Hevelius himself as a gesture of appreciation for his induction into the Royal Society of London.30 Courtesy of the History of Science Museum, Oxford. b) Hevelius’ collection of detailed lunar maps were compiled in his 1647 publication Selenog- raphia sive Lunae Descriptio (Selenography or a Description of the Moon), the ornate frontispiece of which is depicted on the right. The Selonographia is regarded as the first complete atlas of the Moon. Image reproduced with permission from the Linda Hall Library of Science, Engineering and Technology. lations29 (Figure 4a). In his 1647 milestone compen- an entire section dedicated to observations and conun- dium, Selenographia, sive Lunae Descriptio (Figure drums concerning the Moon (Figure 5). Riccioli’s lu- 4b), Hevelius adopted an alternate system of naming nar maps, which were delicately drawn by his assistant lunar features which utilised toponyms derived from a Francisco Maria Grimaldi (1618-1663),34 were an im- projection of the surface of the Classical World upon provement of earlier works by van Langren and Hev- the Moon.31 Although Hevelius’ lunar atlas, the first of elius, and although he adopted a system of nomencla- its kind, was of such import to astronomy that he be- ture which was similar in essence to van Langren’s, came renowned as the ‘father of lunar topography’,32 Ricciolli bestowed new names upon the lands, seas only a few of the appellations he bestowed on the and craters he observed31 (Figure 6) – the plains of the Moon’s features would endure – it was the approach Maria were affiliated with the Moon’s perceived influ- of a contemporary of his that established the scheme ences on Earthly fertility and weather and the higher of lunar nomenclature that remains with us to this day. lands took on the titles of opposing themes.35

In 1651, towards the end of the Counter Reformation, Riccioli also systemised the naming of the Moon’s cra- the Italian astronomer and Jesuit priest Giovanni Bat- ters. He divided the lunar surface into eight circumfer- tista Riccioli (1598-1671) published his Almagestum ential octants and named the larger formations in each Novum, a ten part astronomical encyclopaedia with after individuals from various historically significant

July 2019 13 Z. Toodayan epochs. He also maintained a kind of hierarchy in the intentions. For instance, although the revolutionary distribution of identities, with more revered figures ideas of Copernicus, Galileo and Kepler were known appearing closer to the north and centre of the Moon. to Riccioli, he disagreed with them on philosophical Names of ancient Greek philosophers and intellectuals grounds20 and his clustering of this intellectual trinity monopolised some octants (I, II and III), whilst craters of astronomy in his eighth octant has been suggested in others (IV, V and VI) were connected with influen- to have signified a philosophical and political agenda. tial identities from the Roman Empire. There was a Some say Riccioli’s pernicious placement of these as- place for the Arabian thinkers, space for Saints with tronomers constituted a covert gesture supporting the astronomical associations, and a section for the more Catholic Church, symbolising the distance of these dis- recent European scholars, writers, and philosophers. ruptive personalities from ancient theological author- Although the majority of individuals after whom the ity – their names were attached to features within and craters were named were explicitly honoured, it has around the Oceanus Procellarum (Ocean of Storms), been postulated that Riccioli may have listed some far from the security of the Church’s shores and farther of his contemporaries with altogether less charitable still from the wisdom of Athens and Rome.35

a b

Figure 5: Giovanni Battista Riccioli’s Almagestum Novum (New Almagest). Published in 1651, this was a ten part astronom- ical encyclopedia in which Riccioli introduced the system of lunar nomenclature that is still used today. The frontispiece (a) and title page (b) are pictured here. The detailed engravings of the frontispiece depict Urania, the muse of astronomy, weigh- ing the Copernican heliocentric system against the competing Tychonic geoheliocentric model endorsed by Riccioli, with the latter symbolically dominating the balance. The old purely geocentric system lies discarded on the ground (lower right) and its instigator Ptolemy (author of the original Almagest) observes the newer theories from the background (lower left). The many-eyed Argus, with a telescope in his left hand, points towards the enlightening discoveries of the instrument which are borne by cherubs in the upper segment of the engraving. The cherub at the lower right can be seen carrying a Moon marked by many craters.33 Images reproduced with permission from the Linda Hall Library of Science, Engineering and Technology.

14 Osleriana Medicine’s Lunar Legacies

Figure 6: Riccioli’s map of the Moon, as published in the Almagestum Novum in 1651. His system of octants is appreciable. The map demarcates the combined limits of libration in longitude and latitude which are projected beyond the northeastern and southwestern limbs of the lunar disc. A significant proportion of the names Riccioli gave to the illustrated features are still in use today – those of the Mare, the darker regions on this map, as well as of many of the craters have remained entirely unchanged across almost four centuries. It was this system of Riccioli’s that was subsequently adopted as the framework for all lunar terminology. Image courtesy of the History of Science Collections, University of Oklahoma Libraries.

Regardless of the motives behind the choice and became the backbone for all future lunar nomencla- placement of Riccioli’s eponyms, his system of no- ture and we continue to identify many of the moon’s menclature was considered eloquent and inclusive. features by the names he originally introduced.36 His method became widely adopted and was popu- larised by its utilisation in increasingly detailed lunar The International Astronomical Union (IAU), founded maps that were published by leading astronomers over one-hundred years ago in 1919, is today’s recognised the forthcoming centuries. One of the most influen- authority for the naming of celestial bodies and their tial was Johann Heironymous Schröter’s (1745-1816) surface features. The Union’s first official report on Selenetopographische Fragmente of 1791 which pro- standardised lunar nomenclature, Named Lunar For- vided a particularly prominent platform for Riccioli’s mations, was published in 1935. This work was large- system. Succeeding in this way, Riccioli’s scheme ly the effort of one Mary Adela Blagg (1858-1944),

July 2019 15 Z. Toodayan an English astronomer who attended to discrepancies The Physician-Astronomers in the authoritative maps of the day, particularly those of Beer and Madler, Schmidt and Nelson.37, 38 Blagg’s The insight that accompanies an appreciation of our listing was updated in 1966 with The System of Lu- place in the Universe may be likened to the self-aware- nar Craters, a detailed catalogue of all the craters on ness evoked by the comprehension of human health the nearside of the Moon that was produced under and disease. Perhaps it was this self-discovery that the direction of the Dutch-American astronomer and propelled many past practitioners of medicine towards selenographer Gerard Peter Kuiper (1905-1973).39 the similarly satisfying study of the stars. Regardless Following a divisional re-organisation of the IAU at of their motivations, it is interesting to note that a por- a 1973 meeting in Sydney, Australia, the Working tion of historically significant contributions to the as- Group for Planetary System Nomenclature (WGPSN) tronomical sciences were made by this unique class of was founded – the body that currently administrates intellectual hybrids – the physician-astronomers. the task of formally approving the names of celestial bodies and their topographical features.37 Contributions of physicians to astronomy through- out the ages have been both broad and pivotal, but a When designating names to newfound features, the comprehensive overview of their lives and works falls WGPSN applies a standard of rules and conven- beyond the scope of this compendium. It suffices to tions that necessitate certain requirements for chosen acknowledge however, that the medical profession has names. The conventions specify a preference for the provided astronomy a great deal of important infor- expansion of historically established themes and al- mation, instrumentation, individuals and ideas. These though discouraging a primary purpose of honouring include Ali ibn Ridwan’s (c.988-c.1081) unrivalled ac- individuals, allow “in special circumstances” for the count of the brightest observed stellar event in record- eponymous commemoration of deceased individuals ed history,42, 43 the marvelous astrarium of Giovanni “of high and enduring international standing”.40 In re- Dondi dell’Orologio (c.1330-1388),44 the astronomi- lation to the naming of craters in particular, the rules cal globes and rings of Gemma Frisius (1508-1555),45 specify eponymous appellations as the preferred stan- the nova, eclipse and comet observations of Cornelius dard, with identities limited to “deceased scientists, Gemma (1535-1578),46 the calender reformations of and polar explorers who have made outstanding or Aloysius Lilius (1510-1576),47 the first ever Savillian fundamental contributions to their field”.40 Professor of astronomy, John Bainbridge (1582-1643), the starry-eyed Scotsmen John Craig (died 1620) and The standardisation of the names of planetary features Duncan Liddel (1561-1613), the Bohemian man Ta- became an increasingly important exercise since the deas Hajek z Hajku (Hagecius), the discovery of the Mariner and Voyager programs first beamed back de- asteroids Pallas and Vesta by Heinrich Olbers (1758- tailed photographs of the surfaces of the rocky planets 1840)48 and, perhaps most monumentally of all, the he- in the 1960s and 70s. The features of each celestial liocentric model of Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) body were named in accordance with themes that ac- who in his younger years also qualified as a physi- knowledged their cultural and mythological connec- cian.49 tions. Many Martian craters were named after scien- tists and writers of the planet’s folklore, Mercurian formations were attached with the identities of promi- William Gilbert nent writers and artisans, and all of Venus was delegat- ed to honouring both the ordinary and extraordinary But let us return to the Moon. Before the advent of women of the world.41 As modern missions contin- telescopes, unassisted visual sketches, carvings and ue to map still farther regions of the solar system, the paintings were the only way in which the Moon was names of the great achievers continue to enrich the figuratively represented and recorded. One of the ear- lexicon of space exploration. liest illustrations depicting the surface markings of the Moon without telescopic aid was that of William With this broad understanding of the Moon and its cra- Gilbert (1544-1603)50 – astronomer, physicist, and ters we may proceed to explore some of the interesting physician to Elizabeth the first (Figure 7b). Gilbert’s associations between medicine and the Moon. There drawing, which has been dated to around 1600, is a are two primary connections to consider in this regard: simple scheme of the lunar surface. Like his contem- physicians who have made important contributions to porary Johannes Kepler (1571-1630), he believed that astronomy and selenology, and those lunar craters that the Moon was Earthlike, the darker visible regions be- commemorate individuals whose works have played ing lands and the brighter vast bodies of water51 (Fig- an important part in the development of modern med- ure 7a). He also gave names to these regions but his icine. designations were superceded by the time his diagram

16 Osleriana Medicine’s Lunar Legacies

a b

Figure 7: a) William Gilbert’s unaided sketch of the Moon (c.1600). Gilbert identified the enclosed areas, which represent the visibly darker regions of the lunar surface, as lands (such as Continens Meridionalis and Regio Magna Orientalis) and the intervening areas as waters (for instance the Mare Medilunarium). Gilbert’s drawing, which some regard as the earliest map of the Moon, was published in 1651 in is his quarto volume De Mundo Nostro Sublunari Philosophia Nova (New Philosophy About our Sublunar World). Image courtesy of the History of Science Collections, University of Oklahoma Libraries. b) A 1796 engraving depicting William Gilbert. Courtesy of the Wellcome Collection. appeared in a 1651 posthumous publication titled De kind were forwarded by the von Beiberstein brothers Mundo Nostro Sublunari Philosophia Nova.52 Wil- (in 1802) and Karl von Moll (1760-1838) in 1810, liam Gilbert’s renditions of the Moon were certainly 1815 and 1820.55, 56, 57, 58, 59 It was a controversial idea pioneering but his works on ‘magnetic philosophy’ at the time. would prove to be far more influential in science.53

Another interesting medico-lunar connection can be Franz von Paula Gruithuisen found amidst the early debates upon the mechanism of formation of lunar craters. In the nineteenth centu- One of the early proponents of the impact hypothe- ry, prevailing theories on the origin of the craters con- sis of lunar craters, and the individual who is usually sidered their emergence, akin to terrestrial calderas, a credited with originating the complete theory, was the consequence of lunar volcanism.54 But the discovery German surgeon and astronomer Franz von Paula Gru- of smaller celestial bodies between the orbits of Mars ithuisen (1774-1852)57 (Figure 8b). Gruithuisen grad- and Jupiter in the early nineteenth century – of Ceres uated with a Doctor of Medicine from the University by Gussippe Piazzi (1746-1826) of Palermo in 1801, of Landshut in 1808 and his subsequent medical prac- and of Pallas by the German ophthalmologist-astron- tice included performing urological procedures.56 He omer Heinrich Willhelm Matthias Olbers (1758-1840) is now remembered for his pioneering instrumentation the following year: the ‘asteroids’, as German-British and techniques for the pulverisation and transurethral astronomer William Herschel (1738-1822) named extirpation of bladder stones.60 His German transla- them – inspired new theories about how the Moon’s tion of the works of Hippocrates was also a significant craters might have come into being.55 The notion that contribution to the literature of the medical profession. the Moon’s craters may have been forged through col- But Gruithuisen had a lifelong passion for astronomy lisions with members of this newly discovered family and he was a fastidious observer. He was the first to re- of smaller celestial objects emerged in the early nine- cord the bright polar hoods of Venus and, by 1822, was teenth century as extensions of accretion hypotheses established as Professor of Astronomy at the Universi- of lunar formation.56, 57 Rudimentary theories of this ty of Munich.56 In 1829, he proposed an impact theo-

July 2019 17 Z. Toodayan ry for the origin of the lunar craters and subsequently Joseph Nicéphore Niépce (1765-1833) utilised bitu- provided explanations for the mechanics of the impact men of Judea to produce what has been regarded as process that accounted for the circular configuration of the first permanent photograph. Niepce’s principle the craters, their elevated rims and central peaks.55, 61 of ‘heliography’ was enhanced by his work partner, Gruithuisen’s speculations about the formation of lu- Louis Daguerre (1787-1851), who used silver halides nar craters went by largely unacknowledged, perhaps for their more practical photochemical characteristics. due to his reputation for fanciful astronomical ideas, The ‘Daguerrotype’ became a public sensation in 1839 such as the plurality of inhabited worlds, the existence and the process was swiftly replicated by photogra- of lunar citizens called ‘Selenites’ and his ‘City on the phers around the world.68 The new technique enabled Moon’56 (Figure 8a). Regardless, the impact theory them to effortlessly capture, for the first time in human remained controversial in astronomical circles well history, accurate images of people, places and every- into the twentieth century, its eventual acceptance fol- day things. lowing mounting evidence in support of the Moon’s geological inactivity and a more comprehensive un- derstanding of the nature of hypervelocity impact pro- John William Draper cesses.58, 64, 65 The adoption of photography into astronomy came Up until the mid-nineteenth century, the maps of lunar shortly after its invention and depended on the pio- cartographers were the only conduit that could con- neering contributions of the English-born American vey the dreamy details of the lunar surface to wider physician, philosopher, photographer and chemist, audiences. But a new way of capturing and preserv- John William Draper (1811-1882) (Figure 9a). Fol- ing the appearance of objects was emerging in France, lowing a move from England to Christiansville, Vir- a process which the French artist Antoine Hercules ginia in 1832, the young John Draper attended medical Romauld Florence (1804-1879) had termed ‘photog- studies at the University of Pennsylvania until 1836. raphie’ by 1832.66, 67 Earlier, in 1826, the Frenchman He became a professor of chemistry and botany at

a b

Figure 8: a) Gruithuisen’s sketch of a ‘lunar city’ exhibiting a regular array of ‘ramparts’ which he called ‘Wallwerk’. He conjectured that these unnatural structures proved the existence of civilisations of star-worshipping ‘Selenites’ on the Moon.62 The region of interest, located just north of the Schröter crater on the central near-side, hosts a series of shallow hills and furrows that can give an impression of unusual order when viewed through smaller telescopes during a local lunar sunrise or sunset.63 Image sourced from: Hill H. A Portfolio of Lunar Drawings. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003, p. 46. b) This portrait of Gruithuisen as a young man, which appeared in 1829, is one of only two accessible renditions of him. Sourced from: Sheehan WP, Dobbins TA. Epic Moon: A history of lunar exploration in the age of the telescope. United States: Willmann-Bell, Inc., 2001, p. 76.

18 Osleriana Medicine’s Lunar Legacies

a b

Figure 10: a) English-born American physician and photographer John William Draper; oil-on-canvas portrait by Charles Lennox Wright. Image reproduced with the assistance and permission of the New-York Historical Society. Photograph © New-York Historical Society (ID 1955.71). b) One of Draper’s early Daguerreotypes depicting a third quarter Moon. This is the oldest surviving photograph of the Moon and indeed of any celestial object. Courtesy of New York University Archives.

New York University in 1839 and assisted in found- Of the physician-astronomers here mentioned, Frisius, ing the Medical School at that institution. He pub- Lilius, Hagecius, Olbers, Gruithuisen, Draper74 and lished extensively and served as the inaugural presi- Copernicus (Figure 10a) have lunar craters named af- dent of the American Chemical Society.69 Applying ter them.75 Copernicus is the largest and most prom- his own knowledge and experience of photochemistry inent of this collection and is situated near the lunar to improve Daguerre’s process and shorten exposure equator, some 400 km southwest of the southernmost times, Draper accomplished many pioneering feats summits of the Montes Appeninus (Appenine Moun- in the field of photography. He improved portraiture tains), almost midway between the smaller craters for instance, and is credited with producing the first Erastothenes and Kepler. Excavating a 96 km-wide clear photograph of a female face.70 But it was a few depression along the eastern edge of the Mare Insu- months prior to this that Draper had achieved a ma- larum (Sea of Islands) to a depth averaging 2.6 km, jor milestone in astronomy, as sometime before 23rd Copernicus exhibits a relatively flat floor with multiple March 1840 he had successfully produced the first central peaks, terraced inner walls, a crenulated rim, Daguerrotype of the Moon (Figure 9b). Draper’s in- and a broad nebulous system of higher albedo ejecta augural image, which was about one inch in diameter, that extends circumferentially over 300 km from the was taken with the assistance of a telescope from the crater.76, 77 Contrasting against the darker surrounding roof of New York University and an exposure time of plains, Copernicus and its ray system (Figures 10b and around twenty minutes.71, 72 The captured image was c) are readily appreciable under low magnifications. the first ever photograph of an astronomical object and with it was born the discipline of astrophotography. Craters tied to the names of the astronomising doctors John Draper’s son, Henry Draper (1837-1882), also a may be considered separately from the larger popula- physician and astronomer, followed in the footsteps of tion of ‘medical craters’ due to the fact that, although his father and likewise became a prominent astropho- they commemorate physicians, they chiefly concern tography pioneer. Henry Draper is credited with hav- contributions to astronomical rather than medical sci- ing taken the first photograph of the Great Orion Neb- ence.79 The table on page 21 provides further details ula (on 30th September 1880) and the first photo of the about these craters alongside the contributions of the spectrum of a star (Vega in the constellation of Lyra).73 physician-astronomers after whom they are named.

July 2019 19 Z. Toodayan

a

b c

Figure 10: Nicolaus Copernicus and the crater that takes his name. a) This oil painting, entitled Astronomer Copernicus, or Conversations with God, was completed by the Polish painter Jan Metejko (1838-1893) in 1873 for the quadricentenary of the subject’s birth. Image sourced from Gallery of Polish Painting, with courtesy of the Museum of the Jagiellonian Univer- sity, Krakow. b) The Copernicus crater, the prominent crater at the centre of this telescopic photo, is 96 km in diameter and lies within the Mare Insularum near a cluster of mountains called the Montes Carpatus (Carpathian Mountains) which can be seen just to the upper left of the crater. Copernicus’ extensive ray system is readily appreciable at this magnification. Photo- graph taken by author on 20th October 2018. c) This is part of a remastered version of an iconic photograph of the Copernicus crater that was captured by the Lunar Orbiter 2 spacecraft on 24th November 1966 from an altitude of 45 km. The mountains in the foreground are the central uplift features of Copernicus and the crater’s northern rim is visible in the distance, below the lunar horizon. At the time of its original release, the full photo was recognised as ‘The Picture of the Century’.78 From the Lunar Orbiter Image Recovery Project, National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA).

20 Osleriana Medicine’s Lunar Legacies

Coordi- Crater Name nates & Occupation & Namesake Contributions to Astronomy (Satellites)75 Diame- Honours ter75, 80 Copernicus81 9.6°N Nicolaus Polish physi- Independently formulated the heliocentric model of the 20.1°W Copernicus cian & astron- solar system.82 (A, B, C, D, (1473-1573) omer. Father Provided an explanation for the precession of the E, F, G, H, J, 96.1 km of the scientific equinoxes.82 L, N, P, R) revolution.82 Authored De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres) (1543), a landmark in the history of science.82 Draper83 17.6°N Henry Draper American phy- Produced the first photograph of the spectrum of a star 21.8°W (1837-1882) sician, astrono- (Vega), of the Sun (1872) and of a comet’s head.73 (A, C) mer & telescope Produced the first photograph of a nebula (Great Orion 8.3 km maker. Nebula, 1880).73 Captured the first wide-angle photo of a comet’s tail.73 Draper machine – an instrument used for polishing glass mirrors (for telescopes).73 Gemma 34.3°S Gemma Dutch physi- Introduced the annuli astronomici (astronomical rings Frisius 13.4°E Reinerus cian, astronomer or Gemma’s rings) as an instrument in astronomy Frisius & cartographer. (1539).84 (A, B, C, D, 88.5 km (1508-1555) E, F, G, H, J, K, L, M, O, P, Q, R, S, T, U, W, X, Y, Z) Gruithuisen85 32.9°N Franz von Pau- German surgeon Early proponent of the impact theory of lunar crater 39.8°W la Gruithuisen & astronomer. formation.56 (B, E, F, G, (1774-1852) First to observe the bright polar regions of Venus.56 H, K, M, P. 15 km R, S) Hagecius 59.9°S Tadeas Hajek z Bohemian Recorded observations of the 1572 supernova in Cas- 46.6°E Hajku physician & siopeia (SN 1572, Tycho’s nova) and of the comets of (A, B, C, D, (Hagecius) astronomer. 1577 and 1580 C/1580 T1).86 E, F, G, H, J, 79.6 km (1525-1600) K, L, M, N, P, Q, R, S, T, V) Lilius 54.6°S Aloysius Lilius Italian physi- Laid down the proposals that eventuated in the Grego- 6.1°E (1510-1576) cian, astronomer rian calendar reformation of 1582. Regarded as the first (A, B, C, D, & chronologist. author of the Gregorian calendar. 47 E, F, G, H, J, 61.2 km K, L, M, N, O, P, R, S, T, U, W, X) Olbers 7.3°N Heinrich Wil- German oph- Helped found the world’s first astronomical society 76.1°W helm Matthias thalmologist & (Vereingte Aworldstronomische Gesselschaft, 1800).48 (A87, B, D, G, Olbers astronomer. Discovered the ‘minor planets’ Pallas (1802) and Vesta H, K, M, N, 73 km (1758-1840) (1807), later called ‘asteroids’.48 S, V, W, Y) Discovered the comets C/1780 U1, C/1796 F1, C/1798 X1 and 13P/1815 E1 (now 13P/Olbers).48, 88 Provided accurate explanations for the morphology of comets’ tails.48 Olbers method – for calculating the parabolic orbits of comets.48 Olbers’ paradox89 – the darkness of the night sky con- flicts with the notion of a static universe.48

July 2019 21 Z. Toodayan The Medical Craters accompanied by a satellite crater, Hippocrates Q, 36.2 km in diameter, which lies just to the southwest of the Of the 1,600 or so crater names that have been ap- parent feature.75, 76, 77 The crater is named after the an- proved by the International Astronomical Union, most cient Greek physician Hippocrates of Cos (460-375 of which are eponymous, there are more than seventy B.C.) (Figure 11b) – the ‘father of medicine’.75, 91 that are named after men and women whose works are associated with biology and medicine.75, 90 Spanning The remotest of all individuals whose name is as- around 2,500 years of human history, these esteemed sociated with a medical crater, Hippocrates, son of names are connected to an array of contributions with- Apollodorus, was an influential figure in the history in many subdisciplines of the life sciences, includ- of medicine. Though there is little first-hand informa- ing anatomy, physiology, biochemistry, pathology, tion about him, his influences on medicine may be felt pharmacology, biophysics, and surgery. Collectively through the writings of his contemporaries and through therefore, these ‘medical’ craters provide a broad per- disciples of the Hippocratic School. Hippocrates is spective of the historical development of the medical thus known for his teachings on the doctrine of the profession and individually represent some of the most four humours, the natural origins of diseases (such celebrated milestones in the science and art of healing. as epilepsy), the vis medicatrix naturae (the healing Details of ten of the more historically significant med- power of Nature), the art of careful clinical observa- ical craters are compiled in this section, alongside a tion, and humanitarianism in medicine.92 Hippocrates brief biography of their namesakes – a comprehensive also provided original descriptions of wound healing alphabetically-arranged table charting all the medical by primary and secondary intentions, and his name craters follows. In these compositions, a planetocen- is associated with clubbing of the fingers, the sucus- tric coordinate system80 has been employed to specify sion of pleural effusions and gastric outlet obstruction, the surface locations of craters upon the Moon. and pre-terminal facies.93, 94 It was also during Hippo- crates’ lifetime (around 400 B.C.) that a term for ‘can- Hippocrates cer’ – the Greek word karkinos meaning ‘crab’ – first appeared in the medical vocabulary to refer to malig- The crater Hippocrates (Figure 11a) is a relatively sim- nant growths of tissue.95 Today, Hippocrates is well- ple impact crater located in the northwestern quadrant known for his aphorisms and the statute of the ethi- (70.3°N, 146.5°W) on the far side of the Moon. The cal conduct of the physician – the Hippocratic Oath. outer rim, which is still visible despite erosion, is 60 Albeit attributed to post-Hippocratic authors, the Oath km in diameter and is overlain with smaller, more re- remains an important expression of medical ethics in cent impact formations. Several small craterlets also the Western World, Sir William Osler (1849-1919) re- mark the interior floor of the crater. Hippocrates is ferring to it as “the ‘credo’ of the profession”.96

a b

Figure 11: a) An oblique view of the crater Hippocrates (centre) on the far north of the Moon. Image extracted from Legrand C, Chevalley P. Virtual Moon Atlas, Version 6.0. Microsoft Windows Application, 2012. b) A 17th-18th century engraving depicting Hippocrates of Cos – the ‘father of medicine’. Courtesy of the Wellcome Collection.

22 Osleriana Medicine’s Lunar Legacies Vesalius tially entrusted to the centuries-old conclusions of Ga- len, whose anatomy was drawn largely from animal Vesalius is a moderately-sized complex crater (Fig- dissections.97 Vesalius set out to enlighten his pro- ure 12b) positioned amongst the crater-rich plains of fession by studying anatomy from human cadavers, the southeast farside, not far below the lunar equator a difficult endeavour in itself, and corrected many of (3.2°S, 114.8°E). The patriarchal crater has a diameter Galen’s oversights and misconceptions. For instance, of 64.7 km. Its northwestern rim rises slightly more Vesalius showed that the mandible was but a single precipitously than the southeastern, which, alongside bone, not two as Galen had suggested, and found no a concordantly displaced central peak, suggests its evidence of communicating pores between the lower formation followed a low angle hypervelocity impact. chambers of the heart.98 Simultaneously, Vesalius was Very few craterlets interrupt the interior floor but a able to identify previously unseen anatomies and pa- number of large satellite structures excavate the sur- thology – he gave the ‘mitral’ valve its name, noting rounding plain. Within one patriarchal diameter are its resemblance to the bishop’s mitre99 and was the found Vesalius D (easterly, 51.5 km in diameter), M first to identify aneurysms of the aorta.98 But Vesali- (southerly, a deep crater, 30.4 km), C (20.5 km) and us’ greatest contribution to medicine was undoubtedly G (12.9 km). Farther to the southeast are two other his opus vitae, the De Humani Corporis Fabrica Libri satellite craters, Vesalius H (38 km) and J (23.6 km) Septem (On the Fabric of the Human Body in Seven in an overlapping configuration. The crater is named Books), an encyclopaedic composition of human anat- after the influential sixteenth-century Flemish anato- omy first published in 1543.100 The Fabrica presented mist Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564)75, 76, 77 (Figure 12a). the subject in seven embellished volumes, featuring re- markably beautiful illustrations that brought both bone Andreas Vesalius of Brussels is regarded as a path- and blood vessel to life. Even to this day, over half a finder in human anatomy. During his academic post millennium since the birth of Vesalius, the Fabrica re- at the University of Padua, Vesalius recognised the mains one of the most influential texts in the history of suboptimal nature of anatomical instructions offered medicine and faithfully guards its author’s right to the to medical students, which were at the time reveren- epithet of “the maker of modern anatomy”.101

a b

Figure 12: a) This woodcut engraving of Andreas Vesalius, the founder of modern anatomy, is attributed to Jan Stephan van Calcar (1499-1546) and formed the frontispiece of Vesalius’ 1543 anatomical encyclopaedia De Humani Corporis Fabrica Libri Septem. Courtesy of the US Metropolitan Museum of Art. b) The Vesalius crater complex as seen in a (much larger) photograph taken by Apollo 16 in 1972. The patriarchal crater is the largest in diameter – note its relatively steep north- western rim (in shadow) and the corresponding displacement of the central feature suggesting an oblique trajectory of the meteorite that formed it. On the lower right are the satellite craters Vesalius C, D and G. Vesalius M is the deep crater at the lower left of the image. From the Apollo Image Archive, Arizona State University.

July 2019 23 Z. Toodayan Harvey the heart expels blood in its contraction and receives it during relaxation, and that the pulsation of the arter- Crater Harvey (Figure 13b), 60 km in diameter, is sit- ies was due to the impulse of the blood within them. uated on the far-side of the Moon in the northwestern He was able to demonstrate, by way of mechanical quadrant, slightly north of the lunar equator (19.4°N, conceptualisation and mathematical calculation, that 146.5°W). The crater’s western rim disrupts the the blood coursed in a continuous cycle or circulation northeastern edge and floor of the much larger crater through the lungs and the rest of the body. Harvey Mach – a walled-plain 180 km in diameter. Harvey later published his observations upon the circulation demonstrates a low central peak which rises up to 1.2 in a 1628 booklet entitled Exercitatio Anatomica de km from the surrounding floor. The eastern interior, Motu Cordis et Sanguinis in Animalibus (Anatomical which is marked by lesser, eroded craters, rises steeply Exercises Concerning the Motion of the Heart and to a rim that is over twice the elevation of the opposite Blood in Living Creatures) which was received with edge within Mach. Harvey also features a simple but much criticism at the time. Harvey’s approach to de- prominent 8.7 km crater on the western interior and a ciphering the circulation by means of scientific inqui- high albedo craterlet on the southern floor. The cra- ry heralded the dawn of the experimental study of the ter is named after the eminent sixteenth-century En- human body and mirrored the transition towards the glish physician and anatomist, William Harvey (1578- new methods of science that were pervading early sev- 1657)75, 76, 77 (Figure 13a). enteenth-century Europe.102 Today, William Harvey is widely regarded as a founding father of physiology, William Harvey is remembered for providing the first and the De Motu Cordis a recognised landmark in the accurate description of the circulation of the blood. history of medicine. Within its pages are exhibited the Educated in anatomy at Padua by the great anatomist author’s clarity of thought and purpose as well as a Fabricius ab Aquapendente (1537-1619), Harvey em- recipe for his successes: “I profess both to learn and to ployed various experimental methods to ascertain the teach anatomy” he writes, “not from books but from vital function of the movement of the heart and blood dissections; not from the positions of philosophers but in living organisms. As early as 1616, he reasoned that from the fabric of nature”.103

a b

Figure 13: William Harvey and the lunar crater named after him. a) This 1630 oil-on-canvas portrait is attributed to the Dutch painter Michiel Janszoon van Mierevelt (1566-1641). Image sourced from The Athenaeum (www.the-athenaeum. org) with courtesy of the University College London Art Museum. b) The Harvey crater. The western portion of Harvey overlies the eastern edge of the large walled-plain Mach, part of which can be seen in the lower left of this photo. Image extracted from Quickmap, NASA Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter Camera, Arizona State University School of Earth and Space Exploration.

24 Osleriana Medicine’s Lunar Legacies

a b

Figure 14: a) The Jenner crater is a partially-flooded impact structure within the Mare Australe (Southern Sea). A nascent wrinkle ridge on its relatively featureless floor and a characteristic mineralogical signature suggests it was filled by basaltic lava as opposed to impact melt.104 Prominent central peaks and terraced peripheries rise above the lava level. Image sourced from the Lunar Orbiter Photo Gallery, Lunar and Planetary Institute. b) Edward Jenner pastel by John Raphael Smith (1751- 1812). Courtesy of the Wellcome Collection.

Jenner Edward Jenner of Gloucestershire, a pupil of the fa- mous Scottish surgeon John Hunter (1728-1793), is The crater Jenner (Figure 14a) is a 73.6 km complex best known for popularising the principle of vaccina- impact formation that is located in the zone of libra- tion by demonstrating that inoculations of fluid from tion of the southeastern quadrant (42°S, 96°E) and cowpox blisters would protect an individual from within the Mare Australe (Southern Sea). Earth-based smallpox infection. As the story goes, Jenner decided viewing is difficult but may be accomplished under to subject to experimentation the well-known fact that conditions of favourable phase and libration. Jenner individuals with a history of cowpox infection – ‘va- exhibits a relatively well preserved rim with consider- riole vaccinae’ as he called it – became immune to the able circumferential terracing that is most prominent more serious disease of smallpox. On 14th May 1796, along the inner southeast. An inspection of the crater’s he inoculated a boy of eight years, one James Phipps surroundings indicates that it may have been punched (1788-1853), with fluid extracted from a pustule upon out of a pre-existing local highland whose residual a young milkmaid and a fortnight later inoculated him structure appears to correlate with the distribution of with smallpox. Surely enough, and despite repeated terracing within the crater itself and the inclination of exposure to smallpox, the lad remained well. In 1798, its floor. Jenner features a gathering of prominent cen- after reproducing these results, Jenner published his tral peaks which rise above a relatively smooth plain findings in a small volume entitled An Inquiry into the of solidified basaltic lava that is thought to have flood- Causes and Effects of the Variolae Vaccinae.105 Al- ed the crater from the interior.75, 76, 77, 104 There are three though the concept of variolation was old and effec- satellite formations associated with the patriarchal cra- tive, Jenner’s work served to transform the tradition ter, Jenner X, Y and M that range from 10.6 km (M) into scientific principle and thus ensured the protection to 31.2 km (Y) in diameter. The crater is named after of countless lives from the disability and devastation the English physician Edward Jenner (1749-1843)75 of contagious diseases; a feat that has been called “one (Figure 14b). of the greatest triumphs in the history of medicine”.106

July 2019 25 Z. Toodayan Koch aged by his early successes, Koch set out to study oth- er maladies including traumatic wound infections and The impact crater Koch (Figure 15b) is 94.7 km in consumption (tuberculosis), the latter an extremely diameter and stationed in the southeastern quadrant prevalent and incurable disease at the time. In 1882, (42.1°S, 150.3°E) on the far-side of the Moon. It is an Koch announced his discovery of the tubercle bacil- older structure demonstrating rim erosion and multiple lus (now Mycobacterium tuberculosis) as the agent smaller overlying craters. The eastern rim rises up to 5 responsible for tuberculosis. His publication on the km above the floor of the crater and forms a prominent topic, Die Aetiologie der Tuberculosis (The Aetiology mountainous ridge over 50 km in length. Small cra- of Tuberculosis) became a medical classic and his dis- ters are scattered throughout the floor and peripheries covery was of such significance that it earned him the of Koch, with a discrete pair located just north of the 1905 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. Koch’s crater’s centre. There are two satellite craters, Koch famous paper also articulated a set of criteria, known U (26.7 km), abutting the western rim, and Koch R as Koch’s postulates, whose fulfilment was useful in (23.1 km) whose nearest edge is situated about half a ascertaining the microbial causes of diseases. He later crater-diameter to the southwest of the parent feature. invented tuberculin, which, albeit not the cure he was The crater is named after the German physician and hoping for, remained a useful diagnostic test for tuber- bacteriologist Robert Koch (1843-1910)75, 76, 77 (Figure culosis. Koch introduced meat-infused liquid gelatin 15a). culture media, steam sterilisation, and, whilst working with cholera in Egypt, recognised the significance of Robert Koch was a pioneering figure in the study and public sanitation in preventing endemic outbreaks of development of infectious diseases. His discovery of infections.108 Widely regarded as the ‘father of bacte- the cause and transmission of ‘splenic fever’ (anthrax) riology’, Robert Koch’s contributions triggered a par- in 1876 was the first association of a human disease adigm shift in the understanding of infectious illnesses with a micro-organism and the finding triggered the – a transformation that instilled both physicians and identification, by contemporary investigators, of the patients with a newfound hope for the conquest of the origins of several other infectious diseases.107 Encour- dreaded diseases of the age.

a b

Figure 15: a) Robert Koch, German physician and bacteriologist. Courtesy of the Robert Koch-Institut, Berlin. b) The Koch crater. Being an older formation, the southern rim is considerably eroded and there are many smaller craters overlying the parent structure. Note the prominent ridge that forms the crater’s eastern rim. Image extracted from Quickmap, NASA Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter Camera, Arizona State University School of Earth and Space Exploration.

26 Osleriana Medicine’s Lunar Legacies

a b

Figure 16: a) A photograveure portrait of Paul Ehrlich. Property of the author. b) The Ehrlich crater (centre) is a shallow structure that is surrounded by several, similarly-sized satellite craters. Ehrlich J and Z are seen here at the 4 o’clock and 12 o’clock positions respectively. The crater at the 7 o’clock position does not have a formal designation. Image extracted from Quickmap, NASA Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter Camera, Arizona State University School of Earth and Space Exploration.

Ehrlich of the tubercle bacillus with a novel ‘acid-fast’ tech- nique.109 Ehrlich’s role in the purification and stan- The Ehrlich crater (Figure 16b) is a small and sim- dardisation of Emil Behring’s (1854-1917) diphtheria ple semi-weathered structure that lies within a highly antitoxin was essential to the practicality and success bombarded region of the northwest quadrant on the of the new discovery, and later on, Ehrlich gave one of far-side of the Moon (40.8°N, 172.3°W). It has a di- the earliest explanations for the origin of humoral im- ameter of 33.6 km and is surrounded by a population munity in his side-chain theory, for which he was sub- of craters of similar size and appearance. The floor of sequently awarded one-half of the 1908 Nobel Prize Ehrlich, about 1.7-1.9 km below the level of the sur- in Physiology or Medicine.110 The words ‘antibody’, rounding plain, is smooth and featureless and a couple ‘complement’,111 ‘receptor’,112 and ‘chemotherapy’110 of minute craters adhere to the uplifted rim. There are were all concepts and terms that were, alongside many four satellite craters (Ehrlich N, J, W and Z) that are others, introduced by Ehrlich during his long and pio- located between half and two crater-diameters from neering researches on immunity and haemolysis. He Ehrlich’s rim and measure between 20.2 km (N) and was also the first to conceive the process of autoim- 29.7 km (Z) in width. The formations are named after munity which he referred to as “horror autotoxicus”,111 Paul Ehrlich (1854-1915) (Figure 16a), an esteemed – a name befitting his (erroneous) conclusion as to the German physician and scientist.75, 76, 77 incompatibility of such processes with life. In 1909, Ehrlich and his colleague Sahachiro Hata (1873-1939) Paul Ehrlich’s contributions to biology and medicine developed the very first synthetic antimicrobial agent, were revolutionary – so very fundamental in fact, that compound 606 or Salvarsan, an arsenical antisyphilitic without them, the modern profiles of these life scienc- that was the incarnation of his ‘magic bullet’ concept es would be all but unrecognisable. Early in his ca- and the preceptor of all modern targeted drug thera- reer, Ehrlich’s affinity for chemical dyes resulted in the pies. Alongside these advances, Ehrlich also compre- discovery of the ‘mast cell’, and soon thereafter he for- hended the concepts of treatment resistance and the mulated histomorphological classifications of white notion of the ‘chemotherapeutic index’.110 In the cen- cells, anaemias, and leukaemias that still serve as the tury since his passing, Ehrlich’s ideas have become so basis for modern haematology. He also developed an thoroughly integrated into the diagnosis and treatment important urinary test – the diazo-reaction – for the de- of diseases that it is difficult to envisage the practice of tection of bilirubin, and improved Robert Koch’s stain modern medicine without them.

July 2019 27 Z. Toodayan Pasteur man, Pasteur had performed pioneering studies on the optical isomers of tartaric acid, which were valuable The Pasteur crater (Figure 17a), a large walled plain in furthering the science of stereochemistry.114 His with a diameter of just under 233 km, is the largest of later experiments on fermentation of wines and beers the medical family of lunar craters.113 Located in the were imperative in substantiating the germ theory of far southeast quadrant (11.6°S, 104.9°E), few details disease, and laid the foundations upon which Joseph of the formation are visible from Earth, even during Lister’s (1827-1912) antiseptic surgical principle conducive libration. The vast plain lies between the was advanced.115 For these reasons, alongside Rob- prominent nearby craters Hilbert, Sklodowska, Ein- ert Koch, Pasteur is regarded as a founding father of thoven, and Meitner, and is considerably aged, with bacteriology. From 1865, Pasteur applied himself to multiple, sizeable craters overlying the floor and north- comprehending the microsporidial silkworm disease western rim. The large crater Backlund (75.5 km) sits pébrine whose aetiology he elucidated amidst a plague adjacent to the southern rampart, just to the west of of the infestation in Southern France. He also discov- Hilbert whose northwestern lip closely approximates ered a number of other micro-organisms, including the the southeastern edge of Pasteur. There are fourteen bacillus of malignant oedema, Vibrion septique (now formally-recognised satellite craters associated with Clostridium septicum) which was the first anaerobic Pasteur, four of which are situated within the crater’s pathogen to be identified as a cause of disease. Like boundaries and the remainder upon or beyond it. The Jenner before him, he subdued the burden of infectious largest of the satellite craters is Pasteur Y with a diam- diseases with his attenuated chicken cholera, anthrax, eter of 49.9 km. The Pasteur plain is named for Louis and rabies vaccinations,114 and it was in fact Pasteur Pasteur (1822-1895) (Figure 17b), the famous French who coined the term ‘vaccine’ (from vacca, Latin for chemist and microbiologist.75, 76, 77 ‘cow’) to refer to these preventive viral inoculations.116 Though not a doctor, Pasteur remains an internation- The name Pasteur is synonymous with the process of al icon in the history of medicine, not a few having heat sterilisation (Pasteurisation) undertaken to extend regarded him as the “most perfect man who has ever the shelf-life of perishable foodstuffs. As a young entered the Kingdom of Science”.117

a b

Figure 17: a) The Pasteur crater, a large walled plain with a diameter of 233 km, is the largest of the medical craters. This photograph was taken by the Lunar Orbiter 2 spacecraft in November 1966. Multiple satellite craters overly the parental structure. One of these, Pasteur T, which lies on the western rim of the plain (9 o’clock position in this image) features in the iconic Earthrise photograph captured by Apollo 8 astronaut William A. Anders. The larger crater encroaching the 7 o’clock segment of Pasteur’s rim is Backlund. The Northern half of the crater Hilbert is also visible in the lower right corner of this photo. From the Lunar Orbiter Photo Gallery, Lunar and Planetary Institute. b) Louis Pasteur, portrait photograph by Paul Nadar (1856-1939). Courtesy of the Wellcome Collection.

28 Osleriana Medicine’s Lunar Legacies Landsteiner important blood group system and their identification enabled physicians and surgeons to safely administer Under reasonable magnification, the crater Landstein- blood transfusions for a variety of conditions. For this er (Figure 18b), though small, is readily visible from monumental contribution Landsteiner was awarded Earth. Located very near the centre of the vast and the 1930 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. Lat- relatively featureless plains of the Mare Imbrium (Sea er in his life, in 1937, he described the Rhesus factor, of Rains), the crater stands out as a well demarcated, now recognised as the second most important blood concave depression. Estimated to have been formed group system. Landsteiner’s other contributions in- during the Erastothenean period, between 3.2 and 1.1 clude his independent realisation of the utility of dark- billion years ago, the crater shows minimal weather- field microscopy for the identification of the spirochete ing and is well preserved. It’s bowl-shaped interior is of syphilis, his co-description in 1904 of paroxysmal fairly smooth and uninterrupted and reaches a depth cold haemoglobinuria – a form of haemolytic anaemia of about 1,350 metres. Noticeable nearby structures caused by a thermosensitive autolysin which became that may be used to locate the little crater include the the first condition to be recognised as an autoimmune intra-Imbrial craters, Archimedes (81 km diameter, lo- disease – his 1909 discovery of the polio virus, and his cated 239 km westwards), Timocharis (34.1 km, 127 introduction of the term ‘hapten’ to refer to non-pro- km south-southeast) and the small (9 km) crater Carlini teinaceious substances that demonstrated an affinity D which appears similar to though slightly larger than for antibodies but no intrinsic immunogenicity (i.e. no Landsteiner (51.2 km north-northeast). The crater’s antibody-provoking ability). Landsteiner’s later work name pays tribute to Karl Landsteiner (1868-1943) included exploring the role of haptens in anaphylac- (Figure 18a), a high-achieving Austrian physician and tic reactions and desentisitisation. By way of recog- immunologist.75, 76, 77 nition of the allergenic potential of haptens, he was able to conclude that allergies were a manifestation of Karl Landsteiner is best known for his discovery, an immunological process. Much like Ehrlich, Land- in the year 1900, of the major ‘ABO’ blood groups steiner’s works in haematology and immunology have (haemagglutinogens) which he categorised whilst ex- revolutionised these specialties – it was said of Land- perimenting on the ability of individual serums (ag- steiner that he “threw the bridge” between chemistry glutinins) to clump together or agglutinate foreign red and serology at a time when the two sciences were blood cells. The ABO blood groups comprise the most deemed independent and irreconcilable.118

a b

Figure 18: a) A portrait of Austrian physician and immunologist Karl Landsteiner. Image sourced from Alamy (www.alamy. com) b) The Landsteiner crater; a simple bowl-shaped formation that stands out conspicuously against the uninterrupted plains of the Mare Imbrium. Image extracted from Quickmap, NASA Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter Camera, Arizona State University School of Earth and Space Exploration.

July 2019 29 Z. Toodayan Fleming overshadowed by it, paved the way for Fleming’s forthcoming finding. The serendipitous circumstanc- Fleming (Figure 19a) is a large crater, 126.4 km in di- es of Fleming’s discovery of penicillin is much-told ameter, located beyond terrestrial view in the far north- in the history of medicine: Amidst a seemingly dis- east quadrant (14.9°N, 109.3°E). The crater is signifi- organised laboratory, Fleming noticed that one of his cantly weathered with low-lying and gently sloping staphylococcal cultures had been contaminated with a northern, eastern and western rims, and an abundance mould and that bacterial colonies in the vicinity of the of lesser well-eroded craters upon the central and pe- fungal growth were completely inhibited whilst those ripheral interior, many of which appear to have been further away from the mould continued to survive. flooded with lava. Three more recent interior craters Fleming further applied himself to isolating and iden- stand out amongst a community of depressions that tifying the fungus and to investigating the antibiosis are mostly clustered about the southern patriarchal thus demonstrated by the ‘mould juice’.121 He identi- semi-circumference. Despite the abundance of nearby fied the bacteriocidal properties of the active principle craters, Fleming has been allocted only four formal and its non-injurious nature to host tissues. The sub- satellite structures. The smallest, Fleming N (23.1 sequent purification and stabilisation of penicillin was km), lies upon the southern rim and the largest, Flem- an arduous task that was successfully accomplished by ing Y (51.9 km), sits about 32 km from its northwest- Ernst Boris Chain (1906-1979), a German biochemist ern boundary. The farthest of the satellites is Fleming working at Oxford, by a process involving lyophili- D, located about 68 km from the northeastern edge of sation, dissolution in methyl-alcohol, and dilution in the parent feature. The crater is, in part,119 named after water. Clinical trials of the purified penicillin were or- Sir Alexander Fleming (Figure 19b), a Scottish physi- chestrated by Chain’s superior, Howard Walter Florey cian, microbiologist, and pharmacologist.75, 76, 77 (1898-1968), an Australian physician and researcher, with the first successful clinical reports coming out of Sir Alexander Fleming is best known for his discovery the Radcliffe Infirmary in 1941.122 The efforts of Flo- of penicillin, an antibiotic he identified as being pro- rey and Chain translated Fleming’s laboratory discov- duced by the fungus Penicillium notatum in 1928. Ear- ery into a clinically useful antibiotic and all three were lier, in 1921, Fleming had isolated lysozyme, the natu- awarded a share of the 1945 Nobel Prize in Physiology rally occurring antimicrobial enzyme that is abundant or Medicine for their individual contributions to the in tears, mucous, and saliva.120 This discovery, though development of this marvellous substance.123

a b

Figure 19: a) The Fleming crater. A significant number of overlying impacts and flooding have caused much attrition to the original formation. Image extracted from Quickmap, NASA Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter Camera, Arizona State Univer- sity School of Earth and Space Exploration. b) Sir Alexander Fleming in his laboratory in 1944. From the National Portrait Gallery, London.

30 Osleriana Medicine’s Lunar Legacies

a b

Figure 20: a) Frederick G. Banting, one of the discoverers of insulin. Image courtesy of the Banting House National Histor- ic Site of Canada. b) Banting crater; a small but conspicuous impact site within the Mare Serenitatis. Image extracted from Quickmap, NASA Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter Camera, Arizona State University School of Earth and Space Exploration.

Banting ting devised an experimental method for extracting the unknown ‘hormone X’ from the pancreatic islets Crater Banting (Figure 20b) is a relatively minor cra- of Langerhans, clusters of cells previous investigators ter, only 5.2 km in diameter, that is situated on the had proven to be associated with diabetes. Aided by central basaltic plains of the Mare Serenitatis (Sea of his surgical background, he acquired undigested pan- Serenity) (25.6°N, 16.4°E). It is among the smallest creatic extracts from dogs and administered it to ca- in the family of medical craters but is well-placed for nines with diabetes induced by total pancreatectomies. telescopic observation. The structure of Banting, like Banting and Best succeeded in temporarily treating a that of Landsteiner, is rather simple, consisting of a diabetic dog in July 1920, and, using a modified tech- plain bowl-shaped interior that deepens to about 1,100 nique for the extraction of hormone X (which the pair metres and a well-demarcated circular rim that rises had named “isletin”) from bovine pancreases, mirac- about 150-200 metres above its surroundings. Apart ulously treated a patient with type-one diabetes in from several tiny unnamed craterlets, Banting’s im- January 1921.124 For the first time in human history mediate neighbourhood is considerably vacant. The physicians were able to intervene into the natural his- nearest named structures include three very small sat- tory of this ancient illness and salvage diabetics from ellite craters, Linne A, Linne D, and Bessel D (all be- the a definite and dismal demise. At the suggestion tween 4-5 km in diameter), the crater Sarabhai (7.4 km of Banting’s research advisor – the Scottish physiolo- in diameter), and the prominent parent crater Bessel gist John James Rickard Macleod (1876-1935) – and (15.6 km). The Banting crater takes the name of Sir in keeping with the designation previously assigned Frederick Grant Banting (1891-1941) (Figure 20a), a by Sir Edward Sharpey-Schafer (1850-1935),125 isletin Canadian surgeon and scientist.75, 76, 77 was renamed “insulin”, and the new treatment rapidly brought in all the worldwide sensation of a medical Sir Frederick Grant Banting is renowned for being the miracle.124 Banting and Macleod shared the 1923 No- co-discoverer of insulin, the first specific therapeutic bel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their discov- agent used for the treatment of diabetes. Whilst teach- ery of insulin – Banting, who was thirty-two years old ing at the medical school of the University of West- when he received the Prize, distributed a half-share of ern Ontario, Banting’s interest turned to the role of it with Best and to this day remains the youngest med- the pancreas in diabetes and he began his researches ical Nobel Laureate.126 Tragically, Banting died at the on the subject along with his assistant Charles Her- young age of forty-nine following the crash of a Lock- bert Best (1899-1978), a young medical student with heed Hudson aircraft in Newfoundland a few minutes a background in physiology and biochemistry. Ban- into its flight across the Atlantic.127

July 2019 31 Z. Toodayan Such are the natures and namesakes of some of the further crater names of medical relevance in 2009 – more notable medical craters. There are howev- there will undoubtedly be new identities to add to this er many more lunar craters with special links to the list in the future. medical profession, and a comprehensive account of all such craters has been tabulated below. The table But what does the recollection of these past pioneers lists the name of the crater, its selenocentric coordi- offer the profession today? To the modern- practi nates and diameter, and provides a brief overview of tioner, the collective import of these men and women the individual after whom it is named, including his should be plain and indisputable – the names of many or her occupation and important contributions as they linger in the lexicon of the medical sciences, attached relate to the medical profession. There are those cra- to some structure, instrument, procedure, illness, the- ters honouring the astronomical contributions of the ory or phenomenon, whilst others have fundamentally physician-astronomers but these have been left out rectified our comprehension of human health and dis- of the table, since in these instances, specific medical ease. Their lives indicate that much can be achieved contributions cannot be appropriated.79 On the other by an independent and motivated mind, and highlight hand, there are a few craters named after non-medical the intrinsic potential and ability of every individual personnel whose discoveries and inventions are very practitioner. Reflecting upon these personalities today, relevant to healthcare and these names have been ac- medical students, physicians, surgeons, and scientists commodated into this compilation. Considering that the world over may find great examples of productiv- undesignated craters are still able to be named – the ity and progress; examples that might inspire some to International Astronomical Union approving seven further our own medical frontiers.

Coordi- Crater Name nates & Occupation & Namesake Contributions to Medicine (Satellites)75 Diame- Honours ter75, 80 Aristoteles128 50.2°N Aristotle of Ancient Greek Authored early texts on zoology, biology, and anatomy 17.3°E Stagira (384 philosopher and (e.g. Historia Animālium, De Partibus Animalium, De (D, M, N) -322 B.C.) natural scientist. Generatione Animalium).129 87.6 km A founder of Undertook pioneering studies in comparative anatomy biology and the and embryology.129 first scientific Understood the relationship between the form of ana- anatomist.129 tomical structures and their purpose and conceptualised organs as individual functional parts of the body.129 Recognised the heart as being at the centre of the vascu- lar system and noted that blood vessels pulsate in syn- chrony with the heartbeat.129 Described the meninges and distinguished the cerebrum and cerebellum.129 Provided the first reference to the Eustachian tube and described the structure and function of the epiglottis.128 Introduced the terms ‘part’, ‘gastrocnemius’, ‘hypo- chondrion’,129 ‘hypogastrion’, ‘ureter’,130 ‘aorta’131 and others. Avery 1.3°S Oswald Theo- Canadi- Recognised the influence of the antigenic make-up of 81.4°E dore Avery Jr. an-American encapsulated microorganisms upon their pathogenicity, (1877-1955) physician laying the foundations for immunochemistry.132 10.7 km and medical Identified (alongside others) ‘desoxyribonucleic acid’ researcher. (DNA) as the hereditary material that constituted genes and chromosomes.132 Avicenna 39.6°N Abu Ali Persian physi- Authored Al-Qānūn fī al-Ṭibb (The Canon of Medicine), 97.3°W Husain ibn Ab- cian, polymath, “the most famous medical text-book ever written”.134 (E, G, R) dullah ibn Sīnā and scholar. The Canon systemised Graeco-Arabian medicine into 73 km (Avicenna) The ‘Prince of an axiomatic discipline and remained an authoritative (c.980-1037) Physicians’.133 medical encyclopaedia for a longer period than any oth- er medical work.134 Provided early descriptions of anthrax (‘Persian fire’) and the sweet tasting urine in diabetes.135

32 Osleriana Medicine’s Lunar Legacies

Banting 26.6°N Frederick Canadian sur- Co-discovered the pancreatic hormone insulin, the first 16.4°E Grant Banting geon & scientist. specific treatment for diabetes mellitus.125 (1891-1941) 5.2 km 1923 Nobel Prize in Physiol- ogy or Medi- cine.126 Bilharz 5.8°S Theodore Max- German Discovered (in 1851) the parasitic helminth (now Schis- 56.3°E imilian Bilharz physician and tosoma haematobium) that causes schistosomiasis (snail (1825-1862) parasitologist. fever, tropical haematuria, or Bilharzia).136 44.6 km Cajal 12.6°N Santiago Spanish neu- Developed the neuronal doctrine – the theory that the 31.1°E Ramón y Cajal roscientist & nervous system was composed of morphologically dis- (1852-1934) pathologist. continuous but functionally co-operative neurones.137 8.6 km Described dynamic polarisation of neurons – the direc- 1906 Nobel tion of conduction in dendrites is cellulipetal (towards Prize in Physiol- the cell body) and cellulifugal (away from the cell body) ogy or Medi- in the axis cylinder (axon).137 cine.137 Classified neuroglia.138 Introduction of several new and improved neurohisto- logical staining techniques.139 Interstitial cells of Cajal – myenteric pacemaker cells.138 Cajal-Retzius cells – ephemeral reelin-producing neu- rons in the developing mammalian telencephalon.140 Carrel 10.7°N Alexis Carrel French surgeon Devised a safe and reliable technique for the anastomo- 26.7°E (1873-1944) and biologist. sis of blood-vessels, enabling improved organ transplan- tation.141 15.6 km 1912 Nobel Co-developed, with Charles A. Lindbergh (1902-1974), Prize in Physiol- the organ perfusion pump for donor organs.142 ogy or Medi- cine.141 Cori143 50.5°S Gerti Theresa Czech-Ameri- Discovered, alongside her husband Carl Cori, the mech- 152.9°W Cori (1896- can biochemist. anism of glycogen metabolism through the lactic acid 1957) cycle (Cori cycle).145 67.2 km 1947 Nobel Identified glucose-1-phosphate (Cori ester) and glyco- Prize in Physiol- gen phosphorylase.145 ogy or Medi- Cori-Forbes disease – glycogen storage disease type III cine.144, 145 (limit dextrinosis, glycogen debranching enzyme defi- ciency or amylo-1,6-glucosidase deficiency).146 Crile 14.2°N George Wash- American sur- Performed the first successful direct human (artery to 46°E ington Crile geon. vein) blood transfusion (1906).147 (1864-1943) Developed the theory of ‘anoci-association’ – utilising 9.3 km a combination of opiods, regional and general anaes- thesia, alongside the mitigation of anxiety, to reduce the risk of intra-operative shock.148 Namesake for the Crile forceps.149 Cuvier 50.3°S Georges Cuvi- French natural- Ducts of Cuvier – the common cardinal veins that con- 9.7°E er (1769-1832) ist & zoologist. vey venous blood to the sinus venosis, a triangular cav- (A, B, C, D, ‘Father of verte- ity preceding the embryonic heart. They are anatomical E, F, G, H, J, 77.3 km brate paleontol- precursors of the sinus venarum, coronary sinus and a K, L, M, N, ogy’.150 portion of the superior vena cava.151 O, P, Q, R) Dale 9.6°S Henry Hallet English phar- Discovered the adrenaline-inhibiting (sympatholytic) 82.9°E Dale macologist & effects of ergotoxine and introduced it as the first adren- (1875-1968) physiologist. ergic antagonist.152 23.4 km Identified the physiological effects of primary and sec- President of the ondary amines.152 Royal Society Discovered the oxytocic and vasopressor activities of (1940-1945).152 posterior pituitary extract (1909).152 (continued) (continued)

July 2019 33 Z. Toodayan

1936 Nobel Identified the contractile activity of smooth muscle in Prize in Physiol- anaphylactic reactions.152 ogy or Medi- Described the physiological properties of β-iminazoly- cine.152 lethylamine (histamine) and demonstrated its natural occurrence in tissues.152 Identified the dual muscarinic and nicotinic effects of natural acetylcholine (1914), a finding which, alongside Otto Loewi’s (1873-1961) later experiments, proved the existence of chemical neurotransmission.152 Contributed to the international standardisation of pos- terior lobe pituitary extracts, neoarsphenamine, digitalis, and insulin.152 Coined the terms ‘sympathomimetic’, ‘adrenergic’, ‘cholinergic’, ‘cholinoceptive’, & ‘adrenoceptive’.152 Darwin153 19.9°S Charles English natu- Independently discovered the theory of evolution – the 69.2°W Darwin (1809- ralist. variation and speciation of all life occurs through nat- (A, B, C, F, 1882) ural selection which favours lifeforms best-adapted to G, H) 122.2 km their environmental conditions and implies, by way of divergence of character, a common ancestry for all liv- ing things.154, 155 Authored On the Origin of Species (1859), one of the most important scientific books ever written.154 Darwin’s tubercle (tuberculum auriculare) – an atavism featuring as ‘a little blunt tip projecting from the inward- ly-folded margin, or helix’ of the human ear.156, 157 da Vinci 9.1°N Leonardo da Italian Renais- Made substantial improvements to methods of anatom- 45°E Vinci (1452- sance polymath. ical illustration.158 (A) 1519) Described the concept of antagonistic muscles.158 37.5 km Gave the first accurate descriptions and drawings of the frontal and maxillary sinuses, and of human dentition.158 First to reveal the three-dimensional structure of a body cavity – the cerebral ventricles (using melted wax).158 Identified artherosclerosis and its role in coronary occlu- sion and death.158 Made the earliest drawing of the vermiform appendix (‘auricle of the colon’).158 First to identify the four-chambered nature of the heart, a patent foramen ovale, and the structure and function of the moderator band of the right ventricle.158 Provided the first description of the aortic sinuses and the correct explanation for the mechanism of closure of the aortic valve.159 Postulated the existence of minute circulatory chan- nels;158 credited with introducing the term ‘capillary’.160 Recognised the correct number of human vertebrae as thirty-one and accurately depicted the double-curvature of the spinal column.158 First to recognise the unilocular nature of the uterus, the correct attitude of the foetus in utero, and the separation of foetal and maternal circulations in placenta and um- bilical cord.158 Identified the role of arterial influx in establishing penile erection and the testicular origin of semen.158 Davy161 11.9°S Sir Humphry English chemist Utilised electrolysis to isolate and name several clini- 8.2°W Davy and inventor. cally relevant elements – potassium and sodium (1807), (A, B, C, G, (1778-1829) and calcium, strontium, barium and ‘magnium’ (magne- K, U, W) 33.9 km President of The sium) (1808).163 Royal Society Identified the anaesthetic properties of nitrous oxide (1820-1827).162 and named the substance ‘laughing gas’.164

34 Osleriana Medicine’s Lunar Legacies

Ehrlich 40.8°N Paul Ehrlich German physi- Discovered the mast cell (1892).109 172.3°W (1854-1915) cian and medi- Recognised the importance of the specific affinity of (J, N, W, Z) cal scientist. chemicals in the processes of life.109 33.6 km Provided early histomorphological classifications of 1908 Nobel leucocytes, anaemias, and leukaemias.109 Prize in Physiol- Devised the urinary diazo-reaction for detection of bil- ogy or Medi- irubin and an acid-fast stain for the tubercle bacillus.109 cine.110 Introduced serum standardisation techniques that en- hanced yields and utility of diphtheria antitoxin.110 Devised the side-chain theory of humoral immunity (1897), an early theory of antibody production.110 Introduced the terms ‘antibody’, ‘complement’, 111 ‘re- ceptor’112 and ‘chemotherapy’.110 First to conceive the process of autoimmunity (‘horror autotoxicus’).111 Co-developed the anti-syphilitic arsphenamine (Salvar- san, 1909) – the first successful synthetic antimicrobial agent designed to treat a human infection.110 Established the pharmacological notions of ‘therapeutic index’, treatment resistance, and combination therapy.110 Heinz-Ehlrich bodies – round oxyphilic inclusions com- posed of defective haemoglobin seen within erythro- cytes. They may be a marker of oxidative stress, hae- moglobinopathies, or hyposplenism for example.165 Ehrlichia – a genus of Gram-negative pleomorphic Rickettsiales bacteria; one of the causes of the tick- borne illness Ehrlichiosis.165 Eijkman 63.2°S Christiaan Ei- Dutch physician Discovered the association between beriberi and a diet 142.5°W jkman (1858- and physiolo- of polished rice (1893). These studies resulted in the (D) 1930) gist. discovery of vitamin B1 (thiamine) (and subsequently 56.4 km other vitamins) by other investigators.166, 167 1929 Nobel Eijkman test (differential coliform test) – a test to iden- Prize in Physiol- tify aqueous coliform bacteria from warm-blooded ani- ogy or Medi- mals, based on their ability to ferment glucose at 46°C. cine.166 Used as a test for faecal contamination of water.168 Einthoven 5.1°S Willem Eintho- Dutch physician Invented the string galvanometer which greatly facilitat- 110.1°E ven (1860- and physiolo- ed accurate electrical tracings of the heart’s activity.170 (G, K, L, M, 1927) gist. Introduced the term ‘electrocardiogram’.170 P, R, X) 73.9 km Einthoven’s triangle – a conceptual equilateral triangle 1924 Nobel comprised of the three limb leads of the electrocardio- Prize in Physiol- gram, with the apices positioned at the right wrist, left ogy or Medi- wrist, and left hip, all equidistant from the heart.169 cine.169 Einthoven’s law – the voltage in lead II of the electro- cardiogram is equal to the sum of the voltages in leads I and III.169 Erlanger 87°N Joseph Er- American phys- Identified and classified the several varieties of nerve 28.6°E langer (1874- iologist. fibres and demonstrated the relationship between fibre 1965)171 diameter and velocity of action potentials.172 10.9 km 1944 Nobel Demonstrated the dependence of proteinuria on pulse Prize in Physiol- pressure (rather than systolic blood pressure) in ortho- ogy or Medi- static proteinuria.172 cine.172 Experimentally established the complete dependence of atrioventricular conduction on the bundle of His.172 Introduced the cathode ray oscilloscope into neurophys- iology.172 Fechner 58.3°N Gustav Theo- German philos- Introduced Weber’s law [based on the works of Ernst 125°E dore Fechner opher, physicist Heinrich Weber (1795-1878)] – a noticeable difference (T) (1801-1887) and experimen- in the perception of a stimulus is proportional to the rela- 59.3 km tal psychologist. tive difference of the stimulus (i.e. ratio of the size of the 174 (continued) difference to the size of the original stimulus). (continued)

July 2019 35 Z. Toodayan

‘Founder of Developed a refinement of Weber’s law (Fechner’s law psychophys- or Weber-Fechner law175) – the magnitude of a subjective ics’.173 sensation is proportional to the logarithm of the magni- tude of the stimulus expressed in terms of its threshold value (fundamental stimulus value). This implies that ‘an increment of stimulus causes an ever decreasing in- crement in sensation’.174 Coined the term psycophysics.173 Fechner’s colours (pattern induced flicker colours) – an illusion of colour that is perceived when viewing mov- ing, contrasting (e.g. black-and-white) patterns.176 Fernelius 38.2°S Jean Francois French Renais- Authored the Physiologia (initially On the Natural Part 4.9°E Fernel sance physician of Medicine, as part of the three-volume Universa Me- (A, B, C, D, (Fernelius) and astronomer. dicina), a medical text that systematically comprehend- E) 68.4 km (1497-1558) ed the functions of the body in a manner conducive to the principles of scientific physiology.177, 178 First to use the word ‘physiology’ (‘physiologia’) in the scientific sense of the term.177 Credited with being the first to observe the hollow cen- tral canal of the spinal cord.179 Finsen 42.3°S Niels Ryberg Faroese physi- First to experimentally demonstrate the injurious effects 177.7°W Finsen (1860- cian and medi- of ultraviolet radiation (‘chemical rays’) on the skin.181 (C, G) 1904) cal scientist. Pioneered phototherapy with the successful application 73 km of violet and ultraviolet light (UVA radiation) for the 1903 Nobel treatment of lupus vulgaris (1895), a common cutaneous Prize in Physiol- manifestation of tuberculosis. This work laid the foun- ogy or Medi- dations for photobiology.181 cine.180, 181

Fischer 8°N Hermann Emil German chem- Isolated phenylhydrazine (1875) and created indole 142.4°E Louis Fischer ist. ‘Father of (1886), an intermediate in the synthesis of many dyes (1852-1919)180 biochemistry’.183 and pharmaceuticals.184 30.5 km Introduce the term ‘purine’ (1897) for the shared base 1902 Nobel structure of caffeine, theobromine, xanthine, adenine, Prize in Chem- uric acid, and guanine.184 Synthesised purines and rec- istry.184 ognised their significance in living cells183 and in gout.185 Deciphered the chemical structures of sugars, including the isomers of glucose.184 Discovered the amino acids valine, proline, and hy- droxyproline. Synthesised oligopeptides up to eighteen monomers in length.184 Introduced the concept of enzymatic stereospecificity in the ‘lock and key’ model of enzyme action (1894).184 Synthesised the first commercially available barbiturate [5,5-diethylbarbituric acid (Veronal) 1903] which was used as a sedative.184 Made the first synthetic nucleotide, theophylline-d-glu- coside phosphoric acid (1914).184 Fischer projection method – a method of representing three-dimensional chemical structures on a two-dimen- sional surface.183 Fleming 14.9°N Sir Alexander Scottish Discovered lysozyme (1921), the naturally occurring 109.3°E Fleming (1881- physician and antimicrobial enzyme that is abundant in tears, mucous (D, N, W, Y) 1955)119 pharmacologist. and saliva.120 126.4 km Discovered the antibiotic effect of penicillin (1928), a 1945 Nobel product of the fungus Penicillium notatum.121 Prize in Physiol- ogy or Medi- cine.123

36 Osleriana Medicine’s Lunar Legacies

Florey 87°N Howard Walter Australian Explored the biochemical and biological properties of 19.8°W Florey (1898- pharmacologist purified extracts of penicillin with Ernst B. Chain in Ox- 1968) & pathologist. ford.186 69.1 km Coordinated the first human trials of purified penicillin President of the at the Radcliffe Infirmary in Oxford (1941), demonstrat- Royal Society ing its efficacy in the treatment of staphylococcal and (1960-1965).186 streptococcal infections.187 Initiated efforts that resulted in the large scale produc- 1945 Nobel tion of penicillin in America, enabling the utilisation of Prize in Physiol- penicillin during World War II.187 ogy or Medi- cine.186 Fracastorius 21.4°S Girolamo Italian Renais- Investigated the disease known as ‘love-pestilence’189 or 33.1°E Fracastoro of sance physician, ‘French disease’ and named it ‘Syphilis’ after the pro- (A, B, C, D, Verona (1484- poet, & astron- tagonist of his classic poem about the malady190 Syphilis E, G, H, J, K, 120.6 km 1553)188 omer. sive Morbus Gallicus (1530), which has been described L, M, N, P, Q, as “the most successful medical poem ever written.”191 R, S, T, W, X, Authored the De Contagione et Contagiosis Morbis Y, Z) (1546), a three-volume essay on contagious diseases.191 Comprehended the modes of transmission of infectious disease, including contact transmission, ‘fomites’ (intro- duced the term), and airborne transmission.191 Differentiated various types of fevers.191 Provided the first description of epidemic typhus and noted the contagious nature of tuberculosis.191 Freud 25.8°N Sigmund Freud Austrian neu- Formulated pscychoanalysis – a non-scientific theory 52.4°E (1856-1939) rologist. Father and therapy for mental illnesses that regards the influ- of psychoanaly- ence of the unconscious on the conscious mind and body 2.9 km sis.192 as a cardinal cause for personalities, behaviours, physi- cal symptoms and psychiatric disorders.192 Developed (from 1900) a topographical model of the mind composed of the conscious, subconscious and unconscious minds, and a model of the psyche (1923) comprised of the id, ego, and superego.192 Proposed different stages and aspects of psychosexual development that can contribute to personality and men- tal disorders.192 Authored The Interpretation of Dreams (1899), a book concerning the investigation of the unconscious mind through the analysis of dreams.192 Freudian slip (parapraxis) – a transient error in speech (‘slip of the tongue’), memory, or movement, that may be due to unconscious influences, distraction, strong as- sociation or mental fatigue.193 Galen 22°N Claudius Galen Greek physi- Proved that arteries contained blood (and not air) and 5°E of Pergamon cian, surgeon devised an explanation for the mechanism of respira- (A.D. 130- and philosopher. tion. Demonstrated the function of the laryngeal nerves 9.2 km 200)194 ‘The greatest in voice production, the consequences of sectioning the Greek phy- spinal cord, and the independence of the heartbeat from sician since its nervous connections.195 Hippocrates’.195 Postulated a primitive and influential theory of the circu- Physician to latory system197 that was founded upon Aristotelean and the gladiators Alexandrinian concepts.195, 198 of Pergamon, Understood the role of heart valves in directing the flow and to Roman of blood and appreciated that arteries and veins anasto- emperor-philos- mose by way of ‘extremely small vessels’.198 opher Marcus Credited with the first description of the cranial nerves Aurelius (A.D. (recognised seven of twelve pairs), the sympathetic 121-180).196 chain, the recurrent laryngeal nerve and other neuroana- tomical structures.198 (continued)

July 2019 37 Z. Toodayan

Identified loss of function (functio laesa) as a fifth cardi- nal sign of inflammation.199 Established the tradition of assessing the pulse.200 Authored numerous medical works, most famously De Usu Partium193, that remained authoritative in European medicine for almost fifteen centuries.195 Namesake for the internal cerebral vein of Galen and great cerebral vein of Galen.201 Galvani 49.5°N Luigi Aloisio Italian physi- Demonstrated that the function of muscles and nerves is 84.6°W Galvani (1737- cian, biologist dependent on an intrinsic animal electricity.203 (B, D) 1798) and physicist. Postulated that electricity could be stored in muscles by 76.8 km Founder of way of a differential charge distribution on the internal electrophysiol- and external surface of muscle fibers.203 ogy.202 Namesake for the galvanometer, galvanic current, and galvanisation.203 Golgi 27.8°N Camillo Golgi Italian physician Golgi stain/method/impregnation – silver chromate or 60°W (1843-1926) and pathologist. black reaction (la reazione nera).204 Golgi apparatus/complex – internal reticular apparatus 5.6 km 1906 Nobel of the cell for the processing of proteins.204 Prize in Physiol- Golgi tendon organ/reflex – sensory receptors within ogy or Medi- muscles involved in the maintenance of muscle tone and cine.204 the afferent limb of tendon reflexes.204 Golgi cells – cerebellar inhibitory interneurons.204 Pericellular nets of Golgi – finely reticulated mesh of ex- tracellular hyaluronate-binding proteins in the vicinity of large neurones.205 Golgi-Mazzoni corpuscles – lamellar mechanoreceptors abundant in the fingertips.204 Muller-Golgi tubules – gastric parietal cell canaliculi.204 Cones of Golgi-Rezzonico204 – fixation artefact206 corre- sponding to Schmidt-Lanterman incisures.207 Golgi cycle – erythrocytic cycle of malarial parasites.204 Golgi law – relationship between tertian and quartan malarian fevers and the multiplication of blood-borne Plasmodium.204 Gruithuisen 32.9°N Franz von Pau- French surgeon Provided German translations of the works of Hippo- 39.8°W la Gruithuisen and astronomer. crates.56 (B, E, F, G, (1774-1852) Pioneered techniques and instrumentation for lithotri- H, K, M, P. 15 km ty (pulverisation) and transurethral removal of bladder R, S) stones.60 Gullstrand 45°N Allvar Gull- Swedish oph- Devised accurate mathematical models of the dioptrics 129.7°W strand (1862- thalmologist and of the eye, including astigmatism.209 (C) 1930) mathematician. Pioneered keratoscopy.209 45.1 km Contrived an intracapsular theory of accommodation.210 1911 Nobel Invented the reflexless ophthalmoscope.210 Prize in Physiol- Invented the slit-lamp biomicroscope (1911).209 ogy or Medi- Gullstrand exact schematic eye – a highly accurate re- cine.208 fractive model of the human eye featuring precisely po- sitioned cardinal planes.209 Gullstrand lens – for indirect ophthalmoscopy.209 Haldane211 1.7°S John Burdon English evolu- Made pioneering contributions in the fields of mathe- 84.1°E Sanderson tionary biolo- matical evolutionary biology, population genetics, and Haldane (1892- gist. A founder biochemical genetics.212 40.3 km 1964) of population Introduced the terms coupling (cis) and repulsion (trans) genetics. for genetic linkage, and the units Morgan and Darwin for measuring linkage and evolutionary change.212 First to decipher the rate of mutation of a human gene (haemophilia, 10-5 per generation).213 Contributed theories on the origin of life (abiogenesis)214 and steady-state enzyme kinetics... (continued)

38 Osleriana Medicine’s Lunar Legacies

... (Briggs-Haldane equation).212, 214 Haldane’s malaria hypothesis – sickle-cell disease con- fers some immunity to malaria.214 Harvey 19.4°N William English Authored Exercitatio Anatomica de Motu Cordis et San- 146.5°W Harvey (1578- physician and guinis in Animalibus (1628), a pioneering feat of exper- 1657) anatomist. imental physiology containing the first accurate descrip- 60 km tions of the systemic circulation.102 Helmholtz215 68.6°S Hermann Lud- German Work on physiological optics (e.g. theory of accommo- 65.3°E wig Ferdinand physician and dation of the lens) and audition.216 (A, B, D, F, von Helmholtz physicist. Invented the direct ophthalmoscope (‘eye-mirror’) for H, J, M, N, R, 110.2 km (1821-1894) examination of the living retina (1851).217 S, T) Young-Helmholtz theory – the trichromatic origin of co- lour vision.216 Hevesy 83.1°N George Charles Hungarian ra- Introduced the tracer principle and pioneered its biolog- 149.2°E de Hevesy diochemist. ‘Fa- ical application by way of various natural and synthetic (1885-1966) ther of nuclear radioisotopes.218 50 km medicine’.218 Identified (using phosphorous-32, 1935) the dynamic state of the body constituents (the incessant renewal of 1943 Nobel molecules in the body).218 Prize in Chem- Introduced the term ‘indicator’ as a label for radioele- istry.218 ments used in biological and chemical investigations.218 Heymans 74.8°N Corneille Jean Belgian phys- Conducted important experimental work on the chemo- 144.9°W François Hey- iologist and receptors and baroreceptors of the carotid body (glomus (D, F, T) mans (1892- pharmacologist. caroticum) that demonstrated their role in the regulation 46.5 km 1968) of respiration and blood pressure respectively.219 1938 Nobel Prize in Physiol- ogy or Medi- cine.219 Hippocrates 70.3°N Hippocrates of Greek physi- Taught the humoral theory of disease.92 146.5°W Cos cian. ‘The father Espoused humanitarianism and the importance of care- (Q) (c.460 - c.370 of medicine’.91 ful observation in medicine.92 59.2 km B.C.) Promoted the idea of the natural (rather than divine) origin of diseases (e.g. epilepsy) and the vis medicatrix naturae (the healing power of nature).92 Gave the first description of wound healing by primary and secondary intention.92 Recognised the association between gibbous spine (Pott’s disease) and phthisis (pulmonary tuberculosis).93 Hippocratic facies – preterminal facies.93 Hippocratic fingers – clubbing.94 Hippocratic succussion – dynamic splash of pleural ef- fusions and gastrointestinal tract obstruction.94 Hippocratic Oath – ancient dictum enunciating the ethi- cal responsibilities of physicians.94 Hooke220 41.1°N Robert Hooke English poly- Authored Micrographia (1665), a pioneering exhibition 54.9°E (1635-1703) math. of the natural world as it appeared through a micro- (A, D) scope and in which the term ‘cell’ was introduced.221 34.4 km Conducted early experiments in respiratory physiology, including artificial ventilation.221 Houssay 83.1°N Bernardo Al- Argentinian Discovered the role of the anterior pituitary in the regu- 98.5°E berto Houssay physiologist. lation of blood glucose.222 (1887-1971) Conducted experiments on renovascular hypertension 31.4 km 1947 Nobel that later led to the discovery of renin.222 Prize in Physiol- Houssay-Biasotti phenomenon/syndrome – resolution ogy or Medi- of diabetes following hypophyseal extirpation or hypop- cine.222 ituarism (vanishing diabetes).223

July 2019 39 Z. Toodayan

Huxley224 20.2°N Thomas Henry English biolo- Studied Man’s evolutionary relationship to other pri- 4.5°W Huxley (1825- gist, palaeon- mates.225 1895) tologist and Huxley’s layer – a layer of cells in the inner root-sheath 3.5 km comparative of hair.225 anatomist.

President of the Royal Society (1883-1885).225 Jenner 42°S Edward Jenner English physi- Established vaccination as a scientific principle by 96°E (1749-1823) cian. demonstrating that inoculations of fluid from cowpox (M, X, Y) blisters would protect an individual from smallpox in- 73.7 km fection.105 Karrer 52.1°S Paul Karrer Swiss organic Derived the chemical structures of carotenoids and iden- 142.3°W (1889-1971) chemist. tified the structural relationship between beta-carotene and vitamin A (retinol, first vitamin whose structure was 55.6 km 1937 Nobel discovered, 1931).226, 227 Prize in Chem- Synthesis of vitamin B2 (riboflavin, 1935).227 istry.226 Contributions towards the structure and function of nic- otinamide adenine dinucleotide.227 Koch 42.1°S Robert Koch German physi- Discovered the causative agent of anthrax (now Bacil- 150.3°E (1843-1910) cian and micro- lus anthracis, 1876); the first association of a disease (R, U) biologist. Father with a specific microorganism.107 94.7 km of modern Discovered the causative agent of tuberculosis (Koch’s bacteriology. bacillus, now Mycobacterium tuberculosis, 1882)108 and cholera (now Vibrio cholerae).107 1905 Nobel Koch’s postulates.108 Prize in Physiol- Introduced tuberculin, meat-infused liquid gelatin cul- ogy or Medi- ture media106 and steam sterilisation.107 cine.108 Kocher 84.5°S Emil Theodor Swiss surgeon. Furthered knowledge on the physiology, pathology, and 134°W Kocher (1841- surgery of the thyroid.229 1917) 1909 Nobel Performed the first thyroidectomy for goitre (1878).229 24.0 km Prize in Physiol- Kocher incision – right subcostal incision for cholecys- ogy or Medi- tectomy.228 cine.228 Kocher manoeuvre – reduction of anterior shoulder dis- locations.228 Kocher-Debre-Semalaigne syndrome – infantile hypo- thyroid myopathy (muscular pseudohypertrophy and myxoedema) with cretinism.228 Krogh 9.4°N Schack August Danish phys- Discovered the mechanisms that regulate capillary cir- 65.7°E Steenberg iologist & culation in skeletal muscle.230 Krogh zoophysiolgist. Work on the mechanism of gas exchange in the lung 19.2 km (1874-1949) (diffusion theory) and tissues.230 1920 Nobel Krogh tissue cylinder model – a simple geometric model Prize in Physiol- allowing for a basic mathematical analysis of the diffu- ogy or Medi- sion of solutes and gases between capillaries and their cine.230 surrounding tissues.231 Contributed to the introduction and production of insu- lin preparations in Denmark.230 Landsteiner 31.3°N Karl Land- Austrian Discovered the polio virus (1909).118 14.8°W steiner (1868- physician and Discovered the ABO (Landsteiner classification232) 1943) immunologist. blood groups.118 6.1 km Identified Rhesus factor (1937).118 1930 Nobel Recognised the utility of dark-field microscopy for the Prize in Physiol- identification ofTreponema pallidum.118 ogy or Medi- Contributed to the understanding of allergy as an immu- cine.118 nological manifestation.118 Introduced the term ‘hapten’.118 (continued)

40 Osleriana Medicine’s Lunar Legacies

Donath-Landsteiner syndrome – paroxysmal cold hae- moglobinuria; the first condition to be recognised as an autoimmune disease.118 Laveran 81.8°S Charles Louis French military Discovered the parasitic cause of malaria (paludisme) 159.8°W Alphonse physician. (Oscillaria/Haemamoeba malariae, now Plasmodium Laveran (1845- spp., 1880); the first disease to be associated with a pro- 12.5 km 1922) 1907 Nobel tozoan pathogen.233 Prize in Physiol- Contributed to the understanding of trypanosomal in- ogy or Medi- fections, particularly African trypanasomiasis (sleeping cine.233 sickness).234 Laveran bodies – erythrocytic malarial parasites.235 Laverania – old genus name for Plasmodia.233 Leeuwenhoek 29.3°S Antony van Dutch scientist. Provided the first description of micro-organisms (‘an- 178.9°W Leeuwenhoek ‘Father of mi- imalcules’, 1674),236 including protists and bacteria.237 (E) (1632-1723) crobiology’.236 Gave the first descriptions of spermatozoa, striations of 125 km voluntary muscle, the microscopic structure of the crys- talline lens,237 and crystals in gouty tophi.238 Gave an early description of red blood cells (1674),237 together with an accurate estimate of their size.238 Pos- sibly described vacuoles and cilia too.236 Conducted early studies on the capillary circulation.237 Leeuwenhoek microscope – a simple microscope with a single objective lens.236 Licetus 47.2°S Fortunio Liceti Italian physician First to systematically study human and animal malfor- 6.5°E (Licetus) and philosopher. mations by providing descriptions, classifications, and (A, B, C, D, (1577-1657) causes of congenital abnormalities.239 E, F, G, H, J, 75.4 km Authored De Monstrorum causis, natura, et differentiis K, L, M, N, (On the Reasons, Nature and Differences of Monsters, P, Q, R, S, T, 1616), a landmark publication in descriptive teratolo- U, W) gy.239 Linné 27.8°N Carl von Linné Swedish Introduced the system of binomial nomenclature into the 11.8°E (Linnaeus) physician and life sciences (i.e. representing living organisms with the (A, B, D, F, (1707-1778) botanist. Genus species notation).240 G, H) 2.2 km Authored Systema Naturae (1735 onwards) and Species Plantarum (1753) which introduced specific binomial names for animals and plants respectively.240 Ludwig 7.7°S Carl Fried- German Conducted important physiological researches on blood 97.5°E rich Wilhelm physician and pressure, urine excretion, lymph formation, salivary Ludwig (1816- physiologist. gland secretion, and many other physiological func- 23.3 km 1895) tions.241 Devised the glomerular filtration theory of urine pro- duction and discovered the innervation of the salivary glands.241 Introduced the graphic method of recording physiologi- cal data with the chymograph (1847).241 Pioneered the perfusion of excised organs.241 Depressor nerve of Ludwig242 – vasodilator branch of the vagus nerve.243 Ludwig’s ganglion – parasympathetic neuronal cell bod- ies within the interatrial septum.242 Ludwig’s labrynth – proximal and distal convoluted tu- bules of the nephron.242 Mechnikov 10.5°S Ilya Ilyich Russian zool- Discovered phagocytosis (1883), establishing the notion 149°W Mechnikov ogist of cell-mediated immunity.111 (C, D, F, G, (1845-1916) Conceptualised probiotics.111 U, Z) 58.8 km 1908 Nobel Coined the terms ‘phagocytosis’, ‘macrophage’, ‘micor- Prize in Physiol- phage’ (now neutrophil),109 and ‘gerontology’.244 ogy or Medi- cine.111

July 2019 41 Z. Toodayan

Mendel245 48.8°S Gregor Johann Moravian monk Discovered the laws of biological heredity (Mendelian 109.9°W Mendel (1822- and scientist. inheritance).246 (B, J, V) 1884) Father of ge- 139.7 km netics. Paracelsus 22.9°S Philippus Swiss-German Espoused the use of metals, inorganic salts, and miner- 163.4°E Auereolus Hermetic physi- als in medicine.247 (C, E, G, H, Theophrastus cian, alchemist Discovered zinc.247 M, N, P, Y) 85.9 km Bombastus von and astrolo- Reintroduced tincture of opium (laudanum) to Western Hohenheim ger. Father of Europe.249 (Paracelsus) iatrochemistry Introduced the ideas of dosage dependence of toxicolog- (c.1493 -1541) and toxicology. ical effects and target organ toxicity.248 247, 248 Established the association between cretinism and en- demic goiter.250 Gave the first descriptions of occupational diseases (dis- eases of miners).250 Developed the concept of an active principle (arcana) in therapeutic preparations.250 Pasteur113 11.6°S Louis Pasteur French chemist Described molecular chirality.114 104.9°E (1822-1895) and microbiol- Conducted pivotal experiments on fermentation, con- (A, B, D, E, ogist. firming the germ theory of disease.114 G, H, M, Q, 232.8 km Developed attenuated chicken cholera and anthrax vac- S, T251, U, V, cinations and the first vaccine against rabies.114 Y, Z) Introduced the term ‘vaccine’.116 Pasteur effect – the inhibiting effect of oxygen on fer- mentation.252 Pasteurisation – heat sterilisation of milk.252 Pasteurella – a genus of Gram-negative anaerobic bac- teria.252 Pavlov 28.3°S Ivan Petrovich Russian physi- Pioneered surgical procedures such as gastro-oesopha- 142.4°E Pavlov (1849- ologist. gostomy, the Eck fistula (portocaval anastamosis) and (G, H, M, P, 1936) the innervated gastric pouch for physiological studies.254 T, V) 143.1 km 1904 Nobel Discovered the secretory innervation of the pancreas Prize in Physiol- (1888) and stomach (1889), the ‘psychic secretion’ of ogy or Medi- saliva, and enterokinase (enteropeptidase).254 cine253 Pavlovian (classical) conditioning – establishment of a conditioned reflex.254 Purkyně 1.5°S Jan Evangelista Bohemian Described the germinal vesicle.255 94.9°E Purkyně (1787- anatomist and Discovered the sweat glands and their ducts.255 (D, K, S, U, 1869) physiologist. Gave the first description of the intracytoplasmic pig- V) 50.3 km mentation of cells in the substantia nigra.256 Recognised the individuality of fingerprints and classi- fied fingerprint patterns.255 Coined the term ‘protoplasm’.255 Purkyně cells – large neurons with piriform cell bodies located between the molecular and granular layers of the cerebellum.255 Purkyně fibers – subendocardial branches of the cardiac conduction system.255 Purkyně tree – a perceivable image of the retinal vascu- lar tree created by its moving shadow.257 Blue arcs of Purkyně – entoptic visualisation of con- ducting neuroretinal elements.258 Purkyně phenomenon/shift – enhancement of sensitivi- ty to blue light with dark adaptation.257 Purkyně-Sanson images – four surface reflections pro- duced at the interfaces between diaphanous media of the eye.257 Purkyně’s law of vertigo – the perceived direction of vertigo depends on the posture of the head and changes with head inclination.259

42 Osleriana Medicine’s Lunar Legacies

Röntgen 32.9°N Wilhelm Con- German Discovered X-rays (1895).261 91.4°W rad Röntgen physicist and Coined the term ‘X-ray’.261 (A, B) (1845-1923) mechanical Conducted the first human X-ray (1895).262, 261 128.4 km engineer. Röntgenogram – plain X-ray radiograph.261

1901 Nobel Prize in Physics. 260, 261

Sechenov 7°S Ivan Mikhai- Russian physiol- Provided the first experimental evidence of inhibitory 143.1°W lovich Sechen- ogist. ‘Father of functions of the brain and their role in modulating spinal (C, P) ov (1829-1905) Russian physiol- reflexes.264 63.8 km ogy & scientific Espoused the physiological basis of psychological phe- psychology’.263 nomena.264 Sherrington 11.1°S Sir Charles English neuro- Conceived the notion of the integrative action of the ner- 118°E Scott Sher- physiologist and vous system and the ‘final common path’.266 rington (1857- pathologist. Investigated the arrangement of nerves in plexuses and 18.8 km 1952) their relation to spinal nerve roots.266 President of the Postulated the spinal location of cerebral inhibition of Royal Society skeletal muscle reflexes.266 (1920-1925).265 Proposed the role of intrinsic muscle receptors in deter- mining muscle tone.266 1932 Nobel Described ‘decerebrate rigidity’, the crossed extensor Prize in Physiol- response, myotatic stretch reflex, and the motor unit.266 ogy or Medi- Introduced the term ‘propioceptive’.266 Credited with cine.266 introducing the term ‘synapse’.267 Liddell-Sherrington reflex – myotatic reflex.268 Schiff-Sherrington reflex – exaggeration of myotatic and other postural reflexes in the limbs below the level of a spinal cord transection.268 Sherrington’s first law – each dorsal spinal nerve root conveys sensory information from specific, overlapping areas of the skin (dermatomes).268 Sherrington’s second law – reciprocal innervation of muscle groups.268 Vulpian-Heidenhain-Sherrington phenomenon – slow contraction of denervated skeletal muscle caused by stimulation of residual autonomic cholinergic fibres.269 Sömmerring 0.2°N Samuel German physi- Introduced the modern twelve-pair classification of the 7.5°W Thomas von cian, anatomist, cranial nerves (1878).270 (A, P, R) Sömmerring anthropologist Identified the individuality of the facial and vestibuloco- 28.0 km (1755-1830) and palaeontol- chlear nerves,270 and of the glossopharyngeal, vagus, and ogist. accessory nerves.271 Introduced the term ‘nervus abducens’.271 Discovered the substantia nigra and macula of the retina (coined the term ‘macula lutea’).270 Identified a vomeronasal organ in humans.272 Söemmerring’s spot – macula lutea.270 Söemmerring’s ganglion – substantia nigra.270 Söemmerring’s nerve – long pudendal nerve.270 Söemmerring’s ligament – suspensory ligament of the lacrimal gland.270 Söemmerring’s bone – marginal process of the zygomatic bone.270 Söemmerring’s ring – peripheral annular intercapsular opacification of the lens.270 Spallanzani 46.4°S Lazzaro Italian priest, Conducted researches that concluded against the theory 273 24.7°E Spallanzani biologist and of spontaneous generation.274 (1729-1799) physiologist. Identified the digestive power of saliva and confirmed (A, D, F, G) 30.9 km the digestive property of gastric juice.274 Performed early researches on regeneration in animals275 and noted the regenerative capacity of the spinal cord.274

July 2019 43 Z. Toodayan

Steno 32.6°N Niels Danish physi- Described the excretory duct of the parotid gland (1661) 161.8°E Stensen276 cian, geologist (Stensen’s duct, ductus Stenonianus).277 (N, Q, R, T, (1638-1686) and Catholic Discovered the lacrimal ducts and proposed the glandu- U) 32.3 km priest. lar origin of tears.278 Discovered the right lymphatic duct.279 Developed an early and accurate model of skeletal mus- cle contraction.278 Recognised the muscular nature of the heart.278 Gave the first description of tetralogy of Fallot (monolo- gy of Steno, Steno-Fallot tetralogy).280 Svedberg 81.7°S Theodor Sved- Swedish chem- Developed the ‘ultracentrifuge’.281 65.2°E berg (1884- ist. Conducted influential researches on colloidal chemistry 1971) and radiochemistry.281 15.3 km 1926 Nobel Demonstrated the uniformity in size and molecular Prize in Chem- weight of naturally-occurring soluble proteins (e.g. hae- istry.281 moglobin).281 Deciphered the molecular weight of the serum protein (immunoglobulin M) in Waldenström’s macroglobuli- naemia.281 Svedberg (S) – a non-metric unit of sedimentation rate/ molecular weight.282 Theiler 13.4°N Max Theiler South Afri- Devised viral attenuation and culturing techniques that 82.9°E (1899-1972) can-American contributed to the development of a vaccine for yellow virologist and fever, a mosquito borne illness caused by the yellow fe- 8.3 km physician. ver virus.284

1951 Nobel Prize in Physiol- ogy or Medi- cine.283, 284 Tiselius 6.9°N Arne Wilhelm Swedish bio- Pioneered the theory and practice of moving boundary 176.7°E Kaurin Tiselius chemist. and zone electrophoresis.285 (E, L) (1902-1971) Elucidated the complex nature of the serum proteins and 53.8 km 1948 Nobel introduced the denominations alpha (α), beta (β), and Prize in Chem- gamma (γ) globulin.285 istry.285 Recognised antibodies as gamma-globulins.285 Researches on adsorption analysis (chromatography of colourless substances).285 Vesalius 3.2°S Andreas Flemish Authored De Humani Corporis Fabrica Libri Septem 114.8°E Vesalius (1514- anatomist and (1543) the first complete textbook of human anatomy.100 (C, D, G, H, 1564) physician. Rectified many Galenic anatomical misconceptions – J, M) 64.7 km ‘Founder of e.g. proving the mandible was a single bone, that the modern human sternum was made of three, the absence of interventric- anatomy’.101 ular pores, and the true relations of the azygous vein.97 First to diagnose and describe aneurysms of the thoracic and abdominal aorta.98 Discovered and named the mitral valve.99 Os Vesalianum pedis – accessory ossicle at the base of the fifth metatarsal.286 Foramen of Vesalius – sphenoidal emissary foramen that transmits an emissary vein.286 Virchow 9.9°N Rudolf Ludwig German physi- Proposed the axiom omnis cellula e cellula – every cell 83.8°E Carl Virchow cian, pathologist comes from another cell – and promulgated the notion of (1821-1902) and anthropol- the cellular origin of disease.287 18.8 km ogist. ‘Father Authored Cellular Pathologie (Cellular Pathology) of cellular (1858), a highly influential publication in pathology.287 pathology’.287 Promoted the peicemeal method of the modern autopsy (Virchow method), consisting of removing and further assessing organs one-by-one 288

(continued)

44 Osleriana Medicine’s Lunar Legacies

Described and named arterial and venous ‘embolia’,289 ‘ochronosis’ (articular manifestation of alkaptonuria),286 ‘leukaemia’,290 ‘amyloid’ degeneration291 (Virchow’s degeneration292), ‘leontiasis ossea’287 (Virchow’s dis- ease293), and ‘spina bifida occulta’.287 Described the life cycle of Trichenella spiralis.294 Introduced the pathological terms (in addition to those above), ‘thrombosis’,295 ‘leucocytosis’,290 ‘hyperplasia’, ‘heterotopia’,296 ‘neuroglia’,297 ‘ischaemia’,298 ‘agene- sia’,287 and ‘zoonosis’.294 Virchow’s triad – conditions promoting thrombosis (hy- percoagulability, haemodynamic changes, and endothe- lial injury).299 Virchow’s node – left supraclavicular lymph node, en- largement of which (Trosier’s sign) may be seen in gas- trointestinal malignancy.293, 299 Virchow-Robin spaces – perivascular lymph spaces that communicate with the subarachnoid space and surround the larger cerebral veseels.292 Virchow’s cell – a macrophage with effervescent ap- pearing cytoplasm, seen in leprosy (Lepra cell).299 Also refers to osseous lacunae and their osteocytes, and to the corneal corpuscles (Toynbee’s corpuscles).293 Virchow-Seckel syndrome – bird-headed dwarfism.300 Virchow’s psammomas – microscopic calcified granules within tissue, prevalent in meningiomas.301, 302 Virchow’s metamorphosis – fatty infiltration of organs, particularly of the pancreas and liver. The condition has also been described in the parotid glands.303 Virchow’s angle – angle subtended by a line joining the middle of the nasofrontal suture and the base of the anterior nasal spine, and a line joining the latter to the external auditory meatus.293 Hassall-Virchow bodies – concentric clusters of thymic epithelial cells within the medullary thymus.292, 304 Virchow’s crystals – amber-hued ‘haematoidine’ crys- tals that may accompany extravasated blood.292 von Behring 7.8°S Emil Adolf von German physi- Discovered diphtheria antitoxin (1890) and its thera- 71.7°E Behring (1854- cian and medi- peutic utility.306 1917) cal scientist. Coined the term ‘antitoxin’.306 37.7 km 1901 Nobel Prize in Physiol- ogy or Medi- cine.305, 306 von Békésy 51.9°N Georg Von Hungari- Elucidated the tonotopic physiology of the cochlea.307 126.7°E Békésy (1899- an-American (F, T) 1972) physicist and 96.3 km physiololgist.

1961 Nobel Prize in Physiol- ogy or Medi- cine.307 Young 41,5°S Thomas Young English Described the accommodation of the eye and gave the 51°E (1773-1829) physician, first description of astigmatism.309 (A, B, C, D, physicist,308 and Young-Helmholtz theory – trichromatic theory of F, R, S) 71.4 km Egyptologist. colour vision.309 Young’s rule – a calculation for deriving children’s dosage of a medication from the equivalent adult dose. (Child dose = Adult dose × [Age ÷ (Age + 12)].310

July 2019 45 Z. Toodayan

Figure 21: The Moon has intrigued people for aeons. The Italian painter Donato Creti (1671-1749) captured Man’s enthusi- asm for lunar observation in this lovely post-telescopic era oil-on-canvas painting. The work, part of a series entitled Astro- nomical observations, was commissioned in 1711 and features the Moon as seen through an early telescope. Image repro- duced with the assistance and permission of the Vatican Museum, Rome. (Photo © Vatican Museums. All rights reserved).

46 Osleriana Medicine’s Lunar Legacies Man and Moon Many surviving lunar legends and folklore are tied The Moon has been observed and admired by Man for to moving themes like love, longing, and liberation. aeons (Figure 21). Its influence on human civilization These tales are still faithfully recalled and passed on can be traced far back into antiquity and its presence in many cultures, and most are quite charming and en- manifests ubiquitously in all creeds and cultures. The tertaining to the modern imagination. Who wouldn’t Moon of our distant ancestors has been preserved in wonder at the Chinaman’s story of the bamboo maiden many myths and monuments from which we can ex- – Goddess of the Moon – who spent an exile within trapolate the roles it may have played in the customs the vegetable’s hollow interior and eventually placed and traditions of different societies. Whilst its astral herself beyond the reach of admiring men by returning movements were of significance to astrologers, it also to her luminous homeland.316 Who wouldn’t admire served as a public platform upon which allegories of the perseverance of Bromho the Hindu, attempting to romance, virtue, vice, and justice were variously en- sculpt the face of Doorja the beautiful, building and acted. Let us briefly consider then, in concluding this breaking his works over successive fortnights, repeat- work, a few historical examples that demonstrate the edly and forever, for he can never replicate her beau- place of the Moon in Man’s world. ty.317 And who wouldn’t enjoy envisaging the many mythical places and people associated with our Moon The earliest known record that may demonstrate the – the forests of Diana; the paradise of the Druids; the Moon’s participation in human culture can be found fruit gardens of the Polynesians, whose seeds had been in the prehistoric caves of Lascaux, France, where a carried skywards by white-winged Tahitian doves; the simple line of circles, thought to represent the Moon Slavonian’s receding maiden on the lake; the chastised in its cycle,311 features amongst exquisite illustrations husband of the Sun, cloven for his musings with the of beasts on the rocks. This, the oldest suggested lu- evening star;318 and Ina of the Samoans or the Vedic nar calendar, hints at the important role the lunar cycle Goddess Rakka, weaving with unbreakable needles may have played in the lives of Cro-Magnon Man who the garments of night and morning.319 roamed the region some fifteen-thousand years ago.312 The spectacular beauty and periodicity of the Moon, Many Stone Age monuments whose alignments con- manifesting in moonlight and tidal rythyms, is reflect- template the positions of the Sun and Moon also echo ed by the femininity of the identities it has been asso- such significance. It has been suggested that a series ciated with. Perhaps one of the most popular of these of Neolithic arc engravings carved into an orthostat mythological personalities is Artemis – Greek goddess at the Knowth passage tomb in Ireland may represent of Moon, chastity, wildlife, and wilderness. Her Ro- the Moon’s Maria. The foundations of this supposi- man equivalent was Diana the huntress and she was tion have been contested, but if correct, the mysterious also known by the names Phoebe, Cynthia, and Selene. etching would consititute the earliest rendition of the She was the daughter of Zeus (Jupiter) and Leto (La- Moon’s actual appearance by humans,313 and its asso- tona) and the full sister of Apollo – god of the Sun, ciation with the dead would signify just how much the medicine, and the fine arts. Artemis was coachwoman Moon may have meant to our ancestors. of the lunar chariot which conveyed the Moon across the sky during the course of a night. She enjoyed a It is not uncommon to find the Moon, one of the oldest pastime of hunting in the forests of Arcadia and de- objects of worship, in the scriptures and customs of veloped an infatuation with Orion the hunter. Diana many religions. Astarte, or Ashtaroth-Karnain – the also expressed an amarous tendency towards a young Hebrew Queen of Heaven who wore a ‘two-horned’ shepherd named Endymion, upon whom, in order to crescent – is mentioned in Genesis and was worshipped preserve his youth, she conferred an everlasting sleep. devoutly by many a child of old Israel.314 The ancient Often attended by one or more of her hunting dogs, Egyptians had two lunar dieties, Khonsu and Thoth, Artemis was represented as a comely maiden wearing who marked the inexorable passage of time, and with a truncated hunting dress and holding a bow with a whom the cat, a sacred animal, was sometimes associ- quiver of arrows on her back. A small crescent head- ated – perhaps by virtue of the phase-like transforma- piece embellished her locks and sufficed to identify her tion of feline pupils and the light that appears to shine as matron of the Moon.320 forth from them in darkness.315 In many religions, the Moon’s beauty and periodicity, alongside all other cre- Pareidolias321 in relation to the visible dark and bright ated marvels, were seen as exemplary manifestations patternations of the Moon’s surface have also result- of divine will and providence. The crescent Moon and ed in a multitude of myths linked to animals, or to a star remain an identifiable symbol of the Islamic faith man or woman in the Moon. The Hindu’s remember whose calender is still based on the synodic month. a self-sacrificing hare who showed Buddha the way

July 2019 47 Z. Toodayan out of the wilderness and lent himself as food before – and the victory of the Apollo 11 astronauts (Figure being transfixed onto the Moon by Buddha’s divine 22) continues to epitomise Man’s capacity for adven- and grateful hand.322 The Chinese and Japanese also ture and exploration. Ever since the lunar landing, the reference a hare, theirs endlessly pounding at rice in Moon has increasingly embodied the spirit and success a mortar for the making of mooncakes.322, 323 Other of science, and in this way continues to maintain an characters include the heartbroken wolf of the Amer- influential presence in human culture. ican-Indians, from whom a fascinating toad – the subject of his fancy – had sought salvation upon the Despite our changing perspectives on the Moon, it is distant lunar disc; the Orient’s nuptial officiant, who clear that it has always symbolised something signif- linked spouses with a thread unseen and severed only icant to us, its identity inextricably entwined with our by the touch of death;324 the banished men of the Dutch own. Many of Man’s triumphs and tribulations have – thieves of sheep, wood, or cabbage; and Hiawatha’s been projected onto it throughout history and these grandmother, who had been tossed asunder by the war- have beamed back in some form or another to gen- rior in a fit of anger before coming to rest upon the sil- erations of observers. We have seen that the saga of ver sphere where her features can still be seen today.325 modern medicine is also written on the Moon, each medical crater preserving the impact of an individual Perhaps their enduring mystery and meaning is the on the landscape of human health and disease. In re- reason so many lunar legends have persisted through flecting on the lives of these lunar luminaries, today’s the ages, but the old romance and mythology of the practitioners may admire their individual contribu- Moon, though still alive and engaging,326 is less widely tions and aspire towards the motives that united the appreciated today. The advent of the scientific revolu- efforts and endeavours of them all – a desire to further tion catalysed progressively empirical interpretations human knowledge for its own sake; a commitment to of Nature, and the early triumphs of this period were improving the lives of others; a love of the investiga- encrypted in the naming schemes of the first lunar car- tion of Nature; a solemn and sincere search for truth. tographers. The forthcoming centuries saw the enor- A Moon of such meaning may rise on a physician’s mous import of the scientific method – a method that horizon – an inanimate and icy world, enlivened and enabled Man to visit the Moon itself only fifty years ago ennobled by the legacies of the great medical pioneers.

Figure 22: A view of the Moon’s surface as seen from the Apollo 11 Lunar Module (LM) on 20th July 1969. The crater Schmidt (11.1 km) dominates the terrain below and dwarfs the Command and Service Modules (seen here near the crater’s lower-left rim) as they orbited over the southern edge of the Mare Tranquilitatis (Sea of Tranquility), within which the LM landed, bringing Man to the Moon for the first time. Image courtesy of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.

48 Osleriana Medicine’s Lunar Legacies

References & Notes

1. Browne T. Hydriotaphia, Urne-Buriall, Or, a Discourse of the 18. The earliest surviving sketch of the Moon as it appeared Sepulchrall Urnes lately found in Norfolk. Together with the through a telescope is attributed to the English mathematician Garden of Cyrus, Or The Quincunciall Lozenge, or Net-work and astronomer Thomas Harriott (1560-1621) who produced a Plantations of the Ancients, Artificially, Naturally, Mystically lunar map around July 1609, about four months prior to Gal- Considered. With Sundry Observations. London: Printed for ileo’s observations. (Moore P. Guide to the Moon. London: Hen. Brome at the Signe of the Gun in Ivy-Lane, 1658, p. 28. Lutterworth Press, 1976, pp. 75-76). 2. This same event is thought to have caused the 23.5 degree tilt 19. Galilei G, Kepler J, Edward Stafford C. The Sidereal Messen- in the rotational axis of the Earth, which underlies the seasons. ger of Galileo Galilei: and a part of the preface to Kepler’s 3. In Classical mythology, Theia or Euryphäessa was a Titaness; Dioptrics containing the original account of Galileo’s astro- the wife of the Titan Hyperion and mother of Selene, the god- nomical discoveries. London: Rivingtons, 1880, pp. 14-30. dess of the Moon. (Morford MPO, Lenardon RJ. Classical 20. An early set of lunar engravings was produced by the French Mythology. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999, pp. 40- draughtsman Claud Mellan (1598-1688) around 1637 under a 42). According to some accounts, Selene’s identity was asso- commission of the French priest and astronomer Pierre Gas- ciated with the Greek goddess Artemis and her Roman equiv- sendi (1591-1655). Gassendi also provided some names for alent Diana. (Grueber HA. The Myths of Greece & Rome. the Moon’s surface features, such as ‘umbilicus lunaris’ which London: George G. Harrap & Co. Ltd., 1944, p. 90). referred to the prominent crater now named Tycho and its ray 4. Halliday AN. Terrestrial accretion rates and the origin of the system. The Gassendi-Mellan drawings, although predating Moon. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, February 2000; Hevelius’s work, were not complete lunar maps. (Brunner B. 176(1): 17-30. Moon: A Brief History. New Haven: Yale University Press, 5. Hartmann WK, Davis DR. Satellite-sized planetesimals and 2010, Ch. 3). lunar origin. Icarus. April 1975; 24(4): 504-514. 21. Whitaker EA. Selenography in the Seventeenth Century. In: 6. Cameron AGW, Ward WR. The Origin of the Moon. Abstracts Taton R, Wilson C, Hoskin M. Planetary Astronomy from the of the Lunar and Planetary Science Conference, March 1976; Renaissance to the Rise of Astrophysics, Part A: Tycho Brahe 7: 120. to Newton. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003, pp. 7. The foreshortening effect is an illusion that causes craters sit- 127-128. uated near the limbs of the lunar disc to appear ellipsoidal due 22. Montgomery S. The Moon & the Western Imagination. United to a perceived shortening of the dimension perpendicular to States: The University of Arizona Press, 1999, p. 157. the limb. It originates in the Moon’s sphericity which angles 23. Herczeg T. The Habitability of the Moon. Bioastronomy ‘99: A craters towards or away from the line of observation. (Wlasuk New Era in Bioastronomy, 2000; 213: 593-602. P. Observing the Moon. London: Springer-Verlag, 2000, p. 3). 24. Montgomery S, 1999. op. cit. p. 160. 8. Tera F, Papanastassiou DA, Wasserburg GJ. Isotopic evidence 25. Montgomery S, 1999. op. cit. p. 169. for a terminal lunar cataclysm. Earth and Planetary Science 26. Montgomery S, 1999. op. cit. p. 167. Letters, April 1974; 22(1): 1-21. 27. Whitehouse D. The Moon: A Biography. London: Weidenfeld 9. Our Moon harbours some of the largest known impact struc- & Nicolson, 2016, Ch. 7: The First Moon Race. tures in the Solar System – the Near Side Megabasin (mod- 28. Eckhardt HD. Theory of the Libration of the Moon. The Moon elled diameter of 6,690 km), the South Pole-Aitken basin (over and the Planets, August 1981; 25: 3-49. 2,600 km) and the Chaplygin-Mandel’shtam Basin (1,300 29. Marshall DW. Ancient Skies: Constellation Mythology of the km). (Byrne CJ. The Moon’s Near Side Megabasin and Far Greeks. New York: The Countryman Press, 2018, p. 160. The Side Bulge. New York: Springer, 2013, p. 42). constellations that were introduced by Hevelius and are still 10. Heiken G, Vaniman D, French BM. Lunar Sourcebook; A recognised in modern astronomy are Canes Venatici, Lacerta, User’s Guide to the Moon. New York: Cambridge University Leo Minor, Lynx, Scutum, Sextans and Vulpecula. Press, 1991, p. 116. 30. Grzybkowska T. Andreas Stech’s Portraits of Johannes Hev- 11. Hypervelocity refers to a speed of around 3 km/s (11,000 elius in Gdansk and Oxford. At the Origins of the Portrait of km/h) or higher. Typical impact velocities are between 15 to the Early Modern Scholar. Artibus et Historiae, 2012; 33(66): 25 km/s (54,000 to 90,000 km/h). (Heiken G, Vaniman D, 287-316. French BM, 1991. op. cit. pp. 61-62). 31. Whitaker EA. In: Taton R., Wilson C., Hoskin M, 2003. op. cit. 12. Heiken G, Vaniman D, French BM, 1991. op. cit. pp. 61-70. p. 134. 13. Wlasuk P. Observing the Moon. London: Springer-Verlag, 32. Abel PG. Visual Lunar and Planetary Astronomy. New York: 2000, pp. 5-6. Springer, 2013, p. 111. 14. Wlasuk P, 2000. op. cit. pp. 8-10. 33. Graney CM. Setting Aside All Authority: Giovanni Battista 15. A completely new Moon, which occurs when the Moon is po- Riccioli and the Science against Copernicus in the Age of Gali- sitioned between the Earth and Sun in its orbit, is entirely uni- leo. United States: University of Notre Dame Press, 2015, Ch. lluminated and is not visible from Earth except during partial 1. or total solar eclipses. 34. Francisco Grimaldi was an Italian Jesuit priest, mathematician 16. A synodic or lunar month is about two days longer than a side- and astronomer who is known for his discovery of the ‘diffrac- real month, the latter refering to the time taken for the Moon tion’ (a term he introduced) of light. (Graves D. Scientists of to complete one orbit around Earth (about 27.5 days). The Faith: Forty-eight Biographies of Historic Scientists and their difference is due to the Earth’s movement along its orbit be- Christian Faith. Michigan: Kregel Resources, 1996, p. 53). tween successive sidereal months which requires the Moon to 35. Montgomery S, 1999. op. cit. pp. 199-200. travel further along its next orbit to achieve the same relative 36. Montgomery S, 1999. op. cit. pp. 207-208. position to the Sun and therefore the same phase. (Heath R. 37. Astrogeology Science Centre (United States Geological Sur- Sun, Moon & Earth. Somerset: Wooden Books, 2012, p. 14]. vey), Working Group for Planetary System Nomenclature (In- 17. National Aeronautics and Space Administration Space Science ternational Astronomical Union). Gazetteer of Planetary No- Data Coordinated Archive. (2018). Earth’s Moon - Luna 3. menclature: History of Planetary Nomenclature. Available at: Available at: https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/imgcat/html/object_ https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Page/History. Accessed 1st page/lu3_1.html. Accessed 26th August 2018. September 2018. July 2019 49 Z. Toodayan

38. Blagg MA, Muller K. Named Lunar Formations. London: Per- Bodies Also, and On the Great Magnet the Earth), which is cy Lund, Humphries & Co. Ltd., 1935, pp. iii-v. widely regarded as ‘the first true work of modern science’. 39. Gerard Peter Kuiper is widely regarded as the father of plan- (Verschuur GL. Hidden Attraction: The History and Mystery etary astronomy. He spectroscopically identified methane in of Magnetism. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996, pp. the atmosphere of Saturn’s moon Titan (the first detection 17-19). of an atmosphere on a satellite) (Cruikshank D. Gerard Pe- 54. Mark K. Meteorite Craters. Tucson: University of Arizona ter Kuiper. In: National Academy of Sciences. Biographical Press, 1995, p. 104. Memoirs: Volume 62. Washington, D.C.: The National Acad- 55. Hoyt WG. Coon Mountain Controversies: Meteor Crater and emies Press, 1993, p. 265 & 278), and is the namesake for the the Development of Impact Theory. Tucson: University of Ar- trans-Neptunian Kuiper belt (Ridpath I. Oxford Dictionary of izona Press, 1987, p. 21. Astronomy. New York: Oxford University Press, 2012, p. 259). 56. Baum R. Gruithuisen, Franz von Paula. In: Hockey T et. al. Bi- 40. Astrogeology Science Centre (United States Geological Sur- ographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers. New York: Spring- vey), Working Group for Planetary System Nomenclature er-Verlag, 2007, pp. 448-449. (International Astronomical Union). Gazetteer of Planetary 57. Hartmann WK. History of the Lunar Surface. Tucson: Univer- Nomenclature: IAU Rules and Conventions. Available at: sity of Arizona, 1966, p. 6. https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Page/Rules, and: Catego- 58. Leverington D. Babylon to Voyager and Beyond: A History of ries (Themes) for Naming Features on Planets and Satellites. Planetary Astronomy. United Kingdom: Cambridge Universi- Available at: https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Page/Cate- ty Press, 2003, pp. 222-223. gories. Accessed 1st September 2018. 59. Cunningham C. Investigating the Origin of the Asteroids and 41. Astrogeology Science Centre (United States Geological Sur- Early Findings on Vesta: Historical Studies in Asteroid Re- vey), Working Group for Planetary System Nomenclature search. United States: Springer, 2017, p. 8. (International Astronomical Union). Gazetteer of Planetary 60. Zajaczkowski T, Zamann AM, Rathert P. Franz von Paula Gru- Nomenclature: Categories for Naming Features on Planets and ithuisen (1774–1852): lithotrity pioneer and astronomer. On Satellites. Available at: https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/ the 150th anniversary of his death. World Journal of Urology, Page/Categories. Accessed 1st September 2018. May 2003; 20(6): 367-373. 42. Winkler PF. SN 1006: a thousand-year perspective. Highlights 61. Cunningham C, 2017. op. cit. pp. 127-128. of Astronomy, August 2007; 14: 301-302. 62. Sheehan WP, Dobbins TA. Epic Moon: A history of lunar 43. Goldstein BR. Evidence for a Supernova of A.D. 1006. The exploration in the age of the telescope. United States: Will- Astronomical Journal, February 1965; 70(1): 105-114. mann-Bell, Inc., 2001, pp. 82-83. 44. White Jr. L. Medieval Religion and Technology. United States: 63. Elger T. The Moon: A Full Description and Map of its Prin- University of California Press, 1978, p. 303. cipal Physical Features. London: George Philip & Son, 1895, 45. O’Connor JJ, Robertson EF. (2002). Regnier Gemma Frisius. p. 68. Available at: http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biog- 64. Mark K, 1995. op. cit. pp. 105-109. raphies/Gemma_Frisius.html. Accessed 8th September 2018. 65. Hoyt WG, 1987. op. cit. pp. 21-26. 46. [Unsigned], University of Oklahoma Libraries. The First Book 66. Marien MW. Photography: A Cultural History. London: Lau- Printed on Tycho Brahe’s Printing Press at Uraniborg: Diari- rence King Publishing, 2006, pp. 7-8. um, 1586. The Lynx, November 2005; (2): 8-9. 67. In 1939 the English astronomer Sir John Herschel (1792-1871) 47. Hagen J. Aloisius Lilius. In: The Catholic Encyclope- had independently referred to the process of permanently cap- dia. (1910). Available at: http://www.newadvent.org/ turing images as ‘photographic’. Florence’s use of the term cathen/09247c.htm0. Accessed 9th September 2018. out of São Paulo was unknown to Europe at the time. (Marien 48. Solc M. Olbers, Heinrich Wilhelm Matthias. In: Hockey T et. MW, 2006. op. cit. p. 16). al. Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers. New York: 68. Marien MW, 2006. op. cit. pp. 9-15. Springer-Verlag New York, 2007, pp. 848-850. 69. Barker GF. Memoir of John William Draper. In: National 49. Williams HS. The Great Astronomers. New York: Simon and Academy of Sciences. Biographical Memoirs. Washington Schuster, 1930, p. 113. D.C.: National Academies Press, 1886, pp. 351-355. 50. A few unaided illustrations of the Moon predate William Gil- 70. The first female face to be photographed was that of John bert’s. The earliest known features in the background of Jan Draper’s sister Dorothy Catherine Draper (1807-1901) in June van Eycke’s thirteenth century painting Crucifixion and Last 1840 – in 1986 this Dageurreotype was regarded as the ‘ear- Judgement (c.1420-1425). The painting includes a gibbous liest good portrait to survive until modern times’. (Gernsheim Moon with appreciable surface detail low on the horizon and H. A Concise History of Photography. New York: Dover Pub- above distant mountains. [Montgomery SL. The First Natu- lications, Inc., 1986, pp. 31-32). ralistic Drawings of the Moon: Jan Van Eyck and the Art of 71. Trombino D. Dr John William Draper. Journal of the British Observation. Journal for the History of Astronomy, 1 Novem- Astronomical Association, 1980; 90(6): 565-571. ber 1994; 25(4): 317-320]. Crude sketches of the Moon were 72. Draper JW. Scientific Memoirs: Being Experimental Contribu- also made by Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) between 1505 tions to a Knowledge of Radiant Energy. New York: Harper & and 1514 and can be found in the Codex Atlanticus series of Brothers, 1878, p. 214. his notebooks [folio 310 recto (c.1505-08), and 674 verso 73. Gibson SJ. Draper, Henry. In: Hockey T et. al. Biographical (c.1513-14)]. [Reaves G., Pedretti C. Leonardo Da Vinci’s Encyclopedia of Astronomers. New York: Springer-Verlag, Drawings of the Surface Features of the Moon. Journal for the 2007, pp. 310-311. History of Astronomy, February 1987; 18(1): 55-58]. 74. The Draper crater is formally named after Henry Draper, John 51. Whitaker EA. Mapping and Naming the Moon: A History of Draper’s son, but it can also be thought of as a tribute to both Lunar Cartography and Nomenclature. Cambridge: Cam- astrophotography pioneers. bridge University Press, 2003, pp. 10-13. 75. Astrogeology Science Centre (United States Geological Sur- 52. Kopal Z, Carder RW. Mapping of the Moon: Past and Present. vey), Working Group for Planetary System Nomenclature Holland: Springer, 1974, p. 2. (International Astronomical Union). Gazetteer of Planetary 53. Sir William Gilbert discovered terrestrial magnetism and iden- Nomenclature: Individual crater information accessed through tified it as the reason compass needles converge to the North. nomenclature search results for craters of the Moon. Available This and other influential findings in the field were published at: https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/SearchResults?tar- in his 1600 treatise De Magnete, Magneticisque Corporibus, get=Moon&featureType=Crater,%20craters. Accessed 13th et de Magno Magnete Tellure (On the Magnet, Magnetic October 2018.

50 Osleriana Medicine’s Lunar Legacies

76. National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Lunar Re- 89. Though it bears his name, Heinrich Olbers was not the first to connaissance Orbiter. (2018). Quickmap. Available at: https:// describe or propose a solution for the night sky paradox – he lunar.gsfc.nasa.gov/index.html. Accessed September 2018 - described and solved the connundrum (in 1823) independently July 2019. of Johannes Kepler (1571-1630), Edmond Halley (1656-1742) 77. Legrand C, Chevalley P. (2012). Virtual Moon Atlas, Version and Jean Loys de Chéseaux (1718-1751). (Solc M. In: Hockey 6.0. Microsoft Windows Application. T et. al., 2007. op. cit. p. 849). 78. Solar System Exploration Research Virtual Institute, National 90. Cocks EJ, Cocks JC. Who’s who on the Moon: A Biographi- Aeronautics and Space Administration. (2019). Iconic Lunar cal Dictionary of Lunar Nomenclature. North Carolina: Tudor Orbiter Image of Copernicus Re-released. Available at: https:// Publishers, Inc., 1995, pp. 455-486. sservi.nasa.gov/articles/iconic-lunar-orbiter-image-of-coper- 91. Garrison FH. An Introduction to the History of Medicine. Phil- nicus-re-released/. Accessed 25th April 2019. adelphia: W. B. Saunders Company, 1921, p. 88. 79. Gruithuisen alone, with recognisable contributions to both 92. Osler W. The Evolution of Modern Medicine. New Haven: medicine and astronomy, can be considered in a dual light and Yale University Press, 1921, pp. 58-68. his name is therefore included in both tabulations of craters. 93. Garrison FH, 1921. op. cit. pp. 90-91. 80. In the planetocentric system, the latitude of a surface point is 94. Firkin B, Whitworth JA. Dictionary of Medical Eponyms. defined as the angle that is subtended between a line connect- United Kingdom: The Parthenon Publishing Group, 1989, p. ing that surface point to the centre of the body and the body’s 237. equatorial plane. For truly spherical objects (as opposed to 95. Mukherjee S. The Emperor of All Maladies: A Biography of oblate spheroids) the planetocentric latitude is identical to the Cancer. New York: Scribner, 2010, p. 47. planetographic latitude – the angle defined by a line perpen- 96. Osler W, 1921. op. cit. p. 63. dicular to the surface point and the body’s equatorial plane. 97. Osler W, 1921. op. cit. pp. 146-151. As explained on their web page, the Gazeteer of Planetary 98. Garrison FH, 1921. op. cit. pp. 213-214. Nomenclature of the United States Geological Survey/Inter- 99. O’Malley, CD. Andreas Vesalius of Brussels, 1514-1564. national Astronomical Union is based on a spherical model United States: University of California Press, 1964, p. 177. of the Moon. In this monograph, longitude is prescribed a 100. Sigerist H. The Great Doctors. New York: W. W. Norton & value of 180° in either direction (east or west) from the prime Company, 1933, p. 129. meridian (direction specified). The Moon’s prime meridian 101. Osler W, 1921. op. cit. p. 148. (0° of longitude) is defined by the line that connects the lunar 102. Osler W, 1921. op. cit. pp. 163-173. North and South poles through that point on its surface which 103. Harvey W, Leake CD. Exercitatio Anatomica de Motu Cordis is closest to Earth. Therefore any longitude greater than 90° et Sanguinis in Animalibus. Springfield, Illinois: Charles C. corresponds to a location on the farside of the Moon and the Thomas, 1949, p. 6. longitude line defined by 180° east or west corresponds to 104. Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter, National Aeronautics and the same plane (and the same plane as the prime meridian) Space Administration. (2011). Jenner Crater: Mare Flooded intersecting the lunar surface point farthest from Earth. In Floor. Available at: https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/ this context, the term ‘easterly’ is utilised for anticlockwise LRO/multimedia/lroimages/lroc-20110621-jenner.html. Ac- displacements upon the lunar surface when viewed from the cessed 25th April 2019. lunar north pole and ‘westerly’ for clockwise displacements. 105. Sigerist H, 1933. op. cit. pp. 261-263. Selenocentric latitude is given values between 0° and 90° in a 106. Garrison FH, 1921. op. cit. pp. 386-389. direction either north or south from the equator. A latitude of 107. Sigerist H, 1933. op. cit. pp. 366-372. 90° north and south corresponds to the lunar north and south 108. Garrison FH, 1921. op. cit. pp. 622-625. poles respectively. All crater coordinates and diameters have 109. Bosch F, Rosich L. The Contributions of Paul Ehrlich to Phar- been rounded to one decimal place. [Astrogeology Science macology: A Tribute on the Occasion of the Centenary of His Centre (United States Geological Survey), Working Group for Nobel Prize. Pharmacology, October 2008; 82(3): 171-179. Planetary System Nomenclature (International Astronomical 110. Kasten FH. Paul Ehrlich: Pathfinder in Cell Biology. 1. Chron- Union). Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature: Help using this icle of His Life and Accomplishments in Immunology, Cancer website. Available at: https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/ Research, and Chemotherapy. Biotechnic & Histochemistry, Page/Website#coordinatesystems. Accessed 15th June 2019]. January 1996; 71(1): 2-37. 81. There is also a very large (301.8 km) Martian crater named 111. Kaufmann SHE. Immunology’s foundation: the 100-year an- Copernicus. niversary of the Nobel Prize to Paul Ehrlich and Elie Metch- 82. Gingerich O. Copernicus, Nicolaus. In: Hockey T et. al. Bi- nikoff. Nature Immunology, July 2008; 9(7): 705-712. ographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers. New York: Spring- 112. Prüll CR. Part of a Scientific Master Plan? Paul Ehrlich and the er-Verlag, 2007, pp. 252-254. Origins of his Receptor Concept. Medical History, July 2003; 83. A nearby rima (a long, narrow surface depression, also known 47(3): 332-356. as a rille) – the 244.2 km long Rima Draper – also shares this 113. There is also a Martian crater named Pasteur. name. 114. Garrison FH, 1921. op. cit. pp. 620-621. 84. Hallye F, Lammens C. Frisius, Gemma Reinerus. In: Hock- 115. Radot RV. The Life of Pasteur. New York: Doubleday, Page & ey T et. al. Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers. New Company, 1923, pp. v-xvi. York: Springer-Verlag, 2007, pp. 393-394. 116. Sigerist H, 1933. op. cit. p. 364. 85. There are two lunar domes in the proximity of the crater, Mons 117. Radot RV, 1923. op. cit. p. xvi. Gruithuisen Delta and Gamma, that also share this name. 118. Rous P. Karl Landsteiner, 1868-1943. Biographical Memoirs 86. Green DWE. Hájek z Hájku, Tadeá. In: Hockey T et. al. Bi- of Fellows of the Royal Society, 28 Febryuary 1947; 5(15): ographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers. New York: Spring- 294-324. er-Verlag, 2007, pp. 459-460. 119. The Fleming crater is jointly named after Sir Alexander Flem- 87. The satellite crater that was previously named Olbers A is now ing and the Scottish-American astronomer Williamina Paton called Glushko. Stevens Fleming (1857-1911). Williamina Fleming is noted 88. Heinrich Olbers made the discovery of comet C/1780 U1 in- for her spectral classification of stars and her 1888 discovery dependently of Jacques Leibax Montaigne (1716-1785?) and of the horsehead nebula. (Waldee SR. (1990). The Horseh- the discovery of comet C/1798 X1 independently of Alexis ead Project: 19th Century Study of Bright and Dark Nebulae. Bouvard (1767-1843). (Solc M. In: Hockey T et. al., 2007. op. Available at: https://web.archive.org/web/20150106052626/ cit. p. 849). http://freescruz.com/~4cygni/horsehead/B33-19thC_4.htm.

July 2019 51 Z. Toodayan

Accessed 13th October 2018. 152. Feldberg WS. Henry Hallett Dale, 1875-1968. Biographical 120. Maurois A, Hopkins G. The Life of Sir Alexander Fleming: Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society, 1 November 1970; Discoverer of Penicillin. Great Britain: Penguin Books, 1959, 16: 77-174. pp. 120-134. 153. A nearby set of rilles (fissures or narrow channels), the Rimae 121. Maurois A, Hopkins G, 1959. op. cit. pp. 135-143. Darwin, and a Martian crater also share this name. 122. ibid. pp. 176-195. 154. Atkins H. The Darwin Tradition: Thomas Vicary Lecture de- 123. ibid. p. 234. livered at the Royal College of Surgeons of England on 29th 124. Levine IE. The Discoverer of Insulin: Dr Frederick G. Ban- October 1964. Annals of The Royal College of Surgeons of En- ting. New York: Julian Messner, 1959, p. 67-124. gland, 1965; 36(1): 1–25. 125. Vecchio I, Tornali C, Bragazi NL, Martini M. The Discovery 155. Darwin C. On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Se- of Insulin: An Important Milestone in the History of Medicine. lection, or the Preservation of favoured races in the Struggle Frontiers in Endocrinology, 23 October 2018; 9(613): 1-8. for Life. London: John Murray, 1859, pp. 1-6 & 126-130. 126. Levine IE, 1959. op. cit. pp. 134-136. 156. Firkin B, Whitworth JA, 1989. op. cit. p. 112. 127. ibid. pp. 171-184. 157. Darwin C. The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to 128. Aristotélēs is the Greek version of ‘Aristotle’. Sex. New York: D. Appleton and Company, 1871, pp. 21-22. 129. Crivellato E, Ribatti D. A portrait of Aristotle as an anatomist: 158. [Unsigned]. 33 anatomic firsts of Leonardo da Vinci. Spec- historical article. Clinical Anatomy, July 2007; 20(5): 447-85. trum (Pfizer), Fall 1966; 14(4): 78-81. Although the author of 130. Sprumont P. Anatomical Terms: Towards Development of Ter- this work is unlisted in the journal, the article was conceivably minologies (terminogenesis). European Journal of Anatomy, written by the journal’s editor, medical historian Walter Regi- 2016; 20(3): 249-280. nald Bett (1903-1968). 131. Garrison FH, 1921. op. cit. pp. 93-94. 159. Isaacson W. Leonardo Da Vinci: The Biography. United 132. Dochez AR. Oswald Theodore Avery. In: National Academy States: Simon & Schuster, 2017, pp. 432-435. The coronary of Sciences. Biographical Memoirs: Volume 32. Washington sinuses were rediscovered by the Italian anatomist Antonio D.C.: National Academies Press, 1958, pp. 32-49. Maria Valsalva (1666-1723) over two centuries later, whence 133. Garrison FH, 1921. op. cit. p. 120. they became known as the sinuses of Valsalva. 134. Osler W, 1921. op. cit. p. 98. 160. Based on American surgeon Elmer Belt’s (1893-1980) ‘care- 135. Garrison FH, 1921. op. cit. p. 121. ful study of Leonardo’s manuscript notes’ [[Unsigned]. 33 136. Tan SY, Ahana A. Theodor Bilharz (1825-1862): discoverer anatomic firsts of Leonardo da Vinci. Spectrum (Pfizer), Fall of schistosomiasis. Singapore Medical Journal, March 2007; 1966; 14(4): 35] an unnamed author (see reference/note no. 48(3): 184-185. 158) summarising Belt’s work writes that Leonardo da Vinci 137. Sherrington CS. Santiago Ramón y Cajal. 1852-1934. Obit- introduced the term ‘capillary’ (ostensibly refering to its usage uary Notices of Fellows of the Royal Society, 31 December in an anatomical context). 1935; 1(4): 424–441. 161. A nearby chain of twenty-three tiny craters (each 1-2 km in 138. Sanders K, Ward S. Interstitial cells of Cajal: a new perspec- diameter), the Catena Davy, also shares this name. tive on smooth muscle function. The Journal of Physiology, 1 162. Weld CR. A History of The Royal Society: With Memoirs Of November 2006; 576(pt 3): 721–726. The Presidents (Volume the Second). United States: Cam- 139. Garcia-Lopez P, Garcia-Marin V, Freire M. The Histological bridge University Press, 2011, p. 330. Slides and Drawings of Cajal. Frontiers in Neuroanatomy, 10 163. Davy H. Electrochemical Researches, on the Decomposition March 2010; 4: 1-16. of the Earths; With Observations in the Metals Obtained from 140. Rubenstein JLR, Rakic P. Comprehensive Developmental the Alkaline Earths, and on the Amalgam Procured from Am- Neuroscience: Cellular Migration and Formation of Neuronal monia. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, 31 Connections. San Diego: Elsevier, 2013, p. 333. December 1808; 98: 333-370. 141. The Nobel Foundation. (2018). Alexis Carrel – Biographi- 164. Davy H. Researches, Chemical and Philosophical; Chiefly cal. Available at: https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medi- Concerning Nitrous Oxide, or Dephlogisticated Nitrous Air, cine/1912/carrel/lecture/. Accessed 14th October 2018. and its Respiration. Bristol: Biggs and Cottle, 1800, p. 556. 142. Scott Berg A. Lindbergh. New York: Berkley Books, 1999. pp. 165. Bartolucci S, Forbis P. Stedman’s Medical Eponyms. Balti- 220-225. more: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2005, p. 210. 143. There is also a Venetian crater named Cori. 166. The Nobel Foundation. (2018). Christian Eijkman – Nobel 144. Gerti Theresa Cori was the first female recipient of the Nobel Lecture. Available at: https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/med- Prize in Physiology or Medicine. icine/1929/eijkman/lecture. Accessed 15th October 2018. 145. American Chemical Society. (2004). Carl and Gerty Cori and 167. Semba RD. The Discovery of the Vitamins. International Carbohydrate Metabolism, National Historic Chemical Land- Journal for Vitamin and Nutrition Research, October 2012; mark. Available at: https://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/edu- 82(5): 310-315. cation/whatischemistry/landmarks/carbohydratemetabolism. 168. Batty-Smith CG. The Eijkman test for faecal coli in the bacte- html. Accessed 14th October 2018. riological examination of water supplies. The Journal of Hy- 146. Krishnani PS et. al. Glycogen Storage Disease Type III: diag- giene, January 1942; 42(1): 55-98. nosis and management guidelines. Genetics in Medicine, July 169. Garrison FH, 1921. op. cit. p. 735. 2010; 12(7): 446-463. 170. Firkin B, Whitworth JA, 1989. op. cit. p. 144-145. 147. Crile GW. George Crile: An Autobiography. Edited, with Side- 171. Interestingly, Joseph Erlanger undertook his internship under lights, by Grace Crile. United States: J. B. Lippincott Compa- William Osler at Johns Hopkins Hospital after graduating ny, 1947, pp. 165-167. from the affiliated School of Medicine in 1899. 148. Crile GW, 1947. op. cit. pp. 201-208. 172. Davis H. Joseph Erlanger. In: National Academy of Sciences. 149. ibid. p. 176. Biographical Memoirs: Volume 41. Washington D.C.: Nation- 150. Waggone B, University of California Museum of Paleontolo- al Academies Press, 1970, p. 110-139. gy. (1996). Georges Cuvier (1769-1832). Available at: http:// 173. Garrison FH, 1921. op. cit. p. 584. www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/history/cuvier.html. Accessed 14th 174. Fechner GT, Langfield HS. (1912). Elements of Psychophys- October 2018. ics: Sections VII and XVI. Available at: https://psychclassics. 151. Cunningham D, Robinson A. Cunningham’s Text-book of yorku.ca/Fechner/. Accessed 15th October 2018. Anatomy. London: William Wood and Company, 1918, 175. Garrison FH, 1921. op. cit. p. 498. p. 1035. 176. Bagley F. An Investigation of Fechner’s Colors. The American

52 Osleriana Medicine’s Lunar Legacies

Journal of Psychology, 1902; 13(4): 488-525. communicated only via small perforations in the interventric- 177. Sherrington C. The Endeavour of Jean Fernel: With a List of ular septum. Arterial blood, imbued with warm ‘vital spirits’ the Editions of his Writings. Cambridge: Cambridge Universi- from the left ventricle of the heart, the centre of the body’s ty Press, 1946, p. 91-93. heat, was converted into ‘animal spirits’ (which resided in 178. Welch GR. In Retrospect: Fernel’s Physiologia. Nature, No- nerves) in the brain and was cooled by the ‘pneuma’, spirits vember 2008; 456(7221): 446-447. that passed from the lungs to the heart via the pulmonary ves- 179. Sherrington C, 1946. op. cit. p. 63. sels and maintained the animal heat. Venous blood, emanating 180. Niels Finsen remains the only medical Nobel Laureate to be from the liver, was imbued with ‘natural spirits’ that nourished awarded the Prize for an achievement in dermatology. all the tissues of the body with nutriment. (Garrison FH, 1921. 181. Löser C, Plewig G, Burgdorf WHC. Pantheon of Derma- op. cit. pp. 103-107. And: Osler W, 1921. op. cit. pp. 74-83). tology: Outstanding Historical Figures. Berlin/Heidelberg: 198. Osler W. 1921. op. cit. pp. 74-83. Springer-Verlag, 2013, pp. 304-310. 199. Rather LJ. Disturbance of Function (Functio Laesa): The Leg- 182. The Fischer crater is also named for German organic chemist endary Fifth Cardinal Sign of Inflammation, Added by Galen Hans Fischer (1881-1945) who was awarded the 1930 Nobel to the Four Cardinal Signs of Celsus. Bulletin of the New York Prize in Chemistry for his researches into the constitution and Acad-emy of Medicine, March 1971; 47(3): 303-322. The four synthesis of haemin (ferric chloride haem) and chlorophyll. cardinal signs of inflammation originally described by Celsus (Barnes Z. Hans Fisher: 1881-1945. In: James LK. Nobel Lau- were rubor (redness), calor (heat), tumor (swelling) and dolor reates in Chemistry, 1901-1992. Washington D.C.: American (pain). Galen added a fifth sign to these four – functio laesa, Chemical Society and Chemical Heritage Foundation, 1993, the loss of function of the affected part. Some have attribut- pp. 187-190). ed the identification of this fifth sign to the much more recent 183. Nagendrappa G. Hermann Emil Fischer: Life and Achieve- German pathologist Rudolf Virchow (1821-1902) but this, as ments. Resonance – Journal of Science Education, July 2011; Rather explains in his article, is untrue. 16(7): 606-618. 200. Talley NJ, O’Connor S. Clinical Examination: A Systematic 184. James LK. Nobel Laureates in Chemistry, 1901-1992. Wash- Guide to Physical Diagnosis. Australia: Elsevier, 2006, p. xiii. ington D.C.: American Chemical Society and Chemical Heri- 201. Cunningham D., Robinson A, 1918. op. cit. p. 970. tage Foundation, 1993, pp. 8-12. 202. Garrison FH, 1921. op. cit. p. 333. 185. Garrison FH, 1921. op. cit. p. 736. 203. McComas AJ. Galvani’s Spark: The Story of the Nerve Im- 186. Fenner F. (1996). Florey, Howard Walter (1898–1968). In: pulse. New York: Oxford University Press, 2011, pp. 11-19. Australian Dictionary of Biography. Available at: http://adb. 204. Mazzarello P. Camillo Golgi’s Scientific Biography.Journal of anu.edu.au/biography/florey-howard-walter-10206. Accessed the History of the Neurosciences, 1999; 8(2): 121-31. 16th October 2018. 205. Bignami A, Asher R, Perides G, Rahemtulla F. The extracel- 187. Abraham EP. Howard Walter Florey, Baron Florey of Adelaide lular matrix of cerebral gray matter: Golgi’s pericellular net and Marston, 1898-1968. Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of and Nissl’s nervösen grau revisited. International Journal of the Royal Society, 30 November 1971; 17: 261-269. Developmental Neuroscience, August 1992; 10(4): 291-9. 188. The date of Fracastoro’s birth is variously given as 1478 and 206. Jacobson M. Developmental Neurobiology. New York: Spring- 1484. The date here chosen (1484) is in accordance with Osler er, 1991, p. 117. (Osler W. Fracastorius. The Proceedings of the Charaka Club, 207. Pannese E. Neurocytology: Fine Structure of Neurons, Nerve 1906; 2: 5-20) who agrees with Garrison (Garrison FH, 1921. Processes, and Neuroglial Cells. Switzerland: Springer, 2015, op. cit. p. 227). p. 166. 189. Sigerist H, 1933. op. cit. pp. 100-108. 208. Alvar Gullstrand was the first Swedish recipient of the Nobel 190. In Fracastoro’s poem, Syphilus is the name – derived from Prize and the first ophthalmologist to be awarded the Prize for the mythological second son of Niobe, Sipylus – given to the an achievement in ophthalmology. herdsman of King Alcithous who in the midst of a drought, , 209. Ehinger B, Grzybowski A. Allvar Gullstrand (1862–1930) – according to the legends of natives about the origins of the the Gentleman with the Lamp. Acta Ophthalmologica, Decem- disease, renounced the Sun-God and was chastised with the ber 2011; 89(8): 701-708. first occurrence of the illness. The disease then betook the 210. Garrison FH, 1921. op. cit. pp. 764-765. Spaniards of the New World who had killed the sacred birds of 211. There is also a Martian crater named Haldane. the Sun-God, in accordance with the admonition of one of the 212. Dronamraju KR. J. B. S. Haldane (1892-1964): Centennial escaped fowls. (Osler W. Fracastorius. The Proceedings of the Appreciation of a Polymath. The American Journal of Human Charaka Club, 1906; 2: 5-20. And: Sigerist H, 1933. op. cit. Genetics, October 1992; 51(4): 885-889. pp. 100-108). 213. Nachman MW. Haldane and the first estimates of the human 191. Osler W. Fracastorius. The Proceedings of the Charaka Club, mutation rate. Journal of Genetics, December 2004; 83(3): 1906; 2: 5-20. 231-233. 192. McLeod SA. (2018). What are the most interesting ideas of 214. Crow JF. Centennial: J. B. S. Haldane, 1892-1964. Genetics, Sigmund Freud? Available at https://www.simplypsychology. January 1992; 130(1): 1-6. org/Sigmund-Freud.html. Accessed 16th October 2018. 215. There is also a Martian crater named Helmholtz. 193. Jarvis M. Psychodynamic Psychology: Classical Theory and 216. Garrison FH, 1921. op. cit. pp. 571-573. Contemporary Research. London: Thomson Learning, 2004, 217. Helmholtz H, Shastid TH. Description of an Ophthalmoscope p. 33. for the Investigation of the Retina in the Living Eye. Chicago: 194. Galen’s year of nativity is given as A.D. 129 by Sigerest Cleveland Press, 1916. p. 7. (Sigerist H, 1933. op. cit. p. 68) and A.D. 131 by Garrison 218. Myers GW. Georg Charles de Hevesy: the father of nuclear (Garrison FH, 1921. op. cit. p. 103). His year of death is also medicine. The Journal of Nuclear Medicine, June 1979; 20(6): variously recorded as being A.D. 199 (Sigerest) and 201 A.D. 590-594. (Garrison). As in Osler’s work (Osler W, 1921. op. cit. p. 74 & 219. De Castro F. Towards the sensory nature of the carotid body: 78), intermediate years of birth and death (A.D. 130 and A.D. Hering, De Castro and Heymans. Frontiers in Neuroanatomy, 200 respectively) have been given here. 7 December 2009; 3(23): 1-11. 195. Garrison FH, 1921. op. cit. pp. 103-107. 220. There is also a Martian crater named Hooke. 196. Sigerist H, 1933. op. cit. pp. 68-77. 221. West JB. Robert Hooke: Early Respiratory Physiologist, Poly- 197. According to Galenic theory, arterial and venous blood ebbed math, and Mechanical Genius. Physiology, July 2014; 29(4): and flowed within the vessels of two separate systems that 222-233.

July 2019 53 Z. Toodayan

222. Young F, Foglia VG. Bernardo Alberto Houssay, 1887-1971. versary of the photograph, is somewhat an exception to the Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society, 1 De- usual convention which requires the namesake to have been cember 1974; 20: 246-270. deceased for a minimum period of three years. At the time the 223. Firkin B, Whitworth JA, 1989. op. cit. pp. 246-247. change in name was approved, William Anders was eighty- 224. There is also a Martian crater named Huxley. four years old. 225. Garrison FH, 1921. op. cit. pp. 551-552. 252. Firkin B, Whitworth JA, 1989. op. cit. p. 396. 226. The Nobel Foundation. (2018). Paul Karrer – Nobel Lec- 253. Ivan Pavlov was the first Russian Nobel Laureate. ture. Available at: https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/chemis- 254. Anrep GV. Ivan Petrovich Pavlov, 1849-1936. Biographical try/1937/karrer/lecture/. Accessed 18th October 2018. Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society, 31 December 1936; 227. Shampo MA, Kyle RA. Paul Karrer – Research on Vitamins. 2(5): 1-18. Mayo Clinic Proceedings, April 2000; 75(4): 328. 255. Garrison FH, 1921. op. cit. pp. 486-488. 228. Firkin B, Whitworth JA, 1989. op. cit. pp. 282-283. 256. Usunoff KG, Itzev DE, Ovtscharoff WA, Marani E. Neurome- 229. Garrison FH, 1921. op. cit. pp. 759-760. lanin in the Human Brain: A Review and Atlas of Pigmented 230. Hill AV. August Schack Steenberg Krogh, 1874-1949. Bi- Cells in the Substantia Nigra. Archives of Physiology and Bio- ographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society, 1 No- chemistry, 2002; 110(4): 257-369. vember 1950; 7(19): 220-237. 257. Gillispie CC, American Council of Learned Societies. Dictio- 231. National Research Council. Physiology in the Space Environ- nary of Scientific Biography, Volume 11. New York: Charles ment: Volume II Respiration. Washington D.C.: The National Scribner’s Sons, 1981, pp. 213-217. Academies Press, 1967, p. 82. 258. Friedman B. The Blue Arcs of the Retina. Archives of Ophthal- 232. Firkin B, Whitworth, JA, 1989. op. cit. p. 298. mology, November 1931; 6(5): 663-674. 233. Bruce-Chuvatt LJ. Alphonse Laveran’s discovery 100 years 259. Bhattacharyya KB. Eminent Neuroscientists: Their Lives and ago and today’s global fight against malaria. Journal of the Works. Kolkata: Academic Publishers, 2011, p. 180. Royal Society of Medicine, July 1981; 74(7): 531-536. 260. Wilhelm Röntgen was the first recipient of the Nobel Prize in 234. Haas LF. Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran (1845-1922). Physics. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry, October 261. Gillispie CC, American Council of Learned Societies, 1981. 1999; 67(4): 520. op. cit. pp. 529-531. 235. Firkin B, Whitworth JA, 1989. op. cit. p. 303. 262. The first medical X-ray (i.e. one depicting part of a human 236. Lane N. The unseen world: reflections on Leeuwenhoek (1677) subject) was that of a hand of Anna Bertha Ludwig (1839- ‘Concerning little animals’. Philosophical Transactions of the 1919) – Röntgen’s wife. The historic radiograph was taken by Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, April 2015; 370(1666): Röentgen on December 22nd 1895. (Gillispie CC, American 1-10. Council of Learned Societies, 1981. op. cit. p. 529-531]. 237. Garrison FH, 1921. op. cit. pp. 251-252. 263. Haas LF. Ivan Mikhailovich Sechenov (1829-1905). Journal 238. Snyder LJ. Eye of the Beholder: Johannes Vermeer, Antoni van of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry, October 1998; Leeuwenhoek, and the Reinvention of Seeing. New York: W. 65(4): 554. W. Norton & Company, 2015. [Chapters and page numbers not 264. Boakes R. From Darwin to Behaviourism: Psychology and the listed in electronic version]. Minds of Animals. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 239. Bates AW. The De Monstrorum of Fortunio Liceti: A Land- 1984, pp. 106-109. mark of Descriptive Teratology. Journal of Medical Biogra- 265. Eccles JC, Gibson WC. Sherrington: His Life and Thought. phy, 1 February 2001; 9(1): 49-54. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1979, Ch. 4: The Years of the Presi- 240. Garrison FH, 1921. op. cit. pp. 315-316. dency of the Royal Society, 1920-1925. 241. ibid. pp. 598-602. 266. Liddell EGT. Charles Scott Sherrington, 1857-1952. Bi- 242. Bartolucci S, Forbis P, 2005. op. cit. p. 437. ographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society, 30 No- 243. Geison GL. Michael Foster and the Cambridge School of vember 1952; 8(21): 241-259. Physiology: The Scientific Enterprise in Late Victorian Soci- 267. Liddel notes that the introduction of the term ‘synapsis’ was ety. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978, p. 344. made in the seventh edition of Sir Michael Foster’s (1836- 244. Martin DJ, Gillen LL. Revisiting Gerontology’s Scrapbook: 1907) Text-book of Physiology (1897) and that although Sher- From Metchnikoff to the Spectrum Model of Aging. The Ger- rington was a co-author, the introduction of the term has been ontologist, February 2014; 54(1): 51-58. credited to Foster. (Liddell EGT, 1952. op. cit.). According to 245. There is also a Martian crater named Mendel. Bennett, Sherrington himself, in a reply to an enquiry by neu- 246. Weinberg RA. The Biology of Cancer. New York: Garland Sci- rophysiologist-historian John Farquhar Fulton (1899-1960) as ence, Taylor & Francis Group, 2013, p. 2. to the derivation of the term ‘synapse’, wrote that the term 247. Paracelsus, Waite EA. The Hermetic and Alchemical Writings was suggested by one Arthur Woollgar Verrall (1851-1912), of Aureolus Philippus Theophrastus Bombast, of Hohenheim, a classical scholar and friend of Michael Foster’s from Trin- Called Paracelsus the Great. London: James Elliott and Co., ity College, Cambridge. Foster had consulted Verrall after 1894, p. xiii. Sherrington, who was applying himself to authoring a section 248. Borzelleca JF. Paracelsus: Herald of Modern Toxicology. Tox- on the nervous system for Foster’s textbook, had written to icological Sciences, 1 January 2000; 53(1): 2-4. him about the need for a new name to refer to the junction 249. Osler W, 1921. op. cit. p. 137. between nerve cells (Sherrington himself suggesting the term 250. Garrison FH, 1921. op. cit. pp. 199-200. ‘syndesm’ at the time). (Bennett MR. History of the Synapse. 251. Pasteur T is no longer the name for this satellite crater. The Amsterdam: Harwood Academic Publishers, 2001, p 23). 40.2 km crater, the second-largest of Pasteur’s satellite fea- 268. Bhattacharyya KB, 2011. op. cit. pp. 198-199. tures and located on the western rim of the plain, was recently 269. Hinsey JC, Gasser HS. The Sherrington Phenomenon: V. Ner- (October 2018) renamed ‘Anders’ Earthrise’ in recognition of vous Pathways. The American Journal of Physiology, 1928; the fact that this crater was visible in the foreground of the 87(2): 368-380. iconic colour photograph of the Earth – ‘Earthrise’ – that 270. Aly I, Tubbs SR, Shoja MS, Loukas M. Samuel Thomas von was taken from lunar orbit by Apollo 8 astronaut William A. Söemmerring (1755–1830). International Journal of History Anders (b.1933) on 24th December 1968 as he and his fellow and Philosophy of Medicine, 2016; 6: 1-6. crewmen became the first people to circumnavigate the Moon 271. Pearce JMS. Samuel Thomas Soemmerring (1755–1830): The just over fifty years ago. The renaming of the crater, which Naming of Cranial Nerves. European Neurology, June 2017; was ostensibly undertaken in anticipation of the fiftieth anni- 77(5-6): 303-306.

54 Osleriana Medicine’s Lunar Legacies

272. The existence of a functional vomeronasal organ in humans 303. Turner DD. Virchow’s Metamorphosis of the Salivary Glands. is debated. [Stoyanov GS, Matev BK. Samuel Thomas von AMA Archives of Surgery, July1958; 77(1): 110-112. Sömmerring’s Contributions on the Cranial Nerves and Vom- 304. [B. Jain Publishers (P) Ltd], 2004. op. cit. p. 340. eronasal Organ. Cureus, 22 June 2018; 10(6): 1-4]. 305. Emil von Behring was the first recipient of the Nobel Prize in 273. There is also a Martian crater named Spallanzani. Physiology or Medicine. 274. Garrison FH, 1921. op. cit. pp. 329-330. 306. MacNalty AS. Emil von Behring. British Medical Journal, 275. Dinsmore CE. A History of Regeneration Research: Mile- March 1954; 1(4863): 668-670. stones in the Evolution of a Science. Cambridge: Cambridge 307. Shampo MA, Kyle RA. Georg von Békésy – Audiology and University Press, 1991, pp. 67-89. the Cochlea. Mayo Clinic Proceedings, July 1993; 68(7): 706. 276. Nicolas Steno is the Latinised version of the Danish name 308. Some of Thomas Young’s contributions to physics are also rel- Niels Stensen. evant to the physiology and pathology of the human body. An 277. Garrison FH, 1921. op. cit. p. 265. adapted version of the Young-Laplace equation for instance, 278. Kardel T. Stensen’s Myology in Historical Perspective. Trans- which relates the pressure differential across a stable spherical actions of the American Philosophical Society, 1994; 84(1): interface maintained by surface tension or tension in its thin 1–57. wall, finds applications in alveolar physiology. (Notter RH. 279. Loukas M et. al. The Lymphatic System: A Historical Perspec- Lung Surfactants: Basic Science and Clinical Applications. tive. Clinical Anatomy, 2011; 24: 807-816. New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc., 2000, pp. 122-124). Young’s 280. Tubbs RS et. al. “The heart is simply a muscle” and first de- modulus, a measure of elasticity or stiffness – defined as the scription of the tetralogy of “Fallot”. Early contributions to ratio of applied stress (force per unit area) to induced strain cardiac anatomy and pathology by bishop and anatomist Niels (deformation) within a solid material – is a property of solid Stensen (1638–1686). International Journal of Cardiology, 9 tissues measured in ultrasonic elastography (e.g. for the inves- February 2012; 154(3): 312-315. tigation of cirrhosis by hepatic elastography). (Barr RG. Elas- 281. Claesson S, Pederson KO. The Svedberg, 1884-1971. Bi- tography: A Practical Approach. New York, Suttgart: Thieme ographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society, 30 No- Medical publishers, Inc., 2017, Abbreviations/Terminology.] vember 1972; 18: 595-616. 309. Garrison FH, 1921. op. cit. pp. 359-360 282. Kyle RA, Shampo MA. Theodor Svedberg and the Ultracen- 310. Stedman TL, 1914. op. cit. p. 1040. trifuge. Mayo Clinic Proceedings, September 1997; 72(9): 311. The number of these spots has also been suggested as sym- 830. bolising the span of time – with each dot representing seven 283. Max Theiler was the first African-born Nobel Laureate. days – that separates the summer solstice and autumnal equi- 284. Frierson JG. The Yellow Fever Vaccine: A History. Yale Jour- nox (thirteen weeks) and the autumnal and vernal equinoxes nal of Biology and Medicine, June 2010; 83(2): 77-85. (twenty-six weeks). (International Council on Monuments and 285. Kekwick RA, Pederson KO. Arne Tiselius 1902-1971. Bi- Sites; International Astronomical Union. Case Study 1.4: The ographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society, 1 De- Astronomical Rock Panels in the Lascaux Cave, France. ICO- cember 1974; 20: 401-428. MOS-IAU Thematic Study on the Heritage Sites of Astronomy 286. Bartolucci S, Forbis P, 2005. op. cit. p. 726. and Archaeoastronomy, June 2010; 1: 24-27). 287. Garrison FH, 1921. op. cit. pp. 614-615. 312. Whitehouse D, 2016. op. cit. Ch. 1: The Moonwatchers of Las- 288. Finkbeiner WE, Ursell PC, Davis RL. Autopsy Pathology: A caux. Manual and an Atlas. Philadelphia: Saunders Elsevier, 2009, 313. If the supposition that the engravings at Knowth symbolise p. 6. lunar features is correct, it would be the oldest known depic- 289. Virchow R, Chance F. Cellular Pathology as Based Upon tion of the Moon by Man [Stooke PJ. Neolithic Lunar Maps Physiological and Pathological Histology. Alabama: Division at Knowth and Baltinglass, Ireland. Journal for the History of Gryphon Editions, Ltd. (Special Edition Reprint of the 1860 of Astronomy, 1 February 1994; 25(1): 39-55], predating Jan text for The Classics of Medicine Library), 1978, p. 204. van Eyck’s canvas painting Crucifixion and Last Judgement 290. ibid. p. 167. and Leonardo da Vinci’s sixteenth century Codex Atlanticus 291. ibid. p. 367. sketches (see note no. 50) by some 4,500 years. 292. [B. Jain Publishers (P) Ltd.]. Pocket Medical Dictionary of the 314. Proctor M. Romance of the Moon. New York: Harper & Broth- Principal Words used in Medicine and the Collateral Sciences, ers Publishers, 1928, pp. 247-248. New Delhi: B. Jain Publishers (P) Ltd., 2004, p. 799. 315. ibid. pp. 251-254. 293. Stedman TL. A Practical Medical Dictionary, Third Edition. 316. ibid. pp. 222-224. New York: William Wood and Company, 1914, p. 1020. 317. ibid. p. 230. 294. Schultz M. Rudolf Virchow. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 318. ibid. pp. 227-228. September 2008; 14(9): 1480–1481. 319. ibid. p. 232. 295. Virchow R, Chance F, 1860. op. cit. p. 199. 320. Grueber HA. The Myths of Greece & Rome. London: George 296. ibid. pp. 64-65. G. Harrap & Co. Ltd., 1944, pp. 60-63. 297. ibid. p. 277. 321. A pareidolia is the tendency to perceive meaningful images 298. ibid. p. 120. or information in a random and impersonal stimulus. It is a 299. Firkin B, Whitworth JA, 1989. op. cit. pp. 548-549. subcategory of apohenia (a tendency to perceive association 300. Sumanth KN, Vinod VC, Taneja P. Virchow-Seckel Type Bird and meaning between unrelated things). Headed Dwarfism (Seckel Syndrome) – A Case Report. Jour- 322. Proctor M, 1928. op. cit. pp. 230-231. nal of Indian Academy of Oral Medicine and Radiology. 2004; 323. ibid. pp. 225-226. 16(3): 223-227. 324. Moore P. Guide to the Moon. London: Lutterworth Press, 301: Paget J, Moore C. Tumours and Cancer. In: Holmes T. A Sys- 1976, p. 15. tem of Surgery, Theoretical and Practical in Treatises by Var- 325. Proctor M, 1928. op. cit. pp. 240-244. ious Authors: Volume 1 – General Pathology. London: Long- 326. Some old lunar narratives persist inconspicously in society. man, Greens, and Co., 1870, p. 526. It has been said, for instance, that the popular nursery rhyme 302. Kepes J. Observations on the Formation of Psammoma Bod- ‘Jack and Jill’ is based on an astronomical allegory – their go- ies and Pseudopsammoma Bodies in Meningiomas. Journal ings about the hill referring to the risings and settings of the of Neuropathology & Experimental Neurology, April 1961; Sun and new Moon. (Proctor M, 1928. op. cit. pp. 244-245). 20(2): 255-262.

July 2019 55