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Competing Ideals: How Commerce, Christianity, and Civilization Shaped Nationhood in Nineteenth-Century Liberia by Shawn J. Moshe

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Competing Ideals: How Commerce, Christianity, and Civilization Shaped Nationhood in Nineteenth-Century Liberia by Shawn J. Moshe Competing Ideals: How Commerce, Christianity, and Civilization Shaped Nationhood in Nineteenth-Century Liberia By Shawn J. Mosher Dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of Vanderbilt University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in History December 15, 2018 Nashville, Tennessee Approved: Richard Blackett, Ph.D. Dennis Dickerson, Ph.D. Moses Ochonu, Ph.D. Lucius Outlaw, Ph.D. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This dissertation has taken me on an interesting path, a sojourn marked by wonderment, puzzlement, and at times sheer terror. Throughout it all, the one constant has been my advisor, Professor Richard Blackett, who waded through reams of bad drafts and swam through gallons of red ink to get me where I am now. His guidance, patience, and offbeat humor were lifelines for me when I was struggling to make sense of the research material—or life in general. I am also indebted to other outstanding faculty at Vanderbilt, including Professor Dennis Dickerson for stressing to me the religious aspects of civil rights and Professor Lucius Outlaw for his razor- sharp thinking on racial essentialism. During my archival trips, I received stellar service, though especially from the curatorial staff at The Archives of the Episcopal Church. Their level of support never wavered in my three separate trips there. They created a special microfilm reel and even helped me decipher a nearly illegible handwritten letter. It has been said that we see further by standing on the shoulders of giants. That figure for me has been Dr. Jim Eckman, and I shall be eternally grateful for his wise counsel during a time of need. Finally, I would like to thank my parents for teaching me the most important lessons. Mom’s unconditional love and Dad’s selfless sacrifice continue to remind me that though the life of the mind is important, the habits of the heart are paramount to finishing well. ii CONTENTS Page Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................................ ii List of Figures ............................................................................................................................... vii List of Tables ............................................................................................................................... viii Introduction ................................................................................................................................... ix Chapter I. “Africa for the African race, and black men to rule them”: Conceptualizing Emigration in the Mid-Nineteenth Century ................................................................................................ 1 Martin Delany ........................................................................................................................ 13 Edward Blyden ...................................................................................................................... 30 Alexander Crummell ............................................................................................................. 43 Historiography ....................................................................................................................... 53 II. “Surely we are here to take our native brethren by the hand, and teach them how to live”: The Early Vision for the New Republic ................................................................................ 71 President Roberts’s Republicanism ....................................................................................... 73 President Benson’s Manifest Destiny.................................................................................... 85 President Warner’s Commercial Nationalism ....................................................................... 88 President Payne’s Civic Nationalism .................................................................................... 90 President Roye’s Economic Nationalism .............................................................................. 92 President Payne’s Patriotic Rejoinder ................................................................................... 96 American Colonizationists’ Idealism .................................................................................. 100 iii Liberia’s Path toward Independence ................................................................................... 102 President Roberts’s Republicanism: Part II ........................................................................ 112 III. “I was in no humor for cant about kindred; I wanted my money”: The Lessons and Limits of Commerce in the Liberian Republic .................................................................... 118 Paul Cuffe’s Pioneering Vision .......................................................................................... 119 Emigrationists’ Dueling Literature .................................................................................... 123 The Economic Role of Missionaries .................................................................................. 127 The Commercial Role of Explorers ..................................................................................... 129 Martin Delany’s Reassessment and James Skipwith’s Predicament ................................... 133 Liberia’s Growing Class Stratification ................................................................................ 134 The Problem with Apprenticeships ..................................................................................... 136 Economic Disparities within Liberian Society .................................................................... 141 “The Native Problem” ......................................................................................................... 144 The Allures of Trade ........................................................................................................... 150 Schooling Natives in the Art of Christian Materialism ....................................................... 155 The Grebo Bid for Socioeconomic Equality ....................................................................... 160 Liberia’s Fight for Economic Sovereignty .......................................................................... 161 IV. “I shall be very glad if any man whether white, black, red, yellow, or even green is sent out to release me from my present position of President”: Bitter Drama and Broken Dreams at Liberia College ................................................................................................... 178 Auspicious Beginning ......................................................................................................... 180 Liberia College’s Founding Vision(s) ................................................................................. 182 Edward Blyden’s Background ............................................................................................. 186 Edward Blyden’s Revised Educational Philosophy ............................................................ 188 Blyden’s Contentious Presidency ........................................................................................ 191 iv Industrial Education in Retrospect ...................................................................................... 199 Edward Blyden and Relocation: Part I ................................................................................ 201 Liberia College on the Brink ............................................................................................... 207 Omar Cook and Relocation: Part II ..................................................................................... 208 Negotiation and Resistance at Cape Mesurado ................................................................... 213 The Problem of Americo Aspirations ................................................................................. 222 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 226 V. “Neither the Church of God, nor civilization will ever prosper in these regions”: Black Missionaries’ Battles Over Faith and Fealty in Liberia ...................................................... 230 Modest Beginnings .............................................................................................................. 231 John Payne and the Question of Race ................................................................................. 233 Eli Stokes and the Racial Challenge .................................................................................... 236 Race Theory in Perspective ................................................................................................. 241 Alexander Crummell and the Need for Christian Civilization ............................................ 248 Alexander Crummell and the Charge of Imperialism ......................................................... 255 Payne and the (Muted) Rebuke of White Paternalism ........................................................ 259 Samuel Ferguson and the Racial Experiment ...................................................................... 262 Ferguson and Native Resistance .......................................................................................... 274 Episcopalians and the Ethnic “Problem” ............................................................................
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