Losing Time for the Tiger Panthera Tigris: Delayed Action Puts a Globally Threatened Species at Risk of Local Extinction

Losing time for the tiger Panthera tigris: delayed action puts a globally threatened species at risk of local extinction

A BISHEK H ARIHAR,MOUSUMI G HOSH-HARIHAR and D OUGLAS C. MACM ILLAN

Abstract Meeting global and regional environmental tar- Introduction gets is challenging, given the multiplicity of stakeholders and their diverse and often competing policy agendas and uccessful environmental interventions are often charac- objectives. Relatively few studies have sought to systematic- Sterized by having clearly defined objectives within a sim- ally analyse the progress, or lack thereof, of institutionally ple institutional framework, such as small-scale woodland   complex and diffuse projects. Here we analyse one such pro- creation (e.g. Crabtree et al., ; MacMillan et al., ). ject, which aims to protect and restore a critical landscape Success stories tend to be relatively straightforward in corridor for tigers Panthera tigris in north-western India, terms of institutional design and decision-making structure, using a temporal–analytic framework that integrates eco- and are often easy to monitor and assess in terms of their logical information on species population status and spatial expenditure and the attainment of objectives. Larger scale connectivity modelling with a systematic examination of the projects that cross national boundaries or involve a diversity decision-making process. We find that even with adequate of stakeholders, such as global wildlife trade bans (Ross,  ecological knowledge the tiger population is on the verge of ) or climate change initiatives such as reduced emis- local extinction because of weak institutional support, poor sions from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD), adaptive planning and ineffective leadership in a complex are politically and institutionally more complex and diffuse political arena, which has led to delays in conservation and are prone to failure or stagnation. action. From the outset the conservation agencies and There is now considerable interest in reviewing institu- NGOs that were the primary drivers of the project lacked tionally complex projects to identify general shortcomings awareness of the political idiosyncrasies of coordinating and recommendations for better practices (Balmford &    the actions of disparate agencies within the decision-making Cowling, ; Manolis et al., ; Black et al., ;  process. To secure better future environmental outcomes we Martin et al., ), and it is recognized that factors such recommend the adoption of an improved project appraisal as strong institutional support, stakeholder buy-in, and methodology that explicitly encompasses an evaluation of effective leadership are critical to their success (Clark   organizational incentives, to determine political buy-in, et al., ; Salafsky et al., ). Furthermore, it has been including alignment with organizational objectives and argued that overt and subtle political considerations can funding availability. often trump robust scientific evidence in multi-actor and multistage decision making in the conservation arena Keywords Chilla–Motichur, conservation recommenda- (Kørnøv & Thissen, ). tions, corridor connectivity, decision process, implementa- We use an innovative temporal–analytic framework that tion, India, multi-stakeholder, western Terai Arc Landscape integrates spatial connectivity modelling and a systematic Supplementary material for this article can be found at approach to decision analysis to investigate the institutional https://doi.org/./S failures that may lead to the imminent local extinction of a tiger Panthera tigris population in the western Terai Arc Landscape of India, a globally important Tiger Conservation Landscape (Sanderson et al., ). Tiger conservation is increasingly seen as a global project, with pan-national collaboration anticipated to double tiger num-

ABISHEK HARIHAR* (Corresponding author) and DOUGLAS C. MACMILLAN Durrell bers by  under the Global Tiger Recovery Program, and Institute of Conservation and Ecology, School of Anthropology and we aim to inform the international community about the Conservation, University of Kent, Kent, CT2 7NZ, UK E-mail [email protected], [email protected] challenges such initiatives will face. In this case study we focus on the failure to restore the MOUSUMI GHOSH-HARIHAR Independent Researcher, Bangalore, Karnataka, India Chilla–Motichur wildlife corridor, which has deteriorated *Also at: Panthera, New York, USA, and Nature Conservation Foundation, Mysore, Karnataka, India over the years to the point where, in the western section of Received  February . Revision requested  April . the landscape, the tiger population has declined to two Accepted  July . First published online  November . female tigers and is no longer viable (Harihar & Pandav,

). To identify the socio-political factors that imperil this () We compared an index of tiger sign detections along population, we present evidence to demonstrate the decline raus (dry stream beds), based on data from – in tigers and connectivity across the corridor, we review the (S.P. Goyal & A.J.T. Johnsingh, unpubl. data; B. Pandav & recommendations provided over the years to mitigate loss in A. Harihar, unpubl. data), as they were the only comparable connectivity, and we analyse the decision process involved data spanning  years. () We compiled available estimates in implementing these recommendations. We highlight of tiger density since . the lessons learnt from this exercise, to guide conservation To assess changes in tiger occupancy in the western Terai initiatives aiming to recover tiger populations or similarly Arc Landscape over  years, between – (Johnsingh threatened species elsewhere. et al., ) and – (Harihar & Pandav, ), we compared the data using single-season occupancy models (MacKenzie et al., ). In surveys conducted during Study area – (Johnsingh et al., ), forest ranges were cho- sen as the basic sampling units, within multiple-use forest The western Terai Arc Landscape, in addition to supporting divisions and protected areas, and – sign surveys, with a one of the highest densities of tigers across its range, pre- mean length of  km, were conducted along raus. In all,  sents one of the best opportunities to significantly increase sign surveys, with a total survey effort of . km, were car- tiger populations in India, with an estimated population in- ried out across  administrative units. During –, crease of % forecast under appropriate management surveys were conducted with greater intensity across the land- (Harihar et al., ). Spanning the Yamuna river in the scape, using more recent analytical approaches (Harihar & west to the Gola river in the east, the western Terai Arc Pandav, ). The survey routes used by Johnsingh et al. Landscape is now split into two disjunct units, referred to () were included so that comparable datasets could be as Tiger Habitat Blocks I and II (Johnsingh et al., ), compiled. with poor connectivity as a result of the deterioration of  For the purpose of this comparative analysis we consid- the Chilla–Motichur corridor, which covers c.  km along ered the forest divisions and protected areas as sampling the banks of the river Ganges between the Chilla (eastern sites’ and treated the independent sign surveys as sampling banks) and Motichur forest ranges (western banks) of occasions’. Although there has been considerable debate Rajaji Tiger Reserve (Fig. ). Identified in the early s about the substitution of spatial subunits for repeated tem- as a tenuous link for the movement of elephants Elephas poral sampling (Kendall & White, ; Guillera-Arroita, maximus (Saxena, ), it was also promoted as a critical ), we assumed that each survey route was independent corridor for tigers in subsequent years (Johnsingh, ). given their spatial configuration and the wide ranging be- The historical deterioration of connectivity across the haviour of tigers. We constructed eight models each for corridor may be traced to () the expansion of townships the – and – survey data, taking into ac- (Haridwar and Rishikesh), () the resettlement of people count the influence of Tiger Habitat Blocks (B), indices of displaced by the construction of the Tehri dam and evacuees wild prey (WildP), principal prey (PrincipP; chital Axis from landslide-prone areas into several new townships axis and sambar Cervus unicolor) and anthropogenic distur- (Khand Gaon I, II & III and Gangabhogpur), () the con- bances (Dist) under the single-season occupancy frame- struction of a hydropower canal on the eastern banks of work. Our objective was to assess the change in occupancy the Ganges, () the establishment of the Raiwala army can- across  years and hence we examined differences in the tonment on the western banks of the Ganges, and () the estimates of the occupancy parameter (ψ) derived from construction of a National Highway and a railway line, the best-supported models. used by an estimated , motorized vehicles and c.  Before systematic photographic capture–recapture sam- trains per day, respectively (Nandy et al., ; Rasaily, pling was used to assess the status of tigers in the western ). section of Rajaji Tiger Reserve, sign surveys along raus were conducted annually. Data for – were obtained Methods from S.P. Goyal and A.J.T. Johnsingh (unpubl. data), and data for – were obtained from Harihar et al. () and B. Pandav & A. Harihar (unpubl. data). These Changes in the status of tigers − surveys were conducted at a rate of .–. km h by To assess changes in the status of tigers we relied on triangu- teams of – biologists/trainees and assistants and were lating our inferences based on three lines of evidence. ()We – hours in duration. Each transect was divided into assessed changes in the occupancy of tigers across the land-  m segments. Indirect evidence of tigers (pug marks, scape by comparing surveys conducted in the winters of scats and scrapes) was recorded. Based on these data, – (Harihar & Pandav, ) and of – frequency of occurrence of sign per segment (number of (Johnsingh et al., ) in Tiger Habitat Blocks I and II. segments with sign/total number of segments surveyed,

FIG. 1 (a) Location of the Chilla–Mothichur corridor between Tiger Habitat Blocks I and II in the western Terai Arc Landscape of India, (b) the eastern and western parts of Rajaji Tiger Reserve and (c) details of the settlements and infrastructure in the corridor.

expressed as a percentage) was calculated per year, and the et al., ) implemented in Circuitscape v.  (McRae trend in population was inferred. We also compiled avail- et al., ). We designated the western and eastern parts able estimates of tiger density from systematic photographic of Rajaji Tiger Reserve (in Tiger Habitat Blocks I and II, capture–recapture studies carried out since  (Harihar & respectively) as nodes in our models, and identified multiple Pandav, ; Rathore, ; B. Pandav & A. Harihar, paths of potential connectivity between the nodes using the unpubl. data). pair-wise algorithm. We produced cumulative current flow maps for visual representation, and summarized the mean current flow values (a measure of connectivity) for the Changes in connectivity corridor across the three time periods (,  and ). The loss of connectivity between Tiger Habitat Blocks I and II is primarily a result of the expansion of Haridwar, Decision analysis Rishikesh and Raiwala townships, and several infrastruc-  tural projects. During – an estimated . km of Clark & Brunner () described a decision process that forest in the Chilla–Motichur corridor was lost (Nandy typically comprises seven functions (intelligence, promo- et al., ). Although tigers disperse from their natal ranges tion, prescription, invocation, application, appraisal and ter- over great distances through a range of forested habitats, mination; see definitions in Table ) that seeks to identify agricultural lands and areas of low human population dens- and reconcile any conflicts among policies relating to the ity, they are known to avoid urban areas (Smith, ; Joshi implementation of a species recovery programme involving et al., ; Singh et al., ). We used remotely sensed data complex partnerships, and minimize the risk of failure. We on night-time lighting as an indicator of urbanization follow this approach and identify these seven functions in (Henderson et al., ), to evaluate changes in connectivity each recommendation given for restoring the Chilla– across the corridor during –. We obtained the radi- Motichur corridor, a multi-institutional endeavour, and as- ance calibrated data, at a spatial resolution of  arc second certain the stages at which delay/divergence occurred in the  grid cells (c.  km ), for ,  and  from the implementation process. Through this analysis we identify National Geophysical Data Centre (NOAA, ). Higher the agencies responsible for carrying out the action, with radiance indicates areas of urbanization (i.e. areas through the objective of identifying the functions where intervention which tigers are less likely to move). The annual mean was required to strengthen the partnerships and improve brightness level in units of -bit digital numbers spanning the process of recovery. – were used as resistance values in the analysis. To assess Our data are primarily from academic/official publica- the potential changes in connectivity between the two Tiger tions concerning conservation recommendations for the Habitat Blocks over time, we used circuit theory (McRae Chilla–Motichur corridor, covering the period –.

Oryx, 2018, 52(1), 78–88 © 2017 Fauna & Flora International doi:10.1017/S0030605317001156 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. IP address: 167.98.22.132, on 22 Feb 2018 at 10:26:03, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0030605317001156 https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms Downloaded from Oryx 08 21,78 52(1), 2018, , https://www.cambridge.org/core – 88 TABLE 1 Assessment of decision functions that delayed various conservation actions in the Chilla–Motichur corridor, in India’s western Terai Arc Landscape (Fig. ). © 07Fua&FoaItrainldoi:10.1017/S0030605317001156 International Flora & Fauna 2017 . https://doi.org/10.1017/S0030605317001156 Resettlement of Strengthen law Resettlement of army ammunition enforcement on Construction of Supplementation of Definition* Activities* Khand Gaon III dump river islands vehicular flyover tigers to western RNP √√ √ √ √ . IPaddress: Intelligence Planning Relevant information is gathered, processed & distributed; project is planned & goals are defined (e.g. field work, social surveys,

167.98.22.132 simulations) √√ √ √ √ Promotion Open debate Active advocacy & debate about various al- ternatives; resources, data & opinions are

, on mobilized (e.g. pluralistic discussions, forums) √√√√ 22 Feb2018 at10:26:03 Prescription Setting rules/ Policies & guidelines are formulated & guidelines enacted; these must be communicated & approved by concerned implementing agencies (e.g. recovery plans, habitat/species management plans) √√ Invocation Implementation Application of rules/guidelines to actual cases , subjectto theCambridgeCore termsofuse,available at (initiation of programmes, constitution of teams & beginning of work in field & offices) √√ Application Dispute Deviation from initial rules/guidelines re- resolution solved through enforcement & constant review to allow implementation to continue. (e.g. internal or external (court) forums may feature) Appraisal Review Efforts are evaluated through continuous appraisal, – in terms of goal achievement & accountability (e.g. internal & external reviews) 81 extinction local of risk at Tiger Termination Conclusion Cancelling past prescriptions as they have either been implemented or failed, & compen- sating people affected

*As provided in Clark & Brunner () 82 A. Harihar et al.

We initially identified relevant articles from screening the Uttarakhand (in ) and the associated economic growth bibliography of Uniyal et al. (), and updated these have led to rapid urbanization in the corridor area, and in- data by searching ISI Web of Science and Google Scholar. creasing demand on natural resources (Mamgain, ). In addition to journal articles and book chapters we This habitat deterioration indicates a loss of functional searched for non peer-reviewed reports, as many recom- connectivity for tigers. mendations are communicated through such reports to the relevant implementing agencies. Initially we searched Decision analysis for all articles that included the terms ‘Chilla–Motichur’, ‘Chilla Motichur’ or ‘Chilla–Motichur corridor’ in the title, We collated  articles from – that met our search keywords or abstract. Only articles that focused on the criteria:  peer-reviewed journal articles and  non peer- corridor and provided recommendations regarding its res- reviewed reports/articles (Supplementary Table S). Only toration were retained for analysis. Furthermore, AH inter-  of these provided specific recommendations to restore viewed scientists and bureaucrats engaged with the project, connectivity across the Chilla–Motichur corridor, and a re- in person or via e-mail, to learn about their experiences view of these indicates a general timeline of recommenda- and obtain updates about the status of the recommendations. tions (Fig. ). Connectivity across the river Ganges between We focus only on those recommendations that have been the Chilla (eastern bank) and Motichur (western bank) forest adopted in government plans. ranges was recognized as being tenuous in the s, particu- larly with respect to the movement of elephants (Saxena,  Results ). In later years conservationists reiterated the need for recovery of this patch so that it could function as a critical Decline in tigers corridor for tigers between Tiger Habitat Blocks I and II (Johnsingh et al., ). Eventually, as the prospect of reco- All three lines of evidence confirmed a decline in tiger num- vering this patch faded, conservationists subsequently re- bers in Tiger Habitat Block I. The occupancy analysis indi- commended translocation of a breeding male from Tiger cated there had been a % reduction in occupancy between Habitat Block II to the western part of the Reserve so that the two sampling sessions (Fig. a; Supplementary Tables S– the remaining females could breed (Harihar & Goyal, S). In contrast, in Tiger Habitat Block II there was an in- ), a recommendation that has yet to be acted upon crease in occupancy, primarily as a result of the recovery of (Fig. ). Thus, intelligence has been provided and updated tigers in eastern Rajaji Tiger Reserve (Fig. a; Supplementary on an ongoing basis to support critical actions required to Fig. S; Supplementary Tables S–S). ensure the persistence of tigers across the two halves of the The annual frequency of occurrence of tiger sign per seg- Reserve. ment indicated a declining trend in the western part of the Overall, the recommendations of conservation scientists Reserve (Fig. b). During – tiger sign was recorded provided the broader conservation goals but did not ad- on c. –% of the surveyed segments. However, during equately consider the social (e.g. resettlement of Khandgaon – tiger sign was recorded on only % of surveyed III) and political difficulties (relocation of an army ammuni- segments. tion dump) that would be encountered in pursuing these re- Available estimates of tiger density from systematic commendations (Fig. ). Of the  recommendations photographic capture–recapture sampling conducted across provided to restore connectivity across the corridor, only the western part of the Reserve since  indicated the five have been promoted and incorporated into government presence of a low-density population of .–. tigers per management and operational plans (Rasaily, ;NTCA,   km during – (Supplementary Table S; ), following years of discussion and debate between the Harihar et al., ; Rathore, ; Pandav & Harihar, partnering agencies to resolve conflicting policies or interests unpubl. data). (Fig. ). Prescribing the recommendations into specific guidelines and actions also required considerable time, as it often Deterioration of habitat in the corridor necessitated external expertise beyond ecological knowledge of the system. For instance, the recommendation to relocate Our analysis indicates that since  the opportunity to re- the ammunition dump needed prescriptions for significant connect tiger subpopulations across the Chilla–Motichur bureaucratic negotiations between the state forest department corridor has diminished rapidly (Supplementary Fig. S). and Ministry of Defence, and the construction of a flyover Current flow (a measure of connectivity) across the corri- was contingent on civil engineering solutions (Fig. ). For dor, estimated through the Circuitscape analysis, decreased the two recommendations for which implementation was in- progressively and significantly from . amps (%CI itiated (i.e. resettlement of Khandgaon III and construction of .–.)in to . amps (.–.)in and . a flyover), the process was delayed by difficulties in mobilizing amps (.–.)in. The formation of the state of funds and approvals from concerned state departments, and

FIG. 2 (a) The estimated occupancy of tigers Panthera tigris in Tiger Habitat Blocks I and II (Fig. )during– and –, indicating a decline in Tiger Habitat Block I and an increase in Tiger Habitat Block II. (b) Frequency of detection of tiger sign per  m segment of transect in the western part of Rajaji National Park during –. Error bars indicate %CI.

irregularities in following guidelines for construction, respect- and prescribe the recommendations into specific guidelines ively (Fig. ). In the case of supplementation of tigers, lack of and/or actions, with expertise not only in species ecology adequate federal funds and political will prevented this pre- but in the management of human dimensions in the corri- scription from being implemented. Managers are hesitant dor. Such a multidisciplinary partnership has been instru- to implement such a potentially risky action, given that dem- mental in recovering the eastern barred bandicoot onstrable population increases post translocation may not Perameles gunnii (Backhouse et al., ). happen during their tenure (VanderWerf et al., ). Even after prescription, resettlement of Khandgaon III Other critical shortcomings included the lack of a clear was delayed as the state departments involved struggled to timeline for each action, and the lack of provision for follow- secure adequate funding and collaborate efficiently to im- up actions and evaluation based on a monitoring protocol plement the identified policies, in a case of diverse mandates within an adaptive management framework should difficul- meeting layers of official bureaucracy (Fig. ). Political ties arise in the implementation (Wilhere, ). In the end power play, in which a department of greater strategic inter- the only recommendation that was implemented, in , est (e.g. Ministries of Transport and Defence) refuses to was the resettlement of Khandgaon III village, although make a concession for the requirements of a relatively the process took  years (Fig. ). local issue, was also evident, as is typical of scenarios in which networking and political compromises determine  Discussion conservation outcomes (Kørnøv & Thissen, ; Lochner et al., ). A key characteristic common to all these The case of the Chilla–Motichur corridor has been described delayed actions is that decision making rested within large as an acid-test for the Indian conservation movement government agencies with complex and multi-layered bur- (Johnsingh et al., ), and despite the reiteration of recom- eaucratic structures (Table ), which made it easy to evade mendations to recover this habitat over nearly  decades, the accountability (Wallace et al., ; Martin et al., ), population of tigers at their north-western range limit re- especially when dealing with long-term conservation mains threatened with almost imminent extinction. We goals. Decision makers in government agencies can change found that despite the availability of adequate and timely frequently; for example, the civil servants who head the ecological information and assessment, the project has failed management of Rajaji Tiger Reserve change every  years. to make progress as a result of multiple institutional failings Effective leadership is of critical importance in recovery related to communication and promotion of recommended efforts for threatened species, to mobilize necessary expert actions, the lack of responsive governance, ineffective leader- and public participation under one body, garner adequate ship and minimal institutional accountability. resources, gain acceptance from relevant government agen- Given that almost all the recommendations required col- cies and local communities, champion the cause and take laboration amongst various organizations with different re- responsibility to effect change in a timely manner (Black mits and priorities, the long delays in the initial stages & Groombridge, ; Martin et al., ). In our case (promotion and prescription) could perhaps have been study the primary responsibility for implementing the re- avoided if a multidisciplinary team had been established at commendations rested with multiple agencies within the the outset to mobilize resources, identify alternative actions state forest department, with no clear leadership to ensure

FIG. 3 A timeline for the implementation of key recommendations to restore the Chilla–Mothichur corridor between the western and eastern sectors of Rajaji Tiger Reserve in the western Terai Arc Landscape of India (Fig. ). Specific actions are outlined within boxes, critical obstacles are denoted by arrows, and the decision functions (following Clark & Brunner, ) are denoted by the colour scheme defined in the legend. For more details regarding the process see Supplementary Material .

that the decision process was implemented in a timely and Furthermore, with no adaptive management framework appropriate manner (Table ). Moreover, given that many in place, nor any approach to ensure accountability amongst political aspects were clearly not within the programme’s government agencies, this case illustrates the need for con- sphere of control and were beyond the influence of the pri- servation programmes to be conceived and managed within mary implementing agencies, effective and flexible leader- a so-called business excellence model (Black & Groombridge, ship was essential to address the constantly changing ). This would ensure greater clarity in defining objec- needs and threats and adapt actions, while focusing on a tives, setting goals, delineating the roles of leaders and stable long-term vision to guide the work of the programme staff, identifying success measures and feedback data, creat- (Maris & Béchet, ). Policy czars are widely used in the ing better links between technical approaches and measures USA and UK to oversee complex policy reforms that involve of biological success, community engagement, more effect- multiple government departments, and reach out to mul- ive use of resources, and the establishment of management tiple stakeholders; these czars cannot be side-lined by self- reviews. In establishing such a system it is critical to develop interested groups as they report to only the highest levels a good logic model and results chain through the participa- of authority. Such figures may be rare, but conservation tion of all major stakeholders from the initial stages of any could benefit from a better appreciation of leadership. conservation intervention (FOS, ; Margoluis et al., Project designers should bear in mind the need to discuss ). project objectives and implementation with key stake- The creation and/or restoration of resilient landscape cor- holders, and adjust objectives to suit practical and political ridors for free-roaming mega-fauna may be an unrealistic concerns, perhaps through the adoption of decision-making goal unless appropriate funding and intervention mechan- analysis such as the Delphi approach (MacMillan & isms, such as a cost-effective compensation payment scheme Marshall, ). or more novel approaches such as certification or payment

© TABLE 2 The partners associated with the implementation of each of the recommendations for the conservation of the Chilla–Motichur corridor, in India’s western Terai Arc Landscape 07Fua&FoaItrainldoi:10.1017/S0030605317001156 International Flora & Fauna 2017 . https://doi.org/10.1017/S0030605317001156 (Fig. ), and their specific roles.

Resettlement of Resettlement of Strengthen law Construction Supplementation

. IPaddress: Khandgaon army ammunition enforcement of vehicular of tigers to western Partners Role* III dump on river islands flyover Rajaji National Park √√ √√√ Management of Rajaji National Park/Tiger Reserve Primary implementation agency √√ 167.98.22.132 Management of Territorial Forest Department Primary implementation agency (resettlement/relocation site) √√ √√ State Department of Environment & Forests Primary implementation agency

, on √√ √√ Ministry of Environment & Forests, Secondary implementation agency 22 Feb2018 at10:26:03 Government of India √ State Administrative Services Secondary implementation agency √ District Administration Secondary implementation agency √ Ministry of Defence, Government of India Implementation facilitators √

, subjectto theCambridgeCore termsofuse,available at Ministry of Road Transport & Highways, Implementation facilitators Government of India √ Local people Implementation facilitators √ National Board for Wildlife Regulatory authority √ Central Empowered Committee, Supreme Court Regulatory authority √ National Tiger Conservation Authority Regulatory authority √√ √√√ Research Institutes (e.g. Wildlife Institute of India, Research & intelligence Indian Institute of Remote Sensing) √√ √√

Local NGOs Research & intelligence provider, 85 extinction local of risk at Tiger implementation support

*Primary implementation agency: directly accountable agency with the mandate to conserve wildlife; Secondary implementation agency: facilitate the implementation process through policy and logistic/funding support, but not directly accountable; Implementation facilitators: stakeholders/agencies whose consent and cooperation is indispensable to implementation; Regulatory authority: oversee the process, lay guidelines and resolve any conflicts; Research & intelligence: these NGOs provide the primary evidence and recommendations, and may also provide logistic support for implementation 86 A. Harihar et al.

for ecosystem services schemes, are tied to a bottom-up that five tigers will be translocated in the winter of – needs-based development assessment (Harihar et al., ). to supplement the existing population and assist its recovery Only then can such projects appeal to all types of land man- (Thapliyal, ). agers, owners and users, who may not share common objectives, land rights or motivations with either their neighbours Acknowledgements or the main project stakeholders (MacMillan & Phillip, ;   Davies & White, ; Redpath et al., ). The entire pro- We thank A.J.T Johnsingh, S.P. Goyal and Bivash Pandav cess of corridor designation could be more efficient if all for helping us at various stages in the preparation of this  these factors are synchronized (Brodie et al., ). manuscript. This study was supported in part by grants We have shown how institutional failings caused by un- from Kaplan Graduate Awards (Panthera), Kathryn Fuller coordinated policies and actions and perverse decision mak- Science for Nature Fellowships (WWF) and the Rufford ing, despite awareness of critical ecological knowledge, have Small Grants Foundation (Grant -) to AH. conspired to create an imminent extinction crisis for a rem- nant tiger population in India. The opportunity to restore the Chilla–Motichur corridor seems to be disappearing rap- Author contributions idly, but future conservation projects must pay closer atten- tion to institutional issues that arise from local social, political AH, MG-H and DCM conceived the study and wrote and and economic opportunities and concerns. Simultaneously, edited the article. AH and MG-H collected and analysed they must inherently recognize and address the political idio- the data. syncrasies of the local and national agencies, which are differ- entially motivated and can easily succumb to self-serving References actions, within the decision process. A key recommendation from our research is the need to BACKHOUSE, G.N., CLARK,T.W.&READING, R.P. () The develop adaptive conservation plans with effective leader- Australian eastern barred bandicoot recovery program: evaluation ship and funding to secure stakeholder buy-in. The old uni- and reorganization. In Endangered Species Recovery: Finding the Lessons, Improving the Process (eds T.W. Clark, R.P. Reading & centric model of conservation, in which central decision A.L. Clarke), pp. –. Island Press, Washington, DC, USA. makers would steer and implement the process, guided by BADOLA,R.() WII’s research inputs in U.P. 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Johnsingh), pp. –. Wildlife Trust of India, New Delhi, India. ABISHEK HARIHAR has worked on tiger conservation in northern SINGH, A.K. & GUREJA,N.() Elephant conflict issues: two India since  and currently works as a tiger population ecologist, resolution case studies from India. In National Symposium on with research interests spanning population ecology, law enforcement Elephant Conservation, Management and Research, Rajaji National monitoring, measuring conservation effectiveness, and conservation Park, Uttaranchal, pp. –. decision making. MOUSUMI GHOSH-HARIHAR has previously re- SINGH, A.P. & CHALISGAONKAR,R.() Restoration of Corridors to searched the ecological and historical determinants of breeding leaf Facilitate the Movement of Wild Asian Elephants in Rajaji-Corbett warblers in the Himalayas. She has also worked on urban birds, Elephant Range, INDIA. Uttarakhand State Irrigation Department, human–tiger conflict, and formulating an online photographic data- Roorkee, India. sharing policy. DOUGLAS MACMILLAN’s work focuses on SINGH, A.P. & SHARMA, R.C. () Conflicts between linear understanding, modelling and evaluating the economic dimensions developments and Asian elephants in sub-Himalayan zone of of environmental change and biodiversity conservation, with special Uttranchal. In Proceedings of the  International Conference on expertise in ecosystem valuation, decision analysis and conflict Ecology and Transportation (eds C. Irwin, P. Garrett & K. between people and large carnivores.