CEU eTD Collection ModernZagreb SentimentandUrbanSpacein Cultural In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of ofArts of Masters for thedegree requirements of the fulfillment In partial Submitted to the Central European University to Central Submitted the European Second Reader: Roumen Reader:Roumen Second Daskalov Supervisor: JuditBodnár Department of History Budapest, Hungary Budapest, By Lida Lamza Lida By 2008 CEU eTD Collection part of any such copies made without the written permission of the author. the Central European Library. Details may be obtained from the librarian. This page must form maypart, be made inonly accordancewith instructionsthe givenby Author andthe lodged in Copyright in the text of this thesis lies with the Author. Copies by any process, either in full or Copyright Notice ii CEU eTD Collection plays, with Croatia trying tofind abalance between Austrian and Hungarian hegemony. inperiod alsoquestion. It how shows this dual wasinrelationship factpart of a triangle power of the during cities two by the employed solutions urban different and similar both highlighting fin of styles siècle, througharchitectural andarchitecture influence on Zagreb’sculture de determining of Vienna’s and results for reasons the traces thesis The ideologies. political areflectionurban are andarchitecture widerand of understandingprocesses cultural that beginning of the twentieth century by focusing on its built environment. It is based on the the and nineteenth in of the in part second Zagreb the cultural the situation examines This thesis Abstract iii CEU eTD Collection Appendix ...... 67 A: Photographs ...... 61 Bibliography 5. Conclusion...... 59 4. Modern ...... 53 Architecture 3. Historicism: the Search for Legitimacy...... 26 2. History and Ties...... 18 2. Theoretical ...... 7 Framework 1. Introduction...... 1 Table of Contents...... iv iii ...... Abstract ii Copyright Notice...... Table ofContents 4.2 Moderna in Zagreb: ...... 55 A Clean Breakaway? 4.1 Great ...... 53 Inspirations 3.2 Zagreb in Search of a Voice...... 37 3.1 Vienna...... 27 2.2 Agram...... 20 2.1 Between the Imperial Eagle and ...... 18 the Royal Crown 3.2.2 Hermann Bollé: The Pains and ...... 45 Gains of Growing Up 3.2.1 Emulating the Garden: Zagreb’s Green Horseshoe...... 40 3.1.1 The Jewel in the Garden...... 33 iv CEU eTD Collection the defining historical periods in the life of a capital city of an (admittedly) small country. search for roots or just the most obvious line of research intowhat I know. It is a look into one of analysis of Zagreb’s urbanidentity at the of turn 19 the Social Life 1 Iam a which is why itis important to at least attempt a definition of who (or what) they are. personal identities on the city they live in. Cities are still important in defining who we are, inhabitants in a very subtle, yet sometimes decisive ways. That is why people still base their from do differ each each other, that andcity auniqueflavour shapespossesses thelives ofits despite all these (completely valid) arguments against strict labelling, the fact remains that cities reappropriated by various class, racial, gender, national, cultural and social identities. However, clashing orsimply differing urban identities. Space is constantly being and negotiated particular urbanspace.indeed, And all seem to becities abattleground between opposing, the city etc., which do not seem to allow any kind of labels or attempts to define the identity of a can be found in phrases such as contested space, competing visions, whose city is it, the right to ‘McDonaldization’ of process the to identities urban individual their lost have Tokyo or Vienna York, New conclusion is that the world has become globalized to such an extent that the cities as varied as lack precisely leads Oneline of the that any towards this of definingreasoning one characteristic. One defining characteristic of urban space that urban studies scholars seem agreeto on is 1. Introduction George Ritzer, (Newbury Park, California: Pine Forge Press, c1993) Zagrep The McDonaldization of Society: An Investigation into the Changing Character of Contemporary þ anin 1 , and became virtually indistinguishable from one another. Another argument Another another. one from indistinguishable virtually became and , , a person from Zagreb. Iam also an (aspiring) historian. However, this 1 th into 20 the th century century is not apersonal CEU eTD Collection cultural patterns. Even though the results of mimicking the Viennese role model are visible at mannerinexact processes andactors these which were shapedby influence of anditsthe Vienna its citizens – 2 Kova called modern willarchitecture be touched upon by looking atVjekoslav Bastl and Viktor nineteenth century Zagreb, and the persona of Hermann Bollé, while the complexity of the so- be dealt with through the examples of the Green Horseshoe, the biggest urban project in expressed through the lives and work of their greatest representatives in Croatia; historicism will best were ‘style’, term the under encompassed be can in each present tendencies of plurality and againstit, namely the so-called modern architecture. The two styles,if the great diversity and way modern Zagreb wasshapedby of architecture the historicism andthesubsequentreaction to in the life of the city, within the framework of cultural studies. More precisely,it will look at the its unification in 1850, the event which is taken as both a symbolical and an objective watershed representative public This infrastructure. paper will deal with urbanthe identity of Zagreb since conceptualise a given identity urban is tolook atits most obvious definingfeatures, the way to easiest, the and only, the certainly perhaps Consequently, encounter. chance experience of a city can literally change within aminute, with one new piece of information or a The perceived identity of a city differs from one person to the next, and even an individual’s Europe. of South-eastern studies is one of branchesthe of history stillthat largelyremain neglectedin historiographiesthe Hungarian Empire and their relationship with the imperial capital of Vienna. And finally, urban intoa previously rather neglected research area, that of the smaller cities of the Austro- Capital cities often aim at being an expression of the national identity Zagreb’s importance for Croatia, at least in the eyes of its inhabitants, can also be seen from the informal name for name informal the from beseen also can inhabitants, its of eyes the in atleast Croatia, for importance Zagreb’s þLü . This investigation largely investigation will be. This by guided extenta research and the about question Purgeri (Citizens). The similarity with burg, burgher 2 is obvious – inhabitants of inhabitants – obvious is 2 . It is also an investigation an also is It . the town CEU eTD Collection 3 imperial power. by of counteract stifling authority tothe traditional the to Hungarian authorities centre turning one of the factors of Vienna’s attractive power could be found in an attempt by the Croatian an inenvironment which Budapest would be a desirable role model for urban Thusdevelopment. directed makingtowards Croatia asmuch as integral part of Hungary as possiblecreate didnot Compromise of made1867, also it mostthe immediate target of resentment. Hungarian measures theAustro-Hungarian after immediatethe Croatia, of ruler especially Hungarian government madethe which samecircumstances by the fact that historical the beexplained however, on Zagreb apparent lackofinfluence exerted by urbanexamplethe This might, of Budapest. their rule and spheres influenceof in these mightWhatparts. be considered is surprising the and Venetian the Republic extents ishardly historico-geographical the surprisingof considering the Croatian capital, and that was Vienna. The feebleness of the influence of the Ottoman Empire and Budapest. However, only one of these four cities played a decisive role on the formation of Europe,wasinfluencedSouth-eastern byfour centres great – of Istanbul,power Vienna Venice, for five centuries. Throughout its history, Croatia, as part of the elusive and ill-defined region of and Croatia has been inextricably tiedwith of that Austria and,more specifically its rulinghouse, crucial for shaping the of Zagreb’s architectural literary and landscape. Thehistory of Zagreb which I will not go at this point. Chapter two will provide a purely historical context which was into of this research, framework theoretical tothe is dedicated thesis of the chapter The first a brand wove intocontributions, them newtapestry. imperial capital every corner, I would argue that Zagreb was not only a smaller imitation of the “Golden” Hilde Spiel, Vienna’s Golden Autumn, 1866-1938 3 , but that it took from it different threads of culture and, adding its own (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, c1987) Nicolson, and Weidenfeld (London: 3 CEU eTD Collection (Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University 1998) University Press, New Princeton Jersey: (Princeton, Vienna. on Horseshoe is by no means the only example of Zagreb’s urban development obviously modelled linkconceptual with garden the againmovementcity us to Vienna.points Thetentative architects. builtby Vienna-based were Horseshoe the on buildings public capital clearly came from the example of the Ringstrasse. Furthermore, almost all representative of national the refinement and cultural importance would the showcase areathat representational a The idea of building called“Green Horseshoe”. so of the centre Zagreb, shaped the by that project the beillustrated Thisclaimbest can for its majestic splendour. responsible behind all indevelopments urban Zagreb wasVienna’s Ringstrasse andthehistoricist style principle guiding obvious The from? derive principles these did where And landmarks? urban 19 one will be able to focus on the real research questions: what was Zagreb’s urban identity in the With a clear theoretical historical providedand framework in first the twochapters, thirdthe and, if possible, surpass the metropolis. the identities of cities like Zagreb were largely built upon the desire to follow in the footsteps of modern culture. The extraordinary flowering of arts and culture was one of the reasons why 4 Kokoschka, Schiele, Freud,Jung, andmany made others Names like Mahler, Schoenberg, Hofmannsthal, Bahr, Schnitzler, Musil, Wagner, Loos, Klimt, monarchy,but the attraction took on almostmagical powers at the beginning of the 20 all force of magnetic Habsburg to the anatural corners empirehadthe radiated always Not Viennathat needed anyhelp boosting with its powerof attraction. Thesparkling of centre See Péter Hanák, SeePéter th century? Which stylistic guidelines were followed in the creation of the city’s most famous The Garden and the Workshop: Essays on the Cultural History of Vienna and Budapest 4 fin de fin siècle Vienna one of the capitals 4 Finally, the Green Finally, the th century. CEU eTD Collection povijest umjetnosti, 21/1997, p.143-165), 2 uncompromisingly advocated modernist principles in architectural architects modernistdesign. Both in principles architectural uncompromisingly advocated over-emphasised because he was the first and, at that time, only person who consistently and the importance Nevertheless, of first“the builder ofmodern Croatian architecture” consisted heintroduced programmatic of ideas innovations he picked upin in West, the Vienna. tendencies. Kova tendencies. name same whicharticle entitled inspired “Moderna was openly by arhitektura”, Wagner’sby Otto book the Wagner-inspired secession style in Zagreb. The next year, in 1900, Viktor Kova 6 Getty Research Institute forthe History of Art and the Humanities, 1988) 5 Vjekoslav Bastl finished the Pe Only pattern. years founding unfortunate the after artisticof 2 “ViennaSecession” group, the In achievements. fourth the chapter Iwill first artistic talkthe about disrupted style that this scientific and in artistic lag corresponding in the mirrored naturally was development after Vienna and other great Western European cities. The stunted economic and social As the capital of a small and rather provincial country, Zagreb had always found itself trailing the building of the Croatian National Theatre. who were responsible for connecting Zagreb with a wider European area, at least in the design of patriot without speaking a word of Croatian, and Vienna-natives like F. Fellner and H. Helmer, urban visage were Hermann Bollé, a German architect who became a self-proclaimed Croatian main thefactZagreb’s for shapersof ifthat the account iswe hardly This surprising Vienna. 19 Almost all of the representative public buildings erected in Zagreb in the second part of the D. Radovi D. Otto Wagner, Otto th and beginning the of 20 the ü Mahe 5 and provided aprogrammatic background new tothe architectural and artistic Modern Architecture: A Guidebook for His Students to This Field of Art þLü þLü , A. Laslo, “Viktor Kova “Viktor Laslo, A. , may have been a typical figure for Croatia in that the architectural in and for architectural Croatia the that figure may havebeenatypical þLü th century were executed in the grand historicist style typical of house in Ilica street 43, which was the first example of þLü – promotor hrvatske moderne arhitekture“, (Rad. Instituta za Instituta (Rad. arhitekture“, moderne hrvatske promotor – 5 (Santa Monica, California: þLü 6 published an cannot be cannot CEU eTD Collection this endeavour. the roads to their own, individual styles. Itremains to be seen to what extent they succeeded in 20 counterparts, Viennese trying upgradeZagreb’s to social identity by fatefully following in footsteps the of their guard’ of historicist architects and writers and the new, ‘modern’ artists. While the first were still marked difference in the attitude towards Vienna and its artistic and cultural models of the ‘old conflicting tendencies naturally resulted in a confused national and urban identity. Still, there is a resenting its hegemony and trying to surpass or break away from the path it dictated. These also but life, of aspects inall capital imperial the imitating and up looking – towns colonial or its artistic and scientific achievements. It also suffered from the common malady of all provincial Zagreb could not match Vienna in any aspect, neither in size, strength of its economy nor in whocould thus be called an early modernist protomodernist. or functionalist style championed by Adolf andLoos followed a bitmore moderately by Kova between Secession (practised by Wagner and Bastl, but also partly by but alsopartly Kova byWagner Bastl, and (practised Secession between term Wagner. generic Otto The great under the in ofVienna, Arts Academy atthe Fine of newdevelopments, these very source studied atthe th century artists tried to make those Western trends a starting point of Hrvatska moderna 6 does not really distinguish really not does þLü ) and the ) and þLü , CEU eTD Collection approach that is able to take into account all the nuances stretching across into alltraditional isablethe account that across stretching totake nuances approach the aninterdisciplinary necessitates studies of urban for The myheterogeneity adequate purposes. notreally andaretherefore sociology, of umbrella under the as belonging becould classified 8 Series 15, no. 3 (1990), 331, http://www.jstor.org/stable/622675 orby economy. ofmarket laws merciless governments the School),Chicago perfectthe markets, orsystems either of perpetuated exclusion bythe ecological systems or rather Darwinian social organisms (most notably by the pioneering 7 biology or economics.” from drawn “metaphors using by city the of workings the explained often have theories urban The definition of studiesurban hinges uponthe definition city.the of Twentieth-century ‘urban which studies,’ covers anotoriously wide andvaried array possibleof inquiries. going to be built (touse the appropriate terminology)is an area of scholarly interest known as establish a theoretical basis on several different levels. The foundation on which this edifice is heavy conceptual juggling. That being the case with this particular thesis,it will be necessary to study of some cultural and artistic aspects of urban studies, then its delineation requires some is inwith a comparative concerned Andif research question classifications. the strict easily to aggravated by an additional problem workingof within doesa disciplinenotlend that itself of definingthe of works fieldthe in may question andfeel presumptuous undeserved. Thisis for student. Making a comparison, even just an implicit one, between one’s one work and some Situatingbody canbewithin existingof especially aresearch literature adauntingthe task, 2. Theoretical Framework Ibid, 332 Philip Cooke, “Modern Urban Theory in Question”, in 7 Thus, depending on perspective,the havebeen cities conceived as Transactions of theInstitute of British Geographers 7 8 However, many of these approaches , New CEU eTD Collection Representation of Identity 9 was “a capital without a country, the “national” center of a territory and citizenship that had turn determined the mode of development of its capital city. In the nineteenth century, Zagrebin which in Croatia, situation cultural and political the affected in Austria-Hungary movements In fact, one of the main themes of the thesis will be the ways in which different national downright but very irreplaceable. important understanding nationhood and of relevance the attributed itby to various are groups not only contemporary the century, into twentieth of nineteenth life turn of the aspects city atthe some analytical tools other than the concepts of nation-state or nationality. However,if the focus is on globalisation (as is the case with the book in question), it is necessary to have at one’s disposal multicultural metropolises. When cities are discussed within the framework of colonialism and irrelevant for social or cultural analysis of life in the cities, especially modern multinational and social of life.or city aspects national culture and/or identity as a fundamental concept used for the analysis of either cultural common theme running through all of the contributing essays is their author’s rejection of the introduction to preconceived notions than a sociologist. This is perfectly illustrated in Anthony D. King’s The basic difference is that ahistorian works with a different set of concepts and it cities? comes when to perspective historical to this, basically historical, research? Or rather, what it is that separates the sociological from the sciences according need). to Sowhy are sociological approaches tourban studies notapplicable ingrounded one discipline (from itwhich then branches andappropriates methods the of other is perforce approach interdisciplinary evensuch Nevertheless, between disciplines. boundaries Anthony D. King (ed), Culture, Globalization and theWorld-System, Culture, (Minneapolis: University of MinnesotaPress, c1997), 2 9 Globalization and the World-system: Contemporary Conditions for the The concept identity national of is indeed increasingly becoming 8 where he concludes that the only the that whereheconcludes CEU eTD Collection was never really a colony. Blauand Rupnik arguethat its peripheral far from position,implying course, Zagreb was never a colonial city in the full sense of the word, not just because Croatia by distinct two uniting and often antagonistic medievalsettlements (Gradecand Kaptol).Of and Croatian cultural identity, as well as in its inherent dichotomy of a city that was established periphery opposition, Zagreb’s duality also surfaced in the division between Austrian/German peripheral administrative and economical centers of the Habsburg empire. Besides the center- capital, for central Croatian divided andpolitically dependent territories, and one of manythe national a both was it city; dual the of discourse the through interpreted be also could Zagreb lag, of course). time aconsiderable (with restof reachedthe Croatia developments cultural also written in German), and it definitely constituted a gateway through which all new civic and first newspaper in newspaperwas called Zagreb first it was in many respects a ‘German’ city (e.g. German language was so widely spoken that the periphery Austro-Hungarianthe of physicallyempire, both and with regardstoits development, peoples,” other to culture and Singer (1954) as “the mixed cities on the periphery of an empire which carried the core Redfield by defined in anthropologists cities respectof colonial one some Zagreb reminds through frameworkthe of colonial cities. it was more of its own choosing. In this regard, Zagreb’s urban development could be considered and governments of another country,its cultural policies also bore a strong foreign mark, even if consequently Zagreb’s) political and economical issues weredecided elsewhere,by rulers the World Urban System 11 Actar, 2007), 14 10 voice.” nor boundary political distinct neither Anthony D. King (ed), Eve Blau and IvanRupnik, (London; New York: Routledge, 1990), 13 Urbanism, Colonialism, and the World-Economy: Cultural and Spatial Foundations of the Project Zagreb: Transition as Condition, Strategy, Practice 11 Zagreb seems to fall into that category. Itwas situated on the Agramer Zeitung 10 In addition to the fact that Croatia’s (and Croatia’s that fact the to addition In 9 , and the oldest street signs in Zagreb were (Barcelona; New York: (Barcelona; CEU eTD Collection Architecture, 1867-1918 13 Actar, 2007), 13 12 as a system of values and beliefswhich, in turn, affects culture as a creative, both draws from and participates in the construction of culture as a way of life, culture, King’s that understanding the nuances of life that make up a regional,national, orglobal culture. That is why I adhere to today these restrictive definitions have been rightly recognized as too narrow to encompass all of life, values, beliefs, etc., and ‘humanistic,’ implying all forms of art and the media. ways Luckily, encompasses which ‘anthropological,’ be called could culture constitutes what of notions is againavery conceptthatdepends problematic on how wedefineTwo culture. traditional say that Iwill look at Zagreb’s urban development within the framework of cultural studies. This before proceeding with the consideration of urban mimicry, Ineed to clarify what Imean when I often been described when taking place between a colonial city and the imperial capital. But twentieth century. Urban mimicry, the imitation of forms and patterns of another city, has most and development urban duringboth historicistthe nineteenth and beginning the of ‘modern’the defined Colonial more canhelp that practice architectural Zagreb’s theories city explain one peripheral of Zagreb andcities on other Empire. provides avaluable the perspective alternative cities of colonial perspective thetheoretical Iwouldarguethat still acertain extent, are valid to and Venice). differentcenters (primarily Vienna and Budapest, but to some extentalso the Ottoman empire many of between pulls gravitational choose itthe a freedom gave to actually subordination, could not be described as that of the colonizer to the culture of colonies.” of the culture the to colonizer the be of asthat not described could to the Habsburg Empire, and claimed that “the relation to “the Other” in Vienna or in Budapest ÁkosMoravánszky, Eve Blau and IvanRupnik, […] in its sense of art, literature, film, practices of representation of all kinds, 12 Ákos Moravánszky also denied the validity colonialthe of city applieddiscourse Competing Visions: Aesthetic Invention and Social Imagination in Central European (Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, c1998), 6 Project Zagreb: Transition as Condition, Strategy, Practice 10 (Barcelona; New York: (Barcelona; 13 While both points both While CEU eTD Collection 18 31, 3 (Septemberno. 1988),665, http://www.jstor.org/stable/2639762 17 16 Press, c1986), 285 aspirations of their rulers, designers, builders, owners, and inhabitants.” regards cities “as complex but legible documents that can tell us something about the values and what those forms can reveal about the people and processes that created them. Urban history architecture historians) look at acity, their focus is not so much on its actual spatial or art forms, to but on opposed (as historians urban when Thus, ingeneral. society the about truths and beliefs about for purpose the which buildingthe is used,butwhich also expresses some external ideas, 15 Representation of Identity 14 entire book the theRingstrasse, on his chapter in interest scholarly Schorske, that “doyen of ‘Vienna’ historians,” was responsible for initiating the great wave of examples of desirablethe framingfor acomparative cultural study. in nineteenth the and beginning of twentieth century,butalso served as role-models and just forthestudy Viennaof Paris (alongsideBudapest, andLondon),its culture and architecture Moravánszky. Their seminal works, each a classic in its own right, provided the foundation not are the works of Carl E. Schorske, Péter Hanák and Donald J. Olsen, as well as that of Ákos expressing some wider socio-political undercurrents (and to an extent afactor in their shaping) for any point into field the tobe architecture medium research that of a cultural takes studies for is alanguage. artor,morethat specifically, architecture, Such an understanding of culture to corresponds widespreadthe for belief, central thisthesis, representational practice[…] even seemingly unconnected, strands from all areas of human society intoa tapestry that would Carl E. Schorske, E. Carl Steven Beller, “Modern Owls Fly by Night: Recent Literature on Ibid, ix Donald J. Olsen, Anthony D. King (ed), The City asa Work of Art: London, Paris, Vienna Fin-de-siècle Vienna: Politics and Culture fin desiècle fin Culture, Globalization and the World-System: Contemporary Conditions for the (Minneapolis: University of MinnesotaPress, c1997), 2 14 Vienna in early the 1960s. 18 11 is the perfect example of how to weave various, (New York: Vintage Books, 1981) 15 Fin deSiècle Fin (New Haven and London: Yale University Yale London: and Haven (New Alanguage thatspeakstous not only 17 Although I draw directly only on Vienna,” The Historical Journal Historical The Vienna,” 16 The obvious starting CEU eTD Collection 20 1998) University Press, New Princeton Jersey: (Princeton, (desirereasons for political cultural imitation) andprevented which emancipation that urban with a perfect example of successful methods of urban development. It was for very similar capital city forinspiration. They found that inspiration in Paris, which seemed to provide them Hungarian political andnational aims ledthebuilders of Budapestlook beyond to Habsburg’s and Austrian in differences The garden. Vienna’s than modernization to route different itperfectly.was largely Indeed, political to due thatBudapest’s ‘workshop’ reasons a took history comparative cultural linkhe the identifies, between andculture fits politics, this research ‘urban mass culture’ and ‘ partthat morethe on focused heismuch While reallyentails. of what that wider definition writing “comparative history” cultural paths in which societythe developed in Vienna andin Although Budapest. hisabout statement differs from Schorske is that his essays have an added dimension of considering the diverging the book which is a collection of essays on very different aspects of cultural history. of Where he structure in the and century, twentieth the into nineteenth the of turn the at society Hungarian Schorske (who wrote the foreword) is visible in his general interest in one part of the Austro- Vienna to the capital city of the other half of the empire, Budapest. Hanák’s inspiration with 19 Adding another dimension to the study of culture, Péter Hanák field. particular inthis an authority middle class has since been modified by Olsen did little to diminish Schorske’s pre-eminence as interpretation of the Ringstrasse as a symbolic triumphal arch of the newly ascending liberal set new standards for all future studies in cultural, social or intellectual history. The fact that his Ibid, xviii Péter Hanák, TheGarden and theWorkshop: Essays on the CulturalHistory ofVienna and Budapest Gewohnheitskultur 20 perfectly reflects my own goal, Hanák offers a much ’ play in the creation of a society, the third layer of 12 19 compares and compares contrasts CEU eTD Collection Press, c1986), 5 24 (March 2000), 122-123 Architecture, 1867-1918 23 Architecture, 1867-1918 22 Press, c1986), 4 region.” couldarchitectonic language” that “address thechanging political of and social realities the techniques and thatCentral styles architectsEuropean usedin fortheir an search “appropriate itsdevelopment against cultural background,” is intention Moravánszky evenmorein ambitious andawe-inspiring - “setorder to architectural metropolis. eachgreatEuropean created that systemsof thought those between differences 21 work.” play reveal at at than better themselves “societies hebecause that is convinced luxurious” interested in ‘alternative visions,’ Olsen is not ashamed of his focus on the “superficial and the says heis While Moravánszky ornamental. and but representational onthe focuses architecture, serve as tangible expressions of systems of thought and morality,” values, and inculcate ideas, but give tocontain notmerely to pleasure intended creations artistic century cities were ‘works of art;’ he concentrates on London, Paris and Vienna as “deliberate can be found in the works of Donald J. Olsen and Ákos Moravánszky. For Olsen, nineteenth of cities of European builtenvironment andthe culture Even examination comparative wider Vienna. Zagreb bypassed asasource Budapest of and almosturban models concentrated exclusively on approaches fits very well into the theme of of thesis. this the theme into very fits well approaches Donald J. Olsen, ChristopherLong, review of ÁkosMoravánszky, Donald J. Olsen, 24 23 Except for the incomparably smaller focus of interest, the combination of their What both authors have in common is that neither is interested in the everyday the in interested is neither that is in common have authors both What The City asa Work of Art: London, Paris, Vienna The City asa Work of Art: London, Paris, Vienna Competing Visions: Aesthetic Invention and Social Imagination in Central European , by Ákos Moravánszky. (Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, c1998), xi Competing Visions: Aesthetic Invention and Social Imagination in Central European The Journal of the Societyof Architectural Historians 22 13 he launches into an overview of an various intothe helaunches of overview (New Haven and London: Yale University Yale London: and Haven (New (New Haven and London: Yale University Yale London: and Haven (New 21 and points out the out points and 59, no. 1 no. 59, CEU eTD Collection 28 http://www.jstor.org/stable/179218 America,” Latin Fin-De-Siecle in Consciousness Public and Space Public Aires: Buenos and Janeiro “Rio de Needell, D. Jeffrey Interamerican Studies and World Affairs 27 26 25 bungalow. the sideways approach to his usual themes of culture and globalization through the investigation of architectural problem - Jeffrey D. Needell and Anthony D. King. This time King takes a effectively by authorsexplained dealingtwo with colonial and post-colonial urban and making elite was to imitate the urban solutions of Vienna. The mechanics of imitation were very grounding. I claim that the main strategy of Zagreb’s builders, developers and other decision- That still leaves one, perhaps the most important, aspect of my research without a theoretical the reproductionthe values,of beliefs and activities a society of in builtthe environment. power (or powerlessness)make to decisions aboutforms building and anddevelopment, urban themes such as the symbolic meaning of architecture, relation of ideology to architecture, the book still useful proved itas provided some veryimportant research questions. King explores economy and, of course, the bungalowitself was not directly connected with this thesis,King’s In his two articles on Buenos Aires and Rio deJaneiro little or no say in its development. have space urban an of inhabitants the when arises that discrepancy in the interested especially “model of what a ‘modern or ‘civilized’ city should be like.” post-colonial economic and social development, set Paris as a French cultural influence in Argentina andBrazil,coupled with historical the of circumstances how He shows the traditional in image of of another. the city one of transformation the account that Paris, a colonial centre, was never centre, Paris,that acolonial Ibid, 521 Ideal” Parisian the and Modernization Century: of the Turn atthe Janeiro “Rio de Needell, D. Jeffrey Ibid, 9 Anthony D King, Comparative Studies in Society and History 25 Although his primary focus on post-colonialism, global culture, capitalist world The Bungalow: TheProduction of a Global Culture 25, 1 no.(February 1983), 83-103, http://www.jstor.org/stable/165535 their colonial centre, but was chosen as an urban 14 37, 3 (July no. 1995), 519-540, 27 Jeffrey D. Needell gives a masterful (New York: Oxford University Press,1995) 28 Whatin is is interesting their case 26 Journal of I was CEU eTD Collection of these peripheral cities as the “foci of cultural “foci as the diffusion” of cities cultural peripheral of these the ‘provincial’ builders and urban developers acquired in the imperial capital, as well as the role Zagreb’s case) on the peripheral cities,including the education and professional experiences that the long-standing cultural influence of one culture and its central city (Paris, or Vienna in similarities which validate my appropriation of Needell’s methodology. These parallels include fashion, etc. as well as education and frequent stays in Paris itself), there were also enough Interamerican Studies and World Affairs 29 scholars,i.e. on secondary literature. Until a couple of years ago most literature on Zagreb in urbanism of linespreviously separate of inquiry, itdoes represent anovel approach studyto the of in sensethe of uncovering some previously unknown archival material withbut, its combination Finally, Ihave to say a few words on the existing literature on Zagreb. My research is notnew arevery methods andsimilar. aims our but forms, building actual the on more is my emphasis while setting,” ‘neo-colonial’ with contemptutter and disgust. Needell may be more focused onthe “upper-class inculture a hometowns their ‘backward’ made them reject inferiority acutely feltcultural the on other, the practices of Paris and Vienna, and took great pride in the resulting modernisation of their cities; role-model capitals; on one hand, their urban elites were actively trying to imitate the urban Furthermore, Rio, Buenos Aires andZagreb all had an ambiguous relationship totheir respective enough indulge to their with aspects former in(they rich colonies, alarge colonial many elite are Zagreb important relationship between Zagreb and Vienna. Even though both South American cities differed from inspiration for various reasons. This element of choice is also present in the otherwise different Jeffrey D. Needell, “Rio de Janeiro at the Turn of the Century: Modernization and the Parisian Ideal” Parisian the and Modernization Century: of the Turn atthe Janeiro “Rio de Needell, D. Jeffrey Fin desiècle francophonie Zagreb. Consequently, it is largely dependent on the work of other of work the on dependent largely is it Consequently, Zagreb. 25, 1 no.(February 1983), 87 with the total with total the immersion in literature, language, French 15 29 for the rest of the country. Journal of CEU eTD Collection Actar, 2007) 33 Finde Siècle Zagreb – Be as an urban structure. It is a case study of Zagreb as a city that has been shaped by many Transition asCondition, Strategy, Practice 32 project of project of calledEve BlauandIvanRupnik joint is in its the approach ground-breaking mostmost recentandperhapsthe Finally, the strategies of the two cities. remains almost the only, andcertainly most the comprehensive comparison of architectural Vienna and Zagreb between connections urbanistic and architectonic the on essay Maruševski’s Be subjectperspective, from the entitled of adifferentapproach Zagreb photography, etc.) from various from backgrounds andculture design, fieldof (architecture, the dance,theatre, arts studies of Zagreb. One such work is the collection of essays that tackle the problem modernityof years due inRecentimprovement new regard publication sawanotable to the this of several missing wasthecomparativeand approach framework. awidercultural studies more Austro-Hungarian) precisely and trends In otherwords, undercurrents. whathad been (or European general some for accounting by development urban its of explanation satisfactory literature failed to situate Zagreb within a wider social and cultural context and give a 31 30 (Dobroni tracing development architectural straightforward of with only minor excursions intosome aspects of cultural history (Szabo, Peri tobetended either mostly focusing purely historical accounts, history traditional on the political Eve Blau and IvanRupnik, Olga Maruševski, “Arhitektonsko-urbanisti Maruševski, Olga Damir Barbari Damir Vuki þ . 31 This pioneeredbook thefield of comparative cultural studies in Croatia, and Olga ü , Fe ÿ a (ed), Zagreb: Modernost igrad (Zagreb: AGM, 2003) ü , ed, 30 Fin de Siècle Zagreb – Be Another good example is yet another collection of essays, the first work to þ (Zagreb: Školska knjiga, 1997) Project Zagreb: Transition as Condition, Strategy, Practice 32 þ ke veze Zagreba i Be i Zagreba veze ke þ (Zagreb: Školska knjiga, 1997) , indicates indicates its approach , and in focus exploring Zagreb Project Zagreb Project 16 þ a na prijelomu stolje prijelomu a na 33 . ü The subtitle of book, the , Kneževi , FindeSiècle Zagreb– ü ). Both Both types). of ü a” in Damir Barbari Damir in a” (Barcelona; New York: (Barcelona; ü ), or a relatively ü , ed, , CEU eTD Collection 34 make andtendencies, afurther point between about complex Zagreb andthe relationship Vienna. andnationalistic ‘modern’ between relationship in the can illuminate Zagreb modern architecture of emerging the overview Andfinally, the power. of that seen as representative architecture, various towards attitudes Imperial in Zagreb presences relatedand the feelings historicistabout conflicting the studying for is perfect Bollè Hermann of example the imitation; of patterns comprehensive historicist urban can project, be thus searchedfor the underlyingideologies and most as makeis.the city way it the the that and GreenHorseshoe, ideologies The practices extrapolate amore techniques, general of specific to theory developments urban andarchitectural a less traditional and more comparative perspective. I will follow their approach and look at key ways suggested by at work.tolook this some well-known urban manifestations.means This also period of this condition of transition, the beginnings of ‘modern’ Zagreb, through the alternative unresolved” transition” by “urban forarchitectural dealingstrategies generating continuously with the state oranindependent country.)Zagreb’s planners andbuilders responded “condition tothe of accordance with Croatia’s shifting political status (a land ruled by a ‘foreign’ crown, a federal last 150 years. Zagreb has ‘changed hands’ many and times, gained and lost importance in discontinuities, changes and transitions that have been especially strong in Central Europe in the Ibid, 17 34 which turned the city itself intoan ‘open work.’ I am going to look at an early 17 CEU eTD Collection representative, but Croatia retained its inner autonomy and national individuality (or at least it Hungary by institutionthe of personal union; they had a common whoking ruled in Croatia via a with Hungarian king Koloman. The so called Pacta Conventameant that Croatia was joined with of Habsburg became formalized in 1102 whennoblemen into an entered Croatian agreement The first part of Croatia’s long andintertwined relationship with both Hungary and House the Vienna andZagreb in fieldssome of culture other than andarchitecture urban planning. thoroughly discussed in Chapter 3.1, I shall end this chapter with a brief look at the ties between epitomised in Residenz-the und Reichshauptstadt Vienna. Although city the itself will be more Habsburg andimperial thecorrespondinginstitutions and centered, andindeedpolicies, with Hungary and Austria. Iuse the rather imprecise term 'Austria' to imply the House of brief account of the most important dates and events in Croatia's (and Zagreb's) shared history was instrumental in setting the course for Zagreb's urban development. I shall therefore give a andliterature architecture. This historical setting, the outlines of which are given in chapter, this theatre, newspapers, everyday life, the dominated that and German tongue the rulers economic own voice thathad been drowned by Hungarianlanguage,the spokenby its political and Zagreb struggled to find a balance between these two powers and, at the same time, recover its divided between the Imperial eagle of the Habsburgs and the Hungarian Crown of St. Stephan, Created out of two opposed medieval towns, the capital city of a nation whose lands were History of Zagreb up to the end of the First World War is a story written in dichotomies. Crown Royal the and Eagle Imperial the 2.1 Between 2. History and Ties 18 CEU eTD Collection commander of the Imperial troops, and act in the best interest of both Croatia and the Court. But Hungarian revolution, Jela revolution, Hungarian court, which was naturally fearful of the revolution in Hungary. Thus, in suppressing the government. Their disputes with the Hungarians played perfectly into the hands of the Austrian 1848, when Croatiansthe saw the widespread turmoil achanceas toregain an autonomous fullerintegration into the Kingdom of Hungary. Their pressurewas steadily increasing until and further Croatia’s for opportunity excellent be an to it considered hand, other the on Hungary, part of empire)were freedfrom the Venetian Turkish the and andoccupation (re)united. all the Croatian lands (including Dalmatia which was then under the direct rule of the Austrian rights to the joint Croatian-Hungarian government. The move was seen as temporary, valid until a reprisal endedjust itsprevent totransfer period of of the Austrian some voted of absolutism, the three parties could begin in 1790, when the Croatian Parliament (Sabor), determined to between struggles power of the illustration simplified somewhat A and very therefore basic, calledas aprotector. upon Hungary and, vice versa, when Hungarianthe pressure became toostrong, emperorthe was period increased seek of caused Austrian dominance help to Croatia in association atighter with constantly tried to play the two stronger powers against each other. This usually meant that a centuries of alternating power relations – Croatia, as the weakest partner in this alliance, until dissolution the Austria-Hungary of in 1918. Onecrystallized pattern during the almost four completing the political whosedynamictriangle interrelations would determineCroatia’s future another choose Hungary needed to king. of Ferdinandthe nobility Most thus IHabsburg,chose and Croatia II, king Louis killed and battleof Mohács forces atthe Hungarian the defeated was supposed to).The Habsburgs camepicturein into 1527. After Suleiman Magnificentthe þLü could reconcile his double function function as theCroatian his double reconcile could 19 ban and the and CEU eTD Collection 36 – Be Zagreb siècle de Fin 35 tiesVienna. werewith however, bemistaken; although politically to tied the Crown of Stephen,Saint Zagreb’s cultural to find evidence of Hungary’s influence on various aspects lifeof in Zagreb. One would, an based solely would as one above, assumption historical the on outlined circumstances expect influence in Croatia’s capital city never spread beyond the political sphere. If one was to make long various interstate eight-century Despite the ties Hungarian of andassociations, tradition Agreementof 1868, proved tobe immutable for rest the of their in sojourn Austria-Hungary. Croatian-Hungarian the to led eventually which choice, This Hungary. chastened presumedly centralization (Bach’s absolutism), Croatians once more began to strengthen the ties with the imperial and Germanisation of bout another yet following lived; short was triumph this 2.2 Agram centralisation and Germanization? influences not presentduring the periods of Habsburgs’ absolutism which entailed increased against other the didwork not bothways in cultural sphere–why the were Hungarian cultural Vienna. What is slightly puzzling is why the usual Croatian strategy of playing one power by appealing to the only instance of power that could, at least in theory, override it, namely culture. It is also not surprising that both Croatian government and public resisted Magyarisation assertits independence in fewthe remaining areasin itwhich could still mostdo so, notably in that Croatia, battling the increasing Hungarian political and economical ascendancy, would try to The historic Austrian German name for Zagreb for name German Austrian historic The Olga Maruševski, “Arhitektonsko-urbanisti Maruševski, Olga 36 þ (Zagreb: Školska knjiga, 1997), 197 35 Such strong division might seem somewhat strange; itissurprising not þ ke veze Zagreba i Be i Zagreba veze ke 20 þ a na prijelomu stolje prijelomu a na ü a,” Damir Barbari Damir a,” ü (ed), CEU eTD Collection književnost iumjetnost under the Croatian authority, revolts erupted throughout the country. Such protests were never signs on the offices of the financial institutions, which the Agreement specified as belonging 38 other in Latin. each to speaking started Zagreb in documents his checking were who policemen the when surprise his and Paton long-lived, 1826-1912 other German newspaper, of the which of newspaper, German other Zagreb was the German in newspaper first andthe aswell population, elite general as the the among was widespread 37 known by its Austrian German name ‘German’ city accounts of surprisingLatin, spreadof the German language and Latin, which was official the language up till in1847. Still, spite of Croatia Proper was a linguistic mixture of two Croatian dialects ( in by usageof the authority Latin. persisting foreign resisted they of language, a national and codification development belated of because a their own mother tongues. When that was not an option, due to insufficient political strength or assert their national individualities and political independence by strengthening the position of eliminatingthus opposition theirto dominance. otherhand,the On dominated peoples the tried to excellence strategy for penetrating all pores of society of the nationalities under their control and its peoples. The two dominant nationalities (Hungarians and Austrian Germans) used it as a par between struggles power constant in the weapons main the of one was language building, nation with onlanguageemphasis a accordance nineteenth-century general the crucial as of element A possible might explanation be found in Zagreb's linguistic milieu. InAustria-Hungary,in Nikola Andri Nikola Lelja Dobroni ü ü , “Iz njema “Iz , 38 (“Zagreb u opisima starih pisaca,” Kaj V, no. 7-8 (1972), 32) brings a story of a British writer by , no. 1 (January-June,, no. 1900), 22 both contemporary both contemporary andsources subsequent - itwas widely popularly)(and ). þ koga Zagreba. Prilog kulturnoj historiji Hrvatskoj,” historiji kulturnoj Prilog Zagreba. koga Yet, when Hungariansthe putupbilingual and(Hungarian Croatian) Agramer deutsche Zeitung Agramer deutsche Agram Agramer Zeitung-Zagrebackenovine 37 nineteenth-century Zagreb was often described as a , the knowledge, the and use of Germanthe language 21 from from 1784 (which followedwas by several Život, Mjese Život, Shtokavian þ were the most were the na smotra za nasmotra and Kajkavian ), CEU eTD Collection patriotism; and finally, the symbolic positioning of the statue, in defiance of all dictates of the reinforcing the myth that Jelamyth that the reinforcing uniform that the figure of Jela art, themilitary in related andrepresentation; culture perceived questions to supremacy all prestigious artistic commission was given to a Viennese sculptor, a clear indicator of Vienna’s was a telling amalgam of the country’s (or at least of its elite’s) public opinion at the time – the playedin defeat of inthe Hungarian the 1848.This revolution of statue biggestheroCroatia’s (which meant that the square was facing its backside). It was a clear allusion to the part he mounted a horse andon his brandishing saber,was turned towards towards north, the Hungary asanationalcostume. accounts was clad in a uniform of the Military Frontier regiments, described by the later historical for the equestrian statues of Archduke Charles and Prince Eugene of Savoy. The Jela in 1866. It had been commissioned from an Austrian sculptor Anton Dominick Fernkorn, famous wasfinally in statue andthe death, completed wasmadefor before his astatue hishonour even surprising considering his role in putting down Hungarianthe revolution of The 1848). proposal hardly is which figure, malevolent more much a in him sees naturally narrative historical national hero, a fighter for Croatia's independence from Hungarianthe domination (Hungarian which already bore his name. In Croatian historiography Jela 39 bein found of erection statue the an equestrian of Ban Josip Jela can inZagreb andsituation social cultural political, complicated of the illustration A perfect language German andomnipresent influence.of associated dissemination the Austrian sparked by instances of Germanisation, despite the awareness of the need tofight the Rudolf Horvat, Rudolf Prošlost grada Zagreba þLü þLü 39 ’s fight against Hungarian revolutionaries was an act of an was act of pure revolutionaries Hungarian against ’s fight wore was later described as a national costume, thereby In a symbolic act of political defiance, the statue of Jela (Zagreb: August Cesarec; Atlantic Paper,1992), 309 22 þLü was traditionally portrayed as a þLü on on mainsquare Zagreb's þLü statue þLü , CEU eTD Collection decree was sometimes used to point out that Zagreb was older than Vienna, than wasolder Zagreb point that out usedto was sometimes decree which also proclaimedit a‘free royal city.’ It is interesting tonote that the date of this royal 40 Croatian Royal Council which replaced the Sabor and thus meant spelled a further step towards the of institution) Hungarian corresponding the to subordination and abolishment latter (and manyinstituted administrative andgovernmental inreforms Croatia such as the establishment mention the two Habsburg rulers who had a significantimpact on Zagreb. Maria Theresa chapter. Not to get intoa too detailed account of its development until that time, suffice it to the two medieval towns in the middle of the nineteenth century, but that is the topic of the next In a way, the real development of Zagreb as the capital city began only with the unification of sometimes even bloody. lesscordial, than towns the and two between made relations the interests and character for in abig forand in immigrants itsaccounting its identity attraction partof Differences general. was primarily crafts towards oriented and trade, withvarious yearly and other markets of the lingering image of Vienna as an ideal to be compared to and, if possible, surpass. Gradec another community founded ontheneighboring hill of Kaptol settlement when it was chosen as a bishop’s seat in 1094. In 1242 the ecclesiastical settlement Zagreb Diocese. It seems reasonable to assume that Zagreb was already a fairly substantial the of from establishment dates the existence evidence of written Zagreb’s first clearly. The Hungarian dominance. square’s layout, spoke volumes about Croatia’s powerlessness to pose a serious challenge to the Gjuro Erlih, “Zagreba Erlih, Gjuro But let us get back to the city in which these various power struggles were played out most (named after Latinthe "capitulum" agroup denoting body or canons)of wasjoinedby þ ki gradski bedemi,” gradski ki Zagreb, glasilo društva zagrep 23 Gradec by the Golden Bull of Bela IV, þ ana , no.1 (July 1933), 2 40 aclearindication CEU eTD Collection 41 discussion lifeabout and artin a cafe(though he would risk beingaccused of contributing tothe When notenjoying their comfortable yet stylishly decorated homes, salon. a Viennese in apartments and, at the same time, take pride in the thought that their table could also be standing furnished beautifully still but in functionally, live to afford now could who craftsmen and traders, Mann' style seemedalmost taylormade for asmall inhabitettown mostly by petty bourgeoisie, small executions,” jewelry and other objects of everyday use. Biedermeier, forever derided for its “small themes and newthe public parksas well theirspringing counterparts, as printed upon furniture, wallpapers, the nineteenth century when Biedermeier covered the city in flowers, real ones grown in one of design, to everyday language and fashion. These influences grew in strength in the first half of in trends music, from literature, and philosophy,everything interior painting, theatre, architecture Yet Vienna was responsible notjust for political changes and pressures but also for new led to further Germanization, but also astrong counter-reaction. construction, and the attempt to impose German as the only offcial language in the entire Empire freed alotof abolishment monasticorders contemplative landfor,of mostly housing, her son Joseph II also played an important role in the life of the city. His decree on the capital function (that was taken over by Varaždin between 1767and 1779).Although unwitingly, Furthermore, her reign covers the only period in Zagreb’s history when it was notCroatia’s founding of the Royal Academy of Science with three faculties (Philosophy, Theology and Law). the from profited nevertheless which in Zagreb, felt also were Consequences centralization. Hilde Spiel, Vienna's Golden Autumn 1866-1938 41 was no less typical of Zagreb than it was of Vienna. Indeed, the 'kleine (Weidenfeld &Nicolson, London, 1987), 19 24 Zagrep þ ani could join a join could CEU eTD Collection Be 46 in 45 Be 44 Zagreb – Be 43 401 presented an image of animage of presented Vienna." a little endof 19 atthe the Zagreb "artistic the concluded that oneauthor more than that 42 morereceivedfrom people parts other of Croatia). class and the city's fledglinghaute bourgeoisie (while Prague,another popular academic city, societies and literary groups," of Croatian center as part "academic the animportant played Vienna century, nineteenth basic principles to Vienna, especially to the Burgtheater. principles, repertoire policies, ways of acting, directing, organising the stage, etc.) also owed its aestheticism” “capuccino Marijan Bobinac and Krešimir Nemec, “Be Nemec, Krešimir and Bobinac Marijan Boris Senker, “Razmjena dramskih tekstova izmedu be izmedu tekstova dramskih “Razmjena Senker, Boris Marijan Bobinac and Krešimir Nemec, “Be Nemec, Krešimir and Bobinac Marijan Nikola Batuši A. G. Matoš, “Sinteti þ Fin de siècle Zagreb – Be Zagreb siècle de Fin þ (Zagreb: Školska knjiga, 1997), 92 , 86 þ , ed. Damir Barbari ü , ”Hrvatsko glumište s razme þ na kritika,” inPrometej na raskrš þ , 147 42 ) orgosee a play.to as awhole Theatre its organisational (meaning ü (Zagreb: Školska knjiga, 1997), 128 44 an international city prefered by from children middlethe þ þ 46 ÿ ka i hrvatska moderna: poticaji i paralele,” in paralele,” i poticaji moderna: i hrvatska ka ka i hrvatska moderna: poticaji i paralele,” in paralele,” i poticaji moderna: i hrvatska ka a stolje ü a injegovi odnosi spram be 25 þ ü kog i zagreba kog u, ed. Miroslav Šicel (Zagreb: Mladinska knjiga, 1991), 45 In fact, Vienna's magnetism was so strong 43 Finally, throughout the whole the throughout Finally, þ kog književnog kruga na mijeni stolje namijeni kruga književnog kog þ koga kazališta,” in Fin de siècle Zagreb – Fin de siècle Zagreb – th century Fin de siècle de Fin ü a,” CEU eTD Collection Press, c1986), 300 48 http://www.jstor.org/stable/2505617 and the beginning of the twentieth century.and beginning twentieth of the nineteenth the of half second the in Zagreb in built forms urban new the on influences its trace Vienna's trademarkmix ofhistoricist styles, famously displayed along its Ring Road,and then This is one of the themes that run through the following chapter, which will start by considering [...] enabled it touse the language of the past tomake a statement toand about the present.” models historical “employing that claim they imitation; mere a than more much as historicism see authors hand, contemporary some other modernlife.the of On postulates the express (such Wagner)as derogatorilyOtto spoke of out-datednessthe historicismof itsand inability to followingThe generation Ringstrasse period isstillthe worth architecture debated. of historicist artistic The shapes. and styles architectural arsenal of previous from a patchwork were built shape the present. In terms of the built environment, historicism meant that the cities of the day were used not only to explain contemporary phenomena, but were also reappropriated in order to 47 or an idea” we have to “consider its historical development.” environment. In other words, “if we wish to grasp the nature of a nation, apeople, an institution, history could be used to explain the essence of all things,in both the natural and the social belief that general wasthe importance Of acertain greater extent. only to phenomenon the explains discipline, scientific a 'real', as establishment its and in history, interest increased The A well known andtruism is oft-repeated thatthe nineteenth century by was governed history. 3. Historicism: the Search for Legitimacy Donald J. Olsen, F.R. Ankersmit, “Historicism: An Attempt at Synthesis,” The City asa Work of Art: London, Paris, Vienna 26 History andTheory History (New Haven and London: Yale University Yale London: and Haven (New 47 Furthermore, historical models historical Furthermore, 34, no. 3 (October,1995), 144, 48 CEU eTD Collection royal residence took adecisive turn towards the image of a palace during the time of the artists from and entrenched from established artists the style whichin Vienna beganin 1897 with ‘secession’the a groupof youngof (andnot so young) Press, c1986), v thereby uniting in the city the “functions and forms of a palace, a mission, and a fortress.” Vienna their capital city in the face of the imminent Turkish threat in the sixteenth century, decisive stewardshipbegan when Catholicthe Habsburg decided tomake thenewly Protestant of the throne of the Holly Roman Empire, the Habsburg monarchy and Austria-Hungary. Their For almost four centuries, Vienna had been identified with the House of Habsburg, possessor and itsdetermined bytheart preceded them. makers that birth to. Yet all artistic styles develop out of specific historical andarecircumstances very much itgave culture Western of commonplaces numberof the considering understandable is perfectly 50 31, 3 (Sep.,no. 1988),665, http://www.jstor.org/stable/2639762 Schorske in 1960s,the andit has been going strong ever since. Carl by in E. particular wasinitiated aforementioned time the andplace that interest Scholarly sciences. In painting andsciences. architecture, and in arts trends and movements ‘modern’ of explosion its with 1900 around period the century. Amore narrow use of the turn-of-the-century time frame usually pertains specifically to term includes that both Ringstrassethe period and beginningthe omodernism in twentieth the nineteenth century till the end of the Habsburg empire, the way Schorske uses it as an umbrella meaning –itcan quitebe broadly understood include to the entire from period middlethe of the 49 The expression 3.1 Vienna Donald J. Olsen, Steven Beller, “Modern Owls Fly by Night: Recent Literature on The City asa Work of Art: London, Paris, Vienna ‘fin desiècle ‘fin Vienna’ has becomein very academic popular various circles. fin desiècle Künstlerhaus 27 mostly implies Secession, the new artistic new the Secession, implies mostly . The fascination with this exciting time Fin desiècle Fin (New Haven and London: Yale University Yale London: and Haven (New 49 The term has a sort of a double Vienna,” The Historical Journal 50 The CEU eTD Collection http://www.jstor.org/stable/215782 52 New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1998), xvii 51 nineteenth century. itsBudapest, future political rival crucialwhose intense of period camedevelopment only in the identified as the crucial layer of identity, both physical and mental, which separates the city from Hanák Péter period that Baroque rich legacy of itwas precisely Vienna’s the Indeed, empire. Schönbrunn Palace,celebrated expulsionthe Turkishthe of invadersand restated glory the of the Baroque, when majestic churches and palaces,like the Karlskirche, the Belvedere, and to remedy the “ills of to remedy life” “ills the urban of For urban historians and city planners, ‘garden city’ refers to Ebenezer Howard’s idea of how into the life of the city,making Vienna a garden city in more than one way. gardens these that tothepublic, wereopened nineteenth century andsobecamefully integrated aristocracy. However, it was not until the end of the eighteenth and the beginning of the Vienna’s andimageoutlook were luxurious the gardens built around newthe palaces of the ring. Although this was common to many European cities of the time which freed the land for representative buildings in the centre. Also present was the circular grand avenue in the form of a avenuesin and broad green areas with city abundant the wasthe combined expansion, of element agricultural urban meant theouter besides blueprints, beltoriginal Howard's torestrict conspicuous most The similarities. striking some share did it organization, or life. ThoughVienna didnot exhibit any hisof important prescripts most concerninglayout size, was to develop anew type of town that would enjoy the benefits of both the city and the country hand, and deserted villages and depressed economy of rural areas on the other. Howard's solution Shaul E. Cohen , “Greenbelts in London and Jerusalem” ( Jerusalem” and London in , “Greenbelts Cohen E. Shaul Péter Hanák , TheGarden and theWorkshop: Essays on the CulturalHistory ofVienna and 51 One feature of Baroque developments that was to become crucial for thatwastobecome developments crucial OnefeatureBaroque of 52 like overcrowding, housing, andlabour problems on one 28 Geographical Review , Vol. 84, No. 1. (Jan., 1994), 75, Budapest ( Princeton, CEU eTD Collection New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1998), 68 premonition impendingof collapse. The form of this thesis does notallow for a deeper from cities over-populated of or intellectuals’ rapidlythe industrialising, the unarticulated in the idea of an escape that lay behind both concepts of the garden – be it escape from the evils and variety its many-coloured,of multinational Yetculture. another tentative link could be found of fruits possession, bearing the perennial the anddisplaying theincredibleempire abundance their efflorescence or blooming. Thus Vienna is portrayed as the garden of the empire,its prize 53 de siècle environment it is situated in, could be applied to the city as a whole. Many descriptions of the built tothe opposed life and growth, asaspaceof natural garden the of The concept as a product of nature and the work of art as the product ofman.” man unity the Hanákof and Art. “the aesthetics, artist the calls vehiclefor the itunion between allusions to the Garden of Eden but, even more importantly, representing a place of the symbolic cultural elites was an idyllic place, an oasis sheltered from the harsh reality, exhibiting clear only asettingforprovide the ‘real’ gardens of human imaginations. The garden of Viennesethe Vienna gardens gardens private majestic itself that real, prides butthese on, existing-in-space an theconceptextent, is in grounded physical due to reality public numerous the parksand andintellectuals andis embodied only their creationsthrough of poetry, paintings ortheatre. To concept, denoting an imaginary place that exists exclusively in the psyche of the Viennese artists found in Schorske I am referring to the, conceptually very different, description of Vienna as the “garden city” medieval the itcouldbe withpast, Viennesegardenincarnations. connected other of remnants other and fortifications their by razing modernisation and development urban further Péter Hanák, Vienna employ botanical metaphors and talk aboutthe TheGarden and theWorkshop: Essays on the CulturalHistory ofVienna and Budapest and Hanák's seminal works. They use the 'garden' primarily as amental 29 flowering 53 of arts and culture, (Princeton, fin CEU eTD Collection Press, Berkeley, 1972), 115 55 54 the nature of the world, life and death, illusion and reality, the soul, and sexuality.” dissensions orproblems of national destiny, butvital questions of universal humanimportance: focus of enduring Austrianexercised “What interest. the scholarly mind local werenot wide appeal of the turn-of-the-century Vienna as a role model for urban mimicry and an cultural history Hanák cites the absence of the national question as one of the reasons for the from all parts of the monarchy to itself like moths to a flame. In his introductory reflections on Habsburg empire was especially in pronounced Imperial the city. The dazzling city drew people individuals comes together to formulate the identity of the city. The heterogeneity of the If Vienna was the garden of the empire,it was the main public park in which the mass of embodiments. its truest of one Vienna could beconsidered movement, suffice itto say while that, itwas influenced not by ideology the of Howard's garden city lesser degree of industrialisation, or simply the legacy of its position as the imperial centre), monarchy, of cities other the in with andwealth comparison development advanced relative factors madeexamination that itof Viennaimperialthe was due the (whether to itsgarden centuries, also coexisted in the same space in time. Timms quotes Adolf Loos saying that “while nationalities were not the only ones living side by side; it seemed that different ages, even Vienna was not so much a city as “a state of mind.” was what made it special.At a time when less than half of its citizens were actually born there, Provinces representedin may Reichsrat”) the have troubled theDual Monarchy,butfor Vienna it and Kingdoms “the as known was but name, a have even not did half western (the house ruling identity of a supranational state, whose parts were held together only by the authority of the William M. Johnston, Ibid , xvi The Austrian Mind, An Intellectual and Social History 1848-1938 30 55 But different classes, religions and (University of California 54 The lack of CEU eTD Collection Schönbrunn park. Hilde Spiel, Hilde park. Schönbrunn 59 58 Press, Berkeley, 1972), 33 57 London: Yale University Press, 1986) 56 he “symbolized morebureaucrat, he than butstill achieved” “commanded respect,” wide unimaginative but A hardworking etc. dualism, liberalism, democracy, nationalism, like ideas and movements social or toilets, or electricity trains, like innovations technical whether modern, in monarch industrialized world” “Biedermeier an summoned physician from his deathbed because the man was properlynot dressed. This A man of tradition, etiquette and order, he was rumored to have sentaway the hastily wouldone in expect man.a much older changes. Yet it soon became obvious that, despite his tender age, Franz Joseph had the character administrative and political needed much the for hopes with invested was enthronement whose monarch, inyears only time, newold wereembodied 18 atthe the Political overturns Vienna. worldthe them. around of Both kinds of weremirroredchanges in physical the outlook of rangingfrom obvious political to morethe subtle changes in ideapeople’s about themselves and caughton also fire. year consequences The of this watershed weremanifoldfar-reaching, and popular dissension. So,when flamesthe of revolution the spread overEuropein 1848, Vienna Such diversity inequalities couldand accompanying perfect bethe forbreeding ground century.” twelfth in the living still provinces Austrian he was livingin yearthe 1908his neighbour was living in 1880, while were there peasants in the inherent contradictions, Franz Joseph was the living embodiment of the empire’s anachronisms. old watchingbenevolent hispeople. over grandfather grew asold ageinfused him venerability,anidealizedimage additional with creating of a Interesting illustration is a Viennese cabaret song about an old gentleman brooding over Ibidem the fate of his people in William M. Johnston, Edward Timms, Karl Kraus, Apocalyptic Satirist: Culture and Catastrophe in Habsburg Vienna (New Haven; The Austrian Mind, An Intellectual and Social History 1848-1938 Vienna's Golden Autumn 1866-1938 , 19 31 57 was averse to everything he saw as new or 59 56 Despite (or precisely because of) (orprecisely his Despite (Weidenfeld& Nicolson, London, 1987), 192 (University of California 58 which CEU eTD Collection 61 Press, c1986), 240 the last European city to hold on to the false comfort of its fortifications. The feebleness of the and enableitto break out of boundariesthe ithad since long overgrown. Vienna was probably make-over luxurious a Vienna give to situation economic favorable the with up teamed display the imperial center of power. In the second part of the nineteenth century, this culture of self- surprise. The necessity for public display of power and prestige was most visibly manifested in 60 Given the political situation, the permanent need for “self-representation” deal with one of them. the other nationalities in the empire, opposition which would soon force the emperor to strike a centralization its from wasfacingincreased tendenciestowards and Germanisation, opposition necessarily meant challenging the status of the aristocracy. And finally the monarchy itself, with recover from longthe suppression andstake trying to their place in hierarchy,the which In power. addition,mid-nineteenth finally century saw liberal the middle beginningclasses to nationalities in their struggle formore political rights and bigger autonomy), and the its present position in the society – their historical rights (which were also used by the other perform any functions,really important the aristocracy had only argumentstwo that couldjustify functions.” its political aristocracy deprived old the Viennese positive sides, but in terms of the empire’s social structure it was quite destructive. It “not only absolutist rule. The ‘Enlightened absolutism’ of Maria Theresa and Joseph II may have had their inThe Habsburgs following eager imperial quite werealways general the towards tendency to be irreversibly tied together, even down to their demise. He epitomized so many of the faults and virtues of Austria-Hungary that their destinies seemed Ibidem Donald J. Olsen, The City asa Work of Art.London, Paris, Vienna Bürgertum 60 Stripped muchof of its power and so of the ability to of its independence of but from took oldthe feudal 32 (New Haven and London: Yale University Yale London: and Haven (New 61 comes as no illusion of CEU eTD Collection 62 with other influences, creates a new and exciting self-identity. Just whose self-identity it was and the in empire manifold style whichtakesthe best thateach epoch has tooffermixing and, indiscriminatelyit multi-confessional and multi-national, multi-ethnic, a of capital the fashion styles that had shaped the Western civilization. And what could be more appropriate than to importantly, anend, than an through architectural style whichencompassed all previousthe express the spirit of the empire that seemed to have existed forever, without a beginning or, more defining landmark, the Ringstrasse, was shaped in the spirit of historicism. What better way to Given this anachronism and a sense of timelessness,it is hardly surprising that Vienna’s 3.1.1 TheJewelintheGarden symbol propel itself itsof backwardness to modernity.toward of Vienna’s landmark. future In this way, paraphrase Vienna to Schorske, used themost obvious glacis be withfreed to razedandfortifications together accompanying wide the earmarked the space, small city core from its suburbs needed to come down. In 1857 the emperor finally ordered the growth which put additional strain on the already crowded city center. The walls separating the political andeconomic demands.Around 1850sVienna wasexperiencing economic population subjects. But such military considerations were slowly but surely loosing the fight against the popularthe uprising of 1848 gave the walls anew function of protecting the courtfrom their own protection enemythey by had affordedarmies already against been but Napoleon, demonstrated Carl E. Schorske, E. Carl , for civilian uses. The encompassing form circular of city the walls determined the shape Fin-de-siècle Vienna: Politics and Culture 33 (New York: Vintage Books, 1981),27 62 CEU eTD Collection 67 66 Press, c1986), 248 65 Architecture, 1867-1918 64 63 “universalist utopia ofharmony,” It accommodated andintegrated urban visions ofmany socialdifferent and,ingroups allowing a reflection of the times that gave it birth, the Ringstrasse project was much more comprehensive. mindthe of Austrian liberalism”ascendant what it signified is still open to debate. Schorske's view of the Ring as the “iconographic index to empire,” and metropolis for rooms reception breathtaking of “set a to likened been has Ringstrasse of of medievalthe Renaissance the communities, ofhe scholarship.” University humanistic independence the Rathaus the of Gothic Northern the democracy, Athenian buildings Parliament Thus “the Gothic of the Votivkirche evoked the piety of the High Middle Ages, the Greek of the clue as to its intended function and provoke associations with some desirable, aimed-for values. meant that the style of each public building on or near Ringstrasse was supposed to represent a etc.). One definingfeature of historicism, in belief the thereferential power of architecture, housing the most important institutions of the society (government, church, higher education, open spacebegan soon fill to up with representative private mansions and public buildings The newlycreated was embodied. it which as diversethrough asthe style was just eclectic and “Ringstrassenstil.” name has towarrantthe of beendeemeduniqueenough a style, they represent public is by no means unique of Vienna. Yet, its particular mix of different styles and the values course, practicethe of using architectural tohistoricalreferences send stylemessage to a to the Carl E. Schorske, E. Carl Ibid, 283 Donald J. Olsen, ÁkosMoravánszky, Ibidem 65 the heart of a city designed for self-representation. And the selfitwas representing Andthe for self-representation. heartof the a city designed The City asa Work of Art.London, Paris, Vienna Fin-de-siècle Vienna: Politics and Culture 67 Competing Visions: Aesthetic Invention and Social Imagination in Central European (Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, c1998), 30 64 succeededimperial had where politics failed. 63 has since been challenged and overturned. A true 34 (New York: Vintage Books, 1981), 25 (New Haven and London: Yale University Yale London: and Haven (New 66 Of CEU eTD Collection Architecture, 1867-1918 69 (New York: Rizzoli, 1992), 12 68 buildings public some of Ringstrasse the in inclusion the for responsible was bourgeoisie the etc.), as well as the much more visible, representative architecture of the Ring. Rising power of wereindispensablethat for aburgeoning (publicmetropolis supply, health care system, water services public many of establishment the for responsible was class middle ruling The Vienna. class. The era of liberalism which began in 1860 was a time of great urban developments in Ringstrassethe was very much by determined newthe in force 19 Apart from the aristocratic, conservative traditions of the centralised monarchy, the design of court's diminishing power to steer the course of its capital city as well as the empire. Belvedere and Palace Schönbrunn of maintenance need the orthe heart tosavefor changeof (Emperor's for reason whatever But access to art collections and theatre was entirely owing to the munificence if the Hapsburgs.” new “This Theatre. Hofburg would have been unmistakable testimony public factthe to that Kunsthistorisches completed, theplannedwings segment of Neue Hofburgwould have been with connected the project for the Kaiserforum, was drawn with the aim imperialof self-glorification. Had it been Semper's Gottfried for Ringstrasse, the initial the of plans thatone natural was therefore It beled interests. city of to the bycivic development allowed and the space monopoly urban over Franz Joseph's role in the creation of the Ringstrasse is undeniable - he ended the military imperial wasthe one. of the streets Vienna through reflected ideologies most conspicuous of the going oninside it, but also reflected ideas and agendas of the social group that had raised it. One The style of the building, as well as its position on the Ring Road, spoke not only of what was ÁkosMoravánszky, Peter Haiko and Roberto Schezen Roberto and Haiko Peter and Competing Visions: Aesthetic Invention and Social Imagination in Central European (Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, c1998), 25 Naturhistorisches . Vienna 1850-1930 : Architecture, 69 ) the plan was never fully executed, a clear indication of the of indication a clear executed, fully never was plan ) the museums on the other side of the Ring, as well as to the 35 translated by Edward Vance Humphrey Vance by Edward translated th century politics, the middle the politics, century 68 CEU eTD Collection Press, c1986), 285 73 72 madeaspirations real in marble and stone. own of it examples because contained everyone's capital, imperial on the completely themselves of attraction. Somany cities in Austria-Hungary someappropriated aspects,ormodelled money which reflected theprosperity of period. the Bundesverlag, c1985 71 70 compatible.” forwhen, a fundamentally time, thevaluesseemed ofmonarchy, andbourgeoisie aristocracy, 'eclecticism.' Olsen summarised it well when he said that Ringstrasse was “the product of an age many styles used to express them, Ringstrasse Vienna could best be encapsulated by the term palatial private mansions of the “ postulates of monumentality and luxurious opulence. As a result, the Ring was lined with the frugality, sobriety, diligence and rationality, and instead re-affirmed the aristocratic baroque to say. They eschewed the values usually perceived as being typical for that class, such as Biedermeier, the wealthy middle class now sought to beat the aristocracy at their own game, so economic powerwith an equal social prestige. Unlike the ‘kleine Mann’values of the supplement theirto newlyacquired theystrove for legitimisation; bourgeoisie quest reflected the might, imperial of symbols the replaced constitutional (Parliament),rights bourgeois freedom and(Rathaus) liberal culture (University) ideology. symbols The of Neo-absolutist isto intendedfunction clearly whose contrary people, and signalled the dawn of the new “aristocracy of spirit.” Donald J. Olsen, Inge Lehne and Lonnie Johnson, Carl E. Schorske, E. Carl Ibid, 32 Considering themyriad ofinfluences, constitutingelements and ideologies, equalled by the 73 This wealth of models was surely one of the reasons for Vienna's immense power The City asa Work of Art.London, Paris, Vienna Fin-de-siècle Vienna: Politics and Culture ) , 76 Vienna, the Past in the Present: A Historical Survey Ringstrasse 70 made those institutions available to a wider circle of barons”, a new aristocracy of achievement and 36 72 (New York: Vintage Books, 1981), 45 (New Haven and London: Yale University Yale London: and Haven (New 71 Their private palaces also (Wien: Österreichischer (Wien: CEU eTD Collection Actar, 2007), 37 76 75 Zagreb: AGM, 2003), 63 according to a according a to template, model, andapproved tested level whichmayhave guaranteedahigher public building and planning projects.” for responsible ministries imperial inthe architects “official” by designed often and in Vienna, “ Ausgleich, Zagreb’s architectural with voluntary Viennaties wereboth Priorand to dictated. the numbering itself among the many cities self-styled as ‘little Vienna’ andintegrated stillmedieval in and outlook character, wasalready trying toelevate its status by Square and the first, short part of Ilica Street. So the first priority is small town, only recently centre) – two historic settlements of Gradec and Kaptol, Vlaška Street, Nova Ves, Ban Jela ‘the city’ encompassed a very small area (about half of whatis today considered as the strict city importance. The new status had to be justified by matching urban developments. At that time, Joseph I to Zagreb in October, 1851 seemed to be a symbolic confirmation of its increased from a small medieval hill town intoa modern national capital. The visit of the emperor Franz transformation towards Zagreb’s the step first and the necessary precondition wasthe settlements 1848 crystallised its desire to become metropolis. national desireto the its 1848 crystallised administration, outside all major traffic routes and with practically no industry,yet the events of 74 second half of the19 in the place took that development urban of result the largely is Zagreb of outlook Today's Voice ofa inSearch Zagreb 3.2 Eve Blau and IvanRupnik, Ivo Ivo Peri official buildingsofficial and werecommissionedlarge-scale urban projects by central government the Darja Radovi Darja ü , Zagreb, Od 1850. dosuvremenog velegrada Zagreb city administration had no control over any stage of the building process; ü Mahe þLü th century. Prior to that, itwas a city at the edge of the Austrian state , “Arhitektura i modernizacija grada,” in Fe in grada,” modernizacija i “Arhitektura , Project Zagreb: Transition as Condition, Strategy, Practice 76 This meantthatbuilding designs were usually done (Muzej grada Zagreba, Zagreb, 2006), 35 37 ÿ a Vuki 74 The1850unification of twothe ü , ed, , 75 Zagreb, Modernost i grad ( . (Barcelona; New York: (Barcelona; þLü CEU eTD Collection Actar, 2007), 62-63 78 77 and the (1859) at Solferino defeat theAustrian between in 1865, but wasnever by approved either BudapestorVienna. The product of an optimistic time The first Urban Development Master Plan of Zagreb as a unified national capital was drafted hub. railway new the of victory urban important most the possibly was Zagreb include to routes their change Budapest with Rijeka, andline neither planned todosovia Zagreb. Convincingpowers both to Vienna and Budapest were looking to connect with the seaside, Vienna with Trieste and southern limit of the town’s spread. Yet its route almost bypassed Zagreb completely. Both Zagreb’s speedy development in the second half of the century, and it also constituted the in instrumental was railway The railway. new the of arrival belated by the determined strictly for building future codes. urbanization standards without which a city cannot function, while all development plans are left Its provisions (most of which were never carried out) were therefore confined tosetting the basic newurbandevelopments. in to unfavorable Empire,the situation bad the economic area reflects pivotal three of 1857Building The forregulations urban development. theZagreb Regulation the from seen be can as Empire, in the politics inter-national on dependent heavily was planning outside the city itself, andespecially if they are made by a foreign Zagreb’sgovernment. urban areeven Political moreconsiderations. dictates pronounced aremade if decisions urbanistic someUrban allowances for cannever really making planning purely escape political practice of ‘importing’ experts from Vienna long after it was necessary doto so. was noreason forstart educating Zagreb local to which builders and architects, prolonged the of itquality alsobut implied a lack Secondconsequence ofindividual thatthere features. was Eve Blau and IvanRupnik, Snješka Kneževi Snješka 78 ü , Zagreba þ Project Zagreb: Transition as Condition, Strategy, Practice 77 ka zelena potkova Those building codes, and the future development of Zagreb, were (Zagreb:Školska knjiga, 1996), 19 38 Ausgleich (1867), it was more of an (Barcelona; New York: (Barcelona; CEU eTD Collection http://www.jstor.org/stable/580341 Péter Hanák ( Hanák Péter 83 Actar, 2007), 66 82 81 književnost iumjetnost regime.” resistance of City the itCouncil, should be“taken as an imposed document of Khuen’s all policies of the previous Master plan and that, since it was adopted in spite of opened almost nullified narration, historical Croatian villain of proverbial of one the Khuen-Héderváry, expansion. It has been argued that the heavy handed magyarisation policies of ban Károly regulation Master Plan in 1887. Now there is no trace of previous optimism or of plans for of a newnecessitated development by the 1880earthquake, the aggravated urban circumstances, previous centers of the Upper Town to the north and the railway line to the south. The changed interest of interestits of elite towardsmodernisation and nation building,leaving littlefor room the made ita logical model imitation,of long while Budapest's struggle against theTurks turned the traditional centre of imperial power. Also, Vienna's “more cosmopolitan, universalist culture” authorities’counteract attempt stifling the to Hungarian authority by itpittingagainst the of Vienna’s urban models could also be explained by other considerations,for example, Croatian In addition these to politically conditioned ties with Hungary Austria,and Zagreb’s imitation Zagreb’s defining landmark, “first appears as a distinctive urban formation.” and historicism urban of Vienna-inspired culmination the GreenHorseshoe, thatthe plan Croatia,” political autonomy led to this ambitious “metropolitan vision of Zagreb as the capital of 80 79 “expansion plan than a regulation plan.” Alan Sked, Review of Eve Blau and IvanRupnik, Ibidem Eugen Frankovi Eugen Ibid, 45 81 80 Such opinion, however, does not account for the fact that it is in the 1887 regulation which affirmed the Lower Town as the new city center and delimited it by the two The English Historical Review ü , “Uloga Hermanna Bollèa u urbanistickom planiranju Zagreba, ” in Zagreba, planiranju u urbanistickom Bollèa Hermanna “Uloga , , 1 no. (January,1900), 43 The Garden and theWorkshop: Essays onthe Cultural History of Vienna and Budapest, Project Zagreb: Transition as Condition, Strategy, Practice 114, no. 459(November, 1999), 1359, 79 Croatian bourgeoisie’s renewed hope for more 39 Život, Mjese Život, (Barcelona; New York: (Barcelona; 82 þ na smotra na smotra za 83 by CEU eTD Collection resplendent buildingsresplendent placed within anuninterruptedgreen belt clearly its inspirationdraws from city the Thecentre). idea ofhousing cultural most the important in and institutions scientific with mistakenly ideabeltcredited of green the U-shaped around representational constructing the known as the Lenuci or Green Horseshoe (Milan Lenuci was a city planer and engineer within centerof framework the were situated ofpark around Lowertown, the a squaresrunning Fellner and Hermann Helmer, and Herman Bollé. Many of the resulting representative projects to invite some well-known Viennese architect, such as Friedrich Schmidt, Otto Hofer, Ferdinand at Viennese schools and academies. In addition, the standard practice for the bigger projects was buildersgained Croatian experiences on the relied traditionally architectural practice Croatian Horseshoe Green Garden: Zagreb’s 3.2.1 Emulating the like Vienna. illusion of grandeur. And there was no city that could impart the art of self-representation quite Zagreb's politically impotentgovernment sought to improve their position by fostering an found a way to deal with their failing power, and the bourgeoisie with their rising aspirations, forlegitimisation as the different layers of Viennese society. Just like the court and aristocracy perfect showcase of the latest European trends and fashions. Finally, Zagreb felt the same need the eastern part of the monarchy. For abackward, provincial city like Zagreb, Vienna was the role model in its ownright, ithad the additional of advantage acting as a windowtoEurope for articulation of different national interests. Furthermore, though Vienna was a highly desirable 40 CEU eTD Collection trademark. middle of 19 the mentioned remark Vienna’s about backwardness (functionless city walls still in existencein the already Schorske’s (Gradec). settlement medieval walls the of outside the was situated Townand Horseshoe) the (Lower was newcity the to become centre that entire area the because fortification that had been replaced by the new circular avenue. Zagreb’s case was different usual grandring-shaped avenue manyencircling cities; theform was by dictated oldthe city differences between the two urban landmarks. Ringstrasse is the most famous example of the 86 Architecture, 1867-1918 “entirely different urban situation.” straightforward copy of the Ringstrasse, but the application of a frequently used model in an a not was Horseshoe Green the notwithstanding, architects Viennese and model Viennese itsform. present into 'beautified' face of was already Vienna somethingin similar Zagreb appeared in 1887Urbanthe Master Development Plan, public the projectbegan inRingstrasse so by 1857, first timethe plan the that comprehensive of doing at the site of the future Horseshoe there was nothing butfields siteat the of wasnothing andgardens. futurethere the Horseshoe even before earthquake, the finding spacefor further urban hardlydevelopment a problem;posed contributed to the town’s modernisation intoby it turning one big construction site. However, was hitby physical which a devastatingcausedgreat earthquake andmaterial butalso damage, long urban past tomakefor room future,the Zagreb literally had aclean slate.In1880Zagreb 85 Actar, 2007), 58 84 the Ringstrasse (it was even initially known as the “Zagreb Ring” Carl E. Schorske, E. Carl ÁkosMoravánszky, Eve Blau and IvanRupnik, 86 This is doubly true for Zagreb because, while Vienna had to raze the remnants of its th Fin-de-siècle Vienna: Politics and Culture century) which enabled themodern woulddevelopment that become its Competing Visions: Aesthetic Invention and Social Imagination in Central European (Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, c1998), 41 Project Zagreb: Transition as Condition, Strategy, Practice 85 Once again, the names reveal crucial information about the about information crucial reveal names the again, Once 41 , 27 84 ). The time frame fits; the fits; frame time The ). (Barcelona; New York: (Barcelona; CEU eTD Collection de siècle Zagreb – Be Zagreb siècle de 87 transformation, market before it was turned into apark square (this, however, is only guesswork). Prior to its Novi trg from factstem the that might name ‘horseshoe’ thatthe speculate might Oneframe. rectangular into ringcurves of meant were transformed Vienna’s that foralso Zagreb. This characteristic orthogonal grid of streets and squares, and the system of fairly large city blocks that is structures, they had afree handin designing a new one.The resultwas a highly regular, Since Zagreb’s urban planners didnot have toadjust their plans toany already existing urban project of Ringstrasse, other than their shape. To begin with, the Ringstrasse was conceived as a complete the and Horseshoe Green the between differences of consideration the to us brings This patricians.'' Lower of the town culture for''elite the setting the now perceived as town, Lower the conceptualised as apublic park,whichraised the barfor thegeneral standard of development of was includeextended to the city centre the spaceof years representative perceived later, the justfourHowever, be relocated. deemed appropriate for the main square to be soiled by the various market stalls, so they had to the new site of the market previously situated on the Ban Jela According to the first Urban Development Master Plan from 1865, Novi trg was designated as assigned function highlight manythe revisions that Zagreb's urban concept wentthrough. andmarket wassurroundedby shacks Thechangesand craftsman in workshops. square's the consciousness and the economic basis necessary for its implementation. The idea The its the of implementation. for shaping economic the basisnecessary and consciousness Olga Maruševski, “Arhitektonsko-urbanisti Maruševski, Olga , the first square in the series that form the Horseshoe, used to be the sight of a cattle Gesamtkunstwerk; 87 Novi trg þ (Zagreb: Školska knjiga, 1997), 201 (New Square), an area just south of the main square, served as a cattle Novi trg, Zagreb Zagreb farwas too behindin developmentthe its of urbanisticboth so the market had to move yet again. The square was re- þ ke veze Zagreba i Be i Zagreba veze ke 42 þ a na prijelomu stolje prijelomu a na þLü Square; it was no longer ü a” in Damir Barbari Damir in a” ü , Fin CEU eTD Collection purchased one by one. A mitigating circumstance was that, as I already said, there were almost as were there I already said, wasthat, circumstance byAmitigating one purchased one. handed the entire tract of the land over to the project, in Zagreb the individual plots had to be of the land also contributed to its intermittent development. Unlike Vienna, where the emperor Actar, 2007), 58 88 any there inadministrative body city the empowered tomake decisions […].” Horseshoe could not even be called a project; “there was neither program nor plan […] nor was hand,the On other the and contractors. professors ministers, architects, state Austria, Lowe of state federal the commissions, city several involving affair, complicated a was design final the development of the future Ringstrasse was put up for competition. The implementation phase of for the The twoprojects histories. The design also organisational very had different possible in way. best the achievements educational and scientific nation's cultural, the would architecture envisaged solely showcase arepresentativespacewhosehistoricist social as each side by smaller streets which do not contribute to the traffic flow. The Horseshoe was on the Horseshoeof consists surfaces bounded itsgreen avenue and communicational aspect, and expressing the urban identity of a national capital as 'useful'). Instead of the Ring’s central consideritsin (if whatsoever not role we do creating purpose lacked any utilitarian Horseshoe Zagreb's contrast, In for self-representation. desire of Viennese expression ultimate the size finally,of that transportation about practical and Ringutility; wasthe the was consideration partly for Haussmann'sresponsible wide in boulevards Paris); unimportantnot for a metropolis avenue suitable for fast movement of troops in case of an emergency (the same reasoning was important lines of thought - the military, still remembering the events of 1848, called for awide by wasshaped squareatthe Ringstrasse time. one three Also,the appeared gradually, spreading Lower townintoa green representational space that wouldimprintZagreb's urban identity Eve Blau and IvanRupnik, Project Zagreb: Transition as Condition, Strategy, Practice 43 (Barcelona; New York: (Barcelona; 88 The ownership The CEU eTD Collection lag. inparticipation modern architectural perhapstrends, for firstthe time inits history without a time clearly Secessionist design of the National and University Library signified Croatia's the last of the representative public buildings on the Horseshoe builtin a historicist style. The represented Croatia atthe 1896Millennium inExhibition ThePavilionBudapest. Art was also Renaissance, Empire style, Classicism and Secession as eclectic as the Horseshoe itself, buildings they constructed all over the Empire, and theirArt Pavilion, with its combination of the several of their projects. The Neo-baroque Croatian National theatre was one of the thirty theatre forms of the Florentine Renaissance. Theatre builders Fellner and Helmer graced Zagreb with designedSchmidt the palace of Yugoslavianthe Academy andArts of Sciences in strictthe architects, constructing into Zagreb ascaled down model imperialthe of capital. Friedrich von institutionsThese of exclusively by doneandeducation were almost culture Viennese Austria-Hungary, the country’s elite strove to do it through culture. determined by its political situation. Not able to formulate its identity within the confines of Empire. The Horseshoe was a perfect reflection of Croatia’s self image, which was in turn political or economical institution that could remind them of their second-class status in the Horseshoe carefree, knowing that the new centre of the ‘modern’ Zagreb did not contain a single replaced, the old imperial institutions. On the contrary, citizens of Zagreb could stroll the already mentioned the symbols of new liberal bourgeoisie which competed with, and sometimes I housed. they contents institutional in the was projects two the between difference final The quality individual of urban and architectural units. smoothly. Still, the prolonged, patchwork emergence of the Horseshoe resulted in an uneven land,previousnooccupying structures relatively the acquisition could sothe process proceed 44 CEU eTD Collection Architecture, 1867-1918 90 knjiga iFS,1996) the most important Gothic monuments in the imperial capital such as the Town Hall or Rathaus, within historicistthe architecture, Friedrich Schmidtvon Schmidt. was responsible for some of Arts in Vienna. There he worked with probably the best known representative of Neo-Gothicism historicism. He was born in Cologne, Germany, and studied architecture at the Academy of Fine of Vienna-dictated both characteristics seems toembody positive negative the and the a man who has since become almost synonymous with historicism in Zagreb. Hermann Bollé No look at the development of Zagreb in the nineteenth century can pass without amention of Up The andGainsofGrowing Pains 3.2.2 Hermann Bollé: 89 model” the which had to be imitated “eve if the new urban space had structurally not much in common with Moravánszky’s conclusion that “the grand boulevard had become a symbol of a modern city” models to its own specific circumstances and creating a new,idiosyncratic urban expression. illideologicalandindifferent somewhat embodied succeeded considerations. taken the adapting However, although it did follow Vienna's lead very closely, the ‘Zagreb Ring’ stemmed from seemingly condemned it being to just avery pale version of its glittering imperial model.role along with its muchmore modest urbanistic, economicand self-governing possibilities, asubstantialrequire quite monograph. layoutits and would A more architecture worthy urban of GreenHorseshoe's account the ÁkosMoravánszky, See the excellent and extremely detailed work by Snješka Kneževi by Snješka work detailed extremely and excellent Seethe 90 seems appropriate. Competing Visions: Aesthetic Invention and Social Imagination in Central European (Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, c1998), 43 89 Suffice it to summarise that Zagreb's much smaller size, smaller much Zagreb's that summarise itto Suffice 45 ü , Zagreba þ ka zelena potkova (Zagreb:Školska CEU eTD Collection 91 to provoke in a small town. He was thus derogatorily called a “Lutheran” still became the object of the irrational animosity that strangers, especially successful ones, tend either of the two hegemonic nations that the people of Zagreb might have reasons to resent, Bollé tradition, architecture and culture. Even though, being a German national,he did not belong to also discharging those building and restoration contracts without any regard for the local ‘foreigner’, an oppressor who was not only taking jobs from the local architects and builders but of the embodiment the Szabo, Bollé was life Gjuro figure cultural of Croatian present eyes of his contemporaries was his foreign birth. For many of his contemporaries, like that ever- can be related to some general historical circumstances. First of all, one of the greatest sinsthey and in the manifold are this for reasons The consideration. under is still Zagreb of outlook present name of Hermann Bollé. He is still a controversial figure, and the value of his contribution to the And yet, for all his achievements, no street, square or monument in Zagreb today bears the Crafts. and Arts for School of the long-time anddirector founder or the urban developer, restaurateur, an architect, Versatile and prolific, Bollé left an indelible mark on his adopted city, whether in the function of Although he never really learned thelanguage, heconsidered himself a Croatian patriot. norththe of Croatia, and ended up staying inZagreb for half a century, until his death in 1926. came to Croatia in 1878 to work on the restoration of the church and rectory in a small town in first in Bollé again. andover variousover heZagreb projects appliedstyle to that historicist worked. It was in his atelier that Hermann Bollé adopted the universalistic elements of the as well as several churches, most notably the St. Stephan’s Cathedral on whose restoration he Spectator, “Vanjsko lice našega grada – i zašto je takovo” in 6, December1933) 46 Zagreb, glasilo društva zagrep 91 and a “stubborn old þ ana (Volume CEU eTD Collection 93 umjetnosti total disregard and even disgust for the “barbaric Croatians.” (whatever that may be). Furthermore, as the true colonial masters, they supposedly exhibited Neo-Gothicism, which was considered to be an expression of the Austrian German character Joseph. They were attributed with the desire to remake the entire empire in the style and spirit of commissions he took over, were accused of representing the imperialist tendencies of Franz on Zagreb’s urban design. Both Bollé and his teacher baron Friedrich Schmidt, some of whose coined the term ‘boletika’ (‘Bolléticism’) todenote all the negative effects he claimed Bollé had 92 removal of the cathedral’s old baroque altar, as well as of all other elements that had made the be word); wouldreconstruction critics of abetter lamented the the new cathedral especially The cathedral’s longin history ignored was completely process the itsof restoration (perhaps attack in 1242, and the long process of restoration and repair resulted in a unique stylistic mix. the Zagreb diocese at the end of the eleventh century. It was heavily damaged during the Tatar thefoundingbegan first of after thecathedral of construction The longcenturies existence. eight disregardfor the various, stylistically elementseclectic thathave beenbrought togetherby its restoration, whose plans were drawn by Friedrich Schmidt, is that Bollé ruined it with his utter which was severely damaged in 1880earthquake.the Theprevailing opinion about the style itself. One of his most important projects was the restoration of the old Zagreb cathedral Bollé atMuch historicist beenaddressedtothe of criticism haveactually directed should the particularities. of newcomers and ‘unassimilated’ foreigners who completely ignored its historic and social man who was destroying Croatian monuments with that German thoroughness.” Ivo Ivo Frani Žarko Domljan, “Stambena arhitektura Hermanna Bolléa” in Bolléa” Hermanna arhitektura “Stambena Domljan, Žarko (Volume 26-27, 1978), 32 ü , “Stara katedrala u Zagrebu” in uZagrebu” katedrala “Stara , Zagreb, glasilo društva zagrep 47 Život umjetnosti, 93 Zagreb was thus left at the mercy leftat Zagrebwas the thus þ ana 1(April 1935),100 þ asopis zapitanja likovne kulture i 92 Szabo even Szabo CEU eTD Collection umjetnosti, 96 umjetnosti 95 (1978), 22 closer to its desired image, was to sacrifice its own architectural history. For thegrowing and For history. sacrifice its own architectural image, wasto desired toits closer cathedral with a ‘modern’ one, reminiscent of the Vienna Votivkirche, and thus move one step a successin Theaspect atleast. this price Zagreb had topay replace oldto itscrumbling Residenzstadt was to come as close to imitating the appearance and importance of the could aim for aprovincialhonour town greatest the of time. Since the architecture ecclesiastic European capitals, especially Vienna, which all boasted similar Neo-Gothic design, so typical of in itmadebut of return Western Croatia)the Zagreb(and part group of elite and Central old of cathedral, the individual character erasedthe restoration on hand,Bollé’s one So, ‘types’. Consequently, the buildings it produced were not so much individual works of art, but rather 94 universalism,” preached“abstract style which architectural thefirsttransnational was Historicism of Croatian national heritage by an evil foreigner butfrom philosophythe of historicism itself. not have any intradition Zagreb), its universal design notfromarose some deliberatedestruction (e.g. the standardised new altars were designed by Bollé’s associates in the ‘Tyrol’ style that did Although the restoration of the cathedral clearly does not belong among Bollé’s best work of time. the style architectural by European culture contemporary it inwith erected enriching monuments representative Zagreb the “saviour of cathedral,” old cathedral a physical record of Croatia’s historical development. Yet others hailed Bollé as the RadovanIvancevic, “Kriterij stila i kvalitete u interpretaciji neostilova; tri primjera iz Bolléovog opusa” in Milan Prelog, “Uz problem valorizacije historicizma” in Željka ý 26-27 (1978), 7 orak,“Bollé ufunkciji grada” in þ asopis za pitanja likovne kulture iumjetnosti as possible, for many people, including Bollé’s employers, the new cathedral was 95 aiming towards aiming general,the towards unifying, the collectivethe andanonymous. the 94 and as the man who made the Croatian capital part of the Život umjetnosti, 48 26-27 (1978), 21 Život umjetnosti, þ asopis za pitanja likovne kulture i umjetnosti þ asopis za pitanja likovne kulture i Reichshaupt- und 26-27, the Život 96 CEU eTD Collection umjetnosti, 98 (1978), 24 1900, Viktor Kova1900, Viktor 43, which was the first example of Wagner-inspired secession style in Zagreb. The next year, in 97 Pe Vjekoslav finished the Bastl group, artistic of “Vienna Secession” the a new style more or less simultaneously with the rest of Europe. Only 2 years after the founding markedprobably tendencies firsttime thatCroatian (andthe artin architecture adopted general) Going back in situation andthe appearance to Secessionist protomodernist Zagreb, of the a charlatan. andatworst best, at anachronism It is therefore not really surprising that many of Bollé’s contemporaries considered him an finished, Tony Garnier had already designed towers with a bare, reinforced concrete structure. palace was already thirty years old, and when its Neo-Gothic towers were close to being crystal Paxton’s cathedral, on the beganwork Bollé at atime when relations, easily understood some of the key representatives of the new modernist architecture. To put it intowider, more Zagreb, he first helped to raise, then worked alongside or rather opposite of, and finally outlived duringtime. wehave Thus in that, hisfifty-yearparadoxical activity situation asomewhat hethat lived well into twentieth the 1926,andremainedmuchcentury, active until for of that stylistically and conceptually Bollé fully belonged to nineteenththe century. The problem was Zagreb is the time frame during which he was active. As a typical representative of historicism, Another obstacle to the full acceptance of Bollé’s place among the most important builders of contours” Baroque “gentle the of remnant last old of the the cathedral, lamentdodisappearance the than anything other to were helpless increasingly ambitious town that sacrifice was obviously acceptable, and so the opposing voices RadovanIvan Željka ý orak,“Bollé ufunkciji grada” in þ asopis za pitanja likovne kulture iumjetnosti þ evi ü , “Kriterij stila i kvalitete u interpretaciji neostilova; tri primjera iz Bolleovog opusa” in þLü published an article entitled “Moderna arhitektura”, which was openly Život umjetnosti, 97 of of the old Zagreb. 49 26-27 (1978), 10 þ asopis za pitanja likovne kulture i umjetnosti þLü house in house street Ilica 26-27 Život 98 CEU eTD Collection 101 povijest umjetnost 100 Getty Research Institute forthe History of Art and the Humanities, 1988) other three roles (in addition to that of a restaurateur) – architect, urban developer, and educator. style of the German Renaissance, the museum palace represents the combined effects of Bollé’s Exhibition desireand subsequent return to to traditional the handicraft since mid-nineteenth century (some say itwas caused by shock the of 1851London the World strong going been has that movement Crafts’ and ‘Arts European wider the into fit institutions School, but also designed the building it shared with the Museum of the same name. Both isthat the Bollé subject of notonlyfounded andsubsequent chapters). led and Arts the Crafts artistic achievements cast its spell over yet another generation of Zagreb’s urban developers (but education at the prestigious Academy of Fine Arts in Vienna. In this way the magic of Vienna’s Arts and Crafts and the associated Builder’s School. Most of them went on to continue their Hugo Erlich, Rudolf Lubinsky, orStjepan Podhorsky) began their careers in Bollé’s School for Schön, Edo Bastl, as Vjekoslav (such andbuilding engineers modernistarchitects of generation Zagreb and Croatia who grew out of Hermann Bollé’s atelier and school. Almost the entire Viktor Kova design. architectural in principles modernist advocated uncompromisingly and consistently who person only 99 architecture” Croatian he picked up in the West, in Vienna. Nevertheless, the importance of “the first builder of modern Croatia in consisted architectural the heintroduced ofideasthat and programmatic innovations to the new architectural and artistic tendencies. Kova inspired by Otto Wagner’s book by the same name Otto Wagner, Otto Željka D. Radovi D. ý orak, ü Mahe Modern Architecture: A Guidebook for His Students to This Field of Art Zagreb, pisani prostor þLü i 21 (1997), 144 þLü was just one, though admittedly the most famous, of the future builders of , A. Laslo, “Viktor Kova “Viktor Laslo, A. , 100 cannot be over-emphasised because he was the first and,atfirst he that time, wasthe because cannotbeover-emphasised (Zagreb: Nakladni zavod Matice hrvatske; Mladost, 1994),135 þLü – promotor hrvatske moderne arhitekture,“ moderne hrvatske promotor – 50 99 and provided a programmatic background þLü may have been a typical figure for 101 ). Builtin 1892 in the (Santa Monica, California: Rad Instituta za CEU eTD Collection umjetnosti, 103 Actar, 2007), 54 102 landmark of the united city, as opposed to the churches of St. Mark and the Cathedral which achievement; they also left astrong mark on Zagreb’s urban outlook as the first important more thanjust central andcupolas were the an church, arcades exceptional architectural hasArcade beencalledthe crowning glory of oeuvre. Bollé’s trademark of the city, featured on all postcards and various promotional materials. The Mirogoj situated in the north of the city, outside of the central pedestrian routes, it quickly became a mirror of actual city.” asamodel the and were “constituted century nineteenth the of half first the in revival national Croatian the from inherited ideology Illyrian “symbolicthe space”in which city’sthe multiethnic andmultidenominational population and the symbolic level, unification this of cemeteries old previously divided by serveddenominations as cemeteries, thus freeing valuable new construction space in the centre of the city. On a more purposes of new,the united community, and encompassed all replaced existingpreviously served more than one important function in the city; first of all, this new cemetery, builtfor the many other facilities, Mirogoj was one of the largest historicist projects in whole of Europe. It the new city cemetery. With its half a kilometre long arcades that include twenty cupolas and Another successful and urbanistically important project of Hermann Bollé was the design of the endpoint of the string of parks and squares of the Green Horseshoe. its found location representing city what becameoneof on important finally most the squares, FellnerTheatre National Helmer’s Threeyearslater and market. land plot cattle of housing the andlayoutdetermined themeasures of future the University Square, until then an undeveloped The building was important in the urban development of the newly expanded city centre; its size RadovanIvan Eve Blau and IvanRupnik, þ asopis za pitanja likovne kulture iumjetnosti þ evi ü , “Kriterij stila i kvalitete u interpretaciji neostilova; tri primjera iz Bolleovog opusa” in Project Zagreb: Transition as Condition, Strategy, Practice 51 (Volume 26-27, 1978), 15 103 The Neo-renaissance walls with 102 Furthermore, despite being (Barcelona; New York: (Barcelona; Život CEU eTD Collection his adopted city his managed achieve.adopted to Hermann degree for waslargely Bollé whateverof with approximation responsible that Vienna had long been its political, social, cultural and architectural role model. And the German ‘Croat’ This ittried do by to looking towards shiningthe exampleofhistoricist Vienna, city the which of Croatian independence state. the and forpolitical social desire prestige satisfy increasing the Zagreb was supposed to reflect its growth in both size and importance, as well as to embody and 100 000.Through monumental, the representational itsarchitecture of buildings andparks, the city had less than 30 000 inhabitants; at the time of his death that number had risen to over demands ofits population and variousinstitutions. governmental When Bollé came Zagreb,to sewersitopened a modernintotransformed metropolis, capable risingof the accommodating town (or rather two towns), whosedark and werezigzagged unpaved streets bystreams and medieval almost still and provincial asmall, from development; intense of period a experiencing nineteenth century city. Bollé’s controversial designs were created at a time when Zagreb was constitutes landmarks the determine thaturbanidentity Zagreb’s makeand ita historicist, Schmidt. His work, together with the representative buildings of the Green Horseshoe, still of Vienna’s most important historicist, more precisely Neo-Gothic architects, Friedrich von Zagreb for half a century and considered himself Croatian. Yet he came from the school of one influence of Vienna since he was a German national from Cologne who he had been living in Bollé and his work in Zagreb may be considered as a somewhat strange example of the ideal Secessionist of a architecture, sculpture and horticulture, itis probably the closest that Zagreb has come to the acted as symbols of Gradec and Kaptol respectively.Also, as a unique combination of Gesamtkunstwerk tothis day. 52 CEU eTD Collection http://www.jstor.org/stable/990950 Mallgrave. Journal The of Society the of Architectural Historians 53, no. 3(September, 1994):363, 104 away from the established Association of Austrian Artists (also known as the Künstlerhaus). The breaking youngjoined56 years when, heof artists agroup of age, spotlight at intoHe came the architecture modern of as fathers of the one Wagner’s status Otto Inspirations 4.1 Great adoption by long-established(pre)determined political betweenthe two cities.ties architectural styles signaled achangein Zagreb’s oldrelationship with Vienna, orwas their novel the whether be will question the specifically, More century. the of turn the at movements willbut examine how Zagreb withcoped suddenthe proliferation of differentstylistic ways. This short chapter will notgo into the details of life and work of the discussed architects, beginnings functionalism,of the old and the new are intertwined, sometimes in highly surprising historicism in its lastincarnation shares the public space with short-livedwhen Secessiona time At and the century. twentieth the into nineteenth the of turn the at architecture about talking of the thoughts and values of the classifier. This is especially important to keep in mind when a reflection of asmodern styles are necessarily characterizations or all classifications Therefore, meaning reflecting the new developments in society the andman's satisfying new needs. artisticits style itself defines outdated predecessor against and considers itself be modern,to new every Almost past. the to in relation defined been always has 'modern' Paradoxically, 4. ModernArchitecture Long, Christopher. Review of Otto Wagner: Reflections on the Raiment of Modernity 53 104 stands on firm grounds. , by Harry Francis CEU eTD Collection Zagreb. He belonged to the second generation of architects with academic education who finally in architecture examplemajor for all andbut Secessionist Nouveau is of one Art responsible Unlike Kova architecture. was thustheinitiator both of examples andof SecessionistZagreb proto-functionalist up aspectof one Wagner’s and useditin inphilosophy architectural work their Zagreb. Wagner century. Both Viktor Kova from twentieth of the beginning the all almost major architects hetaught for Zagreb since architects form all over the Empire. This aspect of his work is probably the most important one 105 of art.” Moderne Arhitektur Wagner wasalso ahighly influential architectural knowfortheorist, prescribing theideal of Loos. Adolf like enemies sworn its merged the seemingly opposite tendencies, and was praised by admirers of Secession as well as Wagner functionality, and monumentality between scene. Alternating at architectural the present His style, however, cannot be classified as secessionist; it contained elements of all three styles joined the young rebels and, together with Gustav Klimt, became one of their symbolic leaders. Though already an established ofArchitecture professor at Viennathe AcademyFineof he Arts, become the most famous example. Otto Wagner was a true representative of the time of change. art were a perfect fitfor the general European atmosphere of the time, of which Vienna has since life, nor could it be an expression of contemporary ideas and sensibilities. These new ideas about life. Senseless imitation of past architectural styles was not appropriate for framing the modern Secessionists against wererebelling the dominant of dictate history over many of humanareas Vera Horvat Pintari Horvat Vera 105 Truly a versatile figure, his lectures at the Art Academy educated whole generations of whole generations Academy atthe lectures Arteducated figure, his Truly a versatile þLü ü whose flirtation with Art Nouveau was short lived, Bastl remained faithful to , as well as for his functionalistmaxim that “necessity was the sole mistress , Vienna 1900: The Architecture of Otto Wagner þLü and Vjekoslav Bastl studied under the grand old man. Each picked 54 (New York: DorsetPress, 1989), 12 CEU eTD Collection against Germanizing the influence of historicism.Vienna-inspired words,it In other was what utilized as an architectural articulation of the national identity, and as such served as a weapon of concerns non-dominant in the peoples Austria-Hungary.Nouveau Art in particular was with political was tightly connected of this rebellion aspect century. One rules of past the 107 kulture i umjetnosti, of European the characteristics towards Vienna for inspiration in all fields of culture. However, one of the general defining So it seemed that the new century did not bring any changes at all,but continued tolook Breakaway? Clean A Zagreb: in 4.2 Moderna andstructures power relations. perpetuate establishedaway from tothe helps of dictates Vienna andthus the Secession, (Elsa-Fluid House). Though each of his works had a personal touch, Bastl never really breaks famous for his herbal remedy ‘for all ills and aches,’ which also lentits nickname to the house two-storey tall, protruding shape of a bottle. The owner of the house, pharmacist Feller, was redecorated. Situated on the corner of the main square, the corner of the Feller house boasted a order to highlight and advertise the profession of its occupant has since been completely greathouse Wagner’s unmistakably Bastl that Majolika Haus. Unfortunately,built another in of flowery pattern ornament. a rich geometric with glazed tiles in Kallinais multi-colored for Thehouse covered thetile hebuiltstyle. Secession manufacturer 106 style historicist high from away broke Ibid, 52 Zlatko Juri ü , “Arhitekt Vjekoslav Bastl: radovi 1901.– 1910,” 56-57 (1995), 44 fin de siècle fin 106 His most famous works are builtin a pure Vienna movements was a rebellion against the prescribed against the wasarebellion movements 55 Život umjetnosti, 107 The source of the inspiration is þ asopis za pitanja likovne CEU eTD Collection 108 opposition. of architecture calledthe John Macsai (Summer, 1985), 8, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1424857 110 109 (Summer, 1985), 8, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1424857 Nationalthe and University Library had beenlost. Thismeans that the building, universally Vienna. Due to an unfortunate combination of circumstances, practically all archival sources on workinginarchitects didZagreb who nothave anyeducational professional in experiences or few of the one Rudolf was creator Lubynski Its Secession. of the dictates the to according modeled was also Library National The University and GreenHorseshoe. the beon erected changed. This is clearly illustrated by the stated aim of the last representative public building to It was also obvious that the prerogatives of representation and legitimization have not to stick to their old tactic of siding with the other power, in this case Austria. well as against the national minorities.” in the works of Ödön Lechner, hoped that it “will be effective in two ways: against Austria as famously most national represented style,” of Hungarian the “Thecreators in nations empire. the was probably the most ardent proponent of building anational architectural style among the movement” Crafts and Arts English the of style of the south and the “more Protestant spirit” that tended to follow the “stiff, heraldic forms ButtheyneverNouveau. between line did; Nouveau the the Art Europe dividing ornamental Art of version Romanticism National the through architecture of a national formulation cultural policies. On the other, those very policies could have also lead it towards an attempted On one hand, such choice is not surprising seeing howit is just acontinuation of Croatian Secession. nationally-neutral the version, Vienna the Nouveau period didevennot use attempt to this possible tool of resistance, butsidedfirmly with John Macsai, “Architecture as Opposition,” Macsai, John, “Architecture as Opposition,” Peter Davey, Architecture of the English Arts and Crafts Journal of Architectural Education (1984-) 110 Journalof Architectural Education (1984-) In light of those hopes, Croatian’s obviously decided 109 seemed tobe runningalong Danube.Hungary the 56 108 (Rizzoli: New York, 1880), 195 What is intriguing is that Croatian Art 38, no. 4 38, no. 4 no. 38, CEU eTD Collection Getty Research Institute forthe History of Art and the Humanities, 1988) 115 kulture i umjetnosti, 114 povijest umjetnosti, 21/1997, p.143-165), 2 113 112 likovne kulture i umjetnosti. name entitled “Moderna arhitektura”, which was openly inspired by Wagner’s by Otto book samethe relationship, both collaborative and friendly. In 1900, Viktor Kova between Croatia, Austria and Hungary). There he met Adolf Loos and initiated their future architecture.” Croatian innovations (e.g. the dome of St. Blasius church was one of the “first reinforced concrete shells tendencies. Inadditionbeing to agreatarchitectstylistic introducing great andtechnical awarded by foundation national Hungarian the 111 That is Kova why Viktor functionalism. as for all the world to see. It was much more comfortable with the strict clean lines of architecture. The last thing that Croatian elite wanted was to resurrect its ‘barbaric’ and exhibit vernacular elements of identity through national the articulate thattried to embrace astyle savages.” the outside so that, when people entered it, they would “feel that we are no paupers and buildersthe of library;the hewanted tobuilding tobe equally impressing on insidethe as well as examined. What was preserved was the highly revealing instruction of the then Croatian ban to inZagreb, of Secession example most as representative the regarded Otto Wagner, Otto Laslo,Aleksander. Arhitektura modernog gra D. Radovi D. Ibidem, 21 Karmen Gagro, “Obrtni Gagro, Karmen 115 and provided a programmatic background to the new architectural tothenew and background and artistic providedaprogrammatic architectural 112 ü Mahe For a nation still obsessed with an inferiority complex,it was very difficult to Modern Architecture: A Guidebook for His Students to This Field of Art 56-57 (1995), 58 þLü , A. Laslo, “Viktor Kova “Viktor Laslo, A. , þ 113 56-57 (1995), 20 ki radovi na sveu na radovi ki He also began as Wagner’s student, going to Vienna on a scholarship þLü is modern acknowledgedfirst of as“thebuilder universally þ ilišnoj biblioteci u Zagrebu,” u biblioteci ilišnoj þLü ÿ anskog Zagreba. – promotor hrvatske moderne arhitekture“, (Rad. Instituta za Instituta (Rad. arhitekture“, moderne hrvatske promotor – 114 57 (here we again see the strange power relations Život umjetnosti, Život umjetnosti, þLü 111 published an article þ has not been sufficiently been not has asopis zapitanja likovne (Santa Monica, California: þ asopis za pitanja CEU eTD Collection 117 kulture i umjetnosti, 116 ever built.” of withoutexposingof European artistic one’s movements past. own ‘savage’ conceiving asanformalmodern of “abstractarchitecture language,” Ibid, 71 Laslo,Aleksander. Arhitektura modernog gra 116 ) He also fitinto the general unwillingness to experiment with vernacular forms by 56-57 (1995), 70 ÿ anskog Zagreba. 58 Život umjetnosti, 117 þ the safest way to be a part asopis zapitanja likovne CEU eTD Collection their situations were quite different, Vienna’s elitecircles (I mean both court and aristocracy and traditional cultural andties similarmethods of using cultural means for political Though ends. even further by conscious decisions as well as impulses,unconscious ingrained in it by of political, administrative and cultural ties with the Habsburg capital. Nowit strengthened them The undisputed cultural capital of the Empire was Vienna. Zagreb already had a long history itsstrengthen weak voice political by addedprestige cultural acquiring through achievements. city, situated relatively near the border towards both dominant nations. Zagreb’s elite tried to Allculture.in through andinfluencesconverged considerations Zagreb, Croatia’s these capital Impotent to fight the Hungarian pressure by political means, Croatia’s only way of assertion was that Croatia’s old strategy of juxtaposing one power against the other was no longer successful. Stephan. Kingdom intomeant Ausgleich the of The integration St. further and Magyarisation betweenAustriacompromise andHungary, had heavy undergone Croatia pressure towards It was difficult enough trying toaccomplish only one of those goals. Since the 1867 Austria-Hungary. The problem it couldwas that not find away doboth.to distinct past, the one thing that made it stand out from the other small, dominated nationalities in any large European capital. At the same time, again notuniquely, it wanted to preserve its all other cities and nations, Zagreb always wanted to be considered modern, able to compete with according to the most common European model of the time. The contradictions are obvious; like foreign architect who was in charge of its restoration, and who finally built the new cathedral dates and events. One such symbolic act is the ‘destruction’ of the old Baroque cathedral by a 5. Conclusion Modern Zagreb is an elusive entity. Its beginnings have been associated with many different 59 CEU eTD Collection did notappear until after World War I. to say that it was not very successful. That is why its first really successful architectural practices individualism,by but beat trying the to dominant by powers using their strategies. own Needless tobreakattempted free of not imposed the (and imposing) by structures its own asserting goals by justdoing the i.e. opposite, holding to on oldthe taken patterns over from Vienna. It to be victorious nation building processes. Paradoxically, Croatia tried to achieve those same soon voice and give tothe for allnationalities identity of single imperial one surpass the dictate wanted newto art The of longer tendencies. popular a validwere no models expression that past message the new architectural styles wanted to convey. Modernism was about breaking with the changed the despite century, into thenineteenth continued imitation of The same pattern identity. national and autonomy own its deserved that nation style to elevate its own image as a modern and cultural city, capital of a modern and cultural and power those sametechniques social appropriated andusedlegitimacy. Zagreb historicist risingthe liberal bourgeoisie) and used art architecture displayto a (false) senseof political 60 CEU eTD Collection Davey, Peter. ý umjetnosti Cohen, Shaul E. “Greenbelts in London and Jerusalem.” Press,1966. M.I.T. ý Geographers Cooke, Philip. “Modern Urban Theory in Question.” 1994): 74-89,http://www.jstor.org/stable/215782 Burchard, John and Oscar Handlin, eds. John Oscar and Burchard, Buntak, Franjo. Communit Stanley.Buder, Central Europe. Ralph Bogert, Baker. Ralph. Bock, Actar, 2007. New York: Barcelona; Blau, Eve andIvan Rupnik. Historical Journal on RecentLiterature Fly byNight: Owls “Modern Steven. Beller, Barbari Antun. Barac, 1995): 143-161,http://www.jstor.org/stable/2505617 Ankersmit, F. R. “Historicism: An Attempt at Synthesis.” smotra zaknjiževnost iumjetnost Andri Bibliography orak, Željka.orak, orak, Željka.orak, “Bollé ufunkciji grada.” ü , Nikola. “Iz njema ü , Damir, ed. , Damir, 26-27,(1978):22 y. Oxford NewYork: University Press, 1990. . NewSeries 15,no.3(1990):331 – 343, http://www.jstor.org/stable/622675 Adolf Loos: Adolf Loos: Works andProjects Architecture of the English Architecture of Arts andCrafts. Jugoslavenska književnost. Zagreb, pisaniprostor Visionaries andPlanners: theGardenCityMovementand Modern Povijest Zagreba Columbus, Ohio: Slavica1991. Publishers, 31, no. 3 31, http://www.jstor.org/stable/2639762(September 665-683, 1988): Fin deSiècleZagreb– Be The Writer as Naysayer: MiroslavKrleza andtheAesthetic ofInterwar þ koga Zagreba.koga Prilog historiji kulturnoj Hrvatskoj.“ Project Zagreb: TransitionasCondition, Strategy, Practice. , no. 1 (January-June, 1900): 22 . Zagreb: Nakladni zavod Matice hrvatske, 1996. . Zagreb: Nakladni zavod Matice hrvatske; 1994. Mladost, Život umjetnosti, The Historian andtheCity. Zagreb, Maticahrvatska, 1954. . Milano: Skira,. Milano: 2007. þ 61 . Zagreb: knjiga, Školska 1997. Transactions ofthe Institute of British Geographical Review þ Rizzoli: 1880. NewYork, History andTheory asopis za pitanjalikovne kulture i Fin desiècle Cambridge, Massachusetts: Cambridge, 34, no. 3 34, (October, 84, no.1 (January, Vienna.” Život, Mjese The þ na CEU eTD Collection Harvey, David. Budapest. Hanák, Péter. Vance Humphrey. New York: Rizzoli, 1992. Haiko, Peter and Roberto Schezen. Peter andRoberto Haiko, http://www.jstor.org/stable/488400 Critique, Gusevich, Miriam. “Decoration and Decorum, Adolf Loos's Critique of Kitsch.” 192, http://www.jstor.org/stable/3047607 Grady, James. “Nature and the Art Nouveau.” 1800 from to the Present. Gee, Malcolm, Tim Kirk and Jill Steward, eds. þ Gagro,Karmen. “Obrtni Gagro,Karmen. Mjese Frankovi Frani Frangeš, Ivo, ed. Flaker, Aleksandar. “Be Geographers Association ofAmerican Fischer, Jack C. “Urban Analysis: A Case Study of Zagreb, Yugoslavia.” likovne kulture iumjetnosti HermannaBolléa.” “Stambena arhitektura Žarko. Domljan, Dobroni histori Dobroni þ Der Hazarijan-Vuki hrvatskoj modernoj arhitekturi.” do Aladar “Odobrta arhitekture: Andreja. Der-Hazarijan, arhitekt Baranyaiinjegov doprinos asopis za pitanjalikovne kulture iumjetnosti, asopis za pitanjalikovne kulture iumjetnosti, ü þ , Ivo. “Stara katedrala uZagrebu.” katedrala “Stara , Ivo. þ na smotra zaknjiževnost iumjetnost ara umjetnosti 1971. Hrvatske, ara umjetnosti ü ü ü , Lelja. “Zagreb u opisima starih pisaca.” , Lelja. no. 43, Special onAustriaIssue (Winter,1988): 97-123, , Eugen. “Uloga Hermanna Bollèa uurbanistickom Zagreba.”planiranju Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University NewJersey:Princeton, University Press, 1998. Princeton The Garden and the Workshop: Essays onthe Cultural History ofVienna and Paris, CapitalofParis, Modernity. Bartol Felbinger izagreba Miroslav Krleža Miroslav ü , Andreja. “Arhitektura Aladara Baranyaia uZagrebu.” Aladara “Arhitektura , Andreja. þ þ ki radovi ki naradovi sveu u hrvatskoj uhrvatskoj književnosti.” Brookfield, VT: Ashgate,Brookfield, VT: 1999. (Volume 26-27,1978): 32 Kontura , I-V. Zagreb: Zora, Matica hrvatska, 1973. Vienna 1850-1930 : Architecture. Vienna 1850-1930 53, no.3 53, no.3 (September, 266-284 1963): , no. 5 (March, 1992): 12-13 Zagreb, glasilodruštva zagrep þ ilišnoj ilišnoj biblioteci u Zagrebu.” , no. 1 (January, 1900), 43 þ ki graditeljinjegovadoba New Routledge,York: 2003. The Art Bulletin 56-57 (1995): 20-25 56-57 (1995): 28-43 The CityinCentral Europe: Culture andSociety 62 Ka Forum j V, no. 7-8 (1972): 32 XXXII, no. XXXII, 7-9 (1993): 446-501 Život umjetnosti, 37,no. 3 (September,1955): 187- Translated by Edward . Zagreb: Društvo þ Život umjetnosti, ana Annals of the Annals of Život umjetnosti, 1(April 1935): 11 þ asopis za pitanja New German Život, CEU eTD Collection Österreichischer Bundesverlag, c1985. Bundesverlag, Österreichischer Lehne, Ingeand LonnieJohnson. arhitekture.“ Laslo, Aleksander and DarjaRadovi pitanja likovnekulture i umjetnosti, Laslo, Aleksander. “Arhitektura modernog gra “Arhitektura Laslo, Aleksander. 1 (January-June, 1900):26-28 Kova Radovan Ivan Kolumbi Kneževi King, Anthony D. the for Representation ofIdentity. King, Anthony D., ed. pitanja likovnekulture i umjetnosti, Kneževi the Foundations of World UrbanSystem. King, Anthony D. University Press, 1995. King, Anthony D. Routledge, 1991c1990. Juri http://www.jstor.org/stable/1587004 Jordan, Harriet. “Public Parks,1885-1914.” Berkeley, California: University Californiaof Press, 1972. M. William Johnston, opusa.” Ivan 1989. Horvat Pintari Horvat ü þ , Zlatko. “ArhitektVjekoslav, Zlatko. Bastl: -1910.” radovi 1901. þLü evi , Viktor. “Moderna arhitektura..“ , Viktor. Život umjetnosti, ü ü ü ü , Snješka. , Snješka. , Radovan. “Kriterij stila i kvalitete u interpretaciji neostilova; tri primjera iz Bolleovog primjera tri neostilova; interpretaciji u i kvalitete stila “Kriterij Radovan. , , Antun. Rad Institutazapovijest umjetnosti þ ü evi , Vera. ü Global Cities: Post-Imperialism andthe IndustrializationLondon. of Urbanism, Colonialism,and the World-Economy: Cultural andSpatial The Bungalow: TheProduction ofaGlobal Culture Urbana oprema grada Zagreba(1850. –1940.) (Zagreb:FilozofskiSveu fakultet Zagreb usredištu Zagreba The Austrian Mind: AnIntellectual andSocial History 1848-1938. Vienna 1900: The OttoArchitecture Wagner of Culture, Globalization and the World-system: ContemporaryConditions þ asopis za pitanjalikovne kulture iumjetnosti þ ka zelenapotkova Minneapolis: University Press, c1997. Minnesota of Vienna, ThePast inthe Present:Historical Survey A 56-57(1995): 58-71 56-57(1995): 44-57 ü . Zagreb: Barbat, 2003. Mahe London; New York: Routledge, 1990. Život, Mjese þLü Garden History ÿ . “Viktor Kova. “Viktor . Zagreb: Školska knjiga,1996. 63 anskog Zagreba.“ 21(1997):143-165 þ þ ilišta uZagrebu, 2004. na smotra zaknjiževnost iumjetnost 22, no.1(Summer, 85-113, 1994): þLü Život umjetnosti, – promotor hrvatske –promotor moderne Život umjetnosti, . MA thesis, supervisedby . New York: Dorset Press, . New York: Oxford 26-27(1978): 10 þ asopis za þ asopis za . Wien: London: , no. CEU eTD Collection Schorske, Carl E. Schorske, Sarnitz, August. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2167767 Ritzer, Cambridge, England: Polity 1993. Press, Jacques. Le Rider, likovne kulture iumjetnosti Siecle Vienna.” Roth, Michael S.“Performing History: ModernistContextualism in Carl Fin-de- Schorske's of Contemporary Social Life. Prelog, Milan. “Uz problem valorizacije historicizma.” valorizacije problem “Uz Milan. Prelog, Peri Press, c1986. Olsen, Donald J. http://www.jstor.org/stable/165535 Ideal.” Needell, Jeffrey D. “Rio deJaneiro at the Turn of the Century: Modernization and the Parisian 519-540. http://www.jstor.org/stable/179218 Fin-De-Siecle Latin America.” Latin Fin-De-Siecle Needell, Jeffrey D. “Rio de Janeiro and Buenos Aires: Public Space and Public Consciousness in European Architecture,1867-1918 Ákos. Moravánszky, Maroevi no. 4(Summer, 8-14, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1424857 1985): Macsai, John. “Architecture as Opposition.” Loos, Adolf. 1994): 363-364,http://www.jstor.org/stable/990950 Francis Mallgrave. The Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 53, no. 3 (September, Long, Christopher. Review of Architectural Historians Central EuropeanArchitecture,1867-1918 Long, Christopher. Review of ü , Ivo. Journal ofInteramerican StudiesandWorld Affairs George. ü , Ivo. Zagreb, Od1850. dosuvremenog velegrada. Ornamenat izlo Antologija zagreba The Society: McDonaldization of intothe An Investigation Changing Character The American Historical Review AdolfLoos, 1870-1933: Architect, CulturalCritic, Dandy The Cityasa Work London, ofArt. Paris,Vienna. Fin-de-siècle Vienna: Politics and Culture. Modernity andCrises of Identity: Culture andSocietyin Vienna.fin-de-siecle Competing Visions: AestheticInventionand Social Imagination inCentral 59, no. 1 59,no. (March 2000): 120-123 26-27(1978): 7 Newbury California:Park, Pine Forge Press,c1993. þ Otto Wagner: Reflections on the Raiment of Modernity Competing Visions: Aesthetic Invention and Social Imagination in in Comparative StudiesinSocietyandHistory . Translated by . Translated Šolc.Oto 1952. Zagreb:Mladost, þ . Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, c1998. ke arhitekture , by Ákos Moravánszky. Journal ofArchitectural Education(1984-) 64 99, no.3 99, (June 1994):729-745. . Zagreb: Art studio. Zagreb: ArtAzinovi Život umjetnosti, Zagreb: MuzejgradaZagreba, 2006. 25,no. 1 (February 1983): 83-103. New York: Vintage Books,1981. New Haven: Yale University The Journalofthe Society of þ asopis za pitanja . Köln: Taschen,2003. 37,no. 3 (July 1995): ü , 2003. , by Harry 38, CEU eTD Collection CEU BudapestCollege, 1995. Zimmermann, Susan, ed. Monica, California: Getty Research Institute for the History of Art and the Humanities, 1988. Wagner,Otto. Vuki no.1125 (December, 846-848,http://www.jstor.org/stable/887204 1996): Vaughan,Will. "Review: Historismus in Europa. Vienna." Taylor, A.J.P. Vienna. Timms, Edward. International 1997. Relations, Švob- Naklade školskih 1925-. knjiga, Šiši Šidak, Jaroslav. 1975. hrvatska, Šicel, Miroslav, ed. fakultet Sveufakultet Šegvi Szabo, Gjuro. Szabo, autorima suvremenemunjema Stan Spiel, Hilde. (December 1933):1 Carl E. Schorske, Spectator. “Vanjskolice –i jeSpectator. našegagrada zašto takovo.” 1359-1359. http://www.jstor.org/stable/580341 and Budapest, Sked, Alan. Review of University Press, c1998. New Jersey:Princeton ü þLü , Ferdo. ü ü Ĉ , Fe , Neven. , Mirjana. New Haven; London: Yale University Press, 1986. oki ÿ ü a, ed. , Nada, ed. , Nada, Vienna’s Golden Autumn, 1866-1938. Hrvatska povijest odnajstarijih dana do potkraj 1918 þ ilišta uZagrebu, 1992) Stari Zgreb. Habsburška monarhija 1809-1918. Modern Guidebook Architecture: HisStudents A to ThisFieldfor of Art. by Hanák.Péter O hrvatskoj arhitekturi: napisi,eseji, polemike, studije Kroz pet stolje Zagreb, Modernosti grad. Karl Kraus,Satirist: Apocalyptic Culture andCatastrophe in Habsburg Miroslav Krleža injema Thinking with History: Explorationsinthe Passage to Modernism. Hrvatska moderna: kritikaiknjiževna povijest. The Garden andtheWorkshop: Essays on theCulturalHistory ofVienna The Cultural Identity of Central Europe. Urban Space and Identity in the European City1890-1930s. Zagreb: Nakladni zavod Matice 1990. Hrvatske, þ ü The English Historical Review ke književnosti. a hrvatskepovijesti. þ ka književnost: Krležin odnos prema reprezentativnim Zagreb: AGM,2003. Zagreb:Nakladni zavod Matice hrvatske, 1990. 65 Zagreb: Znanje,1990. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, c1987. Zagreb: Školska knjiga, 1981. The BurlingtonMagazine Zagreb, glasilo društva zagrep 114, no. 459 114, (November,1999): Zagreb: Institute for . Zagreb: izd. troškom Zagreb: Zora, Matica . Zagreb: Arhitektonski Princeton, 138, Budapest: Santa þ ana 6 CEU eTD Collection 2001. Žmega fakulteta književnosti Sveuza znanostZavod o Filozofskog Žmega Žmega 2003. život idjelo Znanstveni skupživotu i o djelu Kova Viktora þ þ þ , Viktor. , Viktor. , Viktor. . Zagreb: Hrvatska akademija znanosti . Zagreb: akademija Hrvatska i muzej znanosti Hrvatski arhitekture, umjetnosti, Krležini europski djeloukomparativnom obzori, kontekstu. Duh impresionizma isecesije: Studijeoknjiževnosti hrvatske moderne. Be þ ka moderna:portretjednekulture. þLü 66 a (Zagreb: 1994). Zagreb: 1998. Matica Hrvatska, þ ilišta u Zagrebu, 1997. ilišta uZagrebu, Arhitekt Viktor Kova Zagreb: Znanje, Zagreb: þLü : CEU eTD Collection Source: Kneževi Source: Figure 2:Green Zagreb. Detail Horseshoe, from plan a 1898 Kneževi Source: Figure 1:Ringstrasse, Vienna Appendix A:Photographs ü ü , Snješka, , Snješka, Zagreba Zagreba þ þ ka zelenapotkova ka zelenapotkova 67 (Zagreb: knjiga, Školska 1996):130 (Zagreb: knjiga, Školska 1996):313 CEU eTD Collection Source: Kneževi Source: Zagreb(1998airview)Figure 3:GreenHorseshoe, ü , Snješka, Zagreb usredištu (Zagreb: Barbat, 2003): (Zagreb: Barbat, 184 68 CEU eTD Collection Source: taken taken by Source: author Figure 5:Croatian National Zagreb Theatre, (Fellner andHelmer, 1895) taken by Source: author Figure 4: Yugoslavian Academy ofArts and Sciences, Zagreb (Friedrich von 1880) Schmidt, 69 CEU eTD Collection Source: http://www.widigo.hr/galerija/mx_1195664204_katedrala4595.JPG Source: Figure 7:Zagreb cathedral 1880-1906) Bollè, (Hermann Press, c1998): 81 inCentral European Architecture, 1867-1918 Ákos, Moravánszky,Source: Figure 6: Votivkirche, Vienna (Heinrich von Ferstel, 1854-1879) Competing Visions: Aesthetic Invention and Social Imagination 70 , (Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Massachusetts: (Cambridge, , CEU eTD Collection Source: taken taken by Source: author Figure 9:Ku http://www.flickr.com/photos/27108930@N00/327321050/Source: Figure 8:Majolika Haus, Wagner, Vienna (Otto 1898-1899) ü a Kallina, Zagreb(Vjekoslav Bastl, 1903-1904) 71 CEU eTD Collection Source: taken taken by Source: author Source: taken taken by Source: author Figure 11:Church Blasius,of St. Kova Zagreb (Viktor Figure 10:Ku ü a Kallina, Zagreb(Vjekoslav Bastl, 1903-1904) 72 þLü , 1910-1913) CEU eTD Collection Source: taken taken by Source: author taken by Source: author Figure 13:Stock Market, Zagreb Kova(Viktor Figure 12:Stock Market, Zagreb Kova(Viktor þLü þLü 73 , 1923-1927) , 1923-1927)