Landscape Quality Assessment of South Australia

Andrew Lothian

Dissertation for Doctorate of

Department of Geographical & Environmental Studies University of Adelaide 2000

I lift my eyes to the hills - where does my help come from? My help comes from the Lord, the Maker of heaven and earth

Psalm 121:1-2 New International Version

Andrew Lothian i Quality Assessment of South Australia

CONTENTS

Chapter Title Page

1 Introduction 1

PART 1 THEMATIC REVIEW

2 Philosophy of 9

3 Gestalt Psychology 27

4 Perception and Colour 43

5 Psychoanalysis and Aesthetics 59

6 Culture and Landscape 79

PART 2 REVIEW OF LANDSCAPE STUDIES

7 Twentieth Century Landscape Studies 147

8 Findings from Twentieth Century Landscape Studies 185

PART 3 LANDSCAPE QUALITY ASSESSMENT OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA

9 Acquiring the Data 251

10 Analysis of Preferences 281

11 Application of the Results 382

12 Discussion and Conclusions 413

References 421

Andrew Lothian ii Landscape Quality Assessment of South Australia

Andrew Lothian iii Landscape Quality Assessment of South Australia

DISCLAIMER

This work contains no material which has been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma in any university or other tertiary institution and, to the best of my and , contains no material previously published or written by another person, except where due reference has been made in the text.

I give consent to this copy of my thesis, when deposited in the University Library, available for loan and photocopying.

Andrew Lothian

14 September 2000

Andrew Lothian iv Landscape Quality Assessment of South Australia

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I acknowledge with sincere appreciation the assistance and encouragement given to me by many individuals over the eight years of preparing this dissertation.

In particular I thank the following:

My family, Cynthia my wife, and Nicholas, Clare and Joy who grew up during the course of the thesis

My supervisors, Associate Professor Nick Harvey, Department of Geographical and Environmental Studies, Dr John Brebner, Associate Professor, Department of Psychology, and Professor Anthony Radford, School of Architecture, University of Adelaide

Bob Willson and Mark Brown of the Computer Complex, Department of Psychology for assistance with SPSS

The librarians of the Barr Smith Library, University of Adelaide, the best library in Adelaide

Dr Ray Correll and Mary Barnes, Division of Mathematics and Information Sciences, CSIRO for statistical assistance

Dr Kym Nicolson, Jason Phillips and Linda Vears, GIS Applications Branch, Planning South Australia for mapping assistance

Jenny Deans, Graham Blair, Colin Harris, Dr Tony Robinson, Brendan Lay, Peter Copley for the loan of slides and photographs

Paul Edstein for editorial assistance

All individuals who participated in the slide rating and scoring sessions

Andrew Lothian v Landscape Quality Assessment of South Australia

ABSTRACT

The object of this thesis is to provide, through a of landscape quality of South Australia, an area thorough analysis of human perception and of nearly 1 million km-1. interaction with aesthetics and landscape quality, a comprehensive basis on which to This involves, firstly, the acquisition of data develop a credible methodology for the large- covering the delineation of landscape character scale assessment of perceived landscape regions for the State, photography of these quality. , derivation of a set of representative slides, and rating of these by The analysis of human perception and groups of participants. interaction with aesthetics and landscape quality is gained by inquiring in depth into a Secondly, these preference ratings are range of theoretical constructs from key comprehensively analysed on the basis of the disciplines, cultural aspects, and empirical attributes of the scenes covering land form, studies covering: land cover, land use, water bodies, , diversity and colour. • the contribution of philosophers to aesthetics Thirdly, the results are applied as follows:

• the psychology of perception and colour • a map of landscape quality of South Australia is derived • the contribution of Gestalt psychology to aesthetics • the results are used to predict the effect that changes in land use (e.g. clearance of • the psychoanalytical construct of human trees) have on landscape quality responses to aesthetics • the theoretical constructs of landscape • the influence of culture on landscape quality are evaluated on the basis of the preferences, tracing the changing preference ratings perceptions of mountains, the portrayal of landscapes in art, and the design of parks • a protocol is detailed to guide the and gardens undertaking of large-scale landscape quality assessment • a review of over 200 surveys of landscape quality in the late 20th century, including The thesis thus fulfils the objective of typologies and theories of landscape quality conducting a thorough analysis of human perception and interaction with, aesthetics and Based on the analysis of these and the landscape quality, to provide a basis for knowledge gained, an empirical study is developing a credible methodology for the formulated and conducted, comprising a study large-scale assessment of perceived landscape quality.

Andrew Lothian vi Landscape Quality Assessment of South Australia

PREFACE

This thesis represents the fulfilment of a The personal motivations for the quest are personnal quest, a search for understanding relatively straightforward to discern. In the late why we humans like beautiful landscapes, 1960s environment management, my real indeed, why we can regard landscapes as interest, did not exist as a tertiary course. So I beautiful. trained in urban and regional planning followed by post graduate studies [MSc Environment Originating in bushwalking trips to natural areas Resources] in the UK [University of Salford, in Australia in the 1960s this quest was 1973]. Returning to Australia, I commenced stimulated by travel in Europe, North America, working in the newly formed South Australian Israel and New Zealand over the ensuing Department of Environment and Conservation, decades. The following quote from personal the responsible for environment notes on a visit to the Lake District in England management in the mid 1970s. in 1984 indicates the state of my interest at the time: Working across environmental impact assessment, environmental planning, "The lakes are simply superb, delightful and environment policy development, environmental beautiful. I kept asking myself, what is it that economics, state of environment reporting, makes them so lovely? Is it the variety of colours mapping of vegetation clearance, and working - the lush green, the mottled hues of trees, the across state as well as national issues, I blue lakes, the bright red and purple of the became familiar with, and in many ways rhododendrons, the yellow buttercups; is it the land form - ever changing, contorted, full of contributed to, this process of explanation and surprises around every corner, different management of environmental components. everywhere you look, new and exciting, grassy fields which sometimes look as though they are In the early 1980s I supervised a master’s green felt draped over a skeleton of rocks; or is thesis on wilderness conservation in South the hand of man - apparent in the herds of Australia [Lesslie, 1981] and this triggered a straggly woolly sheep crying out to be shorn, the realisation that landscape, like wilderness, was grey flat stone walls across fields, the delightful a qualitative aspect of the environment little villages surrounded by enclosed fields, and deserving of explanation. If this could be the stands of woods. achieved with wilderness in a program of work "Each one of these elements - land form, land which later [1995] culminated in mapping of use, and land cover are the elements of wilderness quality across Australia, I reasoned landscape and, in the case of the lakes, each on why could not a similar outcome be achieved their own would be sufficient to be a beautiful for landscape? place. Put all three together and you have an outstanding area. Yet attempts at landscape quality assessment were patchy, highly individualistic, statistically Why is it that we humans seem to like particular unsound in methodology and lacking scenes though puzzles me. Yet there was no doubt in my mind that the scree slopes, forested comparability of technique, let alone with planted softwoods above Thirlmere, just reproducible results. Personal involvement didn't compare with the variety of colour and form, included engaging consultants to undertake of 'bumpy' fields, of farm animals, of a lakeshore, several landscape studies [Dallwitz, 1977; of Esthwaite or Windermere or Grassmere." Sanderson, 1979], examining several theses of landscape surveys [eg Dare, 1978], and The quest for answers reached a threshold reviewing landscape studies in South Australia point in the early 1990s in a realisation that, if [Lothian, 1984]. explanation was to be obtained to achieve personal satisfaction, it would only be fulfilled With so much known about the environment through a process of rigorous study and inquiry. compared with the state of knowledge 20 - 30 Hence the PhD. years previously, yet with landscape quality the one area that defied explanation, the challenge presented itself to resolve. Being able to Andrew Lothian vii Landscape Quality Assessment of South Australia measure landscape quality; map it and to apply characteristics of human landscape a method at a State-level and then nationally preferences. were key goals. The third and final part, the application phase, The quest of explanation has taken a culminates the analysis of the first and second somewhat unusual path, to the exasperation parts, an assessment of landscape quality at a initially of my supervisors, but gradually with State-wide level. South Australia as a whole their understanding and forbearance that this was the subject, selected on the basis that if a was a personal odyssey to be enjoyed for the methodology could work at this scale, then its journey it provided, rather than for the application nationally would be largely a destination that may or may not be attained. As question of adequate resources, not of some a mature age student, the interest was definitely fundamental inadequacy. in the journey, the explorations of various possible explanatory pathways and alleys that The methodology essentially sought to relate sometimes were blind but worth pursuing human preferences, the dependent variable, nonetheless. The study comprised three distinct with the characteristics of the landscape, the parts, reflecting a process of increasing independent variable, and to use this as the specificity of purpose and these are the parts basis for mapping landscape quality at a State- contained in the thesis. wide level. It has involved deriving a map of landscape character for South Australia, The first part, the most discursive, tracks across photographing the South Australia landscape a range of possible explanatory models. travelling nearly 20,000km throughout the Philosophy, it was reasoned, should reveal why State, selecting 160 slides for rating purposes humans like landscapes, because beauty has and having over 300 respondents rate these in been a subject of philosophers literally for landscape quality terms. Based on this, a millennia. Psychoanalysis with its detailed analysis of the results was undertaken understanding of the unconscious should have and relationships between the dependent and an explanation of why beauty is appreciated. independent variables derived; relationships Theories of perception and Gestalt psychology between human preferences and the physical could surely offer understanding for the landscape. perplexed. The influence of culture on human appreciation of landscape was examined for an The result is a thesis that is believed to go a understanding of whether beauty is merely a long way towards fulfilling the original quest. It cultural contrivance determined by one’s is not claimed to have fulfilled this in its entirety, cultural upbringing or something more innate. inevitably through the long and detailed process Each of these issues is subject of the involved one is all too aware of shortcomings, exploratory papers in Part One. of areas where more work is needed, of frustration in not gaining the complete Part of this exploration has resulted in the understanding sought. But also the result is a publication of a paper [Lothian, 1999] that sense of accomplishment, of fulfilment in what synthesised aspects of philosophy and has been done. At the end the achievement psychoanalysis. More papers are intended to has been of being more able to answer the make the fruits of this quest more widely question, why humans like landscape?, and to available. By the end of the first part, one is have applied this knowledge to its identification more informed and perhaps wiser about a and measurement that can form the basis for its range of possible explanations of the central management and protection. question - why humans like landscapes and some pointers for future directions of inquiry emerge.

The second part focuses on what landscape studies can say about human landscape preferences. It covers the underlying constructs or theories on which studies are based, the methodologies that have been developed to measure these preferences, and the findings of the studies. This part is exhaustive in covering over 200 surveys and provides much detailed understanding of the dimensions and Andrew Lothian viii Landscape Quality Assessment of South Australia

DETAILED CONTENTS

Chapter Title Page Contents i Disclaimer iii Acknowledgments iv Abstract v Preface vi Detailed Contents viii Tables xi Figures xvii Attached CD xxii

1 Introduction 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Definitions 1 1.3 Origins of landscape 2 1.4 Why evaluate landscape quality? 3 1.5 Classification of aesthetics 3 1.6 Model of human-landscape interaction 5 1.7 Hypothesis for thesis 6 1.8 Plan of thesis 7

PART 1 THEMATIC REVIEW

2 Philosophy of Aesthetics 9 2.1 Introduction 9 2.2 Classical philosophy of aesthetics 10 2.3 Early Christian Era 10 2.4 Renaissance 11 2.5 of aesthetics 11 2.6 British aestheticians 11 2.7 German philosophers 13 2.8 Romanticism 18 2.9 of aesthetics 19 2.10 Philosophy of aesthetics - a summary 21 2.11 Integration of Kant’s aesthetics with landscape theory 23 2.12 Objectivist vs subjectivist paradigms 24 2.13 Conclusions 26

3 Gestalt Psychology 27 3.1 Introduction 27 3.2 Origins of Gestalt 27 3.3 Gestalt tools of analysis 29 3.4 Gestalt and aesthetics 34 3.5 Contemporary perspective of the Gestalt contribution 36 3.6 Gestalt and landscape 36 Attachment 1 Application of Gestalt principles to landscapes 40 Attachment 2 Glossary of terms 42

4 Perception and Colour 43 4.1 Introduction 43 4.2 History of theories of visual perception 43 4.3 Information processing model 45 4.4 Visual perception mechanisms and models 48 4.5 Environmental psychological approaches to perception 52 4.6 Perception - Conclusion 55 4.7 Perception of colour 56 Andrew Lothian ix Landscape Quality Assessment of South Australia

4.8 Application of perception and colour 58

5 Psychoanalysis and Aesthetics 59 5.1 Introduction 59 5.2 Basic concepts of psychoanalysis 59 5.3 Psychoanalytical approaches to aesthetics 63 5.4 Relevance of psychoanalytical approach to landscape 72 5.5 Conclusion 76 Attachment 1 Glossary of psychoanalytical terms 77

6 Culture and Landscape 79 6.1 Introduction 79 6.2 Concept of culture 79 6.3 Development of Western cultural attitudes towards landscape 80 6.4 Theme One: Attitudes to mountains 98 6.5 Theme Two: Landscape and art 111 6.6 Theme Three: Gardens, parks and the pastoral landscape 129 6.7 Summary 139 6.8 Conclusions 142

PART 2 REVIEW OF LANDSCAPE STUDIES

7 Twentieth Century Landscape Studies 147 7.1 Introduction 147 7.2 Early 20th century landscape studies 147 7.3 Typologies of landscape studies 153 7.4 Characteristics of landscape preference studies 161

8 Findings of Twentieth Century Landscape Studies 185 8.1 Introduction 185 8.2 Landscape theory 185 8.3 Influence of observer on preferences 208 8.4 Mode of presentation 220 8.5 Preferences for landscapes 228 8.6 Conclusions 248

PART 3 LANDSCAPE QUALITY ASSESSMENT OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA

9 Acquiring the Data 251 9.1 Methodology 251 9.2 Statistical Design 252 9.3 Derivation of Independent Variables 255 9.4 Derivation of Dependent Variables 267 9.5 Deficiencies in Responses 271 9.6 Characteristics of Participants 271

10 Analysis of Preferences 281 10.1 Approach to analysis 281 10.2 Overall statistics 281 10.3 Group statistics 287 10.4 Ratings by respondent characteristics 293 10.5 Regional analysis 301 10.6 Analysis by landscape types 306 10.7 Land form 308 10.8 Land cover 319 10.9 Land use 328 10.10 Water 339 10.11 Diversity 350 10.12 Naturalism 352 10.13 Colour 354 Andrew Lothian x Landscape Quality Assessment of South Australia

10.14 Cloud cover 364 10.15 Factor analysis 365 10.16 Compounding effects 370 10.17 Summary 371 10.18 Methodological reflections 379

11 Application of the Results 382 11.1 Introduction 382 11.2 Mapping South Australia’s landscape quality 382 11.3 Application of results for predictive purposes 393 11.4 Testing of theories based on preference results 396 11.5 Regional scale landscape quality assessment protocol 406

12 Discussion and Conclusions 413 12.1 Valuing the landscape 413 12.2 Fulfilment of hypothesis 414 12.3 Achievement of thesis 418 12.4 Extreme scenes 418 12.5 Further application 419 12.6 Landscape quality management 419

References 421 Andrew Lothian xi Landscape Quality Assessment of South Australia

TABLES

Chapter 2 Philosophy of Aesthetics Table 2.1 Summary of Philosophers of Aesthetics 22

Chapter 4 Perception and Colour Table 4.1 Figure and Ground Characteristics 51 Table 4.2 Kaplans’ Informational Variables 55 Table 4.3 Average Rankings of Colour Preferences 57

Chapter 5 Psychoanalysis and Aesthetics Table 5.1 Summary of Psychoanalytical Models of Aesthetics 74

Chapter 6 Culture and Landscape Table 6.1 Summary of Significant Findings: Classical & Teleological Foundations 140 Table 6.2 Summary of Significant Findings: Attitudes to Mountains 140 Table 6.3 Summary of Significant Findings: Development of Landscape Art 141 Table 6.4 Summary of Significant Findings: Development of Gardens and Parks 141 Table 6.5 Objectivist and Subjectivist Positions: Summary 143 Table 6.6 Objectivist and Subjectivist Classification 143

Chapter 7 20th Century Landscape Studies Table 7.1 Frequency of Paradigms in Studies, 1965 – 80 156 Table 7.2 Summary of Landscape Analysis Typologies 159 Table 7.3 Objectivist [physical] and Subjectivist [psychological] Paradigms 161 Table 7.4 Country of Study Location 162 Table 7.5 Purpose of Preference Studies 164 Table 7.6 Theoretical Bases of Surveys 164 Table 7.7 Instruments Used in Landscape Preference Surveys 165 Table 7.8 Derivation of Scenic Beauty Estimation [SBE] for Three Scenes 170 Table 7.9 Sample of Surveys using Questionnaires 176 Table 7.10 Shafer’s Predictive Model of Landscape Preferences 179 Table 7.11 Participants Used in Landscape Preference Surveys 181 Table 7.12 Use of Students in Landscape Preference Surveys 181 Table 7.13 Participant Characteristics 182 Table 7.14 Frequency of Participant Characteristics 182 Table 7.15 Landscape Characteristics Covered by Surveys 182 Table 7.16 Number of Characteristics Covered by Landscape Preference Surveys 183 Table 7.17 Representation of Landscapes by Surveys 183 Table 7.18 Form of Photographs Used in Surveys 183 Table 7.19 Forms of Statistical Analysis Used in Surveys 183 Table 7.20 Assessment of the Findings of Studies 184

Chapter 8 Findings of Landscape Studies Table 8.1 Comparison of Most & Least Attractive Trees 187 Table 8.2 Informational Processing Factors as Predictors of Preference for Groups 199 Table 8.3 Relationship between predicted values & preference ratings 200 Table 8.4 Physical Attributes of Mystery 200 Table 8.5 Influence of Personality on Landscape Preferences [correlations] 211 Table 8.6 Correlation [Pearson] matrix 212 Table 8.7 Comparison of Preferences between Groups 217 Table 8.8 Comparison of On-site and Photograph Ratings 223 Table 8.9 Comparison of Field and Laboratory Assessments 224 Table 8.10 Preferences in open-ended responses 224 Table 8.11 Content in open-ended responses 220 Table 8.12 Effect of Labels on Photographs 226 Table 8.13 Galvanic Responses to Scenes and Descriptions 226 Table 8.14 Correlation of Variables with Preference 229 Table 8.15 Comparison of Mean Scores for Tranquillity and Preference 230 Andrew Lothian xii Landscape Quality Assessment of South Australia

Table 8.16 Frequency of scenes by and scenic preference score 235 Table 8.17 Regression Coefficients for Specific Landscape Dimensions 235 Table 8.18 Shafer’s Predictive Model of Landscape Preferences 239 Table 8.19 Summary of Positive and Negative Aspects of Trees and Forest Management 240 Table 8.20 Features Viewed from Road in Rockies 242 Table 8.21 Influence of Naturalism on Rating of South Australian Landscapes 243

Chapter 9 Acquiring the Data Table 9.1 Examples of Statistical Analysis by Landscape Studies 253 Table 9.2 Preference Rating of Similar Scenes 254 Table 9.3 Summary of Landscape Photographic Trips 258 Table 9.4 Location of All Slides 262 Table 9.5 Summary of State Landscape Character Derivations 262 Table 9.6 Landscape Regions of South Australia 263 Table 9.7 Landscape Regions and Landscape Units 264 Table 9.8 South Australian Landscape Types 265 Table 9.9 Regional Distribution of Rating Slides 265 Table 9.10 Landscape Types Represented by Rating Slides 266 Table 9.11 Examples of Rating Scales 267 Table 9.12 Participant Information Sought 267 Table 9.13 Viewing Intervals for Slides 267 Table 9.14 Summary of Surveys on Instructions to Participants 269 Table 9.15 Slide Rating Sessions 270 Table 9.16 Participation rates in rating sessions 261 Table 9.17 Age of Participants 272 Table 9.18 Gender of Participants 272 Table 9.19 Educational levels of participants 272 Table 9.20 Educational levels of community 273 Table 9.21 Income Comparison 273 Table 9.22 Birthplace of Participants 273 Table 9.23 Childhood Residence 273 Table 9.24 Familiarity with South Australian Regions 274 Table 9.25 Scoring of Regional Familiarity 274

Chapter 10 Analysis of Preferences Overall Analysis Table 10.1 Key statistics of 160 scene ratings 281 Table 10.2 Key statistics of 319 respondents’ ratings 283 Table 10.3 Correlations between respondents 285 Table 10.4 Respondents with low correlations 286 Respondent Groups Table 10.5 Consolidation of respondent groups 287 Table 10.6 Groups of respondents for analysis 287 Table 10.7 Key statistics of respondent groups 288 Table 10.8 Group ratings in descending order 289 Table 10.9 ANOVA - all groups 289 Table 10.10 ANOVA - all groups except group 6 [ABW] 289 Table 10.11 Post-hoc test [Bonferroni] - group 6 and other groups 290 Respondent Characteristics Table 10.12 Average ratings by age category 293 Table 10.13 ANOVA of age categories 294 Table 10.14 Correlations between age classes 294 Table 10.15 Average ratings by gender 295 Table 10.16 ANOVA of gender categories 295 Table 10.17 Average ratings by education category 295 Table 10.18 ANOVA of education categories 295 Table 10.19 Correlations between education classes 296 Table 10.20 Average ratings by income category 296 Table 10.21 ANOVA of income categories 296 Table 10.22 Average ratings by birthplace category 297 Andrew Lothian xiii Landscape Quality Assessment of South Australia

Table 10.23 ANOVA of country of birth categories 297 Table 10.24 Average ratings by childhood residence 297 Table 10.25 ANOVA of childhood residence categories 297 Table 10.26 Correlations between childhood residence classes 297 Table 10.27 Correlations of respondent characteristics 298 Table 10.28 Size of range of values 298 Familiarity Table 10.29 Familiarity with South Australian regions 299 Table 10.30 Ratings of regions in order of familiarity 300 Regional Analysis Table 10.31 Average ratings by landscape region 300 Table 10.32 Ranking of landscape regions 301 Table 10.33 Average ratings of landscape types 302 Table 10.34 ANOVA of regional distributions 304 Table 10.35 Positive Characteristics Identified in Studies 306 Land Form Table 10.36 Key Statistics for Flats, Hills and Mountain Scenes 308 Table 10.37 ANOVA – Flats, Hills and Mountains 309 Table 10.38 Coastal landform classification 309 Table 10.39 Coastal Landform Scenes 309 Table 10.40 Key Statistics for Coastal Landform Scenes in Descending Order 310 Table 10.41 Comparison of Ratings of Categories of Coastal Scenes 310 Table 10.42 Description of Highly Rated Scenes 311 Table 10.43 ANOVA of Coastal 311 Table 10.44 Murray Landform Scenes 311 Table 10.45 Comparative statistics of River Murray Landforms 312 Table 10.46 Flinders Ranges and Arid Ranges Scenes - Rock face Scores 313 Table 10.47 Rating of Rock Face Scores 313 Table 10.48 ANOVA - Significance of Rock Faces 314 Table 10.49 Number of Angles of Elevation Measured from Scenes 315 Table 10.50 Elevation Classes 316 Table 10.51 All Scenes – Number of Scenes 316 Table 10.52 All Scenes - Ratings of Attributes 316 Table 10.53 Downward Viewing Scenes – Number of Scenes 317 Table 10.54 Downward Viewing Scenes – Ratings of Attributes 317 Table 10.55 Flinders Ranges and NW Ranges – Number of Scenes 318 Table 10.56 Flinders Ranges and NW Ranges – Ratings of Attributes 318 Table 10.57 Summary of Findings of Influence of Elevation on Preferences 318 Land cover Table 10.58 Distribution of Scores of Tree Significance 320 Table 10.59 Significance of Trees in Scenes 320 Table 10.60 ANOVA - Significance of Trees in Scenes 321 Table 10.61 Distribution of Vegetation Height and Density Scores 322 Table 10.62 Ratings of all Scenes by Scores of Vegetation Height and Density 322 Table 10.63 ANOVA - Vegetation Height, All Scenes 322 Table 10.64 ANOVA - Vegetation Density, All Scenes 322 Table 10.65 Distribution of Vegetation Height & Density Scores Excluding Coastal Scenes 323 Table 10.66 Ratings of all Scenes by Scores of Vegetation Height & Density - without coastal scenes 323 Table 10.67 ANOVA - Vegetation Height, All Scenes - less coastal scenes 323 Table 10.68 ANOVA - Vegetation Density, All Scenes - less coastal scenes 323 Table 10.69 Summary of Algorithms for Scenes with Vegetation 324 Table 10.70 Structure of South Australian Vegetation [after Carnahan] 325 Table 10.71 Ratings of Vegetation Types 326 Table 10.72 Rating of Indigenous and Introduced Vegetation Types 326 Table 10.73 ANOVA - Indigenous & Introduced Vegetation 328 Table 10.74 Algorithms of Influence of Height and Density of Vegetation on Preferences 328 Land Use Table 10.75 Key Statistics of Land Use Categories 329 Table 10.76 ANOVA - Preferences for Land Uses 329 Andrew Lothian xiv Landscape Quality Assessment of South Australia

Table 10.77 Scenes of Crops and Pastures - in descending order of means 330 Table 10.78 Key Statistics of Distributions of Crops and Pastures 331 Table 10.79 Key Statistics of Scenes of Crops & Pastures 331 Table 10.80 ANOVA - Presence of Ridges vs Flat Land in Cropping & Pasture Scenes 331 Table 10.81 ANOVA - Tall Crops vs Low Crops 332 Table 10.82 ANOVA - Crop Colour, Yellow vs Green 332 Table 10.83 Average Scores of Ridges Crop and Pasture Scenes 333 Table 10.84 Classification of Ratings Ridges in Scenes of Crops & Pastures 333 Table 10.85 ANOVA - Ridges in Cropping and Pasture Scenes 333 Table 10.86 Average Rating of Presence of Trees - Crop & Pasture Scenes 333 Table 10.87 Classification of Ratings - Presence of Trees 333 Table 10.88 ANOVA - Presence of Trees in Scenes of Crops and Pastures 333 Table 10.89 Summary of Preferences for Vines - in descending order of means 334 Table 10.90 Key Statistics of Scenes with Vines 334 Table 10.91 Mixed Use Scenes, Mt Lofty Ranges 335 Table 10.92 Summary of Scenes of Hills & Pastures, Mt Lofty Ranges - in descending order 335 Table 10.93 Key Statistics for Hills & Pastures, and Mixed Use Scenes, Mt Lofty Ranges 336 Table 10.94 Key Statistics of Colour of Scenes Hills & Pastures, and Mixed Uses 336 Table 10.95 ANOVA - Colour of Scenes of Hills and Pastures & Mixed Uses, Mt Lofty Ranges 336 Table 10.96 Scores of Significance of Trees - Vines, Mixed uses, Hills & Pastures 336 Table 10.97 Rating of Trees, Hills & Pastures, Mixed Uses, & Vines 337 Table 10.98 ANOVA - Presence of Trees in Hills & Pastures, Mixed Uses, & Vines 337 Table 10.99 Scoring of Scenes Vines with Trees Scenes 337 Table 10.100 Frequency of Scores for Scenes with and Without Vines 337 Table 10.101 Scoring of Terrain, Hills & Pastures, Mixed Uses & Vines Scenes 338 Table 10.102 Scoring of Terrain, Hills & Pastures & Mixed Uses Scenes 338 Table 10.103 Scoring of Terrain on Vines 338 Water Table 10.104 Statistics of Scenes with and without water 339 Table 10.105 Key Statistics for Coastal Scenes 340 Table 10.106 Scoring of Coastal Scenes by Attributes 341 Table 10.107 Summary of Scenes of Murray Valley in descending order 343 Table 10.108 Key Statistics for Scenes of Murray Valley 343 Table 10.109 Components in Scenes of Murray Valley 343 Table 10.110 Ratings of Scenes by Attribute Classes - Murray Valley 344 Table 10.111 Ratings of Scenes by Attribute Classes - River Murray 345 Table 10.112 Scenes with Farm Dams, Mt Lofty Ranges - in descending order of means 345 Table 10.113 Mt Lofty Ranges Scenes with and without dams 346 Table 10.114 ANOVA - Scenes with and without dams, Mt Lofty Ranges 346 Table 10.115 Key Statistics, Small and Large Dams, Mt Lofty Ranges 346 Table 10.116 Summary of Inland Water Scenes 347 Table 10.117 Key Statistics for Inland Waters Scenes 347 Table 10.118 Attribute Scores for Inland Waters Scenes 347 Table 10.119 Attribute Classes for Inland Water Scenes 347 Table 10.120 Colour of Water in Scenes 348 Table 10.121 Key Statistics for Colour of Water 348 Table 10.122 Summary of Statistics for Scenes with Water 349 Diversity Table 10.123 Diversity: Number of Scores 351 Table 10.124 Scoring of Diversity 351 Table 10.125 ANOVA of Diversity Scores 351

Naturalism Table 10.126 Naturalism - Number of Scores 353 Table 10.127 Scoring of Naturalism 353 Table 10.128 ANOVA for Naturalism Scores 353 Table 10.129 Correlations between Naturalism and Diversity Scores 354 Colour Table 10.130 Scale of Hues 355 Table 10.131 Frequency of Colours in Scenes 356 Andrew Lothian xv Landscape Quality Assessment of South Australia

Table 10.132 Scenes with Largest Number of Colours 357 Table 10.133 Colour Spectrum Chart 357 Table 10.134 Summary of Statistics for the Average Colour of Features 358 Table 10.135 Number of Dominant Hues Identified 359 Table 10.136 Frequency of Dominant Hues Identified 359 Table 10.137 Average Ratings of Dominant Hues 360 Table 10.138 ANOVA - Significance of Dominant Hues 361 Table 10.139 Ratings of the Frequency of Dominant Hues 362 Table 10.140 ANOVA – Number of Significant Hues 362 Table 10.141 Frequency of Scenes per Category 363 Table 10.142 Preferences Based on Scene Saturation and 363 Clouds Table 10.143 Scoring of Clouds in Scenes 364 Table 10.144 Scoring of Cloudiness 364 Table 10.145 ANOVA - Cloudiness of Scenes 364 Factor Analysis Table 10.146 Factor Loadings River Murray Scenes 365 Table 10.147 Factor Loadings Coastal Scenes 366 Table 10.148 Factor Loadings Flinders Ranges 367 Table 10.149 Factor Loadings Hills and Pastures 367 Table 10.150 Factor Loadings Crops and Pastures 368 Table 10.151 Factor Loadings – Vineyards 368 Table 10.152 Summary of Factors Identified 369 Confounding Effect Table 10.153 Comparison of Scores for Rockface Scores 370 Summary Table 10.154 Summary of Algorithms for Attributes 376

Chapter 11 Application of the Results Table 11.1 Categories of Coastal Landscapes 383 Table 11.2 Ratings of Murray Valley Landscapes 385 Table 11.3 Ratings of Arid Region 387 Table 11.4 Ratings of Arid Vegetation Types 388 Table 11.5 Categories of Arid Landscapes 388 Table 11.6 Categories of Flinders Ranges Landscapes 389 Table 11.7 Lengths of Landscape Quality Ratings Coast 389 Table 11.8 Lengths of Coastal Ratings by Region 390 Table 11.9 Areas of Landscape Quality Ratings - South Australia [sq km] (Excluding coast) 392 Table 11.10 % of Landscape Quality Ratings - South Australia (Excluding coast) 392 Table 11.11 Ratings of Pastoral Scenes 394 Table 11.12 Changes in Ratings 394 Table 11.13 Landscape Quality Ratings for Diversity and Naturalism Scores 396 Table 11.14 Habitat theory: Frequency of Scores 397 Table 11.15 Habitat theory: Ratings of Scores 398 Table 11.16 Prospect & Refuge: Frequency of Scores 399 Table 11.17 Prospect & Refuge: Ratings of Scores 399 Table 11.18 Information Processing: Frequency of Scores 400 Table 11.19 Information Processing: Ratings of Scores 400 Table 11.20 Gestalt: Frequency of Scores 401 Table 11.21 Gestalt Scores 401 Table 11.22 Psychoanalytical Attributes: Frequency of Scores 402 Table 11.23 Psychoanalytical Attributes: Ratings of Scores 403 Table 11.24 Ratings per Aggregated Score for each Theory 404 Table 11.25 Duration of Landscape Assessment Project 411 Table 11.26 Estimated Project Budget 411

Andrew Lothian xvi Landscape Quality Assessment of South Australia

FIGURES

Chapter 1 Introduction Figure 1.1 A Taxonomy of Aesthetics 5 Figure 1.2 Model of Human-Landscape Interaction 5 Figure 1.3 Outline of Thesis Structure 67

Chapter 2 Philosophy of Aesthetics Figure 2.1 Kant’s Aesthetic Theory - A Framework 16 Figure 2.2 Relationship of the Objectivist and Subjectivist Paradigms 25

Chapter 3 Gestalt Psychology Figure 3.1 Gestalt of Perceptual Grouping 29 Figure 3.2 A Reversible Figure 33

Chapter 4 Perception and Colour Figure 4.1 An Information Processing Model 46 Figure 4.2 Measurement of Arc of Vision 46 Figure 4.3 Concept of Visual Angles 48 Figure 4.4 of Size Constancy 49 Figure 4.5 Pictorial Cues of Distance 49 Figure 4.6 Brunswick’s Lens Model 53 Figure 4.7 Hypothetical Relationship of Uncertainty to Aesthetic Response 56 Figure 4.8 Relationship between Stimulus Diversity and Preferences 56 Figure 4.9 Wavelengths of Visible Light Spectrum 56 Figure 4.10 Affective Preference for Colours - in Ascending Order 56 Figure 4.11 Rankings of Colour Preferences by Gender 57 Figure 4.12 Variations in Colour Preference, 1910 – 30, Males, University of Nebraska 58

Chapter 5 Psychoanalysis and Aesthetics Figure 5.1 Psychoanalytical Model of Landscape Aesthetic Response 74

Chapter 6 Culture and Landscape Figure 6.1 Approximate Span of Influence of Various Factors 142

Chapter 7 20th Century Landscape Studies Figure 7.1 Porteous’ Groups Involved in Landscape Research 154 Figure 7.2 Landscape Perception (interaction) Process 156 Figure 7.3 Comparison of Landscape Typologies of Zube et al and Daniel & Vining 158 Figure 7.4 Theoretical Framework Based on Consensus for Landscape Evaluation 158 Figure 7.5 Hierarchy of Landscape Assessment Methodologies 161 Figure 7.6 Year of Landscape Preference Study 162 Figure 7.7 Numbers of Photographs for Paired Comparisons - LCJ Method 167 Figure 7.8 SBE Model - Hypothetical Example 170 Figure 7.9 Example of Landscape Zones Designated on Photograph [Shafer’s method] 178

Chapter 8 Findings of Landscape Studies Figure 8.1 Comparison of Preferences for Savanna by Age 189 Figure 8.2 Interactive Effect of Refuge and Gender on Preferences 193 Figure 8.3 Affect Scores Before and After Slides 195 Figure 8.4 Analgesic Doses per Patient - wall & tree views 196 Figure 8.5 Kaplans’ Predictor Variables 198 Figure 8.6 Rating of Waterscapes by Variables 201 Figure 8.7 Rating of Mountainous Scenes by Variables 202 Figure 8.8 Vygotsky’s Development Paradigm + Dewey’s Modes of Aesthetic 204 Figure 8.9 Dearden’s Hierarchy of Societal Landscape Preferences 206 Figure 8.10 Correlations for Scenic Preference by Age Group 209 Figure 8.11 Correlations with Age Group Scenic Ratings 210 Figure 8.12 Comparison of Italian and Australian Landscape Preferences 212 Andrew Lothian xvii Landscape Quality Assessment of South Australia

Figure 8.13 LCJ Preference Values for 11 Landscapes 213 Figure 8.14 Preference Ratings of Nigerians 214 Figure 8.15 Correlations of Familiarity with Socio-Economic Variables 215 Figure 8.16 Preferences vs familiarity - Bog environment 216 Figure 8.17 Preferences vs familiarity: Great Lakes and Long Island 216 Figure 8.18 Landscape Preferences by Groups 218 Figure 8.19 Comparison of Direct vs Photo-based Ratings 223 Figure 8.20 Effect of Labels on Scenic Quality Rating of Forests 225 Figure 8.21 Effect of Viewing Times on Preferences 227 Figure 8.22 Scores for Landscape Scenes 229 Figure 8.23 Correlations of Preference and Variables 230 Figure 8.24 Feeling States along Trails 230 Figure 8.25 Influence of River Flow on Scenic Beauty 231 Figure 8.26 Correlation of Age Groups with Preference for Water 235 Figure 8.27 Preference by Nationalities for Mountain Landscapes 236 Figure 8.28 Preferences for Australians & Americans for Jarrah Forests 239 Figure 8.29 Preferences for Biomes by Age 239 Figure 8.30 Preferences of Groups for Arboretum Scenes 239 Figure 8.31 Ratings of Landscape Features 240 Figure 8.32 Regression “R” Values - Landscape Elements Vancouver Island 241 Figure 8.33 Nature & Urban Scenes - Complexity vs Preference 242 Figure 8.34 Preferences for Environmental Variables - River Environment 244 Figure 8.35 Naturalness vs Foliage Cover & Height 244 Figure 8.36 Effect of Sounds on Botanical Garden Setting 246 Figure 8.37 Influence of Sound on Scenic Ratings 247

Chapter 9 Acquiring the Data Figure 9.1 Methodology for Landscape Quality Assessment 251 Figure 9.2 Summary of Components of Methodology 251 Figure 9.3 Distribution of Slides by Region 259 Figure 9.4 Distribution of All Slides by Region 260 Figure 9.5 South Australian Landscape Character Regions 261 Figure 9.6 Rating Scale 267 Figure 9.7 Ages of Participants 272 Figure 9.8 Familiarity with South Australian Regions 274 A set of the 160 scenes used in the survey are included at the end of Chapter 9

Chapter 10 Analysis of Preferences Overall Analysis Figure 10.1 Distribution of means of 160 slide ratings 281 Figure 10.2 Means vs standard deviations of slide ratings 281 Figure 10.3 QQ plot of means of scenes 281 Figure 10.4 Stem and leaf plot of means of scenes 283 Figure 10.5 Ratings of scenes arranged in ascending order 283 Figure 10.6 Distribution of mean ratings of respondents 284 Figure 10.7 QQ plot of respondents’ means 284 Figure 10.8 Stem and leaf plot of respondents’ means 284 Figure 10.9 Ratings of respondents arranged in ascending order 284 Figure 10.10 Distribution of z scores for respondents 284 Figure 10.11 Histogram of correlations 285 Figure 10.12 Distribution of correlations between respondent ratings 286 Figure 10.13 Summary of means 288 Respondent Groups Figure 10.14 Boxplot of group distributions 289 Figure 10.15 Comparison of group means for slides arranged in ascending order 290 Figure 10.16 Distributions and QQ Plots of Respondent Groups 291

Respondent Characteristics Figure 10.17 Average ratings by age category 293 Figure 10.18 Boxplot of ratings by age category 293 Andrew Lothian xviii Landscape Quality Assessment of South Australia

Figure 10.19 Distribution of ratings by males 294 Figure 10.20 Distribution of ratings by females 294 Figure 10.21 Boxplot of ratings by gender category 294 Figure 10.22 Trend of average ratings by education category 295 Figure 10.23 Boxplot of ratings by education category 295 Figure 10.24 Relationship between ratings and income 296 Figure 10.25 Boxplot of ratings by income category 296 Figure 10.26 Boxplot of ratings by childhood residence 297 Figure 10.27 Correlations between respondent characteristics 298 Familiarity Figure 10.28 Effect on ratings of familiarity with regions 299 Figure 10.29 Significance of differences between familiarity categories 301 Regional analysis Figure 10.30 Mean ratings and standard deviations of landscape regions 300 Figure 10.31 Boxplot of ratings of landscape regions 301 Figure 10.32 Boxplot of ratings of landscape regions and units 302 Figure 10.33 Distributions and QQ plots of landscape regions 303 Landform Figure 10.34 Boxplot of Flats, Hills and Mountains 308 Figure 10.35 Distribution of ratings - Flats 309 Figure 10.36 Distribution of ratings – Hills 309 Figure 10.37 Distribution of ratings – Mountains 309 Figure 10.38 Boxplot of Coastal Landform Ratings 311 Figure 10.39 Boxplot of River Murray Landforms 312 Figure 10.40 Boxplot of Scores of Rock Face Significance 313 Figure 10.41 Scoring vs Rating of Rock Face Significance 313 Figure 10.42 Derivation of Angles of Elevation 315 Figure 10.43 Derivation of Angles for Lower Landscapes 315 Figure 10.44 Boxplot of Height vs Ratings 316 Figure 10.45 Boxplot of Distance vs Ratings 316 Figure 10.46 Boxplot of Angles vs Ratings 317 Figure 10.47 Influence of Elevation on Preferences - All Scenes 317 Figure 10.48 Influence of Downward Views on Preferences 317 Figure 10.49 Influence of Elevation on Preferences - Flinders Ranges & NW ranges 318 Land Cover Figure 10.50 Significance of Trees - Scores vs Ratings 320 Figure 10.51 Boxplot of Scoring of Significance of Trees 320 Figure 10.52 Relationship of Ratings with Scores of Vegetation Height and Density 322 Figure 10.53 Boxplot of Vegetation Height Ratings 323 Figure 10.54 Boxplot of Vegetation Density Ratings 323 Figure 10.55 Relationship of Ratings with Scores of Vegetation Height & Density - without coastal scenes 324 Figure 10.56 Boxplot of Vegetation Height Ratings without coast 324 Figure 10.57 Boxplot of Vegetation Density Ratings without coast 324 Figure 10.58 Ratings of Vegetation Types - in order of ratings 327 Figure 10.59 Boxplot of Indigenous and Introduced Vegetation 328 Figure 10.60 Boxplot of Land Use Categories 329 Figure 10.61 Distribution of Means of 29 Scenes of Crops & Pastures 331 Figure 10.62 Boxplot of Factors in Crop & Pasture Scenes 332 Figure 10.63 Influence of Ridges on Crops & Pasture Scenes 333 Figure 10.64 Boxplot of Ratings of Tree Presence Classes 334 Figure 10.65 Distribution of Ratings, Hills & Pastures, Mt Lofty Ranges 336 Andrew Lothian xix Landscape Quality Assessment of South Australia

Figure 10.66 Boxplot of Scene Colours Hills & Pastures & Mixed Uses 336 Figure 10.67 Significance of Trees, Rating vs Scores - Hills & Pastures, Mixed Uses, & Vines337 Figure 10.68 Boxplot of Scoring of Tree Presence in Hills & Pastures, Mixed Uses, & Vines 337 Figure 10.69 Influence of Terrain on Ratings of Hills & Pastures, Mixed Uses & Vines 338 Water Figure 10.70 Scenes without water features 339 Figure 10.71 Scenes with water features 340 Figure 10.72 Boxplot Comparison of Scenes with and without water features 340 Figure 10.73 Distribution of Ratings, Coast 340 Figure 10.74 Coastal Scenes - Means vs SDs 340 Figure 10.75 Coastal Scenes - Relationship of Attributes and Ratings 342 Figure 10.76 Distribution of ratings, Murray Valley Scenes 342 Figure 10.77 Boxplot of Murray Valley Ratings 342 Figure 10.78 Murray Valley Scenes - Relationship of Scores to Ratings 344 Figure 10.79 River Murray Scenes - Scores vs Ratings 345 Figure 10.80 Boxplot of Scenes without and with Dams 346 Figure 10.81 Preferences vs Visual Significance of Water in Dam 346 Figure 10.82 Inland Water Scenes - Relationship of Scores to Ratings 348 Figure 10.83 Boxplot of Scenes with Water - in descending order 349 Diversity Figure 10.84 Ratings vs scores – Diversity 351 Figure 10.85 Boxplot of Rating of Diversity Scores 351 Naturalism Figure 10.86 Ratings vs scores – Naturalism 353 Figure 10.87 Boxplot of Rating of Naturalism Scores 353 Figure 10.88 Correlations between Naturalism Scores [X axis] and Diversity Scores [lines] 354 Colour Figure 10.89 Frequency of Colours in Scenes 356 Figure 10.90 Spectrum Scale of Major Hues for each Feature 358 Figure 10.91 Boxplot of Ratings of Dominant Hues 361 Figure 10.92 Hues in Order of Preference 361 Figure 10.93 Ratings of Frequency of Dominant Colours 362 Figure 10.94 Boxplot of Frequencies of Dominant Colours 362 Figure 10.95 Prefernces based on Scene Saturation and Lightness 363 Cloud Figure 10.96 Ratings vs scores – Clouds 365 Figure 10.97 Boxplot of Rating of Cloudiness Scores 365 Confounding Effect Figure 10.98 Comparison of Scores for Rockface Scores 369 Figure 10.99 Correlations of Attributes with the Rockface#4 Score 370 Figure 10.100 Correlations of R Murray Area Score #4 with Naturalism and Diversity 371 Figure 10.101 Correlations of R Murray Edge Score #4 with Naturalism and Diversity 371 Summary Figure 10.102 Comparison of Slopes of Algorithms - in descending order 377 Figure 10.103 Percentage Change per Score Class in Attributes - in order 378

Chapter 11 Application of the Results Figure 11.1 Relative Lengths of Coast by Region 389 Figure 11.2 Length of Ratings of Coast [Km] 390 Figure 11.3 Map of South Australian Landscape Quality 391 Figure 11.4 Area of Ratings - South Australia 392 Figure 11.5 Area of Ratings - Agricultural Region 393 Figure 11.6 Area of Ratings - Far North Region 393 Figure 11.7 Pastoral Scenes – Ratings vs Significance of Trees 394 Figure 11.8 Scoring of Habitat theory 398 Figure 11.9 Scoring of Prospect and Refuge 399 Figure 11.10 Information Processing: Scoring of Attributes 400 Andrew Lothian xx Landscape Quality Assessment of South Australia

Figure 11.11 Gestalt: Scoring of Attributes 402 Figure 11.12 Psychoanalytical Attributes: Scoring 403 Figure 11.13 Summary of Algorithm Slopes In Descending Order 404 Figure 11.14 Ratings per Aggregated Score - all Theories 405 Figure 11.15 Components of Theories with Commonalities 405

Andrew Lothian xxi Landscape Quality Assessment of South Australia

ATTACHED CD

The following are located in the CD enclosed with the thesis

Summary An extensive 23 page summary of the thesis.

Appendixes Chapter 7 Appendix 7.1 Spreadsheet of Landscape Preferences Studies Appendix 7.2 Purpose of Landscape Preference Studies Appendix 7.3 Types of Numbers and their Capabilities

Chapter 8 Findings of Landscape Studies Appendix 8.1 Informational Predictor Variables Appendix 8.2 Basic Respondent Characteristics Appendix 8.3 Culture Appendix 8.4 Familiarity Appendix 8.5 Expert vs Lay Observers Appendix 8.6 Water Appendix 8.7 Mountains Appendix 8.8 Trees Appendix 8.9 Naturalism

Chapter 9 Acquiring the Data Appendix 9.1 Examples of Factor Analysis and Multiple Regression from Studies Appendix 9.2 South Australian Landscape Character Appendix 9.3 Slides by Region Appendix 9.4 Description of Slides by their Sequence Appendix 9.5 Landscape Quality Rating Sheet Appendix 9.6 Measurement of Independent Variables from Photographs

Chapter 10 Analysis of Preferences Appendix 10.1 Ratings of all slides - means and standard deviations Appendix 10.2 Coastal Scenes with Views of the Sea - in descending order of means Appendix 10.3 Elevations and Angles in Scenes Appendix 10.4 Scoring of Significance of Trees in Scenes Appendix 10.5 All Vegetation, Scoring of Height and Density Appendix 10.6 Ratings of Types of Vegetation Appendix 10.7 Allocation of Scenes to Land Uses Appendix 10.8 Coastal Scenes with Views of the Sea Appendix 10.9 Diversity Scores Appendix 10.10 Naturalism Scores Appendix 10.11 Colours of Slides Designation: Hue/Saturation/Lightness Appendix 10.12 Colour of Scenes - Hues only Appendix 10.13 Dominant & Co-dominant Colours Appendix 10.14 Saturation and Lightness of Dominant Colours Appendix 10.15 Scoring of cloud cover

References The references used in the preparation of the thesis are shown under their relevant chapter headings.

Andrew Lothian xxii Landscape Quality Assessment of South Australia

Reference set of scenes The 160 scenes used in the thesis are shown in a Powerpoint file on the CD. This also displays the distribution graph of preferences for each scene, their means and SDs, locational information and descriptions of the scenes.

Overview This Powerpoint presentation summarises the methodology and findings of the survey of landscape quality of South Australia.

Andrew Lothian xxiii Landscape Quality Assessment of South Australia

1 1. Introduction

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 INTRODUCTION and rescue the pure virginal from the monster which has held it in Landscape. The very word conjures up durance. The present attempt, images in our mind of past scenes although it tries to find shelter behind enjoyed, of encounters with the physical the traditional forms of scholarly world, of sunsets admired, of childhood modesty, is in this respect no better memories of idealised and romantic than it should be." [Sachs, 1951, 148]. scenes of storybook castles on high rocky pinnacles, dark forests and placid streams Sachs’ comment lays bare the hidden meandering amidst grassy meadows. motives which can induce one to initiate this research however, as outlined in the Landscape quality is the subject of this preface, my motives derive from an thesis. Its central theme is of inquiry: why environmental ethic. is it that certain landscapes appeal to us? What is it about landscapes that convey attraction, beauty, interest, even love of a 1.2 DEFINITIONS scene? It examines the question, is there something inherent in the landscape that Consultation with dictionaries suggest two appeals or is it something in us which broad meanings of the term "landscape"; responds to the landscape? Educationists firstly, a view or a prospect of inland speak of nature or nurture, the role of scenery that can be comprehended from a genetics vs environment in determining single viewpoint, and secondly, a picture human behaviour. In the context of or sketch of the same. Interestingly, the landscape, does the locus of its appeal lie definition excludes the sea but dictionaries before or behind our eyes? are silent on whether it excludes and lakes as well on the basis that these In this chapter a foundation is laid. The features are not landscape but term landscape is defined and waterscape. differentiated from other terms such as scenery and aesthetics. A taxonomy of Significantly the definition combines both aesthetics is described and a model of the physical scene and the viewer who human interaction with landscapes is sees it, the viewer defining from their introduced. A plan for the thesis is viewpoint that portion of the entire scene outlined. that comprises the landscape. The viewer may also render an interpretation of what One writer on aesthetics, a psychoanalyst, they see in the form of a picture, thereby remarked on the motivations of those who providing a record of the landscape from seek to understand beauty: that position. The second definition does not include photographs which can be "It seems that the problem of beauty is used to interpret the landscape. The one of those [] which are definition thus includes both the apt to become more obscure by perception and interpretation of the explanations. The countless theories landscape. which have been created around it are mountains of bootless endeavor, The term landscape in this thesis has the monuments of the unrewarded toil of above meaning but with the inclusion of centuries. This, instead of working as a water, whether in the form of a river, lake deterrent, has added a strong or the sea. The only proviso being that the fascination to the quest, it stimulates land should provide the visible context for the undying wish-fantasy of being the the water; i.e. a scene of the sea or a lake hero to whom it is reserved by a without land being visible would not be special favor of fate to succeed where considered to be a landscape. The all predecessors have failed, to inclusion of land, however, regardless of penetrate the labyrinth of tangled 2 1. Introduction its extent in the scene, will be sufficient for surface is viewed and also excludes it to be considered landscape. underground mine workings, the beneath vegetation and rainfall. However he includes moveable objects noting that 1.3 ORIGINS OF LANDSCAPE a view of Broadway without traffic would be incomplete. He ignored the inclusion of The etymology of the term landscape has oceans in landscape. He opposed been researched extensively in the perception of landscapes by other than literature. It is believed by some that the sight, e.g. sounds and odours, on the terms landskift, landscipe or landscaef grounds that these do not contribute to a entered Britain some time after the 5th unified concept. In regard to the concept century [Calder, 1981, 6; Jackson, 1986, of natural and cultural landscapes that 65; Mikesell, 1968, 576; James 1934, 78]. Sauer among others differentiated, he These terms referred to a system of stated "the natural landscape ceased to human-made spaces in the land - spaces exist when man appeared on the scene" such as fields with boundaries though not [Ibid, 171]. While admitting the term necessarily defined by fences or walls. It primeval landscape could refer to pre- also referred to a natural unit, a region or human landscapes he considered the tract of land such as a river valley or range present natural landscape is "a theoretical of hills as occupied by a tribe or later, concept which never did exist" [Ibid, 173]. ruled by a feudal lord. The term is similar in meaning to the German landschaft During the 1920s and 1930s, attempts referring to a small administrative unit or were made to construct methodologies region. The term fell into disuse and by the that made landscape the essential if not time of the Doomsday Book in the 11th exclusive task of geography [Mikesell, century the word did not appear in any 1968, 576]. This stemmed from Carl translation from the Latin. Sauer's view that the role of geography was to systematically examine the The modern form of the word with its "phenomenology of landscape". Sauer connotations of scenery appeared in the viewed landscapes broadly as areas late 16th century when the term landschap comprising distinct associations of forms, was introduced by Dutch painters when both physical and natural, and regarded referring to paintings of inland natural or landscape study as tracing the rural scenery. According to Jackson: development of natural landscapes into "From 1577 with Harrison's Description of cultural landscapes. Britain onwards, a new awareness of the aesthetic nature of landscape emerged as By the 1940s, this emphasis had passed a new kind of topographical writing as geographers found that the difficulties flourished..." [1986, 80]. Originally the associated with reconstructing the past term was translated landskip which the were forbidding and at odds with their Oxford English Dictionary (OED) refers to primary concern with the present world. as the corrupt form of the word, gradually The concept of a natural landscape to be replaced by landscape. became increasingly questioned with knowledge of human impact on the Following a lengthy analysis concentrating environment. More recent geographers on the German term landschaft, have addressed the subjective attributes Hartshorne [1939, ix] defined landscape of a place within humanistic geography as referring to "the external, visible, (or [Tuan, 1976] thus crossing the touchable) surface of the earth. This between the objective and the subjective surface is formed by the outer surfaces, assessment of an area. those in immediate contact with the atmosphere, of vegetation, bare earth, The popular conception of the landscape snow, ice, or water bodies or the features that is reflected in dictionaries conveys a made by man." particular and a general meaning; the particular referring to an area of the Hartshorne differentiated the term from earth's surface and the general meaning region which he considers is larger and being that which can be seen by an more flexible in size. He eliminated sky on observer. the basis that the atmosphere is simply With greater attention to the environmental the medium through which the earth's perception by psychologists over recent 3 1. Introduction decades, landscape is regarded as the accordance with its classical meaning "the raw material with which to study human philosophy of sensuous perception" perceptions and the human processing of [ODEE, 1966, 16]. However, the corrupted information. Thus Daniels & Cosgrove term aesthetics gained popular [1988, 1] defined landscape, not in acceptance entering England after 1830 physical terms but as an outward and, according to the OED, within a expression of human perception: "a century of the coining of the meaning by landscape is a cultural image, a pictorial Baumgarten, it was in use widely way of representing, structuring or throughout Europe. symbolising surroundings." Meinig combined the physical and the The dictionary definition of aesthetic psychological: "any landscape is perpetuates Baumgarten's error and composed not only of what lies before our defines it as "things perceptible by the eyes but what lies within our heads." senses as opposed to things thinkable or [1976, 47]. immaterial" [Shorter Oxford, 1973], "pertaining to the sense of the beautiful or In recent decades the term environment the science of aesthetics" [Macquarie, has gained wide usage. Appleton 1981], or "of, relating to, or dealing with distinguished environment from landscape aesthetics or the beautiful" [Websters, by referring to the latter as "the 1973]. Aesthetics is regarded as a branch environment perceived". An advantage of philosophy, that which "deduces from which the term environment has over nature and the rules and principles landscape is, as Bourassa noted [1991, of art, the theory of the fine arts; the 9], that environment can refer more readily science of the beautiful..." [Macquarie] or to urban scenes although the term urban "[that] dealing with the nature of the landscape is also in common usage. As beautiful and with judgements concerning the term environment embraces the total beauty" [Websters]. physical, biological, cultural and aesthetic components of an area, it is generally Thus landscapes have often been the regarded as too broad and encompassing subject of inquiry within the broad a term for landscape. framework of aesthetics in the quest for understanding of beauty. The terms scene, scenic and scenery are inadequate descriptions of landscape. With its roots in the theatre where a scene 1.4 WHY EVALUATE LANDSCAPE describes a portion of a play, so a scene QUALITY? can describe a portion of a landscape. Scenery, which describes the decorative While the concept of landscape quality backdrops used on a stage, also refers to emerged over many centuries, there can the general appearance of a place, be no doubting that it resonates with particularly a picturesque view. While it human appreciation of beauty as can be used interchangeably with expressed in art, sculpture, architecture, landscape it does not convey the same dance and other forms. These are human depth of meaning. created forms of beauty while landscape beauty derives from the natural and The term landscape aesthetics or just human elements the landscape contains. aesthetics is frequently used in the literature. Aesthetics has a more Evaluation of landscape quality is controversial origin than landscape. It therefore motivated by a desire to derived from the Greek aisthesis meaning understand, firstly to understand what "sense perception". The term was used as humans appreciate in landscapes, and the title of the book Aesthetica [1750-58] secondly, to understand why they have by Alexander Baumgarten [1714 - 62], a this reaction to a physical scene. This minor German philosopher who incorrectly thesis focuses primarily on what humans applied the Greek term to a critique of the appreciate, though passing some beautiful or the theory of taste. Thus the comments on why this is so. term which originally applied to the broad field of sense perception was restricted to But there are more utilitarian reasons for the area of taste. in 1781 evaluating landscape quality. Some criticised this use and applied it in authors [eg Buhyoff, Wellman, Harvey and 4 1. Introduction

Fraser, 1978, 255] have identified legal 1975 to encourage State Trusts to requirements, particularly the US National undertake landscape classification so that Environment Protection Act 1969 which areas could be included on the Trust’s lists requires Federal agencies to “identify and of significant landscapes [McBriar, 1977, develop methods and procedures that 4]. presently unquantified environmental amenities and values may be given appropriate consideration in decision 1.5 CLASSIFICATION OF AESTHETICS making …” (Sec 102b). The literature of aesthetics covers a wide Change to the English landscape has range of objects that are the subject of an provoked considerable concern [eg aesthetic experience. Figure 1.1 proposes Leonard, P.L. & Cobham, R.O., 1977 The a taxonomy of aesthetics that farming landscapes of England and differentiates natural and human objects. Wales: a changing scene. Landscape The taxonomy provides a context for Planning, 4:205-236] and evaluating landscape aesthetics. landscape quality may provide the ammunition to combat further change. Natural objects cover the natural environment, human forms (and animal A comprehensive set of reasons and forms) and landscapes. However while needs to evaluate landscape has been each of these are natural in origin (i.e. the defined by Kane [1981, 78]: basis of their aesthetic attractiveness is not human created), each has been 1. to help establish priority lists of sites modified by human influence - e.g. the and regions that should be preserved emphasis on beauty aids by many as part of our natural [national?] womens’ magazines. The aesthetics of heritage; human creation covers tangible objects 2. to provide a means of aesthetically and conceptual phenomena such as comparing sites and regions so that, if music and literature. Objects include desired, human impact can be used to landscaped gardens, such as those advantage or guided into the least created by Capability Brown in England in attractive areas; the 18th century. These gardens are often 3. to help monitor deterioration of regarded, through human inguenity, as of landscape quality for specific places, a natural appearance, thus providing a by means of periodic evaluations; bridge between the two main categories of 4. to provide a means of carrying out nature and human creation. It is as if the ‘before and after’ studies in order to highest form of artificial creation is to gauge the impact of particular kinds of appear natural. human activities and alterations; 5. to define and isolate the perceptual factors and physical-landscape 1.6 MODEL OF HUMAN-LANDSCAPE components that are important in INTERACTION environmental perception and, if desirable or necessary, to be able to A model of the interactions between itemize why a particular landscape is humans and landscapes is proposed or is not aesthetically pleasing; which identifies five key components 6. to collect data on landscape [Figure 1.2]: preferences from different cultures and from diverse subpopulations (eg 1. theory - theoretical constructs which male/female, young/old, can provide a rationale for the travelled/untravelled) so as to better research understand technique theory, the 2. techniques - methodologies which working of our senses, the differences assist in researching human between various societal groups, and perception of landscape the biases of our cultures; 3. observer - the characteristics of the 7. to satisfy a growing body of human observer in many countries 4. mode of presentation - the manner by [cites the US NEPA 1969] which the landscape is observed, Kane’s first reason underlay a decision by whether in the field or by surrogates the Australian Council of National Trusts in [e.g. photographs] 5 1. Introduction

Aesthetics

Aesthetics of Nature Aesthetics of [Natural Beauty] Human Creation

Aesthetics of Aesthetics of Aesthetics of Aesthetics of Aesthetics of Natural Sciences Landscapes Human Form Visible Objects Conceptual Things

Biology Faces & Art Music Botany Bodies Architecture Poetry

Zoology Built form Literature Geology Sculpture Plays Ecology Industrial Design Dance Astronomy Human Dress, Decoration & Ornamentation

Figure 1.1 A Taxonomy of Aesthetics

4. Mode of presentation

3. Observer

5. Landscape preferences

2. Techniques of Analysing Landscape Preferences

1. Theory of Landscape Preferences

Figure 1.2 Model of Human – Landscape Interaction

6 1. Introduction

5. landscape preferences - the theoretical models to explain preferences for different components perception of the landscape [e.g. trees, water, • digging deeper under the surface of mountains] the human psyche to gain from the insights of psychoanalysts of their Each of these is examined in the thesis: understanding of the underlying motivations and influences on human

aesthetic preferences 1. theory – Sections 7.3, 8.2 It also involves drawing on a wider 2. techniques - 7.4, 9.4 canvas, the interaction of culture and 3. observer characteristics – 7,4, 8.3 landscape, focusing on Western culture in 4. presentation mode – 7.4, 8.4, 9.3 particular. 5. landscape preferences –7.4, 8.4

In addition, Chapter 10 covers many of these aspects in the empirical study. Analysing human interaction with landscape quality extends to the studies of landscape quality that have been undertaken over recent decades and of 1.7 HYPOTHESIS FOR THESIS the theoretical frameworks that have been developed to comprehend the perception Building on the taxonomy of aesthetics, of landscape quality. this thesis aims to derive insights from a range of relevant disciplines of how people perceive and interact with These components will provide aesthetics and landscape quality. The understanding of human perception of, knowledge gained will then be used in and interaction with, aesthetics and framing and conducting an assessment of landscape to provide the logical landscape quality. foundation for developing the method.

The hypothesis formulated to guide the thesis is: The object of the hypothesis involves the development of a credible methodology to To provide, through a thorough assess landscape quality at a large-scale. analysis of human perception and This is a tangible undertaking and needs interaction with aesthetics and to be guided by explicit criteria. The landscape quality, a comprehensive following six criteria are established which basis on which to develop a credible need to be fulfilled in order for this part of methodology for the large-scale the hypothesis to be accomplished: assessment of perceived landscape quality. 1) be replicable, statistically rigorous The study of aesthetics and landscape and defensible quality needs to appreciate fully the 2) reflect the preferences of the philosophical, psychological and cultural community roots of the subject and draw from these in 3) identify the relative importance of formulating surveys of landscape quality. components of landscapes for This thesis will therefore approach the preferences subject holistically through analysing the 4) enable mapping of landscape quality contribution of the disciplines of at a State level philosophy and psychology, and through 5) provide the basis for a methodology the cultural paradigm. which could be applied nationally 6) be practicable It involves analysing: The first criterion addresses the need to • how philosophers have sought to ensure that the methodology of landscape understand beauty in general and quality assessment is scientific in the aesthetics in particular sense of being replicable, is credible in its statistical design and execution, and its • the findings of psychologists of human results can be defended in a if perception, and the formulation of necessary. The second criterion derives 7 1. Introduction from the premise that as landscape quality case studies of mountains and landscape, is a subjective quality it is assessable only art and landscape, and garden design and through involvement of the community; it landscape. is not possible to assess landscape quality based on a formula of the physical Part Two comprises two chapters tracing characteristics of the landscape without the research into landscape aesthetics reflecting community preferences. during the twentieth century and summarising the findings of these studies. The third criterion aims to achieve a The analyses contained in Parts One and comprehensive understanding of the Two provide the understanding to influences on landscape preferences and formulate the survey contained in Part of their relative importance. The fourth Three. criterion involves a practical output of the study, to derive a map of landscape Part Three presents a study undertaken of quality at a state-wide level. This leads to the landscape quality of South Australia the fifth criterion of ensuring that the directed to the development of a methodology can be applied to assess methodology for large -scale landscape landscape quality at a national level quality assessment. A chapter describes across Australia. Finally the methodology how the data was acquired and the needs to be practicable in the sense of following very extensive chapter analyses being readily achievable, not necessitating the data. The application of the results is a large expense, and being able to be discussed in the final chapter. Discussion accomplished with a minimum of and conclusions complete the thesis. resources.

Chapter It is taken as axiomatic, but nevertheless 1. Introduction needs to stated explicitly, that references 2. Philosophy of Aesthetics to landscape quality throughout this thesis Part 3. Gestalt Psychology is a short-hand reference to landscape One 4. Perception and Colour quality as perceived. 5. Psychoanalysis and

Aesthetics

6. Culture and Landscape 1.8 PLAN OF THESIS 7. 20th Century Landscape

Part Studies The thesis comprises three distinct parts: Two 8. Findings of Studies Part One provides a theoretical context; 9. Acquiring the Data Part Two examines landscape studies 10. Analysis of Preferences over the past century; and Part Three 11. Applying the Results presents the development of large scale Part 12. Discussion and landscape quality assessment using Three Conclusions South Australia as the test area [Figure

1.3]. The analyses in Parts One and Two provide the basis for Part Three. Part One contains five chapters that Figure 1.3 Outline of Thesis Structure analyse the contributions of various disciplines on understanding aesthetics. It commences with the philosophy of aesthetics examining the contribution of philosophers over millennia. This is followed by chapters on Gestalt psychology of aesthetics, an early psychology of perception, and then a broader chapter on perception which examines various models of perception. This chapter also examines the perception of colour. The following chapter analyses the contribution of psychoanalysis to aesthetics. The final chapter of this part moves from disciplines to culture, and traces the interaction of culture and landscape. This is examined through three 9 2. Philosophy of Aesthetics

CHAPTER TWO

PHILOSOPHY OF AESTHETICS

2.1 INTRODUCTION may comprise soil, rocks, hills, valleys, rivers, fences, houses, trees and animals Humans have long asked the questions but no-where does it possess a feature like "what is beauty?", " why is a scene called 'beauty'. Beauty is expressed as if it beautiful?", "what is the nature of the is a tangible quality of the scene. The aesthetic experience?". Questions of judgement made is represented as being aesthetics have occupied many objectively valid. This judgement is not philosophers, although less so today than based on any rational part of our in the past. consciousness, no assessment or analysis of the scene is made against some Philosophy is a search for ultimate . standards of beauty. The judgement is It aims to identify and describe; it does not immediate and complete. It is solely a seek to explain which is the purpose of subjective statement. This paradox science. Philosophy undertakes between subjectivity and aesthetic conceptual investigat-ions [a priori], in judgement is one of the issues with which contrast again with science, it does this philosophers have grappled. independent of experience. An a priori concept may be validated through The philosophy of aesthetics reflects the experience. Philosophy has three main contributions of individual philosophers, areas of enquiry: methodology, - which building on that which has preceded them covers the theory of knowledge and logic; and developing new concepts and ideas. , which is the theory of the A characteristic of their writings is their nature and structure of reality; and the tortuous complexity. Philosophers deal theory of value. The theory of value with ideas that generally take considerable addresses three ultimate values: truth, space to develop in their own jargon. goodness and beauty. Philosophers have often spent lifetimes Aesthetics has been a subject of thinking and discussing issues, analysing philosophy since at least the time of cases and postulates, reviewing the Socrates. Up to the 18th century the focus contributions of other philosophers. The was beauty but following Baumgarten's summary of the life’s work of many invention of the term 'aesthetics' in about individuals which is presented here 1750, philosophy then broadened its scarcely scratches the surface of the inquiry to encompass this more inclusive depth of analysis and comprehension of term. the issues they addressed. It is akin to flying across a range of high mountains Philosophers distinguish between the and viewing only the top few metres of aesthetic object, the aesthetic experience each, ignoring the thousands of metres and the aesthetic recipient. The object providing their foundation and enabling stimulates an experience in the recipient. them to project that far. This review cannot This is identical with the human-landscape do to the work of these individuals, interaction model [Chapter 1]. nor is it intended to provide any more than an overview of the points most salient to Landscape is but one of many aesthetic the aesthetics of landscape. objects.These include music, art, sculpture, human faces, architecture, poetry and natural objects. Philosophers seek to identify the common principles operating on and determining the nature 2.2 CLASSICAL PHILOSOPHY OF of the aesthetic experience. AESTHETICS

A judgement is made about the scene, About 200 years before , a possible that it is a beautiful scene. The observer reference to beauty occurred in Homer's attaches a quality to the scene that, in the Illiad [XVIII, 548] where the shield of objective sense, it does not possess. It Achilles was described as "a marvellous 10 2. Philosophy of Aesthetics piece of work !", which suggests an had to be of a certain size, neither minute aesthetic judgement. nor vast, in order that their unity and wholeness could be appreciated by the There are few records of philosophers observer. prior to the era of Plato [427 - 347 BC]. Socrates [469 - 399 BC] believed it desirable for youth to dwell amongst 2.3 EARLY CHRISTIAN ERA beauty and thereby be influenced for the better, thus linking beauty and . Plotinus [204 - 269 AD], a neoPlatonist Roman born in Egypt, rejected the Stoic Plato was more concerned with the view that beauty was based on a organisation of the state than with formalism derived from symmetry. Plotinus aesthetics and, as a result, approached argued that both a live face and a dead the subject from the viewpoint of its role in face may be equally symmetrical, but only relation to the citizenry. Plato regarded art the live face would be considered as the imitation of reality, thus laying the beautiful. Rather, he saw beauty as "that foundation for later philosophers who view which irradiates symmetry rather than art as expression, the key being that poets symmetry itself". Beauty does not derive and artists alike aim to capture the form or from any single aspect of the object but essence of the object. from the total object. He used the term "ideal-form" (e.g. a block of stone is Plato, like Socrates, viewed beauty as transformed by a sculptor into an ideal- having a moral influence. However, while form). In experiencing beauty, the Socrates argued that whatever is useful individual finds an "affinity" with the object, and efficient is beautiful, to Plato beauty thereby participating in the ideal-form and indicated eternal values. He postulated a its divinity. Thus the observer becomes progression of beauty - beauty of the beautiful and divine. This idea laid the human body, of the mind, of institutions basis for and romanticism in and laws [his ideal state], of the sciences aesthetics. [i.e. philosophy], culminating in absolute beauty itself, which is outside of time and Plato's idea of idealised beauty was space - transcending the visible world. regarded by Augustine [354 - 430 AD] as Order and proportion were essential existing in the mind of God and given to elements of beauty. the observer by Divine illumination, thus relating beauty to religion. On this basis, Plato considered that beauty is either beauty is not relative but a constant. The contained by certain of an concepts of unity, number, equality, object [the definist theory] or it is proportion and order were central to indefinable but makes itself evident in the Augustine's aesthetics. He considered that internal unity of the object [the nondefinist the unity of an object derived from its theory]. Such internal unity produces order and proportion. He distinguished beauty only if unity in variety is present between the beauty of an object that together in an object. While aware of the forms a whole and beauty that derives likelihood of disputation over what is from being part of a whole. beautiful, Plato considered objects to be beautiful intrinsically because they are Thomas Aquinas [1224-74] considered "always beautiful in their very nature". beauty to be a subset of goodness. Objects cannot be "fair in one point of Beauty derived from three factors: view and foul in another, or at one time or "integrity or perfection", "due proportion or in one relation or at one place fair and at harmony" and "brightness or clarity", the another ...foul"; in other words beauty is latter interpreted as symbolising, through absolute, not relative. light, divine beauty. During the Middle Ages, theologians came to believe that, as Aristotle [384 - 322 BC] further developed God had created the world ex nihilo, Plato's theory of imitation in three senses: therefore the visible world displayed signs for moral education, for catharsis [i.e. of its Maker: "For since the creation of the purgation] and for character formation. He world God's invisible qualities - his eternal believed that Plato's idealised forms of power and divine nature - have been beauty were immanent in tangible objects. clearly seen..." [Romans 1:20]. According to Aristotle, beautiful objects, Bonaventure [c1217 - 74] regarded nature 11 2. Philosophy of Aesthetics as the "mirror of God", displaying His philosophy. The issue of taste in perfection to varying extents. The origins aesthetics and the search for the of the 18th century natural theology school underlying explanations of beauty were may be traced to these views [See the focus of the British empiricists. Chapter 6].

2.6 BRITISH AESTHETICIANS 2.4 RENAISSANCE During the 17 th and 18 th centuries, the With the Renaissance's interest in the British empiricists, John Locke [1632 - classics of Greek and Rome, many 1704], Bishop George Berkeley [1685 - Academies reduced their ideas about 1783] and [1711 - 1776] beauty to "rules" based on the eminent addressed aesthetics as a key question in authorities of antiquity. Marsilio Ficini, the philosophical inquiry. Called 'empiricists', founder of the new Academy in 1462 because they sought to demonstrate that developed the theory of contemplation human knowledge derived from based on Plato. He believed that, while experience rather than deduction, they contemplating the various stages of argued that "the mind at birth is a blank Platonic forms, the soul withdraws slate, a tabula rasa, upon which somewhat from the body and only in this experience 'writes' through the sensations state can beauty be experienced. Alberti received." [Rock, 1984, 9]. In 1651, [1404 – 1472] the architect, considered Thomas Hobbes wrote "There is no beauty to derive from an order and conception in man's mind which hath not arrangement such that nothing could be at first, totally or by parts, been begotten changed except for the worse, a relativist upon the organs of sense." [Rock, 1975, viewpoint. 13].

The empiricists addressed issues such as 2.5 MODERN PHILOSOPHY OF the mind-body problem, the nature of AESTHETICS external reality, the general issue of how knowledge is gained, and how do we see Cartesian , derived from the forms, questions in which visual processes works of Rene Descartes [1596 - 1650], are central and which occupied the and was influential in aesthetics, although philosophers then as they do today [Uttal, he wrote nothing about the arts. Instead, 1983, 27]. There were three basic ideas in he argued for the role of reason - "clear British empiricist philosophy [O'Neil, 1977, and distinct ideas" in establishing truth, 3]: and that knowledge advanced through building on one truth to reach another. • : a relation exists Intuition and deduction are sources of between the stimuli of the physical truth, intuition being "the undoubting world and the sensory experience conception of an unclouded and attentive • elementarism: complex sensory mind ...[that] springs from the light of experience could be analysed into reason alone" [Beardsley, 1966, 141] and basic elements - i.e. not further deduction being a logical chain of decomposable intuitions. Descartes' method had • associationism: elementary universal application, being highly experiences were combined through a influential in aesthetics as well as in other process of association. areas of philosophy. John Locke [1632 - 1704] laid a Modern aesthetics developed after the foundation for with his end of the 17th century in two centres, work on knowledge, ideas, language and Britain and - British government. He made the distinction contrasting with German aesthetic between primary and secondary qualities, . Francis Bacon in England in the the former including solidity, extension, early 17 th century had provided the motion and number and being "utterly empirical foundations in his work on inseparable from every particle of matter" beauty and deformity in the human figure. the latter including colours, smells, tastes The 18 th century saw aesthetics and sounds "which in truth are nothing in established into an autonomous area of the objects themselves but powers to 12 2. Philosophy of Aesthetics produce various sensations in us by their Beauty, he argued, results when certain primary qualities" [Hamlyn, 1987, 172]. qualities are present in objects, these Locke asserted the was based qualities being "a compound ratio of on science, which had been able to deal uniformity and variety: so that where the with primary qualities but not the uniformity of bodys [sic] is equal, the secondary. Beauty can reside objectively beauty is as the variety; and where the in an object insofar as beauty comprises variety is equal, the beauty is as the the object’s primary qualities but, insofar uniformity" [Beardsley, 1966, 186], thus as beauty is evident in the object’s providing an absolute basis for aesthetics. secondary qualities, beauty is a subjective Addison regarded aesthetic taste as a quality. Although rather confused, the function of three qualities: sublimity, distinction Locke makes between beauty novelty and beauty. residing in the object or in the eyes of the beholder became a key question for William Hogarth, a painter, published The philosophers over the coming centuries. Analysis of Beauty in 1753, one of many such books of the time that attempted to Anthony Ashley Cooper [1671 - 1713], the provide a definitive system to define Third Earl of Shaftesbury, envisioned a beauty. He believed linear beauty is harmonious world created by God. produced by six qualities: fitness, variety, Believing that human taste favoured uniformity, simplicity, intricacy, and things which are both pleasing and for our quantity or size. He produced a wavy line good, Shaftesbury [as he was known] that is "the line of beauty" and a three- linked aesthetics with a moral sense and dimensional serpentine equivalent, the was thus influential in establishing "line of grace", by which, according to aesthetics and as key issues for Beardsley, grace is added to beauty [Ibid, philosophy - 192]. Although Hogarth’s proposals were ridiculed, they had an influence on later "..the most natural beauty in the world writers. Hogarth introduced the term is honesty and moral truth. For all "serpentine line" which he believed beauty is truth. True features make the explained beauty in objects. beauty of a face; and true proportions the beauty of architecture; as true David Hume [1711 - 76], rejected the measures that of harmony and music objectivist view of aesthetics of ... A painter...understands the truth and Shaftesbury, Hutcheson and Addison. For unity of design; and knows he is even Hume, beauty resided not in the objects then unnatural when he follows Nature but in the mind. too close, and strictly copies Life." [Shaftesbury, in Hofstadter & Kuhns, "Beauty is no quality in things 1976, 240-1] themselves. It exists merely in the mind which contemplates them, and each Shaftesbury regarded the association of mind perceives a different beauty." ideas as critical in the aesthetic [Beardsley, 1966, 190] experience and also emphasised the immediacy of the human perception of Rather than look for beauty in the nature beauty. His identification of the aesthetic of the objects, Hume looked to "the attitude of disinterestedness laid the basis of our nature, by custom, or by for Kant's later development of this key caprice"; thus beauty was a function of the concept. And, with his love of wild nature, characteristics and preferences of the Shaftesbury preceded the 18th century's human observer and of the customs of interest in the sublime as an aesthetic their culture. Hume's major contribution concept distinct from beauty. was in arguing for a standard of taste developed through experience, education The Scottish philosophers, Frances and sensitivity to aesthetic qualities. Hutcheson [1694 - 1746] and Joseph Addison [1672 - 1719] built on The final significant British aesthetician of Shaftesbury's work. Both regarded beauty the 18th century, Edmund Burke [1729 - as residing in the object. In 1725, 97] was possibly the most important. In Hutcheson published Inquiry Concerning 1757 he published A Philosophical Beauty, Order, Harmony and Design, the Enquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of the first modern treatise on aesthetics. Sublime and Beautiful, a work that 13 2. Philosophy of Aesthetics influenced aesthetic thought well into the beautiful [Stolnitz, 1961, 197]. Moreover next century and beyond. Burke’s book Burke and Hume showed that the "unity in has been described as signalling the point variety" formula lacked content and at which English aesthetic taste changed applied to many objects. Alison examined from classical formalism to romanticism the various "principles" and found none [Cranston, 1967, 429]. acceptable. He wrote "These principles are true to a certain extent, though I Burke differentiated the aesthetic believe also, that they have arisen from a judgement concerning beauty and the partial view of the subject." [A. Alison, sublime; beauty originates with our 1790. Essays on the Nature and Principles emotions, particularly in our feelings of Taste, quoted by Stolniz, 1961, 200] By towards the opposite gender, while the the end of the 18th century it was sublime originates in nature and our concluded that it was altogether feelings towards it. He defined beauty as impossible to find properties which were "love without desire" which derives from common and peculiar to beauty. objects that are small, smooth, gently varying, delicate - all attributes of female beauty, indicative of Hogarth’s influence. 2.7 GERMAN PHILOSOPHERS Beauty was not defined by the properties of harmony, proportion, utility etc, rather The British aestheticians were essentially these properties resulted in the human amateurs - "gentlemen of leisure experience of beauty. addressing amateurs" but the German philosophers "were university professors, Sublimity involves emotions of great addressing learned audiences" [Russell, intensity - "astonishment without actual 1961, 677]. danger". Qualities which can be sublime include darkness, privation and emptiness, (1) Kant uncertainty, confusion, obscurity, vastness approaching infinity, qualities which Immanuel Kant [1724 - 1804], the first of contrasted traditional aesthetic standards the great German philosophers, "is the of harmony, proportion, clarity, and so on. great giant of 18th-century philosophy, and A degree of terror, controlled as when arguably the great giant of philosophy in looking over the edge of a high cliff or general." [Hamlyn, 1987, 217] "Kant, like inside a dark cave and filling the mind with all the very greatest figures in human what is before it, epitomise the sublime. culture, sums up a past age and Even ugly objects could be a source of inaugurates a new one." [Hofstadter & aesthetic interest, thus paving the way for Kuhns, 1976, 277]. Bertrand Russell was the 19th and 20 th century expressionist a little more circumspect: "Kant is movements in art which seek to provoke generally considered the greatest of emotional reaction, not necessarily beauty modern philosophers. I cannot myself in the classical sense. Beauty contrasts agree with this estimate, but it would be with sublimity but they are not opposites in foolish not to recognise his great the sense that the sublime is ugly. Rather importance." [Russell, 1961, 677]. it is an aesthetic experience of a different kind, indeed Burke suggested that the With eulogies such as these it is evident ugly can be the subject of aesthetic that Kant's influence was great indeed. He appreciation. Burke regarded sublimity as was born and lived all his life in more important than beauty. Konigsberg then in Prussia [now Kalingrad in ] on the border with Lithuania. Burke and Hume therefore viewed beauty He remained a bachelor and by all as the observer’s response to certain accounts lived an eventless life as properties in the object; yet these do not professor of logic and metaphysics in the define beauty, they only provide the university. conditions for its perception by an observer. It was demonstrated that many In 1764 Kant published Observations on of the properties thought to engender the Feeling of the Beautiful and the beauty in an object, properties such as Sublime about which Russell wrote: unity, proportion, uniformity and variety, utility or fitness - were present in many "Like everybody else at that time, he objects, not all of them considered wrote a treatise on the sublime and the 14 2. Philosophy of Aesthetics

beautiful. Night is sublime, day is beautiful; the sea is sublime, the land is • Third Moment Beauty is the form of beautiful; man is sublime, woman is the finality [or purposiveness ] of an beautiful; and so on." [op cit, 679] object, so far as this is perceived in it without any representation of a Kant acknowledged that the sublime purpose. involves an experience with some infinite or boundless greatness that overwhelms • Fourth Moment The beautiful is that the observer. He considered, however, which without any concept is cognized that nature does not contain anything that as the object of a necessary [i.e. is boundless but does involve universal] satisfaction [or delight]. formlessness. The importance of the sublime to Kant is that it incites the mind The four moments may be summarised as "with ideas that involve higher relation, quantity, quality and modality (i.e. purposiveness" beyond the normal senses necessity) [Beardsley, 1967, 27]. [Hamlyn, 1987, 241]. To Kant "the sublime moves, the beautiful charms" [McCloskey, The First Moment 1987, 19]. The first moment contains two important In 1781 Kant published his major work, ideas: the notion of the mind's Critique of Pure Reason. He revised this in representation of the object and the 1787 and followed it in 1788 with Critique principle of disinterestness. The aesthetic of and, in 1790, with experience involves the reception by the Critique of Judgement. The latter mind [the noumenal world] of an contained his ideas on aesthetics. Kant imaginative representation of the regarded humans as having three modes phenomenal world. The mind is not of consciousness - knowledge, desire and concerned with the object per se but with feeling. The first book dealt with the mind's representation of the object. "It knowledge, the second with desire and is the object as experienced which exhibits the third with feeling. His third critique beauty" [Zimmerman, 1968, 386] - thus contributed fundamentally to aesthetics, addressing the debate of the earlier indeed its opening part is considered to be aestheticians of whether beauty rests in the classic work in aesthetics [Hamlyn, the object or in our mind. "Kant shows that 1987, 241]. beauty, which at first sight seems to be an objective of a beautiful object, is Focusing on philosophical aesthetics, in reality a human valuation of it." Kant's contribution was in going forward, [Goldman, 1967, 184]. from the empirical analysis of previous philosophers, to the recognition of the Because it is a judgement of taste and not aesthetic as a "domain of human of cognition, i.e. aesthetical rather than experience equal in dignity to the logical, it is inherently subjective. Thus the theoretical and the practical (i.e. the aesthetic qualities of objects exist only cognitive and the moral)." [Hofstadter & subjectively. It follows that the of Kuhns, 1976, 278] the object is of no consequence - if it were mere illusion the aesthetic experience Kant argued his case regarding aesthetics would remain the same. Its existence may by a series of four "moments" or theses, of course be a practical and moral issue, each of which develops sets of arguments. but these considerations are not aesthetic He summarised the findings of each: in nature.

• First Moment Taste is the faculty of This leads to the principle of disinterest. judging of an object or a method of The presence of interest in an object is of representing it by an entirely practical or moral significance, but not of disinterested satisfaction or aesthetic significance. Disinterest means dissatisfaction. The object of such an absence of desire for the satisfaction is called beautiful. representation of the real existence of the object, and that it does not engender a • Second Moment The beautiful is that want in relation to the object. Only by which pleases universally without disinterest, is it possible to have a free, requiring a concept [i.e. reason]. 15 2. Philosophy of Aesthetics pure aesthetic experience, uncorrupted by • Pleasure in the Agreeable and in the existential concerns. Good are interested; only pleasure in the Beautiful is disinterested. The role of the imagination in the mind's representation of an object is vital. • Pleasure in the Agreeable is private Imagination is free and without interest. whereas pleasure in both the Beautiful Aesthetic judgement is distinguished from and in the Good are both universal and other judgements by the "free interplay of necessary pleasures. These are also the imagination and the understanding" 'Communicable' pleasures; pleasure in [Hamlyn, 1987, 240]. Aesthetic pleasure is the Good is communicable by concept the result of harmony between the whereas pleasure in the Beautiful is imaginative representation and communicable by means of the form of understanding. finality [see third moment].

The Second Moment • Pleasure in the Agreeable and in the Beautiful are both immediate while The second moment is based on Kant's pleasure in the Good may be either classification of pleasures and the objects mediated or unmediated. giving rise to them: The Third Moment Kinds of Pleasure Object Pleasure in the matter of Sensation Kant's third moment builds on the second sensation [the Agreeable] moment's distinction of the aesthetic Pleasure in the Beautiful Perceptual experience and asserts that an aesthetic form judgement is not a conceptual judgement, Pleasure in the Good Concepts i.e. it does not "involve or presuppose the concept-producing power of the The first of these is concerned with understanding" [Zimmerman, 1968, 391]. agreeable pleasures, sometimes termed As the aesthetic experience is pure and “animal pleasures”, the second, which subjective, it follows that it is exclusive of concerns aesthetics, is pleasure in things understanding. perceived, and the third with abstract, intellectual pleasures. Kant regarded this The central idea is summed up by Kant's classification as both universal and famous phrase purposiveness without mutually exclusive, i.e. it covers all purpose, which appears to be possibilities but an object can generate contradictory but serves to differentiate the only one pleasure. While this causes aesthetic experience from the practical some problems, it is important to his and the moral. It denotes an object that is aesthetic philosophy. Aesthetic pleasure purposive in its form though has no lies between fulfilling “animal” needs (e.g. purpose or function - e.g. the beauty of a appetite, and intellectual pleasures, rose. Beardsley describes it thus: including the rational and the moral). Aesthetic pleasure has elements of both "the judgement of taste is intimately but is pure experience for, as has been connected, Kant thinks, with established by Kant's first moment, it is purposiveness, but it is not, of course unrelated to the existence of the object. concerned at all with particular Clearly, sensual pleasure requires an purposes, for then it would be object and a moral imperative requires conceptual and it would not be action. Neither can claim universality. disinterested" [1966, 216]. Uniquely, the aesthetic experience gives pleasure universally and is unrelated to understanding.

The definitions distinguish the Beautiful from the Agreeable or from the Good [Kant's categories of pleasure]. The structure that emerges from Kant's classification of pleasures and from his moments is [McCloskey, 1987, 28]:

16 2. Philosophy of Aesthetics

Beauty has no determinant rules Beauty has no ideal

Beauty without functionality Purposiveness without purpose

Pleasure involves no conceptual judgement - pure and subjective

Pleasure is immediate and Universality of beauty - communicable pleases universally without Disinterest - not corrupted requiring a reason. by desire for the actual A public, not private object or a want in relation pleasure to it. Object is represented by mind’s imaginative representation

Figure 2.1 Kant’s Aesthetic Theory - A Framework

Purposiveness without purpose, colour and tone, the form of objects rather alternatively described as form of finality, than what they might represent, and the refers to a special type of formal quality possible application of such rules to dependent upon an object's perceptual natural objects rather than works of art properties, i.e. those which can be sensed which embody purpose. Some have about an object rather than any abstract criticised Kant for abandoning disinterest properties. It is this property of beauty in defining such rules, suggesting the that Kant considers is pleasing. A beautiful attempt is "seriously flawed" [Ibid, 209]. flower has beauty, which is free, whereas a beautiful building has a purpose, and The Fourth Moment therefore, functionality, which is not free. Such utility implies what a building ought Kant's fourth moment builds of the to be - i.e. comprised of walls, roof and so preceding moments: that aesthetic on, whereas beauty which is free contains pleasure derives from the pure experience "no concept of what the object ought to of an object without cognitive be" [Kant]. determination and that such pleasure is universal. The term 'necessary' means Being free, Kant does not attempt to that if an object is judged beautiful by provide rules for determining whether a universal agreement [the second particular object is beautiful - "no objective moment], then all others ought to also rules of taste can be given which would agree to its beauty although we cannot determine what is beautiful through guarantee it: concepts" and that it would be a "fruitless endeavour to seek a principle of taste "one is asserting that every human which would provide a universal criterion subject would experience an of the beautiful through determinate immediately felt aesthetic satisfaction if concepts." [Kant, in Guyer, 1979, 208]. they experienced the object freely." However he does seek for more general [Zimmerman, 1968, 392]. or rules. These include the design and composition of objects rather than their 17 2. Philosophy of Aesthetics

Because everyone feels the pleasure, it is nothing to do with cognition or with not a private but a public experience. morality." [Beardsley, 1966, 286]

Figure 2.1 summarises Kant’s theory as a Dewey [1934, 252-3] who argues for the ladder, the principles of disinterest and experience as the basis of aesthetics universality depicted as legs, principles takes a more sardonic view of Kant's that influence the outcomes shown as the aesthetics: rungs. "having disposed of Truth1 and the Kant's contribution to aesthetics is funda- Good, it remained to find a niche for mental and profound. His work has Beauty, the remaining term in the endured and shaped our view of beauty to classic trio. Pure feeling remained, this day. An example is in the area of art being "pure" in the sense of being where the "aesthetic movement" isolated and self-enclosed; feeling free recognised that the "aesthetic quality of art from any taint of desire; feeling that is not dependent on its practical strictly speaking is non-empirical. So usefulness or even its congruence with he bethought himself of a faculty of conventional morality" [Saw & Osborne, Judgement which is not reflective but 1968, 20], a position which derived from intuitive and yet not concerned with Kant's distinctions of the aesthetic from objects of Pure reason. This faculty is the useful, the pleasant and the good. exercised in Contemplation, and the distinctively esthetic element is the The following are summaries by several pleasure which attends such authors of his findings: Contemplation. Thus the psychological road was opened leading to the ivory "Shorn of its many elaborations, Kant's tower of "beauty" remote from all analysis of our use of the expression desire, action, and stir of emotion." 'This is beautiful' is that it expresses disinterested pleasure which we Kant has achieved in careful detail a believe we are entitled to demand of philosophical analysis of beauty. He finds any and everyone because the object that the aesthetic experience is our mind's judged is discerned to have a certain representation of the object and, kind of perceptual form which is called experienced with disinterest, is pure and is by Kant the Form of Finality." wholly subjective. The state of harmony [McCloskey, 1987, 24] between an object's imaginative representation and our understanding "...aesthetic experience, i.e. the yields aesthetic pleasure. Such pleasure is experience of natural beauty, is neither sensual nor intellectual; it does not experience of the noumenal [i.e. of the involve fulfilling animal appetites and mind] world as it filters through the neither does it involve or phenomenal [i.e. the physical] world, reason. It does not involve conceptual and, that in order to secure the judgement. Objects that we consider experience of natural beauty, the beautiful have a special kind of formal human mind must act passively in quality dependent on their perceptual receiving its contents and not actively properties, a purposiveness of form but in organizing them." [Zimmerman, not of function - purposiveness without 1968, 385] purpose. Aesthetic pleasure being free and without cognitive determination, is "the aesthetic object is something common to all who experience it. utterly different from all utilitarian objects, for its purposiveness is without Critics of Kant have questioned the issue purpose; the motive that leads to its of disinterest and his universality creation is distinct, and independent of argument. As Dewey noted [1934, 253], all others (that is, the free play of the 18th century was a century of reason imagination under the understanding's general conditions of lawlessness); and the enjoyment of beauty and of the 1. Dewey notes that the effect upon German sublime brings to man a value that thought of capitalization has hardly received nothing else can provide, since it has proper attention. He also criticizes aesthetic theorists who erect "adjectives into nouns substantive" [Ibid, 223]. 18 2. Philosophy of Aesthetics rather than passion, "objective order and borne by the works that directly proceed regularity ... the source of aesthetic from the human spirit." [Beardsley, 1966, satisfaction". Viewed in this setting, 238] To Hegel, beauty is "the rational disinterest fits. In the contemporary period rendered sensible, the sensible with expressionism in art, community appearance being the form in which the concern about amenity issues and rational content is made manifest." [Acton, influencing policy outcomes, disinterest 1967, 447]. Hegel graded art into the may seem quaint and irrelevant. But this is symbolic, classical and romantic and the to misunderstand it. To Kant, disinterest products of art into architecture, sculpture, reflected the freedom to enjoy the painting, music and poetry. aesthetics untainted by existential concerns, which he saw could impart other He graded nature, animals and plants as influences on our appreciation. being more beautiful than inanimate Conversely, the universality argument has objects although the souls of animals are rightly been criticised as untenable, given concealed by features, hair, scales etc. that culture plays a major role in Such grading biases aesthetic determining aesthetic preferences [see appreciation (e.g. a rock will be inferior to later sections] a statue regardless of their relative qualities). [Crawford, 1993, 192]. Hegel (2) Schiller and Hegel ranked natural beauty very low in comparison with human art. Other German philosophers who addressed questions of aesthetics and beauty iincluded Schiller and Hegel. 2.8 ROMANTICISM

Friedrich Schiller [1759 - 1805], a poet of Schiller and Hegel represented the new the first rank, was dismayed with Kant's spirit of Romanticism that came to replace assignment of the judgement of taste as the 18th century's rationalism and being essentially subjective. Whereas classicism. Romanticism dominated Kant found freedom as being located in European art, literature, philosophy and reason, Schiller found that "beauty is even through to the early 20th freedom in appearance", the century and its influence is still with us. It between the sensible2 and the rational. commenced about 1770 in Germany and He compared two states of man: originally about 1800 in England and came to natural and sensuous advancing to a state dominate the Victorian era. of reason or morality. Schiller proposed the civilising role of art and beauty, According the Russell, "in its most viewing them "as the medium through essential form [Romanticism was] a revolt which humanity ...advances from a against received ethical and aesthetic sensuous to a rational, and therefore fully standards" and was "characterised as a human, stage of existence." [Beardsley, whole by the substitution of aesthetic for 1967, 28] Whereas Kant argued uniformity utilitarian standards" [Ibid, 651, 653]. of human response to the environment, Emphasising emotion in place of classical Schiller saw that different types of poets order, the typical Romantic was "sensitive, "quite simply see the world differently ... emotional, preferring colour to form, the wherever any form of interpretation or exotic to the familiar, eager for novelty, for explanation is involved." [Elias, 1967, 314] adventure, above all for the vicarious He thus found that cognitive and moral adventure of fantasy, revelling in disorder judgements, far from being objective, are and uncertainty, insistent on the as subjective as aesthetic judgements. uniqueness of the individual to the point of making a of eccentricity." [Brinton, Georg Hegel [1770 - 1831] countered 1967, 206]. "Romantic poetry embodies a Kant’s view that natural objects provided striving for the infinite; it stems from the basis of beauty with the idea that art Christianity, and is marked by inner represents the highest embodiment of the division of spirit, a sense of a gap between "Idea", higher even than natural beauty. actual and ideal, hence an unsatisfied "Natural beauties bear an imprint of the longing." [Beardsley, 1966, 245] Idea, but a dimmer and lower one than is Poetry was the art form that best reflected Romanticism. While previously poetry was 2. i.e. perceptible by the senses. 19 2. Philosophy of Aesthetics regarded as imitation, the Romantics perception. The pleasure derived is viewed poetry as an expression of feeling. objectified in (i.e. projected into) the The three Lakeland poets - Wordsworth, perceived object and this is beauty. The Coleridge and Southey - were Romantics, pleasure is "objectified" in the sense "of but Byron was the poet who best being experienced as a quality of a thing epitomised the Romantic ideal - the and not as an affection of the organ which Romantic hero, hypersensitive and apprehends it." [Olafson, 1967, 284] alienated from his society. Santayana thus argued that aesthetic pleasure involves a fusion between the Wordsworth initiated a new form of lyric response to an object and the object itself. poetry in which the visible landscape Reflecting Darwin’s influence, Santayana symbolised human attributes - the regarded aesthetic judgements as blending of the natural object and human "phenomena of mind and products of feeling into "a single symbolic unity, in mental evolution". which the heart dances with the daffodils, the impetuous West Wind trumpets a Benedetto Croce [1866 - 1952] in his prophecy, and the nightingale sings of Aesthetic as Science of Expression and magic casements opening on the foam of General Linguistics [1902] provided a perilous seas." [Beardsley, 1966, 264] philosophical basis for the expressionism in 19th century art, particularly Jean-Jacques Rousseau [1712 - 1778], a Impressionism, by regarding art firstly as Romantic philosopher, believed that the expression and secondly as intuition. His golden age of humanity was the early central formula was "intuition=expression". communities, based on the family, where Croce regarded aesthetic experience as a humans lived in small groups, satisfying primitive form of knowledge in which their basic needs from the products of the aesthetics is intuitive knowledge, as forest. distinct from logical knowledge (as in science). He considered that something The Romantics loved wild scenery, "wild does not exist unless it is known, i.e. "that torrents, fearful precipices, pathless it is not separable from the knowing spirit." forests, thunderstorms, tempests at sea, Natural beauty is thus not an issue of and generally what is useless, destructive, perception "but of an intuition that knows and violent." [Russell, 1961, 654] Russell objects as, themselves, states of mind." comments that this continues to influence [Dewey, 1934, 294] Beauty is "successful today - "almost everybody, nowadays, expression" [Beardsley, 1966, 324]. Croce prefers Niagara and the Grand to considered there are no degrees of beauty lush meadows and fields of waving corn. but through inadequate expression there Tourist hotels afford statistical of are degrees of ugliness. taste in scenery." [1859 - 1952] focussed on experience being "a single, dynamic, 2.9 CONTEMPORARY unified whole in which everything is PHILOSOPHY OF AESTHETICS ultimately interrelated." [Bernstein, 1967, 381]. Dewey viewed life as comprising Aesthetics, and the issue of beauty and "overlapping and interpenetrating natural beauty in particular, fell somewhat experiences" [Ibid] through which the out of favour as an issue of enquiry in the individual develops knowledge and 19th and early 20th centuries. knowing in a nonreflective way. An aesthetic experience to Dewey is a George Santayana’s [1863 - 1952] consummate, enjoyable and complete rejected Kant's disinterested aesthetics, in experience, part of the experiences of The Sense of Beauty [1896] arguing that everyday life. the central quality of aesthetics is pleasure. He defined beauty as "pleasure In contrast to Kant, Dewey's requires regarded as the quality of a thing" or involve-ment, engagement, and entering "pleasure objectified". Santayana denied into an experience: that beauty is an objective property of objects, but rather is the pleasure "the distinguishing feature of esthetic experienced through the perception of an experience is exactly that no ... object - it is a value that can only exist in distinction of self and object exists in it, 20 2. Philosophy of Aesthetics

since it is esthetic in the degree in Semiotics, in which one thing functions as which organism and environment a sign of something else, sparks interest in cooperate to institute an experience in the meaning of all kinds of forms of which the two are so fully integrated symbolism (e.g. the interpretation of that each disappears." [Dewey, 1934, dreams and neuroses, cultural mythology, 249] religious symbolism, linguistics). Semiotics is considered by Beardsley to represent a To Dewey, the aesthetic experience was new level of consciousness by Western the product of the interaction of the culture not previously achieved by any subjective and the objective [Bourassa, other age [1966, 263, 343]. Semiotics has 1991, 46]. been applied to the analysis of poetry, myth, literature and art. Carl Jung's Dewey, consistent with his overall concept of "archetypes" or "primordial approach to the role of experience, in Art images" deriving from the collective as Experience [1934], regarded the unconsciousness is an application of aesthetic experience as defined by its semiotics. immediacy and pervasiveness, qualities connecting the various aspects of the Cassirer's philosophy influenced the experience into a unique whole. Dewey's philosopher, Susanne Langer, who book has had an "incalculable influence developed the concept of art as on contemporary aesthetic thinking" "presentational symbol" or "semblance". [Beardsley, 1967, 31]. Langer was opposed to Dewey's experiential model because she saw it as To Dewey, beauty is "the response to that being based on an assumption that "all which to reflection is the consummated human interests are ... manifestations of movement of matter integrated through its "drives" motivated by animal needs." inner relations into a single qualitative [Langer, 1953, 35]. Aesthetics, Langer whole." [Dewey, 1934, 130], i.e., beauty argued, involves more than meeting involves the experience of responding to everyday biological needs or providing something which is complete in itself. He pleasure, it is "as important as science or cited demonstrations in mathematics and even religion, [and] sets it apart as an operations in surgery as examples of autonomous, creative function of a beauty, and the human form as containing typically human mind." [Ibid, 36]. "sensuous charm and manifest-ation of a harmonious proportion of parts" [Ibid, Langer uses the term 'semblance' to 130]. Aesthetics and beauty are con- represent the way a thing appears to a summatory and engaged as experience. person. An object such as a rainbow consists entirely in its semblance, it has no Ernst Cassirer [1874 - 1945], a neo- cohesion and unity. Similarly, a painting of Kantian philosopher, developed a general a scene is mere semblance: "if we theory of human culture and the role stretched out our hand to it we would played by symbols - myth, language, art, touch a surface smeared with paint." [Ibid, religion and science, symbols by which 49]. Semblance is the aesthetic quality of humans represented the world to an object. Langer regarded works of art themselves. "Symbolic represent-ation ...is as: the essential function of human consciousness and is cardinal to our "single, indivisible symbols, language understanding not only of the structure of as a system of symbols. We find art science, but also of myth and religion, of beautiful when we grasp its language, of art, and of history. Man is a expressiveness - beauty is expressive symbolizing animal." [Korner, 1967, 45]. form" [Ibid, 396]. To Cassirer, these symbolic forms are not modelled on reality but model it - they are On the basis that natural objects cannot expressions of the spirit or mind itself. And be symbolic, others have held that so the study of these is the study of Cassirer and Langer's symbolic language human power [Beardsley, 1966, 349]. applies only to art [Saw & Osborne, 1960, 16]. Our responsiveness to art derives Symbolism in art preceded Cassirer, with from intuition - it is not learnt. roots in the Romantics and the symbolizing of Deity in medieval art. 21 2. Philosophy of Aesthetics

The latter 20th century also saw It is curious that the answers to these phenomenology and estab- questions are in the negative. Table 2.1 lished as philosophical movements. summarises the approach taken by the Beardsley describes the task of the various philosophers of aesthetics. It is phenomenologist as being to grasp as evident that each has erected their own fully as possible, what is actually framework, to varying degrees, building on experienced and to describe it faithfully, that which has preceeded them. apart from all pre-conceptions and theoretical constructs [1966, 368]. The Kant was the only philosopher who suspension of intellectual consideration is established a comprehensive and credible similar to Kant's disinterest and enables conceptual base on the issue of the qualitative richness of the experience aesthetics. While the contribution of each to be fully encountered in its philosopher reflected the influence of the completeness. culture and times in which they lived, his approach comes closest to being a Existentialism views each human as alone framework with application in any time and in a world without meaning, save that place. Its difficulty lies in its complexity which the individual imparts out of and hence, communication in ordinary personal freedom. Martin Heidegger has language. examined aesthetics from an existentialist viewpoint. He uses the concepts of world The net influence of the work of and earth in the notion of "the setting up of philosophers, in terms of impact on society a world and the setting forth the earth" and community thinking, has not been as when considering aesthetic objects. Using great as might be expected. There are the example of the Greek temple, exceptions such as Burke and Kant, but Heidegger describes "setting up a world" overall the writings of the philosophers as it is the temple’s religious role, housing appear to have been relatively unheeded a god, providing a focus of the Greek by the society within which they live. Even people, and symbolising meanings among those with an interest in the through physical things. The "setting forth subject, such as contemporary the earth" is the temple's physical geographers and psychologists, it is appearance, the materials of which it is noteworthy that their knowledge of the constructed, its setting and in regard to work of philosophers is scant indeed, each of these, the way in which the temple which results in these later individuals highlights and glorifies its earthen roots. revisiting issues that have been addressed in much greater depth centuries before. A further example is the 2.10 PHILOSOPHY OF AESTHETICS oft quoted “unity with variety” formula of - A SUMMARY beauty which Burke and Hume had shown to be inadequate in the 18th century. Aesthetics has been a subject of philosophical enquiry probably since the As an example, much research persists beginning of human thought. into the intrinsic factors of landscapes Philosophers, as individuals giving rise to beauty, and surveys seek to with strong analytical and conceptual define the aesthetic quality of an area skills, are perhaps among the best placed according to assumptions about what is to develop a framework for understanding beautiful. Yet the issue of whether beauty aesthetics, a framework that would be lies objectively in the physical features or widely comprehended and applied. subjectively in the observer, had been Aesthetics as a subject of inquiry has largely resolved to the satisfaction of been considered by some of the best philosophers by the end of the 18th century minds in history. To what extent have in favour of subjectivity. philosophers produced a comprehensive framework for the consideration of The reason for the lack of impact of aesthetics? What has been the sum philosophy may be associated with its influence of their work? Are they able to protracted nature, its excessive verbosity provide a single answer to the simple and specialist language - the jargon that question, "what is beauty?". develops in any discipline - understanding of which is a pre-requisite for entry and which excludes others who look to 22 2. Philosophy of Aesthetics

Table 2.1 Summary of Philosophers of Aesthetics ______

Philosopher Era Philosophy of Aesthetics Concept of Beauty O/S ______Classical Socrates 5th c BC Moral influence O Plato 4-3rd c BC Imitation of reality Progression of beauty O Aristotle 4th c BC Catharsis, character, morality O Early Christian Era Plotinus 3rd c AD Ideal form Irradiates symmetry O Augustine 4-5th c Divine source - idealised O Aquinas 13th c Expression of Goodness O Bonaventure 13th c Mirror of God O Renaissance Ficini 15th c Classical rules O Alberti 15th Order & arrangement O British Aestheticians Locke 17th c Primary & secondary qualities O/S Shaftesbury 17th c Moral influence/Disinterestedness Truth O Hutcheson 18th c Uniformity & variety O Hogarth 18th c Serpentine line Six qualities O Hume 18th c Our nature, by custom or caprice S Burke 18th c Emotional basis Love without desire S German Philosophers Kant 18th c Subjective disinterested pleasure Purposiveness without purpose S Schiller 18th c Civilising role Freedom in appearance O Hegel 18-19th c Art is highest embodiment Rational rendered sensible O Romantics 19th c Emotional aesthetics Wildness O Contemporary Philosophers Santayana 19-20th c Pleasure Pleasure objectified [quality of thing] S Croce 19-20th c Intuition = expression Intuition that knows objects as states of mind S Dewey 19-20th c Experience Experience of responding to a complete object S Cassirer 19-20th c Symbols S Langer 20th c Presentational symbols/semblance Expressive form S ______Note: O = Objectivist, S = Subjectivist philosophers for answers. If one of the beholder" [subjectivist]. From the perseveres with philosophy and reaches Greeks through the early Christian era and at least a modicum of comprehension of the Renaissance, beauty was considered the arguments presented, then it is to be an objective physical characteristic. It evident that in terms of the depth of was the British empiricist, John Locke who, analysis of the issues, the precision of the in the 17th century, was the first to regard logic presented, and the beauty as having both objective and comprehensiveness of its coverage, the subjective qualities. In the 18th century, work of the philosophers surpasses the Hume and Burke established beauty as the level of discussion of aesthetics by most observer's subjective response to an other disciplines. object, but it was Kant who established the philosophical rationale for understanding The simple question, "what is beauty ?" aesthetics as a wholly subjective has gained as many answers as there are phenomenon. Kant marked the break philosophers. The major change that has between the old and new schools of occurred, however, is the shift from thought, the former believing beauty to be regarding beauty as inherent in the object an inherent, non-relational quality of an [objectivist] to considering it as "in the eyes object, while the latter regarded beauty as 23 2. Philosophy of Aesthetics a quality able to evoke an aesthetic (1980) argued against the prevailing response or experience in the observer. doctrine that affect is postcognitive and instead suggested that discriminations [i.e. 2.11 INTEGRATION OF KANT’S like-dislike] can be made in the complete AESTHETICS WITH LANDSCAPE absence of recognition memory. THEORY Disinterest can be defined as “unbiased by personal interests” (Shorter Oxford English Kant’s approach to aesthetics is very Dictionary) and the non-cognitive response relevant to landscape quality. Landscape to aesthetic objects carries no such quality fulfils all of Kant’s prerequisites of opportunity for bias - at least in the beauty - landscape quality is without immediate sense, although in evolutionary function and there is no ideal or limit; no terms it can be argued that it is survival conceptual judgement is made - the enhancing and hence, biased. response is immediate and the pleasure is often shared, the pleasure is gained Kant’s second principle, the universality of without desire or want for it, the pleasure is beauty, can be seen to closely parallel the a universal and a common response, and evolutionary perspective - if beauty is the pleasure is public, not private. indeed survival enhancing, then all humans must respond to it. Nor does it appear to be Kant’s approach to aesthetics parallels a learned or acquired skill. Rather, contemporary evolutionary perspectives of appreciation of beauty is innate, although aesthetics, as described by the habitat what is appreciated may be influenced by theory of Orians (1980, 1986, Orians & culture. Heerwagen, 1992, Balling and Falk, 1982), the prospect-refuge theory of Appleton The rungs in the model (Figure 2.1) (1975, 1988), Urlich’s affective theory summarise Kant’s moments or theses and (1983, 1986, Urlich, et al, 1991) and the each of these can be explained through an Kaplans’ information processing theory evolutionary perspective. His recognition (Kaplan, S. and R. 1982, 1989, Kaplan, S. that it is the mind’s representation of the 1987, Kaplan, S. & R. and Brown, 1989)3. environment rather than the environment per se places him squarely in the province The fundamental tenet of these theories is of perception. It is the ability to accurately that human perception of scenic quality is perceive surroundings and to understand rooted in survival; to put it simply, that the and to interpret any threats and landscapes humans prefer are survival opportunities, that has been fundamental to enhancing. The Kaplans define it thus: human survival.

“The central assumption of an The immediacy of the aesthetic response is evolutionary perspective on preference supported by Zajonc’s thesis and has been is that preference plays an adaptive commented on by many writers. Urlich et al role; that is, it is an aid to the survival of (1991, 207-8) proposed that “immediate, the individual.” (Kaplan, S. and R. unconsciously triggered and initiated 1982, 186). emotion-al responses - not ‘controlled’ cognitive responses - play a central role in Although when viewed through the initial level of responding to nature, and contemporary eyes it is sometimes difficult have major influences on attention, to see what is survival enhancing about, subsequent conscious processing, say, Orians’ savannah landscape or the physiological responding and behavior.” Kaplans’ mystery component, the utility of Herzog (1984, 1985) compared the these needs to be examined over the responses of viewers of scenes given 15 timescale of human development to seconds, 200 milliseconds (i.e. 1/5 sec) understand their role. and 20 milliseconds (i.e. 1/50 sec). Though not identical, the responses were Kant’s principle of disinterest can be surprisingly similar supporting Kant’s thesis interpreted as similar to the non-cognitive that the pleasure is immediate, although it response to landscape beauty, not being a is unlikely that he envisaged periods as response derived from evaluation and short as 20 ms. thought. In a widely quoted paper, Zajonc Kant’s thesis, that pleasure involves no conceptual judgement can be viewed in the 3. These are discussed in Chapters 7 and 8. 24 2. Philosophy of Aesthetics light of Zajonc’s assertion that “preferences It is important that landscape researchers need no ”. Zajonc is supported understand the advantages and disadvant- by Urlich 1986, Urlich et al (1991), and ages of the two approaches. The Ruddell et al (1989). Kant’s thesis that subjectivist approach is replicable, its beauty is without functionality, findings can be taken to reflect the “purposiveness without purpose”, reflects community, can be defended politically and the non-cognitive perception of aesthetics, its findings applied with confidence. The the functionality of which is rooted in results are likely to provide a reasonably evolutionary past. Its function is survival- permanent assessment of the landscape enhancing but this does not enter our quality. Moreover, the results are conscious awareness and is only now defensible if used in where being illuminated through the theories of landscape quality is an issue. The the Kaplans and of Orians, Appleton and subjectivist results can be used to predict Urlich. the effect on landscape quality of change (e.g. Daniel and Schroder, 1979; Hull and Finally, the lack of determinant rules for Buhyoff, 1986). beauty can also be seen as survival- enhancing, because rules reduce flexibility Conversely, the subjectivist method may of response when faced with new however be more expensive and it requires circumstances and therefore do not more specialist skills to apply - skills enhance survival. covering the selection of participants, photography of scenes, management of Accordingly, Kant’s philosophy of sessions to rate photographs and their aesthetics has close parallels with content, and statistical analysis. It may take contemporary theories of aesthetics based longer and be more difficult than the on an evolutionary perspective. Kant was objectivist approach. unwittingly identifying, nearly a century before Darwin, principles which can make The fundamental failing of the objectivist sense through their survival-enhancing approach lies, paradoxically in its inherent qualities. The universality of Kant’s subjectivity. The assumption it makes that aesthetics is reinforced by its parallels with quality is an inherent characteristic of the contemporary theories of landscape landscape means that this is assessed aesthetics. using a subjective approach. In turn, this means that the results lack replicability, are It is worth noting that the survival unlikely to be defensible in a judicial enhancing aspects of landscape quality are context, and will not necessarily reflect the a perceived quality of the landscape, not preferences of the general community. The an inherent quality. It is the interpretation “objective” criteria used are often devised humans place upon what is viewed in the and applied by an individual and perhaps a landscape that ensures their survival - if few others, scarcely a statistically or they perceive wrongly, their survival may scientifically valid method. The credibility of be threatened. Survival require the the method typically relies on the reputed operation of the subjectivist paradigm. expertise of the individual applying it. Yet the eminence of the author is of no benefit if the method is fundamentally flawed. 2.12 OBJECTIVIST VS SUBJECTIVIST PARADIGMS The objectivist approach could be made somewhat more rigorous and statistically (1) Relevance to Research of valid by: Landscape Quality • ensuring the criteria used to measure landscape quality reflect community Whether the objectivist or subjectivist preferences as determined through paradigm applies to landscape quality is a surveys. However, the authors of critical difference - if it is an objective expert methods may regard the quality it can be measured and evaluated inclusion of community views as from surveys of the physical landscape. reducing aesthetic assessments to the But if it is subjective, such surveys will not lowest common denominator. suffice - rather it must be based on an assessment of the community’s landscape • utilising a larger number (minimum 30) preferences. of participants to carry out the 25 2. Philosophy of Aesthetics

assessment - these should be rating this quality derive from the representative members of the subjectivist view of landscapes. community, not specialists such as landscape architects The two paradigms can be combined into a model of landscape perception that Even so, the adoption of these measures provides a means for reconciling both and will take away the sole advantage of this providing a role for each. method over the subjectivist method, namely the ease and low cost it involves. Earlier it was noted that although the These measures would in fact transform it Romantic poets saw landscape qualities as into the subjectivist method. contained in the landscape (i.e. objectivist), their writings influenced the wider society (2) Combining the Two Paradigms to view landscapes through eyes imbued with Romanticism, a subjectivist mindset. At the outset of this paper the contrasting surveys of landscape were described, Figure 2.2 illustrates this, the ellipse those which surveyed the physical representing, in Dearden’s (1989) terms, attributes of the landscape in an attempt to the pyramid of influences - innate (i.e. define quality, and those which surveyed evolutionary), culture, familiarity and socio- observer’s preferences for the landscape. economic and demographic variables - on The assumptions that underlying the the individual. This creates the subjectivist surveys of a landscape in fact reflect the context, which determines how one views a prevailing subjectivist paradigm. Thus, in landscape. Within this context, the Linton’s (1968) survey of the Scottish individual will almost inevitably view the landscape, his high scoring of mountains landscape in objectivist terms, but in reflected the subjectivist paradigm that actuality, their preferences are determined applied. Similarly, Fines’ (1968) scale of by the subjectivist context. To the landscape quality placed the mountains at individual, the beauty is perceived to be in the highest level and flat land towards the the landscape but viewing this generates bottom of the scale. The point is that, pleasure in the viewer, a pleasure although these surveys assume the determined by the above variables. landscape quality to be intrinsic in the landscape, the assumptions they made in

Objectivist view of landscapes

Figure 2.2 Relationship of the Objectivist and Subjectivist Paradigms

26 2. Philosophy of Aesthetics

2.13 CONCLUSION psychological perspective in the latter half of the 19th century further consolidated the Typologies of landscape studies have subjectivist paradigm as the dominant identified a variety of ways in which philosophical paradigm of aesthetics today. landscapes can be classified (e.g. Figure 2.2) and the objectivist and subjectivist What is the future of these paradigms? The paradigms presented in this paper are a future lies in the use of the subjectivist further construct which may be used to paradigm. Use of the objectivist paradigm classify the studies at a fundamental level. should be abandoned. The method lacks Basically, these paradigms contrast scientific rigour, is non-replicable, lacks treating landscape quality as an inherent statistical validity, is largely subjective in its physical attribute (objectivist) versus the construction and is often based on an perception of the physical landscape by the assessment by a sole assessor. By human brain (subjectivist). contrast, the subjectivist paradigm offers a method that is: scientifically and statistically Both paradigms have long histories, having rigorous; is replicable and objective, and their roots in the contribution of reflects the preferences of the community. philosophers over many centuries. Until the Moreover this method offers predictive 18th century, philosophers viewed beauty in capability and can be used to assess the objectivist terms. Philosophers lead by effect on landscape quality of land Locke, Hume, Burke and particularly Kant management actions such as clearance of then asserted that beauty is a construct of trees, routing of major power lines or the mind viewing the object, the subjectivist construction of a water body. paradigm. Further development of the subjectivist The Cartesian revolution, which separated paradigm and its application to assess the “what is out there” from “what is in here” landscape quality of regions, and even (i.e. nature and mind), undoubtedly had a nations, will serve to establish landscape major influence in the shift from the quality as an environmental attribute that objectivist to the subjectivist. Kant’s can be measured, managed, and comprehensive theory of aesthetics has predicted. close parallels with, and support from, the contemporary theories of landscape quality based on Darwin’s evolutionary perspective, which Kant pre-dated by nearly a century. The influence of the

43 4. Perception and Colour

CHAPTER FOUR

PERCEPTION AND COLOUR

4.1 INTRODUCTION theory blocked progress in perception until about 1000 AD, when growing understanding Psychology is the science of behaviour in of the physics of light shifted the focus to the humans and covers their senses, perceptions, Aristotelian theory. emotions, cognition and actions. Arising out of philosophy in the late 19th century, it focussed The mathematician Euclid established seven initially on the faculties of the mind and sought postulates that provide the basis of to understand how the physiological processes geometrical optics and form perception. One of of the senses were translated by the brain into these is the law of visual angle or retinal size: sensations and perceptions. During the 19th "The things seen under a larger angle appear century, experimental psychology, the study of larger, those under a smaller angle appear "how sensory experience is dependent on smaller, and those under equal angle appear stimulation of the sense organs" [Boring, 1990, equal." [Ibid, 25]. 328] began. This link of physiology and psychology was known as psychophysics, an Anatomical studies by Arab scholars together approach that has been of considerable with increasing interest in Euclidean importance in contemporary studies of geometrical and perception models led to the aesthetics. Psychology is based on empirical, flourishing of scientific and artistic endeavours objectively derived and verifiable evidence during the Renaissance. Perspective in derived from observation, testing and painting was understood for the first time. evaluation of the human condition. Kepler [1571 - 1630] solved the problems of optics for the retinal image and permanently This chapter examines approaches to the way laid Plato's emanation theory to rest. Rene humans view the world, the basis of Descartes [1596 - 1650] dissected an ox's eye perception. It extends from the Gestalt model and detected an image on the retina when light of perception to other models, principally the was passed through the lens. Rather than information-processing model. Visual simply regarding seeing as the receiving of the perception is a subset of the wider study of physical image by the retina, Descartes saw perception that is based on all five senses. The that it is the result of brain activity, an history of theories of visual perception is intellectual leap that parallels contemporary reviewed and the information-processing theory. He even proposed that some form of model is described. Mechanisms and models coding of the visual image occurred prior to its of visual perception are examined. Finally, the interpretation by the brain. recent contributions of environmental psychology to perception are reviewed. The British empiricist philosophers including Locke, Berkeley and Hume addressed visual The second part of the chapter examines the perception as a key question of philosophical influence of colour on preferences. inquiry. In his famous book Essay Towards a New Theory of Vision [1709], Berkeley argued that, as it provides only a two-dimensional 4.2 HISTORY OF THEORIES OF VISUAL image of the world, vision is inadequate for PERCEPTION correctly perceiving the world and the process of association is necessary. He differentiated Plato believed that the eye projected a "fiery between mediate visual stimuli, which included emanation" outwards to objects in view where depth perception, and immediate or innate this fire "coalesced" with the object and stimuli, such as width or colour. Perception of "sensations were thus conveyed to the mind" mediate stimuli required indirect evaluation, [Uttal, 1983, 24]. Aristotle roundly rejected while immediate stimuli could be perceived Plato’s emanation model. Instead, Aristotle directly. Berkeley also believed that mediated argued that vision resulted from an emanation precepts involve learning; for example depth from the object being transmitted to the eye, perception requires tactual experience. where it was absorbed. Plato's emanation 44 4. Perception and Colour

Both Descartes and Kant disputed the learn how to comprehend their meaning." empiricist's view that the mind was a tabula [Rock, 1984, 10] rasa, Descartes arguing that it possessed innate ideas about form, size and other During the 19th century the empirical approach, properties of objects, while Kant believed the based on analysis of observable events and mind imposed its own internal conception of processes, dominated and resulted in attempts space and time upon the sensory information it to understand the components of perception receives [Rock, 1984, 11]. The Gestaltists through an introspective method. The were the direct heirs of this approach. They development of psychophysical methods by argued that, although our senses perceive Fechner in 1860 provided a more objective chaotic messages, there is a process of means of studying perception, but the perceptual organization in the mind that brings introspective method persisted until the turn of order out of this chaos so as to "organize them the century. into distinct and segregated units such as objects with specific shapes separated from a Haber and Hershenson [1973, chapter 12] background" [Ibid]. distinguished between the empirical and the psychophysical approaches. The empiricists During the 18th century, knowledge of the analysed the point of stimulation, the anatomy and physiology of the brain grew. The characteristics of the physical image and its theory of Johannes Muller [1801 - 1858] - of projection on the retina and then assessed sensations or signals that encode the shape what other sources of information, derived and quality of stimuli from the retina to the from memory and learning, were needed for a brain - transformed the debate from philosophy perceptual experience. Euclidean geometry, to science. He defined ten laws of sensory comprising lines and angles and parallel lines, process that can be summarised as three main was the starting point for empirical analysis. generalisations [O'Neil, 1977, 5]: The contemporary inheritors of the empiricist tradition are the “transactionalists” who • Regardless of how a sense-receptor is compare the information received by activated - whether by light, sound, chemical stimulation in retinal projection with the substances, mechanical pressures or electrical perceptual outcome; such a comparison stimuli - it will yield, if an experience results, a shows that the physical process alone is given type of 'secondary' quality. inadequate to account for the perception • All that we are directly aware of in sensation is attained and that the gap is fulfilled by the state of the sensory nerve - the neurophysiological effect. memory, learning or personality. • Although sensations are subjective in that they are received by the senses, they seem objective. Psychophysics of space perception is based on seeking correlations between the The last of these finds parallels the information received through retinal projection subjectivist/objectivist model described in and perception about the environment. This Chapter 2 [Figure 2.5] (i.e. although landscape involves exhausting research of the stimulus. quality is subjectivist, it appears to the James Gibson is the foremost contemporary individual to be objectivist). advocate of this approach. Gibson rejects the approach based on the processing of Muller’s laws dominated early experimental individual chunks of information and postulates sensory psychology. Vision was regarded as a that information is viewed holistically as process of the brain and in the 19th century meaningful entities, paralleling the Gestaltists was analysed in terms of neural networks. who worked on the total image.

th In the second half of the 19th century, Hermann Early in the 20 century, J. B. Watson von Helmholtz undertook extensive research developed the behaviourist approach, which on sensory processes, perception and replaced introspective terms such as physiological optics. He believed that past "sensations" and "perceptions" with objectively experience provides us with the understanding observable "discriminative responses" [Bruce of objects by which we infer their nature and & Green, 1990, 75]. The behaviourist approach termed this 'unconscious ': "The focussed on observation of behaviour rather sensations of the senses are tokens for our than understanding internal processes. unconscious, it being left to our intelligence to Contemporary psychology is still dominantly behaviourist in orientation, although verbal 45 4. Perception and Colour explanations of subjects' experiences are Various psychologists studied aspects of this regarded as legitimate. and in the 1960s these interests coalesced into the distinct and independent area of Whilst behaviourism developed in the United environmental psychology. This was applied in States of America, the Gestalt psychologists in architecture, interior design and city planning. Europe developed the phenomenological However, professionals working in these areas approach (i.e. that perceptual experience was were frustrated by the psychologist's inability to nativist - innate to the individual). The Gestalt apply their limited research findings to practical psychologists emphasised that the issues of design. During the late 1960s organization of the form is more important in increasing numbers of psychologists reflected the perception of forms than the parts from the growing community concern about the which the forms are constructed. environment and further progressed environmental psychology into new areas of The Gestalt approach of holistic perceptual research such as environmental attitudes and processing, as distinct from an elementalistic perception, urban design, crowding, approach, has gained support over recent environmental stress, coping with natural decades. Nevertheless, the dominant theories disasters, environmental cognition and mental of form perception have tended to be maps. By the 1970s it had become an "elementalistic and neuroreductionist in accepted field within the social and concept and language" [Ibid, 30]. behavioural sciences [Holahan, 1982,13].

In the mid-20th century, greater recognition of A growing number of psychologists have the complexity of human perception saw studied human behaviour and environmental growth in the "transactional functionalism" preferences within an outdoor setting, where approach, which emphasised perceptual the complexity of the environment makes it experience in interpreting images, and the difficult to evaluate the contribution of the "new look", which emphasised individual various stimuli. An armoury of sophisticated differences in motivation, emotion and public survey instruments and statistical personality in influencing what is seen [Bruce analysis tools have been developed to apply in & Green, 1990, 77]. such settings.

In the latter 20th century, the dominant psychological approach to perception has 4.3 INFORMATION-PROCESSING MODEL been information processing. Visual information processing refers to the process The information processing approach to whereby humans receive visual information perception arose with the realisation that a about their environment and adjust their perceptual experience does not comprise behaviour on the basis of that information simply viewing an object or scene - which ends [Spoehr & Lehmkuhle, 1982, 2]. By the 1960s, as the viewing ceases - and includes the the "cognitive psychology" approach, which ongoing human processing of the source of the emphasised perception, attention and memory, stimulation. This continuum of experience is a came to dominate. major assumption of the information processing approach. "Neither the perceiver's Environmental psychology grew out of the visual experience nor his overt responses are work of E.G. Boring at Chicago in the 1940s immediate results of stimulation. They are and the work at the Midwest Psychological consequences of processes, or a sequence of Field Station in Kansas in the 1950s and processes, each of which takes a finite amount 1960s, operated by Barker and Wright. These of time." [Haber & Hershenson, 1973, 158] The three "legitimised psychological research perceptual task may be considered as conducted in real-world settings as well as in comprising a number of stages or processes, the psychological laboratory." [Holahan, 1982, each of which represents transformations in 9] They initiated research into the influence of our internal representation of the stimulus. the behaviour setting on people. They called Between the time that information is received their work ecological psychology and showed by the retina and the response by a person, that behaviour could not be predicted on the the information is identified, interpreted, and basis of individual differences in background or compared with information in memory. personality alone and had to take account of the environmental setting. 46 4. Perception and Colour

Sensory Visual Long-term

Retinal information image memory

projection storage representation

Short-term memory

Based on Haber R. & M. Hershenson,

1973. The Psychology of Visual Perception. Holt, Rhinhart & Winston, Response Output London. organiser response

Figure 4.1 An Information Processing Model

1 minute = 60 seconds

1° = 60 minutes

1°

Note: 200° = 720,000 seconds of arc

Figure 4.2 Measurement of Arc of Vision

Figure 4.1 illustrates a generalised model of internal representation9 it also differentiates the information-processing approach, based between organising the response and the largely on Haber and Hershenson [1973, 162]. actual response. Omitted from the figure are auditory and other sources of stimulation. The model comprises Aspects of each of the parts of the model are three parts: the reception of light by the eye, discussed briefly below. the overt observable response of the viewer, and the non-observable responses of the Retinal Projection. The physical characteristics viewer (which form the heart of the model). of the eye together with its neurophysiology The model differentiates between the reception of the image by the eye and its immediate

9. Kant also distinquished between the actual scene and the mind's eye representation of it. 47 4. Perception and Colour are not examined here; there are many movements take about 200 milliseconds to references available to provide details10. complete. The eye responds to light levels over a range of 1013 millilamberts11 [ml], extending from Sensory information storage. At this stage, the below the intensity of starlight on white paper multiple information outputs from the retina are [10-6 ml], through white paper in moonlight [10- coded "visually" for internal representation 2 ml], comfortable reading light [1 ml], white purposes. The nature of this coding and paper in sunlight [104 ml], a tungsten filament storage is not yet understood. The speed of [107 ml], to the intensity of light on the surface saccadic movements of the eye gives the of the sun [1010 ml] [Graham, 1965, 26]. viewer about 1/4 second in which to process the information prior to its transference to more The visual field of the human eye is about permanent storage. The sensory information 200º, (i.e. extending slightly behind through store is a very short-lived type of memory - peripheral vision) [Figure 4.2]. The normal perhaps 0.1-0.5 seconds. It enables visual visual acuity of the eye, the ability to resolve information to be retained after it has small stimuli, is 0.5 seconds of arc,12 which is disappeared [Spoehr & Lehmkuhle, 1982, 7]. equivalent to a line 1mm wide at a distance of Retention of such information by rehearsal one kilometre [Day, 1969, 45]. Under ideal cannot be undertaken as it is in the short-term conditions, the eye is able to detect a candle at memory store. More information is stored in the distance of 50km [Ibid, 34] and a 20 cent the sensory information store than can be coin can be seen at 10km distance [Haber & extracted, implying some sort of limit by later Hershenson, 1973, 16]. stages. For example, the memory retains that which is of value [Lindsay & Norman, 1977, Eyes are in constant movement, not just 307]. following events in one's surrounds but also due to small jiggling movements called Visual Image Representation. Information physiological nystagmus. Several types of about the scene passes to the short-term movements can be identified: one is very small memory and also to the visual image’s and fast with the eye moving in angles of 20 representation - the mind's eye of what is seen seconds of arc, 30-70 times a second; another by the eye. Successive saccades of the scene is a large oscillatory motion; and yet another is are integrated with previous ones to construct a slow drift of a few minutes of arc one way or an integrated image. This is not a photographic another. There are also rapid jerks, with an image but one that follows the rules of amplitude of 5 minutes of arc, often correcting perceptual organization. These include figure- for the slow drifts [Lindsay-Norman, 1977, 40]. ground segregation and the Gestalt perceptual 13 In viewing a scene, the eye moves in a series laws . of discrete jumps called saccades from one part of the scene to another. This can occur Short-term Memory. This involves construction four or five times per second. Saccadic eye of linguistic or conceptual representations from the information received through the eye or from other senses, such as hearing. Construction of words from the letters viewed 10. For example, Brown, Riggs & Hsia in Graham, by the eye involves the short-term memory 1965; Haber & Hershenson, 1973 [chapter 2]; encoding the individual letters although, with Spoehr & Lehmkuhle, 1982 [chapter 2]; Bruce & familiarity, not all the letters need to be Green, 1990 [chapters 2 & 3]. scanned separately. Short-term memory 11. The lambert is the luminance of any extended retains an interpretation of the information source or surface emitting or reflecting one received, not the sounds of a sentence but the lumen per square centimetre of its surface. This words. Short-term memory is not permanent is equivalent to the luminance of a perfectly but is held a sufficient time for it to be acted on reflecting and diffusing surface at a distance of and be stored in long-term memory. Repeating one centimetre from a point source of one the information, such as rehearsing a candlepower. A millilambert is 0.001 lambert telephone number between looking it up and [Graham, 1965, 35]. dialling it, appears to be essential for the 12. The visual angles of some common objects are: the sun and moon are each 30 minutes of arc, a thumbnail at arm's length is 1.5º to 2º arc, a 4- 13. The Gestalt perceptual laws cover proximity, letter word in a book at 50cm is about 0.7º similarity, symmetry, closure and continuation. [Haber & Hershenson, 1973, 16]. These are detailed in Chapter 2. 48 4. Perception and Colour information to be retained by the short-term models ... have no components that are memory. The duration of short-term memory concerned with the way things look." [Haber & may be seconds without rehearsal, or longer Hershenson, 1973, 176]. This qualification is when rehearsal is used. important to the study of landscape; the aim of this review of information processing is to gain Long-term Memory. Information can be stored under-standing of the processes involved in in the long-term memory for decades and can human perception, processes which are as comprise images, letters or words. There is no relevant for looking at landscapes as for practical limit to the capacity of long term reading a book or watching a sporting event. memory, the brain11 containing approximately 100 billion [10 ] neurons each capable of In this section, the laws governing perception storing a reasonable amount of information. are summarised, the concept of visual space Retrieval of information from long-term and perception of visual form examined, and memory is rapid, despite the billions of choices the principles of perception defined. available [Lindsay & Norman, 1977, 306 - 7]. (1) Laws Output processes. These can include spoken responses, written or pointing responses, Concept of Visual Angle [Euclid's Law] movement, or any other behavioural response based on the information received, processed Figure 4.3 illustrates the concept of visual and interpreted. Many of these will draw on the angle. The angular size of the object is input of the other senses as well as sight. inversely proportional to the distance of the Responses will also of course derive from physical object from the eye - this is Euclid's cognitive processes, drawing on long-term law of the visual angle. An object of given memory and intellectual thought. height will subtend a larger angle when viewed from nearby than when viewed from a more Interconnections. The arrows in Figure 4.1 distant location. Foreshortening occurs when indicate the direction of action and influence. an object such as a book is not on a frontal Arrows in both directions mean that plane (i.e. at right angles to the line of sight) information can flow in both directions and, but rather is angled backwards so that the furthermore, that each process can influence image of the book is smaller and its shape the other. The arrows indicate the probable distorted. flows, however not all are proven and research may identify others. The dotted lines between This explains the convergence of parallel lines the visual image representation and the long- formed by roads, railways and fences, which term memory indicate a link that is uncertain. are not on a frontal plane and also why the individual components in an area of brick Relatively little is known about the cerebral paving or leaves on the ground become mechanisms involved in processing increasingly compressed with distance. The information at the various stages, although visual angle subtended by the objects and by research indicates that many parts of the brain the separation of spaces between objects are working conjointly and continuously - not decreases with distance [Rock, 1984, 19]. separately and at different times. The process is not necessarily entirely linear as the model may suggest; different stages affect one another [Spoehr & Lehmkuhle, 1982, 6].

4.4 VISUAL PERCEPTION MECHANISMS Eye ∅1° ∅2° AND MODELS

One of the consequences of psychophysical research is that its focus on the processes and measurement of perception has been at the expense of research on the content of An object of height ‘h’ subtends angle ∅1° but perception - content free understanding. "An when moved farther away it subtends a smaller angle 2°. Source: Kaufman, 1979, 131. information-processing approach does not in ∅ itself demand attention to the perceived qualities of the visual world. ... many of the Figure 4.3 Concept of Visual Angles 49 4. Perception and Colour

three-dimensional space [Attneave, 1972, The geometry of Euclid's law is that for the 305]. A similar view is that relations in visual angle Ø: perceived space determine perception; perceived space being an internal tan Ø/2 = h/2d representation of space that provides an where h is the size of the object and d is its internal frame of reference. There has been distance from the eye some experimental evidence in support of the idea of internal representation of three- Where Ø is small (i.e. so that tan Ø = Ø) then dimensional space [Kaufman, 1979, 183-46]. Ø = h/d in radians or Ø = 57.3h/d in degrees. Thus if Ø is 10º, this equation will overestimate Interposition of one it by only 1% [Graham, 1965, 505]. subject by another

Law of Size Constancy [Emmert's Law] Size constancy (i.e. an object is about the Perspective - same size regardless of the size of the image) Convergence of lines links with the concept of shape constancy (i.e. towards the that an object has the same shape despite vanishing point changes in the shape of its image) and orientation constancy (i.e. that an object is the Textures same despite its orientation). perspective - increasing density The law of size constancy is illustrated by with distance Figure 4.4 and indicates that the perceived size of an object of constant angular size is directly proportional to its apparent distance. The term 'apparent distance' means its perceived distance, which is not necessarily Relative brightness - the same as its actual distance. Similarly, size luminance decreases with distance is as perceived rather than necessarily its actual size. Source: Kaufman, L. 1979, 190 - 6

B Figure 4.5 Pictorial Cues of Distance A Retina Berkeley [1709] believed that the depth in a scene was not based on anything in the scene itself; rather depth was learnt (e.g. tactually). It is now known that Berkeley was wrong, in that cues in the scene indicate its depth. However, An after-image of constant size on the retina is he was right in that cues have to be learnt. perceived as being twice as large when perceived at Cues to depth in a scene include those shown B than at A. Source: Kaufman, 1979, 231 in Figure 4.5.

Figure 4.4 Law of Size Constancy [Emmert’s Law] The hidden figure in the interposition case in Figure 4.5 is considered to be more distant (2) Visual Space than the one that hides it. The reason the interposition cue is seen as two circles rather Perception of visual space is highly relevant to than a circle and a crescent is explained by the the perception of physical landscapes as it Gestalt law of good continuation, which holds involves the perception of various subtle cues that we tend to minimise change or (eg depth and perspective) that give the discontinuity. Hochberg established a similar landscape its characteristic dimensions. principle – that when a figure allows for Three-dimensional space is considered by alternative descriptions we perceive the some to be paralleled by an internal simplest one [Kaufman, 1979, 191]. representation that orients visual objects and Interposition can also enable one to the even imaginary objects including the viewer’s relative distance of an object, as opposed to its own body relative to the axes of this internal absolute or actual distance. How distance is 50 4. Perception and Colour perceived and used to calibrate the tests for cues for depth gave no indication of representation of space is one of the their success or failure in the air, Gibson challenges facing research in perception. realised that the traditional list of cues for depth was inadequate. He came to believe that There are additional cues to those illustrated: the whole theory of depth perception was false. In its place, in 1950, he developed a • Aerial perspective. Distant objects are tinged ground theory of space perception, to be with blue colouration, the haze of distance so differentiated from the traditional theory, which evident in Australia The cue involves conditions he termed air theory. He considered that "there in which the requisite visual contrasts are absent is literally no such thing as perception of space [Graham, 1965, 504]. without the perception of a continuous

background surface" [Gibson, 1979, 148]. • Detail perspective. The loss of visible detail of distant objects because of limitations of visual Thus, the world did not comprise bodies in acuity and to the scattering of light by the empty air [such as aircraft] but rather a basic atmosphere is known as detail perspective. surface with adjoining surfaces. "The character Detail perspective and aerial perspective were of the visual world was given not by objects but cues used by Leonardo da Vinci and other by the background of the objects." [Ibid] The painters of the Renaissance to give the parallel with the figure/ground principle of impression of depth in paintings [Rock, 1984, Gestalt psychology is obvious. 78]. (3) Perception of visual form • Texture gradient. The image of a large number

of regular textures receding into the distance creates a gradient of image size [Bruce & Green, Definition of forms 1990, 156]. The dictionary defines form as the visible aspect of a thing [Shorter Oxford Dictionary], • Shadows. on the sides of hills and valleys but in psychological terms it is difficult to provide an impression of depth; attached provide a precise, quantifiable definition. Uttal, shadows reflect the depth of within an object an authority of perception research, admits itself while cast shadows are those that fall on that the scientific community has not surrounding surfaces. Attached shadows give a succeeded in precisely defining what “it is that strong sense of depth, while cast shadows are we mean by the word ‘form.’ We have somewhat divorced from the object itself and progressed only modestly beyond the Gestalt provide little or no cue to depth [Rock, 1984, 75]. notion that form is ‘any segregated whole or

• Motion perspective. This is a kinetic cue and unit.’” [Uttal, 1983, 9]. There have been involves distant objects appearing to be virtually attempts to specify forms statistically as stationary when one moves past them, while classes of forms. Following a comprehensive nearby objects move swiftly past. "Objects review of the literature, Zusne proposed as an nearby seem to be moving away from you at a interim definition "... form may be considered velocity that increases the closer the objects both a one dimensional emergent of its are." [Kaufman, 1979, 199]. physical dimensions and a multidimensional variable." [Ibid, 10]. • Kinetic cues. Movement provides information about depth and distance that is not evident from 14 Figure-ground segregation a single static view. People with monocular vision estimate depth by movement. Homogeneous fields prevent discrimination of objects. However, such fields are relatively • Familiarity of objects. Familiar objects such as a rare in nature (e.g. pitch black night, dense person, a car, electricity pole or a tree can fog, snow storm or sand storm). Commonly, provide a yardstick against which the distance objects are seen against a background or on a and size of other nearby objects can be surface, providing an inhomogeneity in the estimated. retinal projection that results in a perceptual

The presence of several cues provides the brain with strong evidence of depth, although the means by which cues are interpreted 14 collectively is not understood. . Figure and ground are discussed in Chapter 3, Gestalt Psychology and Aesthetics, in which the Through working with student air pilots during findings of Gestalt psychologists was reviewed. This section concentrates on the findings in the Second World War and finding that the relation to perception. 51 4. Perception and Colour

Table 4.1 Figure and Ground Characteristics

Figure Ground

Has form and shape Formless Has solidity and structure Amorphous and structureless Thing-like qualities Uniform Appears nearer Extend unbroken behind the figure Easily identified Lacks identity Colour stronger and non-transparent Colour ill-defined and filmy Colour localised on surface Non localised colour Provides meaning & feeling Neutral Provides aesthetic values Neutral Preference for vertical or horizontal orientation Lacks orientation Symmetrical Asymmetrical Memorable Unmemorable

Based on Haber & Hershensen, 1973, 184; Bruce & Green, 1990, 113; Graham, 1965, 548, 566. segregation of the visual field into figure and (4) Principles of Perception ground. This is the first stage in the organisation and synthesis of form. Irvin Rock [1975, 559] has defined nine principles of perception. The term 'proximal Characteristics of the figure compared with the stimulus' in the definition refers to the retinal ground are summarised in Table 4.1. The image of a particular surface (i.e. that which structure of the figure derives from its contour; the eye sees). the strength of its contour will determine the degree by which the figure stands out from the 1) The proximal stimulus array must be considered ground. to be ambiguous as to what it represents in the world. Ganzfelds 2) Perception begins with a process of grouping Visual fields that are completely homogeneous and figure-ground organization of the proximal stimulus. are called Ganzfelds (e.g. looking through 3) The organization achieved is based on a dense fog without borders, edges or bright selection, decision, or preference on the part of areas). Closing the eyelids forms Ganzfelds, the perceptual system for certain outcomes. reducing stimulation - after a few minutes the 4) The central events that lead to particular neural excitation leaving the retina is reduced perceptions are not themselves subjectively to negligible levels. Ganzfelds research has experienced (i.e. they are not conscious). shown the importance of spatial 5) As a rule, what is perceived does not simply inhomogeneity - variations across the visual correspond directly with the relevant feature of field, and temporal changes in the field. the proximal stimulus (e.g. perceived size with Contours or variations are indispensable for the object's visual angle). form perception. 6) The facts of perception cannot be fully explained by the operation of physiological detector

mechanisms such as are triggered by a Earlier reference was made to saccades (small particular stimulus impinging on the retina. movements of the eye) . Such movements 7) What is perceived is generally, although by no enhance the sensitivity of the visual system means always, verdical15. [Haber & Hershenson, 1973, 179]. When a 8) Perception generally is not influenced by procedure is used to stabilise the visual image knowledge, in contrast to sensory information on the retina, it is found that perception (i.e. what we perceive is not determined by or diminishes quickly, but this is reinstated by affected by what is known about the object). movement, changing the stimulus over time or 9) Vision is dominant over other sense modalities by brightening the luminance. The research so that not only does it tend to determine what is suggests that variation in stimulation of the perceived when a sensory conflict occurs but it retina is necessary for perception to occur [Ibid, 181]. 15. Verdical means truthfully reflecting the objective state of affairs [rather than illusory].

52 4. Perception and Colour

also tends to 'capture' and thereby distort the and live. The environment offers affordances very experience of the object as given by that to animals or humans. [Gibson, 1979, 127]. other modality. Gibson states: "This is a radical hypothesis, for it implies that the 'values' and 'meanings' of things in the environment can be directly 4.5 ENVIRONMENTAL PSYCHOLOGICAL perceived." [Ibid]. Affordances are very varied: APPROACHES TO PERCEPTION "Surfaces afford posture, locomotion, collision, The development of environmental perception manipulation, and in general behavior. Special grew out of the interest of environmental forms of layout afford shelter and concealment. psychologists in the environment in the 1960s Fires afford warming and burning. Detached and 1970s although one of the earliest, James objects - tools, utensils, weapons - afford special Gibson, started to develop his theory in the types of behavior to primates and humans." 1940s. The Gestalt theory is also a precursor [Ibid, 137] to the environmental psychology. "The Gestalt emphases on perception as a holistic process Gibson that animals, including and on the dynamic, organizing aspect of humans, have evolved ways of detecting perception have influenced much of the later invariant information about the environment, research and theorizing in this area." [Holahan, which enables them to perceive affordances. 1982, 36] Some of the following examples These do not derive from memory but from the stray into the area of environmental aesthetics. perceptual system, which has evolved to "resonate" with this information. Gibson leaves (1) Gibson's Ecological Theory vague the notion of resonance [Bruce & Green, 1990, 234]. James Gibson's Ecological Theory proposes that environmental perception is entirely a Gibson's approach is a radical departure from function of the stimulation received from the mainstream perceptual psychology. environment (i.e. that humans do not interpret and construct meanings from this interaction). "Traditional perceptual theory holds that perception is indirect and mediated by higher In Gibson's terms, humans receive information cognitive processes. We do not 'just see' the direct from the environment and view it world but actively construct it from fragmentary holistically as meaningful entities rather than in perceptual data. Gibson is a 'direct realist'. He a disaggregated way. An environment's holds that perception is direct and unmediated permanent physical properties are termed by inference and problem solving." [Bruce & affordances, denoting the functional properties Green, 1990, 238] that an object affords (e.g. a sturdy, non- porous object with interior space affords His theory focuses attention on the shelter; a flat surface raised off the ground environment but has generally been regarded affords sitting). As we explore and experience as inadequate to explain human/environment an environment we become aware of interactions. Appleton's prospects and refuges affordances that help us make use of the can be regarded as affordances. environment. (2) Brunswick's Probabilistic Gibson attributes the origin of the concept of Functional Model affordances to Koffka, the Gestalt psychologist who described the "demand character" of an Egon Brunswik's Probabilistic Functionalism object: model of environmental perception emphasises the individual's active To primitive man each thing says what it is and interpretation of sensory information received what he ought to do with it ... a fruit says "Eat from the environment. Such information is me"; water says "Drink me"; thunder says "Fear never perfectly correlated with the real me"; and woman says "Love me". [Gibson, 1979, environment and complex and some-times 138] misleading cues can be received (e.g. the human eye has to judge how far away an Gibson's concept is that perception is based object is based on the size of the object and on the use of elements (i.e. their affordances) the setting). We make a probabilistic estimate rather than their form, colour and other of the distance that is a 'best bet'. Brunswik attributes. Buildings are not seen as forms but described it thus: rather as functional spaces in which to work 53 4. Perception and Colour

"The best [the individual] can do is to The probabilistic model is rather more widely compromise between cues so that his posit accepted than Gibson’s ecological model. approaches the 'best bet' on the basis of all the Ames' transactional psychology takes probabilities or past relative frequencies or Brunswik's model further by emphasising the relevant interrelationships lumped together." dynamic and creative role of the individual in [Ittleson, 1974, 110]. environmental perception. Each individual

builds a unique store of environmental Perception involves extracting useful cues interactions - "the world each of us knows is a from a scene of many potentially confusing world created in large measure from our cues. The individual thus plays an active role experience in dealing with the environment" in interpreting information from the [quoted by Holahan, 1982, 40]. The environment based on a repertoire or probabilistic model is a basis for research on probabilistic statements from many settings. organism-environment relationships, in which As there are many possible environments, greater emphasis than is usual is placed on judgements about any particular environment situation sampling rather than subject sampling cannot be absolutely certain - only probabilistic so that the environment's influence on estimates. behaviour might be better understood.

Brunswik's model is also known as a lens (3) Berlyne's Collative Stimulus Theory model, which describes the interpretative role the individual plays in perceiving a scene - a In contrast to Gibson and Brunswik, Daniel process whereby the scattered environmental Berlyne has focussed on neither the individual stimuli (the objectively measurable nor the environment in isolation but rather on characteristics of a scene) are recombined by their interaction. He has found that aesthetic the viewer as a lens focuses light. Figure 4.6 preferences are related to the complexity of a depicts the subjective assessment of the distal stimulus. Like an inverted U (∩), as complexity environment (proximal cues) and their of a scene increases so to does its integration to provide the observer's perception attractiveness up to a point beyond which of the scene. increased complexity is viewed as less

pleasant. Many experiments have been The Selected Selected The Setting Distal Proximal Setting undertaken to investigate the optimum levels Itself Cues Cues Judged of stimulation [Holahan, 1982, 111]. Berlyne identifies an environment's stimulation to No. derive from its collative stimulus properties (i.e. trees characteristics that cause the observer to Un- compare or investigate further). These disturbed properties include: Water colour • complexity - a large variety of elements in the

Polluted display; Actual • surprisingness - unexpected elements; Perceived Litter • novelty - newness to the observer; and Beauty • incongruity - something out of place

Striking Beauty These properties influence an observer's Mountain aesthetic judgements about a scene and also height their desire to explore. Berlyne considers that Comfort- able aesthetic judgements and exploration is a Beach combination of two factors: sandiness 1. hedonic tone: degree of pleasantness or beauty Crowding 2. uncertainty-arousal: the inverted U No. people As uncertainty increases, hedonic tone (i.e. pleasantness) first increases then decreases Note: Distal - away from centre of body [Figure 4.7]. Source: Gifford, R. 1987. Environmental Psychology, Principles and Practice, 28. Figure 4.6 Brunswick’s Lens Model 54 4. Perception and Colour

Relationship between Stimulus Diversity and Preferences Hypothetical Relationship of Uncertainty to Aesthetic Response Nature set 6

Uncertainty/ Mixed set arousal factor 5

Resultant 4 function Man-made set Hedonic tone 3 Aesthetic"Appreciation" factor Mean Preference Uncertainty Source: Wohlwill, 1976, p 12 34 56 Level of Diversity Source: Wohlwill, 1976. p

Figure 4.7 Hypothetical Relationship of Figure 4.8 Relationship between Stimulus Uncertainity to Aesthetic Response Diversity and Preferences

People appear happiest at intermediate levels aversion. Stimulus attributes - complexity, of stimulation or uncertainty and do not like incongruity, novelty, familiarity and variety excessive stimulation or excessive arousal. produce these feelings. Wohlwill suggests that Therefore, one might expect that landscapes fittingness, or how well an element (e.g. a that are intermediate in complexity, novelty, house) suits a certain setting (e.g. wilderness) incongruity, and surprisingness would be is an additional collative property. judged the most beautiful, whereas landscapes that are low or high in these collative (4) Stephen and Rachel Kaplan’s properties will be regarded as less attractive. Information Processing

While Berlyne's theory is attractive, the Stephen and Rachel Kaplan employ an evidence with natural landscapes does not information processing approach to explain the support it. Studies have supported the ∩ in interactions between humans and the relation to non-environ-mental stimuli (e.g. landscape. The Kaplans hypothesise that "the paintings, music) and possibly for urban perceptual process involves extracting environments, however, Wohlwill, Kaplan and information from one's environment." [Kaplan, others contend that in natural environments, Kaplan & Brown, 1989, 514] They identify four preferences increase linearly with complexity predictor variables, two of which (coherence [Wohlwill, 1976, 46]. Somewhat surprisingly, and legibility) help in understanding the the researchers found it impossible to find environment and the other two (complexity and natural scenes containing the degree of mystery) encourage its exploration. The complexity comparable with the human-made Kaplans contend that humans seek to make environment at the upper end of the scale sense of the environment and to be involved in [Figure 4.8]. In the mixed set, the relationship it. In Table 4.2: did not appear to be consistently related to complexity. • Coherence is the ease of cognitively organising or comprehending a scene; The findings support research findings (notably • Legibility is the being able to predict and to Stephen and Rachel Kaplan) that the maintain orientation as one moves more deeply into the scene, the promise of being able to significant variable was between natural and make sense of it in the future; human-made, there being a higher preference • Complexity is being involved immediately - a for natural scenes in preference to human- scene's capacity to keep an individual busy (i.e. made scenes. Joachim Wohlwill has occupied without being bored or overstimulated); considered the environment as a source of • Mystery is the promise that more information affect producing feelings of pleasure or could be gained by moving deeper into a setting, 55 4. Perception and Colour

(e.g. trail disappearing, bend in a road, brightly lit clearing partially obscured from view by foliage. Stephen Kaplan considers that organising New information is not present but is inferred workspace, arranging one's home, avoiding from what is in the scene. certain directions and approaching others may reflect factors such as coherence, legibility, Table 4.2 Informational Variables mystery and complexity. He concludes that Understanding Exploration there is clearly more to aesthetics than optimal [making sense] [involvement] complexity and that the "acquisition of new Immediate Coherence Complexity [making sense [immediate information and its comprehension (are) immediately] involvement] central themes underlying the preference Inferred Legibility Mystery process." The Kaplans’ theory is examined [expectation of [expectation of further in Chapters 7 and 8. making sense] future involvement] Source: Kaplan, Kaplan & Brown, 1989, 516 4.6 PERCEPTION - CONCLUSION

Coherence and complexity are considered to A somewhat piecemeal picture of the involve minimal analysis, whereas legibility and psychology of perception emerges, because mystery require more time and thought. perception has not had a single stream of development, growing and more Underlying the Kaplan's approach is an sophisticated in its evolution, but rather is evolutionary view that human preferences characterised by varying approaches. In more derive from the adaptive value offered by recent decades there has been considerable particular settings [Kaplan, S, 1987. 14]. One fundamental research into the neurophysiology of the factors cited in support of this is the of perception, far removed from environmental preference for savannah landscapes over perception. The abundance of competing other biomes found among young children theories of perception and environmental [Balling & Falk, 1982]. A further factor is that perception in particular are indicative of any manipulated landscapes such as ornamental developing field of enquiry. It is doubtful gardens and municipal parks tend to reflect the whether this is likely to change in the near scattered trees of a savannah landscape A future. third strand of evidence cited by Kaplan is Appleton's prospect and refuge theory, the On the contribution of psychology to the study notion of seeing without being seen, in which of beauty, Sachs [1951, 149] remarks with preferences are for those settings which prescience: provide advantage for hunting or hiding. In Zube's words [1984, 106]: "The great bulk of investigation about the nature of beauty has been piled up by metaphysical "The Kaplans propose that long term survival of speculations or elaborated as part of some the human species was dependent upon system of philosophy. As everyone knows, the development of cognitive information processing approach by observation of facts and by skills which in turn led to preferences for experiment is a comparatively modern landscapes that made sense to the observer. In innovation, and this is especially true in matters other words, landscapes were preferred that concerning the mind; anything so obviously could be comprehended, where information connected with a man's soul was considered the could be obtained relatively easily and in a non- exclusive domain of philosophy, metaphysics threatening manner that provided opportunity for and theology. Psychology, the latest of the late, involvement, and that conveyed the prospect of was welcomed not too warmly when it tried to additional information. According to this squeeze itself into an already overcrowded framework, landscapes that are preferred are space. The bias of this present attempt (i.e. coherent, legible, complex, and mysterious." Sachs' book) is clearly on the side of psychology, trying to get elbow-room for it, even An evolutionary viewpoint leads Kaplan to at the cost of some older occupants." conclude [Kaplan, S, 1987, 26] that: Aesthetic reactions reflect neither a casual nor a Despite being a relative newcomer compared trivial aspect of the human makeup. Aesthetics is with philosophy, psychology has contributed not the reflection of a whim that people exercise profound insights and knowledge of aesthetics. when they are not otherwise occupied. Rather, such reactions appear to constitute a guide to human behaviour that has far-reaching consequences. 56 4. Perception and Colour

Violet Blue Green Yellow Orange Red

400 nm 500 nm 600 nm 700 nm

Figure 4.9 Wavelengths of Visible Light Spectrum

4.7 PERCEPTION OF COLOUR • Hue is the normal meaning of colour – (e.g. a red rose, a blue sea). Colour plays an important role in human perception and the enjoyment of landscapes. • Brightness or value is the lightness of a colour or Without colour the appreciation of sunsets, of its light intensity. Achromatic colours vary only in brightness, (e.g. ranging from black [minimum autumn colours, of azure blue sea, of flowers brightness] through to white [maximum and blossoms would be diminished brightness]). substantially. But in addition, colour provides survival enhancing information about the • Saturation or chroma is the strength, richness or environment (e.g. by distinguishing between vividness of the hue ranging from highly ripe and unripe fruit) [Padgham & Saunders, saturated and intense through to hues of low 1975, 171]. But given that many species of saturation and weak. It is also the purity of animal lack colour vision yet survive it is colour - the extent to which it is pure chromatic curious what purpose colour plays other than colour without the addition of any achromatic aesthetic. colours. The addition of achromatic reduces saturation. It is determined by the extent to which the colour differs from a neutral colour of Isaac Newton (1642 - 1727) first observed the the same value (e.g. starting with grey and colour spectrum when he held a prism up to adding a hue will gradually increase the chroma light from the sun. Rainbows provide a natural and its vividness). A view with sunlit and shaded alternative where the raindrops serve as tiny areas contains both rich saturated hues (i.e. prisms and split the light. The colour spectrum: sunlit areas) and subdued hues of low saturation red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and (i.e. shaded areas). violet, comprise differing wavelengths of visible light, each bent slightly differently by the prism However others, such as Walton, Guilford and [Figure 4.9]. Black, white and grey have no Guilford, disagreed suggesting that they had hue and are neutral or achromatic colours found “a common basis of feeling for different while colours with hue are called chromatic colours” [Figure 4.10]. colours. Colour has three psychological attributes: hue, saturation and brightness.

0.6 r u

lo 0.4 Co f 0.2 e o 0

-0.2

-0.4 Affective Valu -0.6 GY YO OY RO OR YG OR Y RV BV BG VR GY V GB VB BG R

Source: Walton, Guilford & Guilford, 1933 Figure 4.10 Affective Preference for Colours - in Ascending Order 57 4. Perception and Colour

Their work was based on data on colour Based on the findings of various experiments preferences collected from successive from other researchers, Eysenck derived the university students over 14 years. The highest rankings shown in Table 4.3. This was based preferences were for red and blue. Yellow on a total of 21,060 subjects. hues were at the bottom of the rankings. Table 4.3 Average Rankings of Colour The influence of colour on preferences has Preferences been researched by psychologists since Colour Rank before the last century16. The earliest definitive Blue 1.42 study was by a German researcher, J. Cohn in Red 2.20 1894 who could find no general colour Green 3.18 preference. Later researchers, Dorcus, 1926 Violet 3.92 and von Allesch, 1924, supported Cohn, von Orange 5.07 Allesch despairing of finding any consistent Yellow 5.21 Source: Eysenck, 1941 reaction to colours.

Cohn also reported a general preference for 0 saturated colours, a finding supported by many Men other researchers, although Titchener, 1901, 1 ngs believed that some observers preferred 2 Women nki saturated colours while others preferred a 3 unsaturated colours. Of the characteristics, 4 hue, tint (brightness) and chroma, Guildford,

verage R 5

1933 found hue to be the most important and A the others of secondary importance. Some 6 researchers have found differences in colour d Re Blue

preference according to gender (e.g. women Violet Green Yellow prefer red to blue, men prefer blue to red). Orange After examining several thousand cases, Source: Eysenck, 1941 Garth, 1931, concluded that the “color Figure 4.11 Colour Rankings by Gender sequences between the two sexes are about the same.” Figure 4.11 compares the colour rankings of

men and women and shows that there is very In view of the conflicting evidence from little difference, Eysenck reporting a correlation previous research, Eysenck, 1941, conducted of 0.95. Yellow is slightly preferred over further experiments and critically reviewed the orange by women and orange over yellow by previous research. He found that the men. agreement between rankings of colours is as high as agreement between tests of Walton, Guilford and Guilford, 1933 reviewed intelligence, that some prefer saturated colours data on colour preferences that had been and others unsaturated colours, and that there collected annually, except for the gap 1920-28, were no gender differences (although women over the period 1910 to 1930 at the University appear to slightly prefer yellow over orange). of Nebraska. Ratings from 1279 university Given that von Allesch had concluded from his students were involved. The findings indicate work that the results were too variable to say considerable variation over time [Figure 4.12]. that there was any clear colour preference, A similar chart was prepared by the authors Eysenck subjected von Allesch’s results to and indicated slightly greater fluctuations over statistical analysis. He concluded that in fact time for females than for males. The results von Allesch’s results were “essentially identical indicate for example that preferences for red with my own, both as regards the amount of decreased continuously from 1910 to 1918 agreement between the Ss, and as regards and then rose again in the late 1920s to its the nature of the factors determining the former level. The fluctuations for blue, green judgement of the Ss.” [Ibid, 390]. and orange almost parallel each other until the

late 1920s. Yellow, the lowest ranked colour, had the smallest annual variations.

16. This resumé of historical research is based on the reviews by Eysenck, 1941, and Ball, 1965. 58 4. Perception and Colour

1.5 Red Orange Yellow Green Blue

1

0.5 Scale value

0

-0.5 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 1919 1920 1928 1929 1930

Source: Walton, Guilford and Guilford, 1933 Note: No tests were conducted between 1920 and 1928. Figure 4.12 Variations in Colour Preferences, 1910 - 30, Males, University of Nebraska

Guilford and Smith, 1959, used a large colour an important influence on preferences [see range [over 300], held constant brightness and Chapter 8] and should be included in the survey saturation, and used equal numbers of males of landscape quality. and females. They found consistent rating from day to day. Males rated the colours The various theoretical constructs including the slightly higher than females. Preferences were Kaplans’ information processing, Berlyne’s highest in the green-blue area and lowest in collative stimulus and Brunswick’s probabilistic the yellow and yellow-green. They found that functional model offer interpretations of affective values were positively related to perception and their relevance to preferences brightness and saturation. could be assessed in the survey.

The study of children’s colour preferences has Colour is an attribute of landscapes which shown that the earliest top preference is differs from the physical components such as yellow. For example, Staples, 1932 found that land form and land cover but which is below 6 months of age, infants preferred considered likely, on the basis of past studies of chromatic colours to achromatic. The hues in the influence of colour, to influence landscape order of preference were: yellow, blue, red and preferences. It should therefore be tested in the green. By the time the child is two years old, survey. red becomes the favoured colour and by school age this has again changed to blue.

In summary, this brief review of colour preferences has found that the highest preferences are for red, blue and green, with saturated hues scoring higher than hues of low saturation. Differences between genders are slight but differences between races may be larger.

4.8 APPLICATION OF PERCEPTION AND COLOUR

The information processing framework includes the influence of short and long term memory on interpreting the information received. Familiarity of the scene, which relies on memory, can be 59 5. Psychoanalysis and Aesthetics

CHAPTER FIVE

PSYCHOANALYSIS AND AESTHETICS

5.1 INTRODUCTION unconscious, and contain the person's earliest and most intense Psychoanalysis developed from the emotional links with their parents. work of one man, Sigmund Freud [1856 - 1939], as a method for treating While the ego seeks compromise, the psychoneurotic abnormalities. superego is satisfied with nothing less Psychoanalysis focuses on the influence than perfection. Freud found that in of the unconscious on one's mind and many of his patients, the demands of behaviour. In this chapter the the id conflicted with the absolute contribution of Freud is examined and prohibitions of the superego, resulting in psychoanalytical models of aesthetics weakened egos to the point of mental are described. Attachment 1, provides a collapse. Defence mechanisms are glossary of some of the main employed to cope with this include psychoanalytical terms. repression, negation, sublimation and, most commonly, displacement. Freud emphasised the influence on later life of 5.2 BASIC CONCEPTS OF the conflicts and experiences of one's PSYCHOANALYSIS early years. While Freud examined infants from age 2 onwards, Klein and The basic tenet of Freud's others have researched the first 2 years psychoanalysis has been summarised of life. thus: Freud saw the development of "...human behaviour is a product of personality as largely determined in unconscious needs and drives and of childhood, but later psychologists such superego restraints and norms, all as Erikson regarded social factors as elaborated, compromised, and more important enabling the person's channelled into overt behavior by the ego to develop throughout their life ego." [Kreitler & Kreitler, 1972, 6]. based their responses to life's challenges. Freud's psychoanalysis has two fundamental systems: firstly, the id, ego (2) Unconscious, Pre-Conscious and super-ego and secondly, the and Conscious unconscious, pre-conscious and conscious. These provide, as it were, The unconscious was Freud's great the skeleton on which all Freud’s other discovery and was based on his concepts hang [e.g. sublimation, analysis of dreams. Dreams are Freud’s repression, introjection]. "royal road" to the unconscious. The unconscious comprises the repressed (1) Id, Ego and Super-Ego contents and instincts that have been denied access to the preconscious or Freud differentiated between the id, ego conscious states. Much in the and super-ego: unconscious content derives from events early in life of which we have no • Id one's unconscious instincts, the recollection and includes desires, fears, most primitive and elemental drives and socially unacceptable feelings and or urges which are uncompromising wishes, many of which are sexual in and dictatorial and which are partly nature. Although located in the inherited and partly acquired. unconscious, they powerfully affect our • Ego relates the individual to the real conscious thoughts and behaviour. world and seeks to protect it and Psychoanalysis aims at the gradual enable it to cope. uncovering of these repressed • Superego which is the or memories to free the patient from their part of a person concerned with influence. The unconscious was moral ideals, both conscious and regarded by Freud as the source of 60 5. Psychoanalysis and Aesthetics symbolism on which creative expressed solely "in terms of an imagination is based. increase or decrease in tension as expressed on a single qualitative axis - The second area of the mind, the namely, the pleasure-unpleasure scale" preconscious, comprises the knowledge [LaPlanche & Pontalis, 1967, 323]. and memories wthat are not presently Freud found it to be far more complex conscious but which can be drawn on by than simply a direct relationship . The contents of the between pleasure and a consequential unconscious are censored from being reduction in tension, or its inverse. He passed into the preconscious without found that "pleasurable tensions" exist in transformation. The Freud linked the situations that, though producing conscious mind, the third area, directly tension, can be pleasurable17. Freud with perception; it covers both the thought that this might be related to awareness of the external world and of changes in the level of the cathexis internal perceptions. within a given space of time.

(3) Pleasure Principle & Reality (4) Symbolism Principle Symbolism is a central concept in As a biological being, humans seek to psychoanalysis. Freud regarded attain pleasure and avoid pain. Freud's humans as symbolic animals. pleasure principle drives humans to Symbolism is not regarded as strongly seek that which results in pleasure such now as in Freud's time. Symbolism as food and to avoid things that can give involves an object having more than one unpleasure. It is the id seeking release. meaning and representing ideas and Along with the pleasure principle, the fantasies of which the viewer is barely, if reality principle, governs mental at all, aware. Sexual symbolism functioning. The reality principle is the dominates, but it may also extent to all awareness of the external world of aspects of life - birth, love and death. which a child gradually becomes aware Based on his clinical work on dreams, and understand. The pleasure principle Freud described the following as is instinctive but the reality principle is symbols [Spector, 1972, 95]: learnt and in time comes to dominate as a regulatory principle. The pleasure • drawings by dreamers of landscapes in principle operates instinctively and their dreams that when looked at closely, directly, (e.g. as a baby or young child represent the human body, genitals etc demands food). The reality principle • pillars and columns as legs results in the pleasure principle being • gateways as a body orifice • water pipes as urinary apparatus satisfied less directly, through the • kings and queens of fairy stories detours and postponements imposed by representing one's parents while princes the external world. The pleasure or princesses represent the dreamer principle is central to Freud's aesthetics. • all elongated objects such as sticks and tree trunks representing the phallus while Delight in attractive landscapes is an boxes, cases, chests, cupboards, ovens example of the pleasure principle and ships represent the uterus operating, resulting in spontaneous, • rooms representing women, especially if wholly subjective pleasure. The reality the means of access are represented while the key to the lock signifies the principle may influence what we like penis through cultural and other factors on our th • steps, ladders, staircases and climbing or preferences. During the 20 century in descending them representing particular, however, artists have rejected intercourse the emphasis on pleasure and • a woman's hat or an overcoat represents contemporary paintings, music, plays a genital organ while a tie represents the and other art forms may provoke other penis which is also represented by emotions such as shock, horror, ploughs, weapons, snakes, umbrellas amusement and puzzlement. and even airships - the list is endless

While humans can recognise a wide 17. This is the basis of the pleasure in the range of qualities in the external world, sublime [see Chapter 6] in the 18th century - Freud found that internal reality is potentially dangerous situations enjoyed in safety. 61 5. Psychoanalysis and Aesthetics

childhood [age 3 - 5], diminishes until The phallus plays a prominent role in puberty and is then conquered by psychoanalysis and refers not to its varying degrees. It plays a major role in actual representation but to its symbolic personality structure and in the function. Historically its representation orientation of human desire [Laplance & has been used in initiation and has Pontalis, 1967, 283]. symbolised sovereign power and transcendent virility. The phallic symbol (5) Introjection and Projection should not be taken to mean: Introjection was first coined by the early "a specific allegorical meaning ... Hungarian psychoanalyst, Sandor however broad that might be (fecundity, Ferenczi, in a paper "Introjection and potency, authority etc), [it] cannot be Transference", published in 1909. Freud reduced to the male organ ... itself in its further developed the concept which he anatomical reality ... The phallus turns saw as providing a key to understanding out to be the meaning - i.e. what is symbolised - behind the most diverse melancholia [Mourning and Melancholia, ideas just as often as (and perhaps more 1917] as well as the general structure of often than) it appears as a symbol in its the mind [The Ego and the Id, 1923]. own right.." [LaPlanche & Pontalis, 1967, 313, their emphasis]. Introjection involves the absorption by the ego of external objects that provide Freud regarded the phallic symbol as pleasure, including ideas, impressions one of the universal objects of and influences [Isaacs, 1952, 86,98]. symbolism. This contrasts with projection that, in psychoanalytical terms refers to the ego Freud emphasised that the sexual thrusting "forth upon the external world aspects of dreams should not be whatever within itself gives rise to pain." exaggerated by "attributing exclusive [Ibid, 87]. The ego allows stimuli that importance to them" [Spector, 1972, 96] give pleasure but prevents entry of and did not assert that all dreams those that are dangerous. require a sexual interpretation. Symbolism is a route by which artists The first object introjected is the tap their unconscious; the means by mother's breast. Aspects of parents are which the instinct, (the unconscious), introjected and throughout life a person may be liberated [Dalbiez, 1941, 380]. both introjects and projects to obtain Many of Freud's analyses of art made pleasure and avoid pain. However, with no reference to their sexual content. growth that which constitutes pleasure and pain change [Heimann, 1952, 130]. The works of art that Freud and other Introjection and projection are among psychoanalysts examined did not the earliest mental mechanisms. contain explicit sexual content; their Introjection helps the ego cope with sexual allusions needed to be drawn losing an object. Freud found that in the from their works. The point has extreme case of melancholia, the loss of relevance to landscape where a loved object such as by death or mammary hills or phallic rock outcrops change of heart, causes the ego to are sometimes suggested as evidence establish the object inside itself, (i.e. it of seeing sexual aspects in landscapes. introjects the lost love object while The psychoanalytical frame suggests outwardly abandoning it) [Ibid, 133]. that it is the far more subtle features which are probably not even apparent to Projection is a primitive defence the conscious mind which are important mechanism, the action of which the in sexual terms, rather than those which subjects may be unaware. This is are obvious. because the subjects may refuse to recognise certain qualities, feelings, Freud also discovered the Oedipus wishes or even 'objects' within them that Complex, which involves jealous hatred they project onto another person or of the parent of the opposite sex and thing. An example used by Freud is a love for the parent of the same sex, or person who says of another, "I love him" vice versa, or both in varying degrees. but is contradicted by delusions of The complex is most apparent in young persecution. The unconscious statement 62 5. Psychoanalysis and Aesthetics then is “I hate him”. This is transformed representative of instinct and Isaacs by projection into “He hates [persecutes] believed that: me”. "Projection … is the attribution of one's own unacceptable impulses and "there is no impulse, no instinctual urge ideas on to others" [Kline, 1972, 153]. or response which is not experienced as unconscious phantasy" [Ibid, 83]. Projection is also used in general psychology to refer to the displacement This internal psychic reality is just as and relocation of a psychological real to the person as external reality. element in an external position. This is Only under certain circumstances do similar to the psychoanalytical term they become conscious (e.g. via "transference". Used in this sense it may dreams). Phantasy is thus important in describe, for example, the projection understanding perception. onto a pastoral scene of maternal thoughts of warmth and fecundity. [There is] "a wealth of evidence to show that phantasies are active in the mind

long before language has developed, and The mechanisms of projection and that even in the adult they continue to introjection are among the earliest of operate alongside and independently of mental mechanisms and are words. Meanings, like feelings, are far fundamental to our relationship with and older than speech ... In childhood and in our perception of the external world. adult life, we live and feel, we phantasise and act beyond our verbal meanings ... "Perception and its component Words are a means of referring to operations (attention, taking notice of, experience, actual or phantasied, but are storing in memory, judging, etc) are not identical with it, not a substitute for it." bound up with introjection and projection [Isaacs, 1952, 89]. ... To appreciate the role which introjection and projection play in early Words cannot convey the full richness of development in the function of perception our experiences. leads us to realize that perception cannot be divorced from object-relation." Phantasies are based initially on taste, [Heimann, 1952, 126] smell and touch and other somatic

sensations particularly with the mouth Introjection begins in infancy with the and lips which are the main means of breast and thereon the infant introjects perception. Such sensations provide the all pleasurable objects. Objects that basis for early phantasies. In infancy the yield pleasure, including people, food, visual element is relatively small and smiles and laughter, pets, and the wider there is no distinguishing between inner environment, are taken into the infant's and outer reality. Later, about the age of inner world. Both introjection and 3 - 4 years, visual images play an projection continue throughout life but increasing role but are closely what constitutes pleasure and pain associated with somatic responses and changes with personal growth. with emotions. Introjection initiates processes that affect all aspects of life, both psychic The visual element in perception and physical [Ibid, 155]. gradually increases, at first intertwined

intimately with somatic responses and (6) Phantasy emotions, then differentiated from the

somatic and distinguishing between the In contrast with the word "fantasies" inner and outer worlds. As this occurs, which are conscious mental images, the somatic undergoes repression and psychoanalysts use the term 'phantasy' the visual elements in phantasy become to refer to unconscious mental content stripped of emotion, separated from that may or may not become conscious. bodily ties: Freud found that everything conscious has a preliminary unconscious stage - "They become 'images' in the narrower all mental processes originate from the sense, representations 'in the mind' ... of unconscious and only under certain external objects recognized to be such. It conditions becomes conscious [Isaacs, is 'realized' that the objects are outside 1952, 82]. Phantasy is the psychic the mind, but their images are 'in the mind'." [Isaacs, 1952, 105] 63 5. Psychoanalysis and Aesthetics

fecundity and plenty and on the paternal Freud's findings revolutionised kindness of the nourishing earth and a psychiatry and broadened the benevolent God." [Ibid, 226]. understanding of the human psyche. Comparing his findings to that of With the growth of scientific Harvey, who discovered the circulation understanding of nature towards the of blood and who showed the body as a second half of the 18th century, the naive functioning and organised organism, dependence on nature's bounty gave one writer noted that Freud: way to "compelling it to deliver the goods that had hitherto been accepted "observed the operations of the as voluntary gifts." [Ibid, 226]. unconscious mind and demonstrated that Mechanisation of farming on a scientific they could be understood as a dynamic basis replaced the pastoral shepherd. system of which conscious awareness and overt behaviour are only facets. The The high mountains, the cliffs and rocks unconscious operations of the mind, ... were as little open to direct inspection as were not regarded as beautiful because the circulation of the blood." [MacAlpine, they were not productive, but more 1956, 136] profoundly because they aroused anxiety and where anxiety was present, beauty could not dwell. [Ibid, 161]. With 5.3 PSYCHOANALYTICAL scientific understanding anxiety APPROACHES TO AESTHETICS gradually waned and these landscapes acquired a unique aesthetic value, In examining the psychoanalytical termed by writers of the time as approach to landscape, one is "sublime" [see Chapter 6]. immediately beset with a problem - little has been written on the subject. Given "Men had been taught beauty by fields that the focus of the psychoanalyst is and flowers, by hills and woods, by clear the human psyche and in seeking brooks and sunny lakes. They applied understanding as to why humans think, what they had learned to the new wide feel, and act in the way they do, it is world and admired the formation and outline of cliffs and crags, the colours of surprising that human interaction with the deep sea and the tints of the sunset." the external environment, in an [Ibid, 227-8]. aesthetic sense, has not attracted more extensive inquiry by analysts. The sole The new beauty differed from the old; exception to this statement, to the this was not based on pleasantness, it author's knowledge, is a brief section in was raw, intense, and "more deeply a paper by Hanns Sachs [1951]. emotional". Their awe-inspiring appearance, far from being repulsive, (1) A Psychoanalyst's View of was their main attraction. Landscape History Sachs distinguishes between the old Sachs provides a psychoanalytical form in which beauty was in small, analysis of the changing taste of beauty diluted, and pleasant doses, and the since the Renaissance. Prior to this, he new beauty where it is pure and considered that nature was regarded as undiluted. The former pleasant scenes gentle, kind, smiling - the "motherliness offered a gratuitous pre-pleasure, - the of nature." The image of the shepherd "mind is left free for the 'pursuit of fitted this image - as in the Bible and happiness' for its own pleasure-seeking through Greek and later poets. This Id activity." [Ibid, 229]. In the modern image of nature derived from the pre- 18 form, however, pre-pleasure pleasure furnished by the promise of mechanisms are almost absent and sublimation is at work "with as much 18. Pre-pleasure is the conscious pleasure zeal that the original sources are often afforded which serves as the facade to a hardly recognizable." [Ibid, 230]. Beauty deeper pleasure in the unconscious. The and anxiety are absolutely irreconcilable transition to the hidden occurs only where the according to Sachs [Ibid, 171] and link between the facade and the unconscious sublimation of beauty occurs. is seamless. Aesthetic pleasure is a function of the quality of the transition from facade to interior [see Sachs, 1951, 46]. 64 5. Psychoanalysis and Aesthetics

The purpose of the following analysis is myths and social institutions." [Kernan, to search for models and keys that are 1979, 213]. relevant and potentially applicable to understanding human aesthetic Essentially, psychoanalysis sees art as responses to landscapes. The section wish-fulfilment or as an expression of begins with a general review of the unresolved psychic conflict. psychoanalytical approach to artistic creativity and then examines a range of "The power of art comes ... from the psychoanalytical models that have been strength of [the artist's] psychic energies which are powerful enough to surge developed to assist in understanding through barriers erected by aesthetics. These are synthesised and a consciousness and by society. His craft psychoanalytical model of landscape lies only in his largely unconscious ability aesthetic response is presented. to find symbolic expression for his desires ..." [Ibid, 214]. (2) A Psychoanalytical View of Artistic Creativity In 1911, Freud explained the artistic impulse in terms of phantasy; the artist Psychoanalysts have been interested in turns from reality because of an inability art as an expression of the unconscious to renounce instinctual satisfactions and mind whether in the fine arts of music, gives full rein to erotic and ambitious poetry, painting, sculpture and dance or desires through phantasy. Using his in the range of other artistic pursuits. artistic gifts, he returns to reality through Many psychoanalysts have examined "moulding his phantasies into a new artistic impulses - the factors underlying kind of reality" [Read, 1951, 76, writer's creativity [Schneider, 1950]. emphasis] which is then acclaimed. The artist thus becomes the hero, the king, In 1908, Freud asked the question: and the favourite through art, not reality. Art, according to Freud is the path from "We laymen have always wondered phantasy back to reality - wish fulfilment. greatly ... how that strange being, the The artist is able to modify his poet, comes by his material. What makes phantasies so that their unacceptable him able to carry us with him in a way origins are undetectable. According to and to arouse emotions in us of which we Freud, the results are able to "awaken in thought ourselves perhaps not even capable ?" [Segal, 1955, 384]. us the same emotional attitude, the same mental constellation as that which Freud was interested in art and the artist in him produced the impetus to create" and wrote several psychoanalyses of [Ibid, 77]. works including Michelangelo's statue of Moses, the Medusa Head, and Stokes considered art to be therapeutic Leonardo da Vinci's Mona Lisa and The to both the artist and the viewer [1965, Virgin and St Anne. His interest lay 55]. Freud recognised that art provided more in the subject matter of the artist catharsis to repressed sexual desires. than in the art itself. While he did not Freud's theory of both wit and artistic write systematically about aesthetics, appeal is that its pleasure "derives from nevertheless his writings provide the free expression of repressed insights. feelings otherwise unacceptable to the With reference to art, Isaacs wrote: conscious personality" [Alexander, 1948, 186]. In addition, as Stokes' "We know from drawing, painting and noted, the process of artistic creation sculpture and the whole world of art, integrates the ego and its objects. what a wealth of implicit meaning can reside even in a shape, a colour, or of Hanna Segal considered that each artist melody and harmony in music" [Isaacs, creates a world of their own; even two 1952, 89]. artists or writers describing the same scene will produce totally different It has been suggested that: results. Drawing on Klein's work, Segal "psychoanalysis provides our only really believes that artists seek to recreate a complete , telling us how it world that has died: originates in the mind, why it takes the form it does, what function it has in society, and how it relates to our great 65 5. Psychoanalysis and Aesthetics

"It is when the world within us is 360]. Considering the viewer, he cited destroyed, when it is dead and loveless, the evidence from observations that the when our loved ones are in fragments, viewer enters unconscious identification and we ourselves in helpless despair - it with the artist and, as it is dealing with is then that we must re-create our world re-creation, experiences the psychic anew, reassemble the pieces, infuse life into dead fragments, re-create life." process in reverse. It enters the [Segal, 1955, 390]. consciousness and is elaborated by the pre-conscious and by the id. The flow of This is a process of sublimation in a mental energy [(athexis) between the wider sense than that of Freud. ego, id and super-ego is experienced as pleasurable: Recognising that ugly and beautiful are two aspects of aesthetic experience "On a first level, the flow of emotions in Segal believed that both must be the safety of the 'aesthetic illusions' is pleasurable; on a second level, the present for the full experience. Ugliness change of cathexis itself, accompanied is the fragmented destroyed past, by a sense of control, is experienced as beauty is the object restored [Likierman, delight" [Ibid, 369]. 1989, 137]. Psychoanalysts regard the main elements of beauty as the whole, This is similar to Freud's words in 1908: the complete and the rhythmical [such as rhythmical sucking, breathing and "I am of the opinion that all the aesthetic heartbeats]. pleasure we gain from the works of imaginative writers [or art - author] is of Based on various clinical cases the same type as ... fore-pleasure, and involving artists and depression, Segal that the true enjoyment of literature asserts that artists are able to withdraw proceeds from the release of tensions in our minds" [Read, 1951, 76]. into a life of phantasy and communicate this through their art. They embody This is the carthexis approach - art some deep experience of their own in offering relief to the unconscious. their art and, she suggests, this is the drive to overcome unusually strong Herbert Read, an art historian with an depression. interest in psychoanalysis, suggested

that identification in aesthetics is not According to Segal, aesthetic pleasure limited to some other person, "but can for the viewer derives from: be a plastic object, the essential

aesthetic feeling being provoked, "an identification of ourselves with the work of art as a whole and with the whole however, only when the object is a internal world of the artist as represented significant object" [1951, 79]. His by his work. In my view all aesthetic formulation provides a means whereby pleasure includes an unconscious re- landscapes may provide a basis for living of the artist's experience of identification. creation." [Segal, 1955, 399]. In summary, the artist turns from reality Kris [1953, 59] distinguishes between and, through giving full rein to the inspiration phase and the phantasies, gives symbolic expression elaboration phase of artistic creation to repressed unsocial feelings and and notes that wherever such creation thoughts. Gaining unconscious cathexis takes place, the idea of a public exists or relief, and seeking to overcome (i.e. a public who will see and respond depression and re-create a lost object, to the work). the artist creates works of art that give vent to his or her phantasies in an Kris [1948, 357] noted that acceptable way. Through this the artist psychoanalysis cannot answer why becomes a significant figure, a hero; some people have natural gifts for art through their art they mould a new kind and can only partly answer why some of reality and thus gain the freedom they individuals turn to art. However, it can previously lacked. explain the functions that art fulfils in the individual artist. He considered that the The viewer of art, through unconscious function of art is "an invitation to identification with and re-living the same common experience in the mind" [Ibid, 66 5. Psychoanalysis and Aesthetics

19 psychic pressures experienced by the theme were available to Freud. He artist, gains cathexis relief from broadened sexuality, however to include unconscious tensions which is cultural activity and beauty as being pleasurable. Read's observation that derived from sexual feeling. aesthetic identification can be with a significant plastic object may open the Sublimation of the sexual aspect is the way for the consideration of landscapes. key to Freud's conception of art. Sublimation is a process argued by Having introduced the psychoanalytical Freud to account for human activities approach to aesthetics, various models that have no apparent connection with are now examined for their sexuality but which are assumed to be psychoanalytical explanations of the motivated by the force of sexual instinct aesthetic phenomenon. These models [LaPlanche & Pontalis, 1967, 431]. which I have called: Freud defined sublimation as "the capacity to substitute for the sexual aim • Freud's sublimation model of another, non-sexual aim which is • Sachs' co-ordinated psychic model genetically related to the first." [Dalbiez, • Klein's depressive integration 1941, 369]. model, • Likierman's psychic growth model, Freud considered the repression of early and childhood sexuality resulted in its • Spitz's transactional model. diversion from direct release and its

displacement elsewhere, including examine the outline presented above in artistically. Since Freud, sublimation has greater depth. been widened to cover a general mental

process resulting in "the transformation (3) Freud’s Sublimation Model of any primitive trends into 'higher' (or Instinct Model) civilized expression" [Likierman, 1989,

137]. Freud's original sexual formulation Based on the psychoanalytical of sublimation has broadened to approach, Freud considered that "artists encompass the process of civilising express unconscious desires in a psychic processes. sublimated symbolic form, curbed and inhibited by the superego" [Kreitler & Kris considered sublimation as the most Kreitler, 1972, 6]. Sublimation is the frequently misused of Freudian terms. outward expression, in socially He describes it as: acceptable ways, of unconscious thoughts and drives that are socially "the social aspect of the process of unacceptable - exchanging an "originally of energy: an instinctual drive, sexual aim for another one which is no which tends to a goal disapproved by longer sexual but which is psychically society and by the individual's super-ego related to the first" [Laplance & Pontalis, may be redirected towards an approved 1967, 432]. goal" [1948, 356].

Freud regarded the origin of beauty as Kris noted that artistic pursuits offer being sexual excitement, stating that he opportunities for sublimation of impulses considered it certain that beauty derived of various kinds. from sublimated sexual feeling [Spector, 1972, 100]. Some authors have Sublimation produces objects that are suggested that some of the higher socially valued such as art. Freud primates can similarly derive sexual considered that artists sublimate their stimulus from aesthetic activity such as most personal wishes and phantasies, painting [Simenauer, 1964, 434]. Freud expressing them in an art form that regarded the appreciation of beauty and "softens the offensive aspects of these aesthetic pleasure as the indirect wishes" [Spector, 1972, 101], a kind of satisfaction of vital needs (i.e. a sensualist approach to aesthetics in 19 contrast to an intellectual approach) . For example, George Santayana, 1896. The Sense of Beauty, New York & London; Yrjo [Dalbiez, 1941, 383]. The idea that Hirn, 1900. Origins of Art, London; as well as beauty derives from sexuality was not many German and French publications. See new and many books covering the Spector, 1972, 216, note 30. 67 5. Psychoanalysis and Aesthetics sugarcoating of content to make the art and are complete, once and for all" presentable. The deflection of libido [LaPlanche & Pontalis, 1973, 445] from its original sexual or aggressive aims provides the energy for artistic According to Ernest Jones, Freud's creativity [Bychowski, 1951, 599]. contemporary and biographer, perceptual memories are converted into Viewing art (or any object in aesthetic visual forms. On this basis, Spector terms) also involves sublimation on the considers that the process of symbolism part of the viewer: "causes the mind to revert to more primitive mental processes, especially "The perception of ... art affords vicarious those costing the least effort, such as fantasy gratification for these unsatisfied the concrete and sensorial - usually wishes [i.e. infantile or primitive drives visual" [Spector, 1972, 100-1]. and wishes] in a sublimated, i.e. socially accepted form. ... The latent content of Read considered that symbolism has works of art - disguised by symbolization, displacements, conversions into become the central principle of opposites, and other dreamlike aesthetics - "art is art as symbol" [1951, distortions - activates the repressed 73]. By symbolism, Read referred to it is wishes and thus lets them be gratified in a symbol for certain feelings, "a pattern fantasy. The perceiver can identify with of sentience" [Ibid, 75]. this content and project his unconscious strivings onto it with impunity, shielded as Freud did not simply look in art for signs he is from the superego by the socially of the artist's sexual or neurotic motives accepted manifest content of the work of but recognised the ability of the good art." [Kreitler & Kreitler, 1972, 7] artist to "synthesize his experience with Freud showed that the work of an artist his neurotic wishes and fantasies..." is the product of sublimation from their [Spector, 1972, 77], that he is able to unconscious phantasy life. For a period, achieved insights into the mind Freudian analyses were made of the approaching those of a psychoanalyst. unconscious foundations of an artist's He regarded great works of art as work but this is rarely practiced now. In "unfolding dramas of the mind, ... the 1920s, art critics such as Roger Fry psychodramas [which we] might term and Clive Bell rejected Freud's notion of ...psychic realism: the landscape and art as sublimation and wish fulfilment details of the environment are reduced to substituting aesthetic creation in its a minimum. [Ibid, 93]. 20 place. While Freud's greatest emphasis is on Klein [1930, 237] considered symbolism the sexual instinct in aesthetics, he does to the foundation of all sublimation, not deny the influence of other instincts symbolism being a more primitive [Dalbiez, 1941, 381]. He never instinct in which external objects examined the nature of aesthetic represent internal thoughts, feelings and pleasure itself, preferring to concentrate ideas. Symbolism is the indirect and on the process of artistic creation. figurative representation of an unconscious idea, conflict of wish. It is a (4) Sachs’ Coordinated Psychic widely used concept in psychoanalysis Model and many other disciplines. While the forms of symbols are very numerous, "The creative mind, in reacting to beauty, they generally refer to a small group of in producing beauty, represents the objects: the body, parents and blood highest form of psychic life, in which all relations, birth, death, nudity and above its parts - the id, the ego, and the super- ego are co-ordinated.” [Sachs, 1951, all sexuality. Freud considered that the 239]. unconscious comparisons underlying symbolism "are not freshly made on So Hanns Sachs concludes his each occasion; they lie ready to hand exploration of how it is that these normally separate entities combine in the presence of beauty. Sachs identifies 20. Bell, C., 1925. Dr Freud on Art, The Dial, the play element - the make believe that April, 280-81; Fry, R. 1924. The Artist and psychic processes easily distinguish Psychoanalysis, London. 68 5. Psychoanalysis and Aesthetics from reality as the means through which situations of diluted or weak beauty, it things that would otherwise be forbidden provides stability through an infusion of [and hence repressed] are accepted. death instinct character into the play of Through what is experienced, whether ego and id tendencies [Ibid, 238]. artistic creation such as paintings, plays Functioning fully, the death instinct or poems, or nature, an id content that is provides: otherwise inaccessible "reveals itself in these moments with a clarity beyond " a feeling of restfulness and bliss, ... a words and intellectual conception." [Ibid, haven of where the eternal 231]. necessity to choose between sensual gratification and peace of mind is abolished. This is the reason why some In revealing the hidden id content little bit of beauty is such an through its transference on the ego, indispensable help in carrying the burden Sachs is not offering any more than of life." [Ibid, 239]. Freud in referring to sublimated drives and desires which are brought to the Sachs equates motionlessness with surface, i.e. the ego. Elsewhere Sachs death, not actual morbidity, hence a describes the role of the creative artist in feeling of peace paradoxically translating his inner experience into resembles death, not life. lines, colours, sounds or words, to which the recipient acquires the same Faced with great, pure beauty, life and emotional experience through re- death are present intensely and are translating them in their own mind. This indissolubly linked. Death strives for provides the basis for the understanding permanence, stability, and immobility; of art [Ibid, 196]. life seeks movement, dynamism and motion. Sachs concludes: "Beauty is a In the context of play, make-believe and quest which leads to motion as well as illusion makes the super ego "a bit more to immobility. Beauty is life dancing - but indulgent", less inclined to focus on dancing to the tune of death." [Ibid, 240]. anxiety and guilt, so that it actually Motion is life, immobility is death, participates in the activity that results in therefore while beauty brings life, the the linking of id and ego as it "cherishes peace it offers is death. the narcissistic ideal of a complete fully organised and freely functioning Contemporary psychoanalysts regard personality." [Ibid, 235]. Similarly close Freud's notion of the death instinct as alliances between the ego and super controversial and the analysis by Sach's ego are apparent also in religious is not now regarded as useful. However ecstasy. The active participation of the Sachs' theory of beauty, based on the super ego results from "bribing" it with unique co-ordination of the id, ego and the narcissistic satisfaction that the ego super ego offers a further offers to it. Attenuation of the super psychoanalytical approach to the issue ego's destructive, critical attitude against of aesthetic experience. Sachs makes it the ego provides the basis on which clear that he is referring not only to beauty is built. artistic creations but also to nature so his model has relevance to landscape But Sachs develops his theory further, aesthetics. drawing on Freud's concept of the death instinct in beauty. Normally the (5) Klein’s Depressive aggressive drive is part of this instinct Integration Model (or Object that, through sublimation, is turned Relation Model) inwards against the ego and in also strengthening the severity of the super Melanie Klein, a psychoanalyst who ego. But with the super ego co- specialised in children, attributes operating with the ego about objects of fundamental importance to an infant's beauty, the death instinct cannot be first object relation (i.e. the relation to converted into aggression since it has the mother's breast and to the mother) no object, either inside or outside on [Klein, 1957, 3]. Introjection of this which to focus. The death instinct primal object in a secure environment therefore continues its normal form with lays the basis for individual varying intensity of influence. In development. 69 5. Psychoanalysis and Aesthetics

internalisation of the breast and the The good breast is instinctively felt to be "dispersal of the destructive impulses the source of nourishment and and of internal persecutory anxieties." therefore, of life itself, and provides unity [Ibid, 23]. with the mother, restoring to some During the first three to six months of life extent the lost prenatal unity and, even the infant is subject to fears of the loss when food is not sought, providing of loved objects - Klein's depressive constant reassurance of the mother's position. In phantasy these objects, love. The good breast is internalised, it external and internal, are destroyed is: resulting in persecution and guilt for their loss and a wish to restore and "taken in and becomes part of the ego, recreate the lost objects outside and and the infant who was first inside the within the ego. This wish is the basis of mother now has the mother inside later sublimation and creativity. With himself" [Ibid, 3]. growth comes a capacity to restore, a relinquishment of the depressive Freud regarded the infant's pleasure at anxieties, and an integration and the breast as the prototype of sexual enrichment of the ego by assimilation of gratification and Klein extends this to the loved objects. The guilt gives rise to cover "all later happiness and ... the a need to restore and recreate and this feeling of unity with another person." provides the roots of creativity. [Ibid, 18]. Although at face value the idea of However, the infant also experiences depression as being the font of creativity anxieties, possibly associated with the may seem contradictory, it is well known longing for the prenatal state in the that many artists, writers and composers womb, or to difficulties the mother have produced some of their best work experiences in feeding and caring for while in such a state. Regarding Mozart, her child or to physical inadequacies. for example: Klein calls the results of this the "bad breast". The good and bad breasts "some of his gayest, brightest, most represent the infant's feelings of love beautiful and cheerful music during and hate, of pain and pleasure, even of periods of his life that were, to say the life and death instincts. The child loves least, trying. The depression Mozart tells the good breast and hates the bad, but of having suffered during these periods then comes to realise that they are the was accompanied by outbursts of same. Attacks on the bad breast are creative activity, in which he sought actually on the good breast. The infant unconsciously to restore the infantile situation of complete bliss at the mother's works through this every day, loving and breast..." [Esman, 1951, 610]. hating the same thing; a treadmill broken by love, which repairs and Roger Money-Kyrle believes that the restores. The infant has thus a sense of beginnings of a non-utilitarian Kantian losing and regaining the good object. attitude to things to be admired and loved, but not consumed derives from Through psychoanalysis of patients, the conflict between desiring to possess Klein found the good breast represents and consume the object and the desire maternal goodness, patience, to protect it forever from these generosity and creativity. She writes: pressures [1961, 114]. Concurrently with these conflicts, the infant feels a "It is these phantasies and instinctual oneness with the object - the mother, needs that so enrich the primal object that it remains the foundation for hope, yet also their separateness as a distinct trust, and belief in goodness." [Ibid, 6]. individual. This feeling of oneness and otherness, Money-Kyrle suggests, may Following birth, and for the first three or be recaptured in later aesthetic four months of life, the infant develops experiences - the feeling of closeness, the paranoid-schizoid position; anxieties empathy and identification with a tend to be paranoid and the defences to landscape for example and the objective them involve the ego fragmenting itself recognition of one's separateness. and its object. Normality of the individual is determined, according to Klein, by the 70 5. Psychoanalysis and Aesthetics

(6) Likierman’s Psychic Growth experienced separately and singly. Model Psychoanalysis has focussed on the bad aspects of the paranoid/schizoid Meira Likierman considers that aesthetic position and has not given the good experience is primary and present from aspects the same attention. The good is birth and that, rather than deriving from symbolised by the ideal object which psychic growth, it is a precondition of Likierman considers is "an aspect of growth [1989, 133]. Her model of reality which is integral to any individual development in infancy experiencing of goodness. The ideal derives from Klein. In contrast to Klein, comprises the very essence and core of however, she regards aesthetic goodness, and so remains an inevitable experience as not only preceding the dimension of all good experiences. " depressive position but is the critical [Ibid, 139]. An ideal can be so intense enabling factor of it. as to inspire awe for a good that is greater than self, a sublime experience - The aesthetic experience commences thus perhaps providing insight into our with life and derives from the earliest reaction to an outstanding landscape 'good' experiences. From a which can represent a good in its most psychoanalytic viewpoint, she considers ideal or sublime form. that "appreciation of beauty is ... a fundamental human capacity present The sublime experience (a perfect within everyone." [Ibid, 133] This good), experienced in infancy and capacity is a primitive precursor to the resulting in our comprehension of later development of taste and ability to goodness reveals itself in the dreams judge and appreciate beauty. Our and fantasies of individuals and in aesthetic knowledge is critical in human cultural heritage. Likierman cites representing the world to ourselves, 'light' as an example, mentioning its use providing the basis for fantasies for in Biblical themes, religious iconography imagination and thought. in which the sun motif appears as a halo, and its use by painters such as Likierman postulates that the aesthetic Van Gogh. These are inferences of experience exists in a primitive form common early intensely aesthetic from the inception of life and that its experiences. characteristics are defined by Klein's paranoid/schizoid position which With growth the child enters Klein's antedates it and serves as the basis for depressive phase of life discovering the the development of the depressive good and bad parts of experience and position. Rather than seeking the bringing these together as two aspects of a lost and destroyed of a 'whole'. Never again will good be a object, the individual's healthy fixed and absolute . The phase development depends on transferring is marked by recognition of the loss of their early aesthetic experience into the an omnipotently 'owned' part object (i.e. depressive perception of an integrated the mother), the loss of ignorance and object and of viewing the whole the process of integration into a 'whole' good/bad world in terms of aesthetic person. principles [Ibid, 138]. In a world of loss and pain, the initial The paranoid/ schizoid position has a sublime experience continues to lasting influence on artistic creativity and succour and is preserved as whole as on how reality is viewed as an adult. possible. The infant "imposes an This is because 'good' is first aesthetic pattern over his view of his experienced aesthetically as an infant life" and attributes an aesthetic value to and forever after aesthetics is "known the whole good/bad world and begins to other than through the thinking mind" experience life from the point of view of [Ibid, 138]. order and meaning. From thereon, "the 'good' is never conceptualised without Klein's concept of the paranoid/schizoid accompanying unconscious aesthetic position involves a polarity in infantile phantasies" [Ibid, 148]. The whole experiences, good and bad which are good/bad object provides us with the separated from each other and only 71 5. Psychoanalysis and Aesthetics ability to value beauty otherwise it would Likierman argues that the aesthetic be wholly utilitarian. content of an object lies in its form, not its content. Citing Hamlet's "to be or not Drawing on Kant's formulation of beauty to be" soliloquy, she notes that an as being an aspect of form not related to alternative phrase: "I have a conflict ..." purpose (i.e. independent of its would not convey the same truth. She usefulness to us), Likierman notes that goes on to examine how Hamlet's words beauty indicates to us the "existence of turn facts into art, expressing a truth an objective world" [Ibid, 135]. In about his state of mind in a form that psychoanalytical terms she states, "any captures its close-to-suicide essence. value which the individual places on a non-functional, non need-fulfilling quality Likierman's model of psychic growth of the object is necessarily aesthetic." overturns the classic model which views Beauty is a quality which is not given, aesthetics as developing with growth, consumed or possessed, it is the quality instead viewing aesthetics as the object "keeps to itself and developing from the beginning of life represents its "essential 'otherness', ... and, through its representation of the its unique identity" [Ibid, 135]. world, of being crucial to growth and integration of the individual as a whole Aesthetic knowledge also contributes to being. Her linking of aesthetics with the the development of our phantasy life good/bad object provides a pre- and imagination, for example as adults cognitive means of assessing the value we can perceive a horse but our of an objective wholly subjectively and aesthetic sensibilities help us distinguish without considerations of purpose or between a racing horse and a broken utility, thus linking it with Kant's down hack. Such knowledge provides aesthetics. the raw material for symbol formation. Freud showed how the details of (7) Spitz’s Transactional Model external reality are condensed by the mind and blended in new forms which Ellen Spitz developed a rather radical comprise our unique individual symbols. view of art from a psychoanalytical The richness of detail of such objects in viewpoint. She considered that our dreams and unconscious thinking is psychoanalysis "locates aesthetic astonishing, it "is as if man can create in pleasure in the subject [and] also in a phantasy the complexity which God has dynamic in which the spectator-subject created in nature." [Ibid, 135]. may become object to the aesthetic subject qua subject." [Spitz, 1991, 4]. By The process of absorbing what we see this she meant that the art object itself and transforming it into symbols gazes at the viewer as though to desire involves a process of personalising him or her. There is a hint of this in the external reality - "impregnating sensory statement by Cezanne: "The great 'data' with meaning that is personal" classical landscapes, our Provence, [Ibid, 136], a concept applicable to Greece and Italy as I imagine them, are viewing and appreciating landscapes. those where clarity becomes spiritual, She considers that the way in which the where the landscape is a hovering smile aesthetic "gets locked into our complete of acute intelligence..." [Prodo, 1990, life experience, fusing with both 403, my emphasis]. intellectual and emotional processes within the medium of the developing Based on Freud's major texts relevant to 21 personality" [Ibid, 136] to be aesthetics, Spitz defined three major fundamental to our appreciation of art precepts [Ibid, 5]: and to our desire to create, value and preserve art. Our aesthetic experiences (a) An object found is an object refound, which help shape us, we in turn express and the refinding rather than the through artistic creations. Our mood affects our aesthetic response - Likierman considers that happiness can 21. viz: Interpretation of Dreams, 1900; Three increase our sensitivity to beauty. Essays on the Theory of Sexuality, 1905; Jokes and their Relation to the Unconscious, 1905; and Beyond the Pleasure Principle, 1920. 72 5. Psychoanalysis and Aesthetics

intrinsic properties of the found or certain actions, not in the outcomes. chose object is of prime significance. Psychoanalysis helps understand (b) The relations of joke/teller/listener human psychic processes in selecting (work of art/artist/spectator) imply a one landscape over another or to dynamic characterised by subtle explain the content of landscapes in reversals, complex alignments, and shifts of position. terms of symbolism, but the use of (c) Subjectivity, born of loss, stages the psychoanalysis to rank landscapes is replicative recovery of its object thus unlikely to be productive. through links with an unconscious symbolic system that radically While the psychoanalytical approach determines this very subjectivity. can assist in understanding landscape aesthetics, it would be difficult to derive Spitz's approach signals an interaction a universal predictive model because it between viewer and subject, an can produce not one interpretation, but aesthetic experience involving an object a range of differing interpretations of the intensely engaging a subject; the: object viewed (e.g. art, landscape) and its effects on the viewer. Nor does "object's presence figures an absence, psychoanalysis provide for verification in induces a lack (desire) in the subject an objective way and account for the which it (the object) in an imaginary way, formal aspects of the object or explain fulfils. The dynamic can be both reversed and replayed. Thus the subject its cognitive content [Kreitler & Kreitler, experiences fulfilment and want - a 1972, 7 - 8]. pleasure in desiring - which constitutes the special quality of aesthetic Others consider that because experience." [Ibid, 5]. psychoanalysis does not follow the 22 principles of scientific method that it is Adrian Stokes has a similar view. He invalid. Kline considers it as a "huge considered art to invite empathic collection of empirical hypotheses and identification - the "envelopment factor propositions some of which may be in art" which he called the incantatory true." [1972, 4]. Nevertheless, based on process a term suggesting absorption to careful examination of the evidence of some extent in the subject matter [1965, studies which have sought to evaluate 17 - 18]. the veracity of psychoanalysis, he concludes that the majority of Freudian "...all art describes processes by which concepts are confirmed [Ibid, 359]. Yet we find ourselves to some extent carried he cautions against some of Klein's away, and that our identification with concepts even though he considers her them will have been essential to the subsequent contemplation of the work of use of introjection and projection to be art as an image not only of an supportable [Ibid, 332]. independent and completed object but of the ego's integration" [Ibid, 19]. Having regard to these qualifications, the psychoanalytical model is considered relevant to understanding 5.4 RELEVANCE OF PSYCHO- landscape aesthetics. At the most ANALYTICAL APPROACH TO fundamental level it reinforces the LANDSCAPE significance of individual differences in psychological constituencies which (1) Summary of Psychoanalytical derive from widely varying drives and Models of Aesthetics desires. It also identifies a range of experiences (e.g. mothering, growth) The overview of psychoanalytical and psychic mechanisms (e.g. approaches to aesthetics together with introjection, projection, phantasy, the description of the various models symbolism and sublimation) which are that have been developed on aesthetics indicates the rich insights and radical contributions that psychoanalysis 22. Scientific method is based on: observations provides for understanding aesthetics. under controlled conditions; constructs which Psychoanalysis focuses on must be operational [i.e. having clearly understanding the underlying human specified and identifable empirical referents] ; motivations and processes that produce and hypotheses which must be testable [Marx, 1963]. 73 5. Psychoanalysis and Aesthetics common to virtually all humans from been developed. These are summarised infancy and which influence people in Table 5.1 together with the role of the throughout their lives. viewer. and the viewer's relationship with the landscape. It is apparent that the various approaches described above are Key outcomes identified by these variations on a theme, the basic theme models and psychoanalytical concepts being the psychoanalytical model are: established by Freud, on which the later practitioners have developed their • development of unconscious phantasies, particular emphases and explanations of based on introjection of objects and the mechanisms involved. things which give pleasure It is useful, therefore, to again • symbolism of external objects in terms of an individual's unconscious sense of summarise Freud's basic model of the meaning individual psychic. This comprises the • projection of unconscious feelings and id, one's unconscious instincts; the ego, phantasies onto external objects as which relates the individual to the real representative of these world; and the superego, which is that • sublimation of socially unacceptable part of a person concerned with moral unconscious feelings and drives in ideals; together with the unconscious socially acceptable ways such as through and its importance as the container of art, recreation and other pursuits hidden contents and instincts. • creation of art which presents unconscious phantasies, desires and

thoughts in socially acceptable ways - Various mechanisms connect the inner creating a new form of reality not and outer worlds: introjection, the taking previously present, through which the into the ego of things which give artist becomes a significant figure and pleasure; projection, the displacement socially esteemed externally of a psychological element, • softening of the superego's censorial role including the expelling from the ego of in the presence of aesthetic pleasure, things that cause pain; symbolism in and the unique combination of the id, ego which external objects are accorded and superego to enjoy it • carthexis or relief in artistic creation internal meaning; phantasy in the • overcoming depression through the unconscious about external objects; and rediscovery and recreation of the lost sublimation by which socially good object unacceptable thoughts and drives are • the aesthetic equated with the good or given socially acceptable expression. ideal object • pleasure from an aesthetic object gained Some psychoanalysts have addressed without its consumption the question of aesthetics from a • the viewer identifies with the artist and psychoanalytical viewpoint. Most relives the same psychic experiences experienced in the art's creation, gaining psychoanalytical discussion of relief from unconscious tensions in a aesthetics uses artistic creation as their manner that provides pleasure subject and few, apart from Sachs, mention the natural beauty of the world. (2) A Psychoanalytical Model of As discussed, there are significant Landscape Aesthetics differences between art and landscape, the most important in psychoanalytical Having examined the contribution that terms being that, whereas a viewer can psychoanalysis provides in identify with the artist's unconscious understanding artists and art, what desires expressed through sublimation, triggers an aesthetic response to natural this is not possible with landscape - beauty? Psychoanalysis suggests that although it is possible with the paintings the starting point of such a response and even photographs of landscapes in derives in large measure from the which a human creative element in infant's image and relationship with its involved. mother.

Based on these fundamental concepts, Qualities such as softness, warmth, a variety of models in relation to roundness, closeness, love, nurture, aesthetics have envelopment, safety, security, fecundity and satiation describe the aesthetic 74 5. Psychoanalysis and Aesthetics

Table 5.1 Summary of Psychoanalytical Models of Aesthetics

Model Description Freud The outward expression of unconscious sexual or other socially unacceptable thoughts and Sublimation/ drives, expressed through art forms, recreations and other pursuits that are socially Instinct Model acceptable. Symbolism of external objects is a primitive basis for sublimation. The viewer identifies with art, 'sees' symbols in it - it expresses their own phantasies through sublimation. Landscape viewer - aesthetic beauty expresses sublimated desires and drives. Sachs Co- The make-believe character of play enables otherwise forbidden [or repressed] objects to be ordinated acceptable, softening the super ego's censorial role and enabling the id, ego and super ego Psychic Model to co-operate in enjoying beauty. This is essentially sublimation at work [see Freud]. Klein Depressive An infant's experience of the good and bad breast results in a sense of losing and then Integration/ regaining the good object. Sublimation of this is the basis of artistic creativity, a desire to Object Relation restore and recreate. The viewer can gain aesthetic pleasure for an object without consuming Model it, the basis of non-utilitarian [Kant] aesthetics. The viewer can gain a sense of empathy, closeness and identification with a landscape reminiscent of an infant's feeling of oneness with their mother. The beauty of a landscape can trigger sadness at the memory of loss of an ideal object and its rediscovery. Likierman Development of Klein's model, based on aesthetic experience from birth being essential for Psychic Growth growth and fundamental to judging good and bad experiences; the good or ideal object Model [cf Klein] equates with perfection and is known intuitively rather than cognitively. Integration of the good and bad results in a sense of loss of the owned object [mother]. The earlier experience provides nourishment and an aesthetic value to the world - good and bad. This enables the viewer to value beauty in a non-utilitarian way. Landscapes trigger unconscious phantasies that equate them with the lost perfect object. Spitz Aesthetic pleasure located in the subject and in the subject/observer dynamic. Aesthetics Transactional based on refinding the lost object; the relationship of the object, creator, observer; and Model asubjectivity derived from loss which recreates the lost object through unconscious symbolism. This is close to the Klein/Likierman model. Segal [cf Klein] Recreating a lost, dead world in our minds; identify ourselves in the art and reliving the creative experience. cf Klein.

Psychoanalytical Model of Landscape Aesthetics

Infancy Present Introjection of maternal Landscapes trigger: characteristics • unconscious symbolic • softness, warmth recognition of objects • roundness • unconscious symbols • closeness, envelopment & phantasies • love, nurture Unconscious contains • fecundity introjected feelings, Sublimation of socially • peace, serenity thoughts & phantasies unacceptable thoughts & • satiation feelings into socially • security acceptable drives Introjection of other eg aggression -> sport, favoured external objects sexual -> appreciation of beauty

Figure 5.1 Psychoanalytical Model of Landscape Aesthetic Response 75 5. Psychoanalysis and Aesthetics feelings experienced as infants from recognising their symbolic content. These mothering. As noted earlier [Isaacs, preferred objects add to the unconscious via 1952], words cannot convey the full the mechanism of introjection. richness of experiences. These describe in approximate terms the qualities that (3) Links with Kant's Philosophy of could generally be associated with one's Aesthetics mother by an infant. Kant considered that the aesthetic This early association with one's mother experience is the mind's representation of provides the earliest aesthetic experiences the object and, experienced with disinterest, and, as Likierman [1989] suggests, is pure and wholly subjective. Such pleasure establishes the precondition for growth. is neither sensual nor intellectual, it does not involve conceptual judgements, rationality, The qualities which are associated with the reason or fulfilling animal appetites. Objects early pleasurable experiences are that we consider beautiful have a special introjected into the ego. As well, ideas and kind of formal quality dependent on their feelings which one realises are socially perceptual properties, a purpose of form but unacceptable are introjected into the not of function - purposiveness without unconscious. Fed by these and by further purpose. ongoing introjected inputs from the external world, phantasies develop which reinforce How does Kant's view correspond with the the strength and influence of these inputs in findings and models of psychoanalysis? the unconscious mind [Figure 5.1]. Firstly, it supports Kant in asserting that the The introjected inputs, together with aesthetic content of a landscape is not an resultant phantasies form the reservoir of objective quality of the scene but rather unconscious experiences which the derives subjectively from the viewer, based, conscious mind, in viewing external objects in part on processes of introjection, such as landscapes, draw from in projecting sublimation and phantasy. onto these objects. External objects trigger symbolic associations with the contents of Secondly, the introjected and sublimated the unconscious. Objects which feelings and thoughts, particularly of a unconsciously remind one, for example, of maternal origin, postulated as the basis of maternal characteristics such as the unconscious experiences that the envelopment, roundness, serenity and conscious mind draws on when viewing fecundity, are viewed positively. Similarly, external objects such as landscapes may objects which trigger images of the phallus correspond with Kant's concept of formal or other sexual images, repressed in the qualities that relate to beauty. Kant unconscious, are unconsciously recognised. suggested that beautiful objects have a special kind of formal quality. He suggested Features of the external world are some general or indeterminate "rules" continually being introjected into the covering this quality although in doing so he unconscious, adding to the reservoir of was criticised for abandoning disinterest. experience by which future interactions are influenced. The feedback mechanism Kant's rules covered the design and serves to reinforce the significance and composition of objects rather than their influence of preferred objects, such as colour and tone, the form of objects rather landscapes, leading to the desire for more than what they might represent, and the similar experiences. possible application of the rules to natural objects rather than works of art that embody In summary, this psychoanalytical model of purpose. These rules, particularly that which landscape aesthetic responses postulates refers to form rather than what the object the infant development of a reservoir of represents, may be suggestive of unconscious experiences based on symbolism, in turn providing a basis for introjected feelings and thoughts which sublimation and introjection. provide the raw material for phantasy. This unconscious content influences our Thirdly, Kant's concept of beauty being perception when viewing aesthetic objects purposiveness without purpose (i.e. such as landscapes, projecting the content independent of utility), is supported by of our unconscious onto these objects and Likierman's view that the aesthetic 76 5. Psychoanalysis and Aesthetics experience commences from earliest Significantly, the psychoanalytical approach infancy and is fundamental to understanding reinforces the subjectivist paradigm but its the good/bad world in terms of aesthetic special contribution is its emphasis on the principles. As quoted earlier, because "the unconscious as having a very significant 'good' is first experienced aesthetically as an influence on preferences. This may help infant forever after aesthetics is "known explain the immediacy of interpretation of other than through the thinking mind" [1989, scenes and their evaluation in qualitative 138]. She states, "any value which the terms. This is not likely to be an aspect individual places on a non-functional, non which the landscape quality survey would need-fulfilling quality of the object is cover. necessarily aesthetic." Beauty is a quality not given, consumed or possessed, it is the quality the object "keeps to itself and represents its "essential 'otherness', ... its unique identity" [Ibid, 135].

Similarly, Money-Kyrle believes that the beginnings of a non-utilitarian Kantian attitude to things to be admired and loved but not consumed can be explained psychoanalytically. He believes that such an attitude derives from the conflict between desiring to possess and consume the object (i.e. the mother), and the desire to protect it forever from these pressures [1961, 114]. The infant feels a oneness with the mother, yet also their separateness as a distinct individual. This feeling of oneness and otherness, Money-Kyrle suggests, may be recaptured in later aesthetic experiences - the feeling of closeness, empathy and identification with a landscape for example and the objective recognition of one's separateness.

Finally, Melanie Klein's concept of the good/bad breast may explain the changing tastes in landscape. While historically mountain scenery was not regarded as beautiful, perhaps, as Sachs [1951, 161] suggests, because they aroused anxiety in the presence of which beauty could not dwell, with scientific understanding anxiety waned and the landscapes acquired a beauty known as sublime. The change represents the bad breast being made good; what was once abhorred has now become accepted and admired.

5.5 CONCLUSION

The psychoanalytical approach provides rich insights into human motivations and underlying drives and desires. While possibly difficult to apply in a predictive or even explanatory sense, it does provide valuable understanding which can inform research and analysis.

77 5. Psychoanalysis and Aesthetics

Attachment One 'outside' to the 'inside' of self. Discussed further Glossary of Psychoanalytical Terms in text [Introjection and Projection].

The following definitions and notes are based on Object-relation A relatively contemporary term Laplance & Pontalis's The Language of Psycho- describing the subject's mode of relation to his Analysis, originally published in French in 1967 world. O-r's exist of specific subjects and also and translated in 1973. Of the hundreds of types of o-r such as oral o-r. Objects include definitions cited, only words used in this chapter people as well as projected and introjected, and are included here. Generally only a summary of the 'good' and 'bad' objects of Klein. Relationship the definition is provided for reasons of space means inter-relationship involving not only the although in some cases a verbatim definition is way the subject constitutes his objects but also used. the way these objects shape his actions.

Cathexis The concept that a certain amount of Phallus Classically the figurative representation psychical energy is attached to an idea, to a of the male organ but in psychoanalysis the group of ideas, to a part of a body, an object etc. symbolic function taken on by the penis in the intra- and inter-subjective . Consciousness A transient property that Phantasy [or fantasy] Imaginary scene where distinguishes external and internal perceptions the subject is a protagonist, representing the from psychical phenomena as a whole. It fulfilment of an [unconscious] wish in a manner receives information both from the outside world distorted by defensive processes. While and from internal sources. This information phantasy has been suggested as referring to comprises sensations, which impress themselves unconscious fantasies, few American writers use at some point on the pleasure-unpleasure scale, it in this sense. Phantasies have different modes: and of revived memories. conscious (day dreams), unconscious, and

primal. Death Instincts Instincts that are opposed to the life instincts and strive towards the reduction Pleasure Principle A key principle that governs of tensions to zero-point - in other words they aim mental functioning - psychical activity is directed to bring the living being back to an inorganic at avoiding unpleasure and procuring pleasure. state. Turned inwards at first, they subsequently turn against the outside world in aggression. The Preconscious A system of psychical notion was among Freud's later works and is not widely accepted. apparatus that is distinct from the unconscious and the conscious; its contents are not currently Depressive Position A form of object- present in the field of consciousness but, in relations that is established after the paranoid contrast to the unconscious, are still accessible to the conscious (e.g. knowledge and memories). position about the fourth month of and gradually Unconscious contents and processes cannot overcome during the first year though it can be pass into the preconscious without reactivated in later life. (Its formation is described transformations. under Klein.)

Projection A term used in general psychology Ego, Id and Superego These are discussed to refer to the displacement and relocation of a in the text. psychological element in an external position.

This is similar to the psychoanalytical term Identification A process whereby the subject "transference". In a psychoanalytical sense assimilates an aspect, property or attribute of projection is an operation whereby qualities, another and is transformed, wholly or partially, after the model the other provides. Identification feelings, wishes and even 'objects' that the is fundamental to the development of personality. subject refuses to recognise or rejects in himself, Identification in psychoanalytical terms means are expelled from the self and located in another identification of oneself with. In a wider common person or thing. This is a primitive use, identification overlaps with psychological mechanism (e.g. in paranoia and superstition). concepts such as imitation, empathy, sympathy and projection. Introjection is a prototype of Subconscious Used in Freud's early writings identification. as a synonym for 'unconscious' but discarded because of the confusion it created. It referred to Instinct (or Drive) Traditionally, a hereditary that which was scarcely conscious. behaviour pattern that varies little from one member of an animal species to another. In Sublimation Human activities that have no psychoanalysis it describes a dynamic process apparent connection with sexuality but are comprising a pressure (or energy) that directs assumed to be motivated by the force of the sexual instinct. Artistic creation and intellectual the organism towards an aim. inquiry are described by Freud as principal

Introjection In phantasy, the subject transposes sublimated activities. The instinct is said to be sublimated insofar as it is diverted towards a objects and their inherent qualities from the 78 5. Psychoanalysis and Aesthetics new, non-sexual aim and to the degree that its objects are socially valued ones.

Symbolism Indirect and figurative representation of an unconscious idea, conflict or wish. In psychoanalytical terms, symbolism gives expression in a way that is indirect, figurative and difficult to decipher. Symbolism can cover all forms of indirect representation. Freud saw that symbolisms generally escape censorship by the ego. While the symbols discovered are very numerous, the range of things they symbolise is very narrow: the body, parents and blood relations, birth, death, nudity and above all sexuality [sexual organs, the sexual act]. Freud considered that the unconscious comparisons underlying symbolism "are not freshly made on each occasion, they lie ready to hand and are complete, once and for all".

Transference A process of actualisation of unconscious wishes (e.g. of infantile prototypes that re-emerge and are experienced as if they were actually happening). Derives largely from analytic situation and provides basis for the cure. Transference involves an unconscious idea, which cannot enter the preconscious, linking with an idea already in the preconscious and transferring its intensity on to it. An example is the patient unconsciously making the doctor play the role of the loved or feared parental figure.

Unconscious The repressed contents that have been denied access to the preconscious- conscious system. Its contents are representatives of the instincts and are governed by the mechanisms of condensation and displacement. The contents seek to re- enter consciousness but cannot do so without transformation through compromise and censorship. Freud regarded dreams as providing the 'royal road' to the unconscious. 79 6. Culture and Landscape

CHAPTER SIX

CULTURE AND LANDSCAPE

6.1 INTRODUCTION study, the “intellectual side of civilisation.” Burnett provided the classic definition of The purpose of this chapter is to examine culture in Primitive Culture [1871]: “Culture the influence of culture upon the - is that complex whole which includes perception of landscape quality. Previous knowledge, belief, morals, law, custom and chapters have examined individual any other capabilities and habits acquired influences on landscape perception - the by man as a member of a society.” To psychoanalytical approach [Chapter 5], the Burnett's list can also be added language, operation of human visual perception ideas, sentiments, values, objects, actions, [Chapter 4] and the Gestaltist view of tendencies and accumulations, since these perception [Chapter 3]. Philosophy, the also contribute to culture in its various subject of Chapter 2, spans both the manifestations. A key characteristic of individual and the culture, although culture is that of an integrated pattern of philosophers would argue that it is knowledge, belief and behaviour that dependent on neither [i.e. it is a priori and distinguishes one society from another. value free]. Culture is a more general term than either This chapter moves firmly beyond the “society” or “civilisation”, society referring individual's perception of landscape to that to an organised group of people interacting of culture. Culture is the glue that cements in a structural system at a given point in an individual into a community. A given time, while civilisation is the culmination of culture’s norms in turn help to shape culture spanning time [e.g. the Egyptian, individual attitudes, beliefs and Incan or Chinese civilisations], and preferences. This is not the place to incorporating a sophisticated development examine in depth the influence of culture of the arts, sciences and on the individual, rather it is accepted as together with well developed practical axiomatic that individual aesthetic abilities such as in architecture and preferences are influenced by the culture metallurgy. in which they live. In this chapter the focus will be mainly on Western culture, Culture is entirely learnt and is a means by particularly that of England. which ideas are transmitted down through the generations. The economic and The subject of the influence of culture is material aspects of human existence vast so a thematic approach is adopted to appear to develop through progressive provide structure. The chapter commences stages as a given culture gradually with a brief review of the concept of culture achieves dominance over the basics of before examining the two dominant survival, transforming the environment to influences on Western culture’s attitude to provide wealth and leisure. In contrast, the landscape, classicism and teleology. While artistic, literary and philosophical aspects the unifying thread is the influence of of culture appear less related to its culture on landscape perception, this is developmental stage, perhaps being more examined through three specific areas: the dependent on key individuals such as have community's changing attitudes towards appeared in European culture [e.g. mountains, the portraying of landscape in Shakespeare, Newton, Dante, paintings and the development of gardens Michelangelo, Kant, Marx, Darwin]. which can represent idealised landscapes.. Cultures comprise at least two dimensions of variability, they vary in a spatial sense 6.2 CONCEPT OF CULTURE across the face of the globe and even within a given country, and they vary The concept of culture has many temporally across time. Although the dimensions. The Shorter Oxford Dictionary Australian culture may seem relatively views it as involving improvement or homogeneous across the nation, its refinement by education and training and, characteristics have changed vastly over more relevantly for the purposes of this its 200 years. Even within the space of a

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lifetime, transitions are apparent in many heritage of Christian religion, art, music, attributes, changing from the literature, and other pursuits. predominantly Anglo-Saxon culture of pre- war to the multicultural society of today. While Western culture may be thought of Within a given country there are subtle as a dominant paradigm in the world cultural differences such as are apparent today, past centuries have seen other in Australia from north to south and from cultures [e.g. Chinese, Arabian, Assyrian, urban to rural. Thus a culture is a Roman] being dominant. Today’s Western heterogeneous dynamic amalgam at any culture represents a merging of certain key point in time, difficult to describe in characteristics amongst a number of homogeneous terms, its dynamism difficult countries that share a common heritage. It to pin down. derived essentially from Europe - "Modern civilisation, irrespective of geography, has In contrast, traditional cultures such as in been formed by the expansion of ideas feudal Europe or especially tribal societies and institutions that originated in Europe." such as Papua-New Guinea may continue [Deak, 1985, 686]. While this assessment largely unchanged in their essential perhaps ignores the influence of the United characteristics over many generations to States on democratic processes, the role another. However such constancy is rare of cities or of the influence of both the now under the pervading influence of United States and Japan on economic travel and other forms of communication. structures, nevertheless in the broad Anthropologists believe that cultural sense Europe provided the seedbed of variability was probably greatest in the 14th ideas and pressures which gave rise to – 15th centuries, before European culture many of the characteristics of Western became a dominant force through the culture, in particular the development of its global colonising activities by many of its philosophy, laws, governments and constituent nations. institutions, mathematics, sciences, the arts, and technologies. Through the accumulation of ideas and the means of transmitting them, a culture With origins from Greece and Rome, develops in depth and influence, both Europe fused together the best of diverse geographically within a given timeframe cultures of the Mediterranean, central and and across time. Cultures change through northern European countries. The concept a variety of factors: of beauty, later embraced in the broader term of aesthetics, has been of interest to • economic and ecological change Western culture since the Greeks and • traits may be absorbed from external Romans. In the following sections, the sources development of this concept is explored • subjugation through a cultural perspective. • evolution

One tends to view other cultures through 23 6.3 DEVELOPMENT OF WESTERN the lens of one's own culture CULTURAL ATTITUDES TOWARDS LANDSCAPE Western culture can be defined as comprising those nations in Europe, North The Western approach to the aesthetic America, Australasia and some other qualities of landscape has been fashioned countries which broadly reflect common by various strands of influence. Classical cultural traits - the , democratic Hellenistic and Roman influences emerged government institutions, the freedom of the again during the Renaissance and later individual, capitalist economies, advanced periods. From Christian theology use and development of technology, developed the teleological view or natural widely available educational, health and theology of nature and landscape that social services, as well as a common together with classical influence, th th dominated until the 17 and 18 centuries. th 23. Ethnocentrism is the tendency to view other The 18 century saw immense speculation cultures through the eyes of one's own about aesthetics in Europe, with major culture, while cultural is a changes in cultural attitudes to aesthetic comparative approach which seeks to objects resulting. The 19th century was the understand and appreciate the diversity of great age of aesthetic theory, when cultural differences.

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German philosophy dominated in England Rome which was inhabited by creatures and the Continent. Darwinian evolutionary who were half human and half animal and theory created a new perspective of nature by men who lived happily off the fruits of a and landscape, diminishing the teleological bountiful earth in a pre-agricultural influence and leading to a greater existence. Life was simple with no human searching of the physical reasons for their effort required to gain food, a period of characteristics. And finally, the 20th century "happy shepherding and innate " has seen many of these strands combining [Glacken, 1967, 132]. People of the in a synthesis of influences, added to by Golden Age possessed "physical and various strands of its own [e.g. the moral superiority" and soil fertility was so appreciation of wilderness and of the great that agriculture was unnecessary environment in a non-utilitarian sense]. [Ibid, 131]. Clark refers to the myth of the Golden Age, as a period “in which man Addressing cultural attitudes from late 20th lived on the fruits of the earth, peacefully, century perspective, it is difficult to piously and with primitive simplicity.” comprehend the total revolution that has [Clark, 1976, 169]. occurred over the past 100 years, in a post-Darwinian era, from that which The Greek poet Hesiod in the 8th century previously dominated. In terms of BC defined five stages in man's history landscape, prior to the 20th century, the starting with the Golden Age followed by two great strands were: the silver and bronze ages, then an age of demigods, and finally the then current iron • classical ideals of design, reflected in part age. The idea that initial perfection had by the idea of a past Golden Age of been replaced by hardship and human antiquity which man sought to recreate in degeneration contributed to the veneration his country gardens and parks and which of the Golden Age. Hesiod's poem were reflected in attitudes to mountainous described the era thus: scenery

"for the fruitful earth unforced bare them fruit • in the Christian era, the powerful influence abundantly and without stint. They dwelt in of the teleological view of nature and ease and peace upon their lands with many landscape good things, rich in flocks and loved by the blessed gods." [Quoted by Glacken, 1967, During contemporary times, these strands 132] have tended to be "demoted to the level of myths, explained away as symbolic Hesiod's theme was perpetuated by later analogies or treated simply as fairy-tales" writers, including Seneca, Ovid, Varro and [Hunter, 1985, 5] yet until the last century Virgil. For Ovid, the Golden Age was a they largely shaped Western cultural period before man had changed the image of nature and landscape. environment:

Contemporary attitudes towards "Not yet had the pine-tree, felled on its landscapes are no longer informed by a native mountains, descended thence into classical or teleological view. On the one the watery plain to visit other lands... Anon, hand this releases a freedom from the the earth untilled, brought forth her stores of fetters that these created but, on the other grain, and the fields, though unfallowed, hand, their absence has created a vacuum grew white with the heavy, bearded wheat. of an underlying value system on which Streams of milk and streams of sweet nectar flowed, and yellow honey was the aesthetics of landscapes could be distilled from the verdant oak." [Quoted by based. Glacken, 1967, 133]

These two strands, the classical view and The Greeks esteemed beauty, they valued the teleological view of nature, are traced the beauty of youth, of beauty in a person in this section. or a god, as beauty was a sign of perfection [Lister, 1973, 5]. (1) The Classical Influence Arcadia, located in the central Arcadia - the Golden Age Peloponnese, is a wild and mountainous region that, according to legend "was The Golden Age refers to a legendary time peopled by nymphs and satyrs, shepherds prior to the world of classical Greece and and herdsmen, living and loving in a life of

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innocent simplicity." [Hunter, 1985, 7] Golden Age, this does not appear to have Contrary to contemporary usage in which been an onerous task. However following Arcadia conveys an idealised rural his disobedience of God’s command not to environment - the Shorter Oxford defines it eat of the fruit of the tree of knowledge of as "the ideal region of rural felicity; ideally good and evil, God cast Adam and Eve rural or rustic" - the real Arcadia was a from the garden with these words: difficult area from which to wrest a living. With mountains rising above 2000 metres, “Cursed is the ground because of you; the climate was cool and because of the through painful toil you will eat of it all the hardness of life, music was introduced out days of your life. of necessity to "tame and soften the It will produce thorns and thistles for you, and you will eat the plants of the field. hardness of the soul through education" By the sweat of your brow you will eat your [Polybius, Quoted by Glacken, 1967, 95]. food until you return to the ground, Pan, the patron saint of pastoral poets and Since from it you were taken; for dust you the god of idealised wild nature, had his are and to dust you will return.” [Genesis 3: abode in Arcadia. 17 - 19]

The Grecian Golden Age and Arcadia Thus while the Golden Age was followed have parallels in the Judeo-Christian by progressive degeneration to lesser doctrine of paradise and also relates levels of contentment, Eden was followed closely to the creation of gardens and by immediate banishment to a harsh world parks. During the first Christian millennium, from which one had to seek a living by the theologians reconciled the Christian Eden "sweat of the brow". with the Arcadian Golden Age [Shepard, 1967, 76]. The Garden of Eden, from As well as providing attractive and which God banished Adam and Eve, can pleasant environments, particularly from be seen as a picture of a former Golden the harshness of the Middle Eastern sun, Age: gardens and parks recall paradise, a former Golden Age, a time before the “Now the Lord God had planted a garden in necessity of work. the east, in Eden; and there he put the man he had formed. And the Lord God made all Describing the site that would later be kinds of trees grow out of the ground - trees Rome, Virgil pictured it in terms of the that were pleasing to the eye and good for Golden Age: food. In the middle of the garden were the tree of life and the tree of the knowledge of good and evil. A river watering the garden "These woods were once the home of flowed from Eden, and from there it divided; indigenous fauns and nymphs, it had four headstreams.” [Genesis, 2: 8 - And of men who has sprung from hardwood 10] oaks, who had no settled Way of life, no civilisation; ploughing, the forming of The term paradise, which became Communal reserves, and economy were synonymous with the Garden of Eden, unknown they lived on the produce of trees derives from the Persian word pairidaeza and the hard-won fare of the hunter." that means an enclosed park. Similarly, [Virgil, The Eclogues, Georgics and Aeneid, the word Eden derives from the quoted by Hunter, 1985, 5] Babylonian edina, meaning a field or park [Hunter, 1985, 10]. The Judeo-Christian Virgil has been called “a great master of account of the early origins of humans landscape” [by Gilpin, quoted by Gilbert, closely parallels that of the Grecian Golden 1885]. Virgil’s sensitivity and obvious Age. Both are centred in garden-like knowledge of rural areas made his books environments and involve people in mostly valuable sources of advice on farm play and little work, both are harmonious management. A description of his own places in which people can feel completely indicates this sensitivity: at home, and both are places to which, in subsequent ages, people have longed to “... from where yon hills return. Begin to rise, and gently slope again down to the stream, where the old beech- In the Biblical account, Adam was trees throw Their ragged time-worn tops against the commanded by God to till and keep the sky” Garden of Eden but, as with life in the [From Virgil’s Georgics; Gilbert, 1885, 18]

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Classicism is characterised by “serene The fertility of the soil was considered beauty, taste, restraint, order and clarity.” greatest when it was least interfered with [Ibid, 2], a concern with the ideal in form by man; with interference through and content, a clarity of subject matter and ploughing and cropping came loss of soil style, simplicity and understatement and loss of fertility thus requiring greater [Greenhalgh, 1978, 11]. Horace exertion and effort to gain a living. The pronounced the famous aphorism ut necessity of hard work and a longing for pictura poesis, “as is painting, so is the ease of the idealised Golden Age poetry”, thereby linking the two disciplines continues its influence to the present day. and justifying art [Ibid]. The close links between poetry and painting were Gilbert [1885, 50] considered that the apparent in England from the 17th to 19th Greeks preferred a landscape, “tamed and centuries [see Section 6.5]. utilised, made useful and made agreeable”, only later developing the freer Goodness, Truth and Beauty, the ancient pastoral form. The Roman appreciation of triad, were invisible ideals that influenced landscapes widened and deepened all humankind. In its temples, statues and somewhat from the Greek. poetry, ancient Greece was regarded as the pinnacle of perfection, of perfect In time, certainly by the Renaissance, proportion and balance and of goodness, Arcadia and the Golden Age had fused truth and beauty. This sense of ideal into a single concept of a peaceful pastoral beauty, perfect equilibrium and harmony, setting with large trees, contented livestock infused classicism’s influence upon and demigods playing in the glades. The Western cultural attitudes to landscapes. creation of the English country estates in This will become apparent in the later the 17th and 18th century derived much of sections on attitudes towards mountains their imagery from Arcadia [see Section and the development of landscape art. 6.6]. The Roman Emperor Augustus [63 BC - Classicism 14 AD] came to epitomise the classical ideal, his name applied to the Augustan The classical influence derived both from Age and the Augustan Idea meaning the the image of the former Golden Age, the ideal of classicism in the 16th to 18th Arcadia of antiquity, and also from the centuries. His emperorship was ancient writers and poets. From the characterised by relative peace, order, Renaissance through to the end of the 19th security, a republican form of government century, the classical influence exerted a with Augustus as emperor but refusing the very significant effect upon Western dictatorship [Erskine-Hill, 1983, 11]. culture, including its attitudes to landscape. Though certainly not without his faults, The classical influence is also termed Augustus ended the civil wars and classicism. strengthened the power of Rome. An early historian described him as: “the man the Classicism derived its inspiration from the world needed, and may claim to have been cultures of ancient Greece and Rome and one of the greatest servants of the human continually looks back to the classical race” [Quoted by Erskine-Hill, 1983, 25]. Golden Age. The word “classicism” derived from classici, which was the name given in Being the man who ordered the census at Rome to citizens of the first rank. the time of Christ’s birth permanently linked Augustus to Christian literature The attributes of classicism cover: including the patristic writers of the early church, Dante in the 14th century and in “an aesthetic tendency characterized by a Christian plays such as the Chester Cycle, sense of proportion, by a balanced and [one of the English Mystery plays]. During stable composition, by a search for formal the period of the 16th to the 18th centuries, harmony and by understatement; imitation various English monarchs were likened to of ancient writers; aversion to the Augustus [Erskine-Hill, 1983, 213]. The exceptional; well-nigh exclusive interest in psychological and moral analysis; control of preface to the 1616 King James Bible sensitivity and imagination ...” [Secretan, compared King James with Augustus. The 1973, viii] comparison stemmed from the “passionate desire to see, within the framework of a

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Christian monarchy, a better life and a Classicism peaked in France between higher level of civilization in Britain.” [Ibid, 1660 and 1680 [Ibid, 47]. In Germany, 133] The refusal by Cromwell, later in the classicism emerged in the second half of 17th century, to accept the crown also led the 17th century as a reaction against the to him being compared with Augustus. baroque and drew its inspiration more from Greece, resulting in a “tempering of The secular position of Augustus was Germany’s harder self by the luminous established by Petrarch’s reference in his humanity of Hellas.” [Ibid, 73] From about epic poem, Africa, and by several of 1690, the name Augustan Age, the period Shakespeare’s plays including Anthony of classicism, was applied to English and Cleopatra (Augustus defeated culture [Erskine-Hill, 1983, 223]. Anthony at the battle of Actium), Julius Throughout the period from 1690 to the Caesar (Augustus was his adopted son) early 1800s, the term “Augustan”, a and Cymbeline. synonym for classicism, was used positively [Ibid, 265]. Platonism, the key philosophy that permeated through to the modern world, The imperative, Follow Nature, was one of delighted in the variety and beauty of the the “battle cries’ of classicism [Secretan, visible and temporal world but yearned for 1973, 36] and the imitation of nature was the invisible and eternal world beyond. one of its hallmarks, imitation in the sense of typifying or drawing characters based on Platonism vanished from influence nature. following the closure of the Athenian schools in 529 by the emperor Justinian Classical writers such as John Dryden had until its rediscovery in the Renaissance in a preference for order, a love of the the 15th century. The Middle Ages, or the ancients, a large stock of mythological and Dark Ages as they were called during the pagan relics, rationality and much Renaissance, saw Europe “permeated by elegance [Ibid, 50]. Other classical writers the influence of the antique” [Greenhalgh, included the poet, Alexander Pope, “the 1978, 13] which combined with the newer supreme Augustan classic” [Ibid, 52] and Christian symbols. Classicism was of Samuel Johnson, another Augustan who relevance both to the secular and Church wrote about the “role of fantasy, the powers. The monasteries founded in Italy function of repression, the desire to forget, and Switzerland in the 7th century became the wish to avoid reality” [Ibid, 55] predated centres of classical learning and Freudian psychoanalytical concepts by repositories of Latin manuscript. several centuries. Important to the classical mode were reason, judgement The Renaissance saw a rediscovery of the and wit, the idea that nature, truth and classical origins of European culture, a beauty are “indissolubly linked” [Ibid, 62], searching for the ancient texts and their and a connection between good taste and translation and preparation of good morals. commentaries. During the Renaissance in Florence, the Platonic Academy was The far reaching influence of a classical established. By the latter 15th century it education in 17-18th century England was had made Plato’s personality a cult object. apparent in the comment by a clergyman Marsilio Ficino played a leading role in viewing blazing iron-works on the banks of translating Plato’s works and by the time the River Wye: “We saw Virgil’s description he died in 1499, most of the important realized, and the interior of Etna, the literary works of antiquity had been made forges of the Cyclops, and their fearful available in Latin translations to Italy and employment, immediately occurred to us” Europe [Secretan, 1973, 10]. During the [Quoted by Andrews, 1989, 3]. 16th and 17th centuries, the classicism that had been birthed in the Renaissance in Until the end of the 18th century, England’s Italy had spread across Europe in the form focus was on Rome, but with growing of neo-classicism [i.e. new or revived translations of the Greek classics and classicism]. This took with it an educational growing interest in Greek philosophy and system based on Latin and Greek, architecture, the focus of classicism then together with the “common cultural shifted sharply from Rome to Greece. This heritage of ancient history, mythology and has been described as a romantic, even wisdom.” [Ibid, 11] Byronic gesture [Crook, in Clarke, 1989,

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44]. The 18th century has been described Nevertheless traces of classicism live on. as the Homer’s century [Turner, in Clarke, For example in the far off Antipodes, 1989, 63] and Hellenism had a profound Deborah Edwards traced its influence in influence during the 19th century Victorian the work of Australian artists such as era. Greek religion, mythology and Lionel Lindsay, Norman Lindsay, Rupert philosophy were widely studied. Bunny, and Mervyn Napier Waller [whose painting The Pastoral Pursuits of Australia, “Public schools” existed in England for in the Art Gallery of South Australia is many centuries and the classics - Greek strongly classical]. The classical influence and Latin, dominated their syllabus. Public continues to be strong in architecture and education is of more recent origin, having recent years have seen strong classical commenced in England in the mid 19th lines in modern buildings [e.g. see Stern, century, To the modern mind the emphasis 1988]. given in that education to the classics seems incredible. Greek and Latin (2) The Teleological View of Nature dominated the syllabus: not only were and Landscape students required to learn these languages but also to study the classical literature in The second great theme that influenced its original language. During the 19th Western attitudes to nature in general and century this spread classicism to the wider landscape in particular was its Judeo- middle classes, empowered through the Christian roots, especially the concept of industrial revolution to gain an education. creation being designed by God, being an expression of God and a of His While mathematics and science were also existence. The Genesis account of regarded as of growing importance, a wide creation underlay the teleological view of ranging report on education in 1875 found nature and landscape. that out of a 35 hour teaching week, 6 hours each were given over to science and Teleology is the doctrine of final causes24, mathematics and the remaining 23 hours particularly as related to the evidences for devoted to Greek and Latin [Bowen, in design or purpose in nature [Shorter Clarke, 1989, 173]! A further illustration is Oxford] and is used interchangeably with that to join the Indian Civil Service, a the terms 'natural theology' and 'physico- knowledge of Greek and Latin was worth theology'. The latter terms are theologies twice as many points in the competitive founded upon the facts of nature and the examination as French, German or the evidences of design there found [Ibid]. The local Sanskrit [Ibid, 176]. Even as late as unity and harmony that is apparent in the the 1950s, entry to masters degrees in world led inexorably to the idea of a some English and Scottish universities purposefulness of creation. required first year Latin [J. Brebner, pers comm]. The following section draws largely from Clarence Glacken's monumental study By the end of the 19th century, forces in Traces on the Rhodian Shore - Nature and society were moving education in the Culture in Western Thought from Ancient opposite direction to classicism. Education Times to the End of the Eighteenth was based more fully on the three “R’s”, Century [1967]. Among his themes, whilst commerce and industrialisation Glacken examined the idea of the earth as resulted in changed priorities in which the a purposefully made creation. classics had little relevance and foreign languages assumed greater importance Grecian Gods and Nature than Greek and Latin [Kandel, 1967, 602]. The expanding British empire made Cultures other than Judaic and Christian society more aware of other cultures. The have viewed nature not only as created by First World War saw romanticism and gods, but inhabited by them as well. The classicism die “on the battlefields of Flanders” [Bowen, in Clarke, 1989, 183] 24. Teleology: the doctrine or study of ends or although the Third Reich “brewed up a final causes especially as related to the crazy mixture of classicism and German evidences of design or purpose in nature. folk-art.” [Greenhalgh, 1978, 200] Physico-theology: a theology founded upon the facts of nature and the evidence of design there found. Final causes: having regard to end or purpose. (Shorter Oxford).

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Judeo-Christian view was strict on this Stoic writers saw the beauty of the earth point, God created the earth and heavens around them and believed that it could not but God is not in it; the Creator but not the have been created for animals and plants creation is to be worshipped. Many other but rather for man "who partakes of the cultures by contrast worshipped nature, divine and the gods themselves." which is known as , and in which [Glacken, 1967, 708] Panaetius [born 185 the creator and the creation are BC] built on the Stoic belief that a creative indistinguishable. primeval force is responsible for the world's beauty and purposefulness. He While many cultures could be examined in saw in the Greek landscape; "with its this regard, the Greeks are particularly alternation of land and sea, its relevant given their importance to Western innumerable islands, its contrasts between culture and that the Greek’s pagan beliefs the lovely shores and the steep mountains gave way to Christianity. Xenophon [427 - and the rough cliffs, and the variety of plant 355 BC] in his Memorabilia advocated the and animal life existing in this landscape" existence of a god on the basis of the [Ibid, 52], joy in the beauty of the earth, a proof of physiology, the cosmic order and parallel for the splendour of the cosmos, a of the earth as a fit environment [Glacken, perfection which derived from the work of a 1967, 42]. Socrates [469 - 399 BC] spoke purposefully creative nature. of a variety of natural phenomena such as the sun, stars, seasons and animals and The Lucretian-Epicurean view was less their suitability for man, ending with the flattering - it was that given the wickedness statement: and stupidity of man and the imperfections apparent in the world, how is it possible to "... you will realise the truth of what I say if, conceive that the earth was made for instead of waiting for the gods to appear to man? Without the notion of a benevolent you in bodily presence, you are content to Mother Nature, they believed that man praise and worship them because you see established his place in the world through their works." [Glacken, 1967, 43]. dint of effort and by imitating natural

Plato’s [427 - 347 BC] concept of the processes - "Men by their struggles add to artisan deity accorded closely with the what is already provided by nature." [Ibid, Greek's admiration for artisans of metal 138]. and gems and their ability to produce something of beauty and utility from raw It is clear that to the Greeks, nature was materials. Aristotle [384 - 322 BC] believed god-designed to provide man with a that, just as artisans have an end purpose suitable environment; there was both in mind for their work, so a "final cause, or wonderment at the beauties of nature and the Good, is more fully present in the a utilitarian purpose contained within it. works of Nature than in the works of Art." [Ibid, 47] Applying this to animals, Aristotle Cicero did not believe that "this most advocated the study of all animals beautiful and adorn'd World" could have because: been produced simply by the fortuitous arrangement of atoms [Nicolson, 1959, "in not one of them is Nature or Beauty 255]. lacking. I add 'Beauty', because in the works of Nature purpose and not accident is Biblical Basis of Judeo-Christian View predominant; and the purpose or end for the sake of which those works have been The Biblical basis for the Judeo-Christian contracted or formed has its place among view is found in the following passages25: what is beautiful." [Glacken, 1967, 47] Then God said, "Let us make man in our Aristotle, along with many other thinkers image, in our likeness, and let them rule since, did not define the purpose of nature, over the fish of the sea and the birds of the arguing that it "is not a conscious agent; it air, over the livestock, over all the earth, and is the vital force present in all living things" over all the creatures that move along the [Ibid, 49]. The purpose is thus an ground." unconscious one to nature but Aristotle So God created man in his own image... was content with this. Later, Christian thinkers were to see the Christian God as 25. The New International Version Bible supplying the purpose and design lacking [Hodder & Stoughton], 1978, is used for in Aristotle's argument. scriptural references.

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God blessed them and said to them, "Be refers to man's power as "vice-regent of fruitful and increase in number; fill the earth God on earth" [Ibid, 166]. Man did not earn and subdue it. Rule over the fish of the sea his rulership, it was thrust upon him. and the birds of the air and over every living • God the creator is to be worshipped, not creature that moves on the ground." the creation. There are many such Biblical Then God said, "I give you every seed- injunctions that marked a contrast to the bearing plant on the face of the whole earth pagan religions. and every tree that has fruit with seed in it. They will be yours for food." [Genesis 1:26- The brevity of the Genesis account of 29] creation, together with the references to nature in the Psalms and elsewhere, led to You made him ruler over the works of your hands; you put everything under his feet. the development of the hexameral All flocks and herds, and the beasts of the literature, i.e. that concerned with the six field, days of creation. This started with the early the birds of the air, and the fish of the sea, Church Fathers, Philo, St Basil and St all that swim the paths of the seas. [Psalm Ambrose, was magnificently expressed in 8:6-8] Milton's Paradise Lost, and was a major focus of the physico-theology writers of the The heavens declare the glory of God, the 17th to 19th centuries as they sought to skies proclaim the work of his hands. [Psalm explain the characteristics of nature and to 19:1] understand God through linking biology, You crown the year with your bounty, and geology and geography with the Biblical your carts overflow with abundance. account of creation. Glacken refers to this The grasslands of the desert overflow; the literature as "a vast curiosity and hills are clothed with gladness. irrelevancy" [Ibid, 164] and there is much The meadows are covered with flocks and in it that is spurious and pseudo-science. the valleys are mantled with grain; they shout for joy and sing. [Psalm 65: 11-13] The influence of the Biblical account on Western culture was summarised by How many are your works, O Lord! In wisdom you made them all; the earth is full Glacken thus: of your creatures. [Psalm 65: 11-13]] "The Judeo-Christian conceptions of God ...since the creation of the world God's and of the order of nature were often invisible qualities - his eternal power and combined by the early Church Fathers with divine nature - have been clearly seen, both the classical argument of design and being understood from what has been the idea of an artisan-deity or demiurge, made, so that men are without any excuse. creating a conception of the habitable world [Romans 1:20] of such force, persuasiveness, and resiliency that it could endure as an The Western attitude to nature and acceptable interpretation of life, nature, and the earth to the vast majority of peoples in landscape can be directly attributed in the Western world until the sixth decade of large measure to these and related the nineteenth century." [Glacken, 1967, passages. They establish: 168]

• the design of creation by God: particularly Darwin's The Origin of Species was the Genesis account, Psalm 104:24 and published in 1859 and marked the demise Romans 1:20 of the telelogical influence. • creation as God's handiwork - the artisan deity concept, as expressed in Psalm 19:1 Nicolson makes an important point by • the discovery of wisdom in God's creation [Psalm 104:24] provided a bridge between noting that it: faith and science, "in this way one obtains knowledge of nature and a deeper "is difficult today, in an age when social, understanding of the works of God" economic, and international problems are [Glacken, 1967, 157] paramount, to think ourselves back to a time • creation as an expression of God - his when these were of far less importance than "invisible qualities" - Romans 1:20 theological issues. We are so much more • God's bounteous provision for man and intent upon what man has made of man the beauties of creation: Psalm 65:11-13. than upon what God originally made of him, The Psalms particularly dwell on the so much more concerned with what man beauty of creation may make of Nature than with the Nature originally created by God, that once-burning • the rulership of man over creation: the issues seem trivial." [Nicolson, 1959, 77]. Genesis account and Psalm 8:6. Glacken

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Basil saw the "landscapes of his own day Patristic Period to End of Middle Ages ... [as] adornments and completions, like God's furnishings." [Ibid, 298] The Patristic Period [literally the Church Fathers] from the 1st to the 6th centuries The early Church Fathers added little to through to the end of the Middle Ages in the knowledge of nature, they simply about 1500 was the formative period for utilised existing pagan knowledge and Western culture. This was a period of interpreted it afresh through the eyes of development of technology, of major scripture. cathedral building over a 300 year span, of powerful monasteries, of clearing the Ambrose [340 - 397] drew heavily on forests for farming and, of relevance to Basil's work and also classical writings landscape, of a growing appreciation of particularly Virgil. On natural beauty he and love for the beauties of nature and wrote that just as embroidery follows the landscape [Ibid, 173]. It was a period of weaving, God created first and adorned substantial environmental change, later. God was responsible for both. In resulting in widescale forest clearance 384, Ambrose wrote that the world was [and some planted, e.g. New Forest], land much more beautiful now than when it was drainage and the development of created: cultivation and farming across areas of Europe. It saw north-western Europe grow "Formerly, the earth did not know how to be in population and power, balancing the worked for her fruits. Later when the careful Mediterranean. farmer began to rule the fields and to clothe the shapeless soil with vines, she put away her wild dispositions, being softened by During the Patristic period the physico- domestic cultivation." [Glacken, 1967, 299] theological arguments of the Greeks and Romans were adopted and absorbed by Augustine [354 - 430] contributed an Christian theology. They wrote of God as immense wealth of ideas and originality of an artisan deity who not only made things thought. His basic approach was according to his plan but who, unlike a summarised by Glacken thus: human artisan, created the materials as well, and, as St Augustine noted, "working "The earth and earthly things are to be invisibly, effect(ing) visible results" [Ibid, spurned when we compare them with the 177]. greater glories of the City of God, but neither are life on earth and the beauties of The Patristic period through to the end of nature to be despised because they are on the Middle Ages put into effect the Biblical a lower order in the scale of being or injunction and mandate to "fill the earth because they represent an order inferior to and subdue it." the Divine Order. The earth, life on earth, the beauties of nature, are also creations of

God." [Glacken, 1967, 196] While God created the materials, humans fashioned them to their purposes - a tree Augustine, in extolling the beauty, grace may provide shade and shelter, timber for and utility of the creation, extolled the a house and its furniture, wood for a fire, Creator: and limbs for bows and other weaponry. "The earth is more beautiful than it was at "Ask the loveliness of the earth, ask the creation: it is a nature, improved by the art loveliness of the sea, ask the loveliness of of man with divine approval and intention." the wide airy spaces, ask the loveliness of [Ibid, 181]. St Basil of Caesarea [331 - 379] the sky, ask the order of the stars, ... ask the compared the unfinished with the finished living things which move in the waters, earth: which tarry on the land, which fly in the air...ask all these things, and they will all "for the proper and natural adornment of the answer thee, Lo, see we are lovely. Their earth is its completion: corn waving in the loveliness is their confession. And these valleys - meadows green with grass and rich lovely but mutable things, who has made with many coloured flowers - fertile glades them, save Beauty immutable ?" [Ibid, 200] and hilltops shaded by forests" [Glacken, 1967, 192]. Augustine wrote: "beauty is a proportion of parts, together with an agreeableness of colour" [Ibid], thus paraphrasing what Cicero and other classical sources had

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said. Beauty was also associated with Paradise was regarded as an ideal utility - that which did the work well. It was landscape. associated mainly with living things such as women, flowers and birds rather than The idea of God being revealed in creation scenery. Beauty also tended to be small was developed by Erigena John Scotus or scale rather than large. Both classical and John the Scot [born 810]: Christian writers saw aesthetics as subordinate to ethics [Nicolson, 1959, 71]. "for whatever He knows He creates, and what He creates derives from Himself. Reason underlay Augustine's sense of Accordingly, the whole creation is a process beauty. In Divine Providence and the of divine revelation, with each being an aspect, finite and limited, of God's own Problem of Evil, he wrote "From this stage, nature." [Glacken, 1967, 211] reason advanced to the province of the eyes. And scanning the earth and the Thus every aspect reveals the character of heavens, it realised that nothing pleased it God but is not god itself which would be but beauty; and in beauty, design; and in pantheistic. design, dimensions; and in dimensions, number." [Nicolson, 1959, 123] Symmetry St Bernard of Clairvaux [1091 - 1153] "pleases because it is beautiful, and it is wrote that natural beauty is acceptable beautiful because the parts are like and providing it is associated with God and his are brought by a certain bond to a single works. He believed that "trees and stones harmony." [Ibid, 123-4] The classical will teach you what no teacher permits you influence is apparent in these comments. to hear" [Ibid, 213] The development of the abbey at Clairvaux changed the landscape During the following centuries, from a wilderness to one which was more monasteries became established in useful, more charming and more beautiful. Europe and played a significant role in The abbey was situated in a valley, grain transforming the landscape. Mark, a monk and vines growing nearby -"each of them at Monte Cassino in Italy about 560 offers to the eye a beautiful sight, and described the transformation of the nearby supplies a needful support for the hillsides: inmates." [Ibid, 213]

"Lest men should tire who seek thy high Bernard wrote of the charm of the area: abode Winds round its sides a gently-sloping road. Yet justly does the mountain honour thee, "The smiling countenance of the earth is For thou hast made it rich and fair to see. painted with varying colours, the blooming Its barren sides by thee are gardens made, verdure [i.e. fresh green] of spring satisfies Its naked rocks with fruitful vineyards laid, the eyes, and its sweet odour salutes the The crags admire a crop and fruit not theirs, nostrils. ... In this way, while I am charmed The wild wood now a bounteous harvest without by the sweet influence of the beauty bears..." [Glacken, 1967, 304] of the country, I have not less delight within in reflecting on the mysteries which are hidden beneath it." [Glacken, 1967, 214] Many other monasteries throughout

Europe repeated the changes achieved The delight with which St Francis of Assisi here, transforming extensive tracts of land [1182 - 1226] communed with nature is to agriculture through clearing the forests, well known, perhaps less well known is draining the marshes, even diverting that he "followed rapturously and most rivers. literally the exhortation of Romans 1:20"

[Ibid, 215] - i.e. of understanding God's The Church Fathers regarded nature as a invisible power and divine nature from the book to provide further substantiation of creation. In St Francis, "living nature the revealed word. And unlike the printed attains a dignity and holiness far removed word which only the rich could afford, from the crude utilitarian conceptions of nature was a book that all could read. The the believers in design." [Ibid, 216]. Church Fathers also strove to link nature with scriptural texts and for symbolism About this time, St Vincent of Beauvais such as the selection of a monastery wrote: cloister site in the shape of the Greek letter delta [∆], which symbolised the Trinity. "I am moved with spiritual sweetness towards the creator and ruler of this world

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when I behold the magnitude and beauty agent does so. Hence, every agent intends and performance of his creation." [Hunter, the good when it acts." Glacken added, 1985, 53] "The synthesis now expresses the goodness, the order, and the beauty of nature."

The major preoccupation of theologists in the Middle Ages was creation:

"the continuously visible creation on earth, as one constantly sees in the naturalistic, symbolic, and allegorical writings... This long discussion of creation and its meaning in the formative period of Western civilization intensified interest in unity and harmony in Source: Clark, 1976 nature, in physical and moral evil, in Forest Imagery in a Gothic cathedral intermediate agencies between God and the world of daily life, be they secondary causes This was the era of cathedral building. or … nature personifications..." [Glacken, There are close parallels between the form 1967, 253]. of the northern deciduous forests and the nave of the Gothic cathedral [Shepard, While theological issues were important, 1967, 172]. The tall cathedral columns so to were practical issues associated with symbolised the trunks, their spreading establishing agriculture - issues such as arms the branches, and the giant windows sowing, grafting, plant breeding and animal filtering light like leaves in a tall forest. The husbandry [Ibid, 313]. Glacken considers carvings of leaves on structural members that the period saw a shift from one in and walls furthered the imagery. Thus "a which "theological ideas of man as a Gothic cathedral can be seen as a modifier of nature dominated to one in metamorphosis of the broad-leaved forest which these ideas are the result of into stone." [Hunter, 1985, 54]. experience, by ecclesiastic and lay alike, in the exploitation of natural resources." [Ibid, One who walked throughout the length and 314] breadth of Europe was Albert the Great [1193 - 1280], a Dominican monk. The Renaissance to the Late 17th Century beauties of the earth to Albert were more than symbols, "its apparent order more With its intense interest in classical than a simple illustration of design." The sources, the Renaissance combined a love designed earth is holy as it is God's of scenery with its historical associations, creation. [Glacken, 1967, 228] Albert "seeing in the fusion the beauties of observed that human effort improved on landscape altered and unaltered by man." nature - domesticated plants gave better [Ibid, 356]. fruit, grains and vegetables were larger, softer and better tasting under cultivation. In 1485, Leon Battista Alberti [1404 - 1472] argued for care in selecting sites for In about 1259, St Thomas Aquinas [1226 - buildings or cities; a building should not be 1274] wrote Summa Contra Gentiles, placed in a valley between two hills which Glacken considered to be the most because: important and cogent discussion of natural theology to emerge in the Middle Ages. "an Edifice so placed has no Manner of Aquinas brought together the order, Dignity, lying quite hid; and its Prospect planning, design and beauty of nature in a being interrupted can have neither Pleasure nor Beauty." [Glacken, 1967, 431] more rigorous form.

Perhaps Alberti had not studied the siting Aquinas saw that God had provided for of monasteries that were frequently in such orderly processes of nature; "leaves, for a position for good practical reasons. example, were so arranged that they protect the fruit of the plant." [Ibid, 235] John Barclay, in Icon Animorum [1614], Therefore, Aquinas argued, "the natural described the natural and man-made agent tends toward what is better, and it is beauty of the scene along the River much more evident that the intelligent Thames from Greenwich Hill, asserting it

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to be most beautiful in England and - 1650] argued for reason to be the basis possibly all Europe. It was "soe faire a of truth. While acknowledging God to be variety, and the industry (as it were) of the First Cause, from there on he ignored Nature, displaying her riches." Barclay God in explaining physical phenomenon. believed that variety of beauty and He advocated a goal of attaining control monotony was needed as any beauty over nature through his scientific method would "glut and weary" the viewer unless it and the application of science. Descartes was "beautified with contrarieties, and established four rules for rational thinking: change of endowments, to refresh continually the wearied beholder with 1. Never accept anything as true until it is unexpected novelties." [Ibid, 452]. patently so [rule of evidence]. 2. Divide the subject matter into as many The discovery of the New World together components as possible [rule of analysis]. 3. Proceed from the simple to the complex with the immense scientific discoveries by [rule of synthesis]. Galileo, Kepler, Newton, Boyle and others th th 4. Revise thoroughly, lest anything be omitted during the 15 and 16 centuries [rule of control] [Secretan, 1973, 30]. increased interest in the designed earth, the findings being interpreted as providing The influence of Descartes was “subtle further evidence of God's providence. and ubiquitous” [Secretan, 1973, 30] and Many scientists wrote about final causes: grew over the following centuries. The Newton's was grounded on the order, "Cartesian shears" which separated "what beauty and motion of the heavens rather is out there" from "what is in here" [i.e. than the order of nature on earth and nature from mind], resulted ultimately in Robert Boyle wrote of design both in the the emergence of the subjectivist view of whole of creation and in the detailed aesthetic quality. Instead of seeing aspects of plants and animals. aesthetic quality as an inherent quality of a physical object such as a landscape, the The writings of this period indicated a distinction of mind and nature paved the conflict, according to Glacken [Ibid, 378], way for people to appreciate the role of between a mechanical and an organic their own subjective feelings in determining view of nature. The former saw the aesthetic preferences. individual parts acting according to known laws, the whole being the sum of the parts Baruch Spinoza [1632 - 1677] opposed and their interaction. The organic approach teleology on the basis that it was pure saw the whole as existing, perhaps in the speculation and assumed that all of nature mind of an artisan before the parts - the served man. He did not attribute to nature design of the whole explains the actions of either beauty or ugliness, arguing that the parts. The organic approach is based these were simply products of human on teleology - the idea of God as the divine imagination [Ibid, 378], an early subjectivist artisan fashioning nature according to His approach to aesthetics. will permeated much of the writings of the time. The 17th and early 18th centuries saw enormous growth of scientific knowledge, The mechanical view emphasises against which physico-theology assumed a secondary causes and eliminates final lesser standing. It drew on the findings of causes. The mechanical view gained geographical exploration in providing new credence with the prestige of mathematics; examples and it gained a greater the earth was seen as a great machine appreciation of interrelationships in nature. and the harmonies of nature could only be This prepared society for Darwin's understood by studying this underlying understanding of the 'web of life' and of mechanical order. However the ecological relationships. appreciation of the beauties of nature and of its interrelationships would not have An eminent and Chief Justice, Sir derived from a mechanical approach [Ibid, Matthew Hale, in The Primitive Origination 391-2]. of Mankind [1677], wrote a masterly exposition of Christian belief regarding In his seminal work: Discourse on Method man's dominion over nature based on the for Properly Guiding the Reason and Genesis account, including: Finding Truth in the Sciences [1637], the French philosopher, Rene Descartes [1596

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"And hereby Man was invested with power, Deity of the later seventeenth century was authority, right, dominion, trust and care ...to grander, vaster, more majestic than preserve the face of the Earth in beauty, before, expressing Himself in unnumbered usefulness, and fruitfulness. And surely, … worlds." [Nicolson, 1959, 186]. Isaac it was not below the Wisdom and Goodness Newton’s, Philosophie Naturalis Principia or God to create the very Vegetable Nature, and to render the Earth more beautiful and Mathematica [1687], was able to not only useful by it …." [Glacken, 1967, 481] explain physical phenomenon but, with mathematics, could predict their behaviour Hale saw man's role as to control nature under differing influences. It was one of the for the earth's sake and for his own. most influential books of all time and established order, proportion and regularity Baron Gottfried von Leibniz [1646 - 1716] as universal principles. saw creation as increasing one's th admiration for the beauty of divine works - This late 17 century period saw a "the general beauty and perfection of the tremendous burgeoning of physico- works of God" [Ibid, 377, 477]. An ardent theology through publication of four supporter of final causes, Leibniz saw man "remarkable" books in England [Glacken, as finishing the work of God. 1967, 406]:

In 1692, Richard Bentley [1662 - 1742], the • Burnet's Telluris Theoria Sacra [1681, most eminent English classical scholar of translated in 1684 as the Sacred Theory of the age delivered eight sermons, A Earth] • Woodward's An Essay Towards a Natural Confutation of . Bentley History of the Earth, and Terrestrial considered that the "order and beauty of Bodies, especially Minerals ... [1695] the systematic parts of the world, their • Whiston's New Theory of the Earth [1696] discernible ends and final causes, ... [a] • Keill's Examination of Dr Burnet's Theory 'meliority [i.e. superiority] above what was [1698] necessary to be,' show, he says, an intelligent benign agent." [Ibid, 396] More These were very widely read at the time, than most, Bentley emphasised the beauty several being translated into other of nature and the asymmetry of nature. He languages. did not find an irregular feature such as a Thomas Burnet's book together with landform less beautiful than a regular or Milton's Paradise Lost, were the two most symmetrical one: widely read theodicies27 of the early 18th century [Nicolson, 1959, 273], some 26 "All pulchritude is relative; and all bodies ranking it on a plane with Plato, Cicero and are truly and physically beautiful under all Milton [Ibid, 191, 193]. possible shapes and proportions, that are good in their kind, that are fit for their proper uses and ends of their natures." [Glacken, Burnet argued, "Science and Scripture are 1967, 397] not enemies but friends, one complementing the other." [Ibid, 196] Glacken believed that physico-theology Burnet divided the earth's history into three was always more successful and persisted periods, the past [antediluvian[, present longer in the life sciences because of the [postdiluvian[, and a future period similar to abundance of opportunities for finding the first. His former antediluvian period evidence of final causes: was contemporary with the classical Golden Age, a paradise with a perpetual "in the observation of organic growth, in the equinox [because he said, the earth did 28 relationship of plant and animal life to one not tilt on its axis ]. This period ended with another and to their habitats, in plant and animal communities, in the pattern of distribution of organic life throughout the 27. i.e. works which seek vindication of divine earth." [Ibid] attributes - Shorter Oxford The issue of the earth tilting on its axis th 28. The scientific discoveries of the late 17 provided much fare for the physico- century saw tremendous growth in human theologians as it created the seasons and understanding of the cosmos, and with variations in climate across the earth, a this, "God had grown with his universe: the diversity of conditions that favoured humans. Newton, though a teleologist, did not believe the inclination of the earth on its 26. A Middle English term for beauty axis proved the .

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the Flood. The postdiluvian world was Herbs and stately Trees, either dispers'd unpleasant, unfruitful and nature was hard and scatter'd singly, or as it were assembled and niggardly. The future earth would in Woods and Groves, and all these occur after fire destroyed the postdiluvian beautified and illustrated with elegant Flowers and Fruits..." [Glacken, 1967, 418] earth.

Ray's ideal saw man improving on nature - Burnet [and many others of his time] the beautiful village resting in well-tilled believed that there were no mountains at fields [Ibid, 665]. Ray believed that God the time of the earth's creation, in the enjoyed the aesthetics of the earth: antediluvian period, but that they appeared with the Fall of Man and reflected the fallen "[God] delights in the Beauty of his Creation, state of the world. He had much to say and is well pleased with the Industry of Man, about mountains [see section 6.4]. in adorning the Earth with beautiful Cities and Castles; with pleasant Villages and Woodward used fossil evidence to show Country-Houses; with regular Gardens and that the relief of the present postdiluvian Orchards, and Plantations of all Sorts of world was similar to the antediluvian world. Shrubs and Herbs … with Shady Woods He also disputed Burnet's claim that "the and Groves, and walks set Rows of elegant earth is a pile of 'Ruines and Rubbish' Trees, with Pastures cloathed with Flocks, and Valleys cover'd with Corn, and whose mountains have not the 'least foot Meadows burthened with Grass..." [Glacken, steps of Art or ,' a globe which is a 1967, 484] 'rude Lump,' a 'little dirty Planet,' that he would grant it neither order or beauty" Reverend William Derham, a friend of Ray, [Glacken, 1967, 411]. Woodward was the author of Physico-Theology: or, A considered that the earth contains many Demonstration of the Being and Attributes areas that are "indeed extremely charming of God, from His Works of Creation [1713]. and agreeable". The aesthetic quality of Derham book became the most influential natural beauty was seen as another proof work in this field of the early 18th century. of the wisdom of God. Like Ray he emphasised the earth's utility and beauty. The earth was orderly and Glacken regarded John Ray's The Wisdom well-planned with "nothing wanting, of God Manifested in the Works of nothing redundant or frivolous, nothing Creation [1691], which went through botching or ill-made..." [Glacken, 1967, twelve editions, as the best natural 422]. theology ever written [Ibid, 379].

29 Both Ray and Derham wrote of the Drawing from Psalm 104:24 , Ray significance of organic interrelationships presented the most comprehensive pre- evident on the earth and in this they evolutionary vision of the earth and its preceded modern writers on the balance of plants and animals, together with their nature and the web of life. interrelationships and extolled their diversity and variety. His view was positive Throughout the 17th and 18th centuries and optimistic: the earth was a "place of modern ideas of humans as a controller of beauty and usefulness whose powers do nature become more prominent building on not decline with age as do the plants and Descartes’ thesis. While the teleological animals it supports" [Ibid, 421] and whose arguments of design continued there was climate and relief are not evidences of ruin "more penetrating criticism of final causes" but rather of beauty and order. from philosophers, especially Hume and Kant [Ibid, 502], and the teleological view In reaction to Burnet's dismal view, Ray of nature transformed into philosophical wrote of the beauty of nature: and theological support for the natural histories of the 18th century [Ibid, 508]. "How variously is the Surface of this Earth distinguish'd into Hills, and Valleys, and Plains, and high Mountains, affording While science advanced, lending support pleasant Prospects? How curiously cloath'd to the mechanical view of nature which and adorn'd with the grateful Verdure of could be described mathematically, teleology continued to exert a significant

influence on the earth and life sciences How many are your works, O Lord! In 29. and in geography from the 17th through to wisdom you made them all; the earth is full the 19th centuries [Ibid, 505]. The of your creatures

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development of the microscope and sense of purpose, with beauty in nature telescope revealed an order and purpose suggestive of final causes. He made in nature not previously seen and provided particular mention of the beauty and utility further support for physico-theology. of the mountains-rivers-plains triad [Ibid, 523]. “Consult the genius of the place”, wrote the poet Alexander Pope. Genius Loci was Opponents of Teleology quickly recognised to be Divine, reinforcing the natural theological view, and poems Hume and Kant led the arguments against and literature followed, referring to the the teleological school. David Hume [1711 Divine presence in the place [Hussey, - 1776], the Scottish philosopher, 1927, 31]. In The Moralists [1709], presented his arguments via dialogues Shaftesbury wrote “your Genius, the between Cleanthes and Philo, enabling Genius of the Place, and the GREAT him to argue a point back and forth. GENIUS have at last prevail’d.” [Thacker, Cleanthes was the conventional, Philo the 1979, 181]. Shaftesbury considered innovator. Cleanthes described the world aesthetics to involve “ ‘Nature’s genuine as a machine "whose intricately adjusted Order’, the ideal form and harmony of and accurately fitted parts work well things existing ‘before the Fall’ .” [Hussey, together" [Ibid, 525]. Philo argued that the 1927, 53 - 54] analogy of a machine is remote:

Linnaeus's celebrated lecture Oeconomy "The further we push our researches of this of Nature in 1749 recognised design and kind [i.e. microscopy] we are still led to infer emphasised environmental influences in the universal cause of all to be vastly the distribution of living organisms different from mankind, or from any object of human experience and observation." including humans. Interestingly he justified [Glacken, 1967, 526] the earth's relief on aesthetic as well as utilitarian grounds; that it is pleasing to the Rebutting the artisan concept, Hume eye and it increases the surface area of argued that any artisan becomes skilled the earth [Glacken, 1967, 510]. through and error, through countless mistakes, and changes. Are we Count Buffon, whom Glacken placed in the th to suggest, Hume asked, that God learnt front rank of 18 century naturalists, how to construct a world through such rejected final causes in the study of nature, methods, - that many worlds "might have believing that nature should be studied for been botched and bungled, throughout an itself. Influenced by Descartes, Buffon’s De eternity, in the art of world-making" [Ibid, la nature, Premier Vue [1764] defined 526]. nature in terms of a system of laws established by God for the existence of The Prussian philosopher, Immanuel Kant things [Ibid, 519]. [1724 - 1804], addressed teleology in his Critique of Pure Reason [1781] and more Aesthetic improvement, according to particularly in the "Critique of Teleological Buffon, came from the hand of man: "Wild Judgement" in part II of Critique of nature is hideous and dying; it is I, I alone, Judgement. [1790]. Kant built on and who can make it agreeable and living." synthesised aesthetic ideas that had [Ibid, 663] He went on to advocate drying developed during the 18th century and is out the marshes to make their stagnant generally acknowledge to have “welded waters flow in brooks and , clearing their fragments together so as to create a out the thickets and the old forests and, in truly philosophical system”, bringing order their place, making pastures and arable out of the chaos which then existed [Monk, fields so that a "new nature can come forth 1935, 4-5]. Central to Kant’s philosophy of from our hands." Buffon's ideal nature is aesthetics was his finding that an object’s one that is "well cared for, ordered, a little character lay in the judging mind rather too well raked, embellished with than in the object judged [Ibid, 4]. His was decorations." [Ibid, 665] a subjectivist rather than objectivist approach. Voltaire was sympathetic with final causes and wrote on the subject in the Kant tore away the examples of final Dictionnaire Philosophique [1768]. He saw causes and, almost regretfully, found that nature as a work of art, both revealing a the teleological proofs must be rejected.

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Addressing the commonly used analogy of west of Berne. According to Clark, on the nature as a machine, such as a watch, island, Rousseau “had an experience so Kant pointed out that the maker of the intense that one can almost say it caused watch lies outside it, a cog of the watch a revolution in human feeling.” [Clark, cannot produce another or repair itself. 1969, 190] However, nature organises itself, "the organization of nature has nothing “I often sat down to dream at leisure in analogous to any known to us." sunny, lonely nooks ... to gaze at the superb [quoted by Glacken, 1967, 532] thus ravishing panorama of the lake and its disposing of the artisan analogy. shores ... When evening fell, I came down from the higher parts of the mountains and

sat by the shore in some hidden spot, and Interestingly, Kant took an objectivist there the sound of the waves and the position when addressing beauty in nature, movements of the water, making me that is contrary to the subjectivist position oblivious of all other distraction, would he developed elsewhere in Critique of plunge me into delicious reverie. The ebb Judgement: and flow of the water, and the sound of it ... came to the aid of those inner movements "We may regard it as a favour that nature of the mind which reverie destroys and has extended to us, that besides giving us sufficed me pleasantly conscious of what is useful it has dispensed beauty and existence without the trouble of thinking ...” charms in such abundance, and for this we [Biese, 1905, 269-70] may love it, just as we view it with respect because of its immensity, and feel ourselves Filled with the reverie of the flopping ennobled by such contemplation - just as if waves, Rousseau “became completely at nature had erected and decorated its one with nature, lost all consciousness of splendid stage with this precise purpose in an independent self, all painful memories its mind." [Glacken, 1967, 533-4, emphasis of the past or anxieties about the future.” added] [Clark, 1969, 190]. In 1761 Rousseau

published La Nouvelle Héloise which Kant argued that the earth's relief, far from “overflow[ed] with Rousseau’s raptures being evidence of design, is merely the about the Lake of Geneva” [Biese, 1905, result of its geological history. Glacken 274]. The book made three points: firstly summarised Kant's contribution as a that the purpose of one’s inner "harvesting of thoughts spanning more consciousness was to allow feelings in the than two thousand years" [Ibid, 535]. heart, secondly the worth of solitude - “all

noble passions are formed in solitude”, Nature Lovers and thirdly, the love of romantic

landscapes, described for the first time in As well as the arguments of philosophers, glowing terms. opposition to physico-theology came from another source, the development of an Rousseau’s feeling for nature had a almost pantheistic love of nature. This profound effect on European thought, and movement, led by Jean-Jacques was expressed tangibly by the upsurge in Rousseau [1712 - 1778] has had a tourism to places such as Chamounix, by profound effect on Western attitudes to climbers ascending Mont Blanc and other nature, providing among other things, one peaks, by a delight in Robinson Crusoe of the foundations of the conservation type solitude, in the more sensitive movement. descriptions of other cultures in both

scientific and artistic terms, and the Biese suggested that Rousseau’s appreciation of foreign landscapes found influence was so revolutionary and original during world explorations. The love for that in a sense, the world’s history began nature was, however, imbued with a heavy again with him [Biese, 1905, 260]. Born in sentimentality that cast a melancholy Switzerland, Rousseau grew up on Lake shadow over it. It was the genius of Geneva and loved to roam the Goethe who freed and purified the love for countryside. On such a ramble in 1728, he nature from this morbidity. wrote of how the “high mountains unfolded themselves majestically before my eyes” “Goethe focussed all the rays of feeling for [Ibid, 267]. In 1765 he lived for two months Nature which had found lyrical expression on Peter Island on the Lake of Bienne, a before him, and purged taste, beginning relatively insignificant Swiss lake, north

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with his own, of its unnatural and sickly complexity of what happens when eye and elements.” [Biese, 1905, 296] object meet: “The delicate interplay between perception and imagination could While other poets wrote of nature almost in nowhere be more intricate than in the the third person, as one remote and representation of a natural scene, insincere in expression, Goethe wrote from transmuted and recollected in the ordering an inner sensibility. It was said of him that form of Wordsworth’s poetic language.” [de “Nature wished to know what she looked Man, 1984, 126] A deeply religious man, like, and so she created Goethe” [Ibid]. he sought in nature a closeness to the Unlike Rousseau, who saw nature as a Reality, although Biese considered his painter, Goethe saw nature as a poet. theism contained an “undeniable, though While Rousseau remained a deist, Goethe hidden, pantheism” [Biese, 1905, 326]. ultimately became more of a pantheist. An example of the quality of his writing is from In the poem, Tintern Abbey, Wordsworth Werther, a book of his youth: confessed in a characteristic way:

“When the lovely valley teems with vapour “Nature then around me, and the meridian sun strikes the (The coarser pleasures of my boyish days upper surface of the impenetrable foliage of And their glad animal movements all gone my trees, and but a few stray gleams steal by) into the inner sanctuary, then I throw myself To me was all in all. I cannot paint down in the tall grass by the trickling stream; What then I was. The sounding cataract and as I lie close to the earth, a thousand Haunted me like a passion; the tall rock., unknown plants discover themselves in me. The mountain, and the deep and gloomy When I hear the buzz of the little world wood, among the stalks, and grow familiar with the The colours and their forms, were then to countless indescribable forms of the insects me and flies, then I feel the presence of the An appetite, a feeling and a love...” [Biese, Almighty who formed us in His own image, 1905, 327] ...” [quoted by Biese, 1905, 304] Wordsworth sought nature’s aesthetic Later in life, Goethe’s scientific pleasures because they provided him with took over, “the student of Nature a basis for a religious interpretation of supplanted the lover” [Ibid, 324]. Yet his nature. feelings for nature became pantheistic and this linked his scientific and poetic Rousseau, Goethe, Wordsworth and other impulses. As expressed by Biese: nature poets and writers such as Byron, Scott and Shelley transformed the way in “This pantheism marked an epoch in the which Europeans viewed nature. Coming history of feeling. For Goethe not only with the enlightenment their pantheism, transformed the unreal feeling of his day into “universal love, sympathy with Nature in all real, described scenery, and inspired it with human feeling, and deciphered the beauty her forms, was the base of feeling” [Biese, of the Alps, as no one else had done, 1905, 339]. Rousseau not excepted; but he also brought knowledge of Nature into harmony with Post Darwinian Period feeling for her, and with his wonderfully receptive and constructive mind so studied With the decline of physico-theology at the the earlier centuries, that he gathered out all end of the 18th century, the definition and that was valuable in their feeling.” [Biese, influence of laws influencing nature took 1905, 325] precedence.

Goethe objected to the teleological view of The criticisms of the teleological argument nature because it relied on analogy, which, th in the 18 century, particularly by Hume in scientific terms, is unsatisfactory questioning the artisan analogy and by [Glacken, 1967, 535]. Kant postulating that the way nature is

organised does not imply causality, paved William Wordsworth [1770 - 1850] was the way for the revolution in thought which brought up around the Lakes in th occurred in the 19 century, particularly as Cumberland, and like Rousseau and a result of Darwin's Origin of Species. Goethe, developed a deep sensitivity to Hume and Kant showed that concepts of and delight in nature. As a poet of the first nature are constructs of the human mind - rank, Wordsworth sought to write on the the modern day equivalent is that of the

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ecosystem. Far from being the bountiful the time and reinterpreting the scriptural mother of design which had conventionally basis afresh through the eyes of Burnet, be held to be true, Hume had shown Ray and Derham nature to be niggardly - a term which came th into common parlance in the 19th century • The remainder of the 18 century with the th work by Buffon, Linnaeus and Voltaire and under Darwin and Malthus. The 18 the contrary arguments of Hume and Kant. century, the century of Kant, Rousseau, Voltaire, was the age of enlightenment and The following centuries have been of Revolution. It was a period that broke characterised, as far as Western culture is with the conventions of the classics and of concerned, with industrialisation of the Bible. economies, specialisation of talents, and

th secularisation of beliefs. An urban-based The end of the 18 century also rather than rural society, and increasingly established humans as a significant technological in orientation, its roots with modifier of nature, the dimensions of which nature have until recent decades been would await George Marsh's Man and seen as irrelevant. Knowledge of physico- Nature, or Physical Geography as Modified theology, the debates that have raged in by Human Actions [1864] and others in the the past and the hair-splitting of 19th century. Glacken noted in conclusion: philosophers have been largely forgotten, consigned to the irrelevancy of history. Yet “the idea of a designed earth, whether these comprise part of the foundations of created for man or for all life with man at the apex of a chain of being, has been one of Western culture, they explain not only who the great attempts in Western civilisation, we are but also how we became thus. before the theory of evolution and modern ecological theories emerging from it, to The specialisation of science and the arts create a holistic concept of nature, to bring that has occurred over the past 100 years within its scope as many phenomena as has contributed to the lack of awareness of possible in order to demonstrate a unity the history of landscape perceptions. For which was the achievement of an artisan- example, in 1920 geographers were creator." [Ibid, 707] exhorted by Sir Francis Younghusband,

then President of the Royal Geographical Beauty in nature, Glacken asserted, brings Society, to undertake a systematic study of man closer to the "heartbeats of the the beauty of landscape [Younghusband, creation" [Ibid, 707]. 1920]. Although Vaughan Cornish

produced a number of books on this Glacken also noted that, over 2300 years 30 theme , geographers largely ignored his of Western civilisation, virtually every great call until recent decades [Fuller, 1988, 12]. thinker has had something to say about teleology. Over this span, he identified five Having examined the classical and main periods of history during which the teleological foundations of Western teleological ideas took on shape and culture, the remainder of this chapter life[Ibid, 712 -3]: focuses on three areas in which the

development of cultural attitudes towards • The Hellenistic period and the Hellenised landscape is traced. These are the Roman period that followed; favoured by a common language [Greek] and development of the Western attitudes understanding the unity of nature, the towards mountain landscapes, the contributions of the Greek philosophers depiction of landscape in Western art and were immense the development of gardens. These three areas - mountains, landscape art, and • The early Christian period with the writings gardens - provide a basis for examining of Basil and Ambrose, culminating in how the present day perception of Augustine who integrated Classical and landscape in general has emerged from a Christian ideas of design cultural perspective.

th • The 12 - 13 centuries through the contributions of Albert the Great and of Thomas Aquinas and associated with the . Vaughan Cornish’s books included The construction of the cathedrals 30 Poetic Impression of Natural Scenery • The late 17th - early 18th centuries, drawing [1931], Scenery and the Sense of Sight from the immense scientific discoveries of [1935], The Beauties of Scenery: A Geographical Survey [1943].

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6.4 THEME ONE: ATTITUDES TO few writers had actually seen mountains. MOUNTAINS English mountain poetry rarely mentioned local mountains in the British Isles. In 1657 mountains were described with Travellers' accounts mentioned the epithets such as "Warts, Wens, Blisters, dangers and difficulties of travelling in Tumours, Imposthumes"31 [Nicolson, 1959, mountainous areas but virtually never 2, 41] yet a century later, in 1769, Thomas described them as beautiful. Gray wrote of the Scottish highlands: " the mountains are ecstatic" [Ibid, 358]. These Greek poets used terms that are similar to were not isolated descriptions, they contemporary sublime descriptions: epitomise a sea change in attitudes towards mountain landscapes that "Aeschylus felt the mingled majesty and occurred in as little as fifty years during the terror of earthquake and storm, of 'sky- early 18th century. The reasons for this piercing rocks' and 'star-neighboured peaks,' change illustrate the influence of culture on of the distant Caucausus. Alcman's 'mountain summits ... glens, cliffs and a society's attitudes towards nature, and caves,' like his 'dark ocean's waves,' were landscapes in particular. both beautiful and dangerous, associated with 'black earth's reptile brood' and the 'wild An English writer, S.P.B. Mais, in 1938 beasts of the mountain wood.' " [Ibid, 39] asserted that “Certain canons of beauty are unalterable ... Taken generally you and Aristophanes was more sympathetic: I, plain men, admire very much what plain men admired in Chaucer’s day, “... the wood-crowned summits of the hills; Shakespeare’s day, and Wordsworth’s Thence shall our glance command day.” He went on to cite as examples the The beetling [literally - far seen look-out English downs, the fells and the jagged places] crags which sentinel the land” mountains of the north [quoted by [Quoted by Gilbert, 1885, 13] Lowenthal, 1978, 387]. However as this section will demonstrate, the writer was The Romans' attitudes were little different wrong; human preferences for landscape although Biese considered that the Roman have changed significantly, none more so feeling for nature was more developed than in regard to mountain scenery. overall than was the Greek [Biese, 1905, 18]. The Romans regarded mountains as In Mountain Gloom and Mountain Glory: aloof, inhospitable, desolate and hostile The Development of the Aesthetics of the and described them in terms of difficult, Infinite [1959], Marjorie Hope Nicolson sharp, horrid, inaccessible and frozen. traced the reasons for this shift, focusing Writers who lived near mountains, such as on the literature and poetry of the period. Catullus, Virgil or Horace scarcely ever She considered that the change was the mentioned them. Virgil spoke of “Father result of "one of the most profound Apennine, when through his glistening revolutions in thought that has ever holm oaks he murmurs low, and, lifting occurred." [Ibid, 3] The reasons relate himself with snowy peak to the winds of directly to the teleological and classical heaven, rejoices.” [Æneid, Quoted by influences traced in the previous section. Gilbert, 1885]

Only Lucretius seemed to admire (1) Classical Attitudes to Mountains mountains, and even climbed them

th although as a philosopher he described Up to the mid 17 century, mountains did them as waste places occupying areas not figure in paintings, literature or poetry better occupied by green meadows. Like except along classical lines. The standard Constable and the Dutch painters mountains were Greek - Olympus, Pelion, centuries later, he loved clouds: “... the Parnassus, Ossa, and Helicon and these storm-wind, wild, comes carrying clouds were described as they were imagined, not like mountains through the air... may you as they were seen or experienced because mark ... huge caves built of hanging rocks

of cloud” [quoted by Gilbert, 1885, 16] . Wens are an Old English term for a lump, 31 protuberance or wart. Imposthumes or impostumes is a Middle English term for a purulent swelling, a cyst, an abscess. (2) Biblical Basis of Attitudes Clearly neither terms were used as endearments.

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A major determinant of the attitudes writers who suggested this although it was towards mountains was interpretation of meant in an allegorical sense. Later the Bible that, in contemporary eyes, seem writers, however, extended the logic and quite amazing. The key passage is in sought to explain the structure of the egg. Genesis 1:9 and 10 describing the third Abelard [1079 - 1142] suggested that the day of creation: yolk is the earth, the white is the water, the membrane is the air, and the shell is fire And God said, "Let the water under the sky [Ibid, 81]. This model also helped explain be gathered to one place, and let dry the origin of the waters in the Flood. It ground appear.' And it was so. certainly explained the smoothness of the God called the dry ground 'land', and the earth without mountains to disfigure its gathered waters he called 'seas'. And God 33 beauty. saw that it was good."

God called the world he created "good" so It was widely agreed that the mountains it should have been the paragon of beauty. came after creation with both Jewish and Christian expositors arguing that these The question arose whether God created "blemishes" on creation were due to the mountains when he created the earth. human depravity [Ibid, 82]. Many believed In this there were two opposing views, one that mountains resulted from the sin of that mountains were created on the third Adam and Eve and associated mountains day, and a counter and stronger view that with the idea of the earth growing old. they developed at some later time. From this, the parallel with man was Influenced by classical notions of apparent: the blemishes, deteriorations aesthetics in which symmetry, proportion and excrescences which pockmark a and restraint determined beauty, many human face and body occur also on the earth in the form of mountains - hence the believed that God would not create th something irregular, therefore what God expressions of the 17 century of created was regular and perfect, i.e. mountains as warts, wens, blisters, without mountains. Later, at the Fall, or at tumours and imposthumes. the Flood32, when sin and judgement entered the world, mountains emerged The fact that Adam and Eve and the symbolising the state of imperfection of serpent were guilty but that the earth was man. also being punished vexed many commentators - as Rabbi Nathan taught: Somewhat incredibly to modern "three entered for judgement, yet four conceptions, it was widely believed that came out guilty." [Ibid, 83] The critical the earth was like an egg, which passage is in Genesis 3:17, which is now accounted for there being no mountains. translated "Cursed is the ground because The idea of the earth as a smooth round of you" [emphasis added] was originally egg occurred in ancient Persian, Egyptian translated by Jerome in the Vulgate as and Oriental legends and also in Jewish "earth". Jerome’s translation can imply the and early Christian theology. The Roman entire world rather than the soil, which the poet Ovid [43 BC-17 AD] describing the rest of the passage makes clear, is meant creation of the earth by a god: "his first [by its reference to it bringing forth thorns care was to shape the earth into a great and thistles]. Resulting from God's curse, ball, so that it might be the same in all directions." [Ibid, 78] The passage "the . The notion that the earth is flat rather than Spirit of God was hovering over the 33 waters." [Genesis 1:2, emphasis added] round may have derived from a suggested to early Christian expositors a misunderstanding of ancient texts. According to Nicolson "classical and Heavenly Dove. It was a short step from patristic philosophers, with only a few there to suggest that a bird hovering over exceptions, accepted the idea that the earth or sitting on eggs [i.e. that the earth was was round." [Ibid, 92] The egg analogy could an egg]. Basil was one of the Patristic scarcely produce any other conclusion. Ancient writers argued extensively about the flatness of the earth and this may have been 32. Mountains are not mentioned in the Genesis misinterpreted to refer to whether the earth account until the flood. Genesis 7:19: "[The was round or flat, rather than whether the waters] rose greatly on the earth, and all the earth was flat or mountainous. In the middle high mountains under the entire heaven ages it was widely believed that the earth were covered." was flat.

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the earth was defaced and was in a state leading to the Paradise on the summit, for of decay. the abode of spirits on their upward way:

While there was disagreement concerning “that so made pure and light., whether the mountains arose at the time of They may spring upward to the starry Adam and Eve's sin or when Cain killed spheres” [Gilbert, 1885, 36]

Abel, it was almost universally agreed th among Bible commentators that the Flood In the 13 century, John of Salisbury or Deluge caused major changes to the ascended to Grand St Bernard and earth and that, if the mountains were not described it thus: present prior to this, they were certainly there after the flood as the Ark came to "I have been on the mount of Jove; on the one hand looking up to the heaven of the rest on Ararat [Ibid, 87]. Augustine's mountain; on the other shuddering at the position was that the flood made the hell of the valleys; feeling myself so much mountains higher and the valleys and nearer to heaven that I was more sure that ocean depths deeper; this became the my prayer would be heard." generally accepted position. [Nicolson, 1959, 49]

(3) Pre Mid 17th Century Attitudes In 1335, Petrarch [1304-1374] climbed Mount Ventoux [less than 2000 m high] Up to the middle of the 17th century, and was delighted by its grandeur and whenever writers, poets and travellers majesty until he read in his copy of mentioned mountains [which was rare], Augustine's Confessions: "And men go they repeated the epithets of the classics. forth, and admire lofty mountains and Augustine used descriptions of mountains broad seas … and forget their own selves and valleys to moralise about humanity while doing so" [Shepard, 1967, 161]. He [Ibid, 47-8], while Dante made clear his was angry with himself for admiring a dislike of mountains describing the mountain more than the human soul and unappealing masses of broken stones and dignity of man and scurried down guiltily. crags fit only to guard the entrance to hell [Rees, 1975b, 306]. Milton's "mountains on In 1401, Adam of Usk had himself whose barren breast the labouring clouds blindfolded and carried across the St do often rest", was based on classical Gothard Pass [Shepard, 1967, 131]. In conventions and, following anatomical use, 1480 Felix Fabri, a monk from Ulm, described "huge-bellied mountains". journeyed through the Alps and wrote of Similarly Shakespeare, who probably the dreadful peaks, “rigid from the cold of never saw a mountain, described them in the snow or the heat of the sun” but of the classical terms; for example Hamlet's pleasantness of the valleys [Biese, 1905, description of his father is based on Virgil's 262]. Again, there were exceptions. The description of Mercury on Mount Atlas: naturalist, Konrad von Gesner wrote in De Admiratione Montium in 1541 of his delight "Hyperion's curls, the front of Jove himself, in climbing mountains to study the plants An eye like Mars, to threaten or command, and for exercises - "I say then that he is no A station like the herald Mercury lover of nature who does not esteem high New-lighted on a heaven-kissing hill" mountains very worthy of profound contemplation" [Ibid, 264; Shepard, 1967, To writers like Bunyan, mountains were 161]. Gesner was atypical - a more typical allegories of life - he spoke of hills as example was a guidebook to Italy which symbols of the ups and downs of life, included nothing of significance about the mountains were 'proud' and valleys mountains of that country. 'humble' [Nicolson, 1959, 44].

th Mountains were often regarded as the There were exceptions. In the 4 century haunts of evil spirits. Mount Pilatus near Basil placed his hut on a mountain from Lucerne for example, contains near its where he could gain an extensive view. summit a lake that was thought to be Dante [1265-1321], who had seen many haunted by the spirit of Pontius Pilate. The lands, appeared to delight in the Lucerne council prohibited visits to the lake mountains, describing the ascent through until the law was repealed in the early 16th charming upland, flowery glade, crag, century. However the legend was only rocky path and narrow cornice ledge, demolished when a brave person threw

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stones into the lake without retaliation by into which crept for protection the strange Pilate [Rees, 1975a, 42]. denizens of the moon world." [Ibid, 132], scarcely a description of beauty and In 1621, Joshua Poole described his delight but rather of grandeur and terror journeying over the Alps and Pyrenees: which later formed the basis of the 'sublime'. Hard on the heels of these stellar “I am now got over the Alps …; I had discoveries, the poet John Donne crossed … the Pyreneans to Spain before; described mountains as “warts and pock- they are not so high and hideous as the holes on the face of the earth”: Alps; but for our mountains in Wales ... they are but Molehills in comparison to these; “But keepes the earth her round proportion they are but Pigmies compar'd to Giants, but still? Blisters to Imposthumes, or Pimples to Does not a Tenarif, or higher Hill Warts." [Nicolson, 1959, 61] Rise so high like a Rocke ... confesse, in this Similarly, Dr Johnson described the The worlds proportion disfigured is.” Pyrenes as "uncouth, huge, monstrous [Lowenthal, 1978, 384] excrescences of Nature, being nothing but craggy stones." Recoiling from the Scottish John Milton [1608 - 74] crossed the Alps in mountains he penned: "An eye 1638 en route to Italy but left no record of accustomed to flowery pastures and his impressions. waving harvest is astonished and repelled by this wide extent of hopeless sterility." In 1642, Sir John Denham's poem [Shepard, 1967, 131] "Coopers Hill" was published. The poem was of the topographical poetry genre and George Hakewill, in Apologie of the Power described the prospect from Coopers Hill, and Providence of God [1627], believed situated at Runnymeade Island [where the that the mountains were the "immoveable was signed] on the Thames markes of the great deluge" [Ibid, 109] but, with Windsor nearby and London in the contrary to most of this age, he argued for distance. The view included Windsor their usefulness. He spoke of the "pleasing Castle, Runnymeade Island, an abbey variety of mountaines and vallies" [Ibid, ruined in the Dissolution and the Thames - 110]. He considered variety to be one of a landscape of “English political and God's principles of the universe. In a religious history” [Andrews, 1989, 14]. delightful conclusion to his book, Hakewill Denham’s description of the Thames wrote: Valley reflected experience of the Italian landscape - magnifying its attributes to the " I thinke that all things considered, wee point of exaggeration [Hussey, 1927, 23- have no less reason to blesse God for the 4]: less fruitfull mountaines, than for the fat and fruitfull vallies." [Nicolson, 1959, 110] “... the steepe horrid Roughness of the Wood Galileo's Sidereus nuncius, [1610] Strives with the gentle Calmness of the described his findings that the moon's Flood. irregularities and mountains were like the Such huge Extremes, when Nature doth earth. Together with his discovery of the unite, four moons around Jupiter and that Venus Wonder from thence results and thence had crescent phases, these discoveries Delight ....” had an electrifying impact across Europe. Coupled with his discovery in 1613 of The poem was unusual in not adopting the spots on the sun, Galileo’s findings were traditional classical model of Mount believed to indicate decay in the cosmos Parnassus as the basis for inspiration, but as well as on earth. Decay was thus rather taking the, then, radical step of thought to be universal, not only confined using a familiar English location. The poem to the earth. was reprinted many times and stimulated an outpouring of similar topographical In Somnium, an influential work of fiction, poetry over the next two centuries. Kepler described the lunar hills and valleys Between 1650 and 1841, more than 200 as [in Nicolson's words], " a vivid if poems either referred to Coopers Hill or forbidding spectacle of vast towering borrowed from it [Aubin, 1936, 36]. mountains, profound chasms and abysses

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The topographical poem was an important Alps he exceeded Lucretius in his feature of 17th and 18th century English description of the Alps: literature, having its roots in the classics and providing practical and moral "which now rise as it were suddainly ... as if instruction. Myra Reynolds identified ten nature had here swept up the rubbish of the characteristic attitudes towards nature of Earth in the Alps, to forme and cleare the the classical period including: Plaines of Lombardy." [Nicolson, 1959, 62]

• dislike of the grand, terrible or mysterious A common view was that the 'ugliness' of in nature [such as mountains, storms, and the mountains could enhance the beauty atmospheric phenomena] of man's accomplishments. The Earl of • delight in gentle, pleasant nature [such as Devon-shire's magnificent home, rural England] Chatsworth in Derbyshire, was often • symmetrical forms in formal gardens contrasted with the crags and wild rocks of • cold and lifeless imitation of classical the grotesque nearby Peak which was models even referred to as the "Devil's arse"! [Ibid, • an underlying conception of nature as 63-4, see also Hussey, 1927, 25] being entirely apart from man and therefore to be treated either as servant or foe Henry More's An Antidote against Atheism [Reynolds, 1909, 57]. [1652], advocated that all nature is

designed by God and is therefore good. By Denham's time, the Italian landscape He argued that mountains are useful for picturesque was just beginning to be many reasons and reiterated reasons cited evident in English poetry, and the pictorial from Pliny through to Hakewill [Nicolson, contrasts were developed in words more 34 1959, 116]. More's argument that "You fully over the following two centuries . may deem them [i.e. mountains] Many poets adopted images of the ornaments as well as useful" [Ibid, 121] paintings of Claude Lorraine and Salvatore was little more than a repeat of long held Rosa, seeking to portray in words the views. Nicolson comments: "Intellectually sweet serenity of Claude and the he was persuaded of the value of melancholy wildness of Rosa [see Section mountains, but emotionally he was 6.5]. unmoved by them." [Ibid, 122] More

considered variety and diversity to be In 1644, John Evelyn partly climbed about ethical matters rather than aesthetic. Mounte Pientio and spoke conventionally He also regarded mountains as of the "heapes of Rocks so strangely contributing to the diversity of the world congested and broaken ... as would metaphysically, ethically and aesthetically. affright one with their horror and menacing Without them, the world would be a postures." [Nicolson, 1959, 61-2]. Evelyn "languid flat thing." [Ibid, 139] Following regarded the Alps as an unpleasant barrier Augustine, More was unenthusiastic about between the “sweet and delicious” gardens irregularity in nature as found in clouds or of France and Italy. [Rees, 1975a, 40]. As mountains. the translator of Lucretius who described mountains as waste places, when Evelyn More's statement reflected the prevailing reached Lake Maggiore at the foot of the classical view that beauty was based on reason, not emotion. The architect, Sir . Many authors have examined the treatment 34 Christopher Wren, summed it up thus: of nature in poetry. Some which have examined the themes of landscape in "Beauty is a Harmony of Objects, begetting England from the 16th to 19th centuries Pleasure by the Eye.... Geometrical Figures include the following: are naturally more beautiful than any other Myra Reynolds, 1909. The Treatment of irregular; in this all consent, as to a Law of Nature in English Poetry Between Pope and Nature." [Nicolson, 1959, 124-5] Wordsworth. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 388 pp. th J.R. Watson, 1970. Picturesque Landscape Up to the 17 century, objective knowledge and English Romantic Poetry. Hutchinson about mountains was limited. "Genesis Educational, London, 210 pp. governed geology" [Ibid, 159]. For J.R. Watson, 1985. English Poetry of the example, the heights of mountains were Romantic Period, 1789 - 1830. Longman, greatly exaggerated, fossils found on London, 360 pp. mountains were believed to have been Each of these have extensive bibliographies deposited by the receding Flood, the water of further works.

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in rivers was thought to ooze out of the "Upon the ... Globe stand great Heaps of mountains, and the analogy of the human Earth or Stone, which we call Mountains" body was used to suggest that the [Ibid, 197]. mountains comprise the bones of the earth Burnet contrasted the original pristine and the rivers its arteries. earth with the present scarred world in these words: In the 1690s, the intrepid Celia Fiennes rode about England on horseback; her "The Face of the Earth before the Deluge comments reflected the prevailing was smooth, regular, and uniform; without standards of taste. Travelling through the Mountains, and without a Sea... Lake District, an area idolised by later ".. this smooth Earth … had the Beauty of generations, she appeared to have no Youth and blooming Nature, fresh and sense of an aesthetic experience: fruitful, and not a Wrinkle, Scar or Fracture in all its Body; no Rocks nor Mountains, no “Looking upward I was as farre from the top hollow Caves, nor gaping Channels, even which was all Rocks, and something more and uniform all over. ... 'Twas suited to a barren, tho’ there was some trees and golden Age, and to the first innocency of woods growing in ye Rocks and hanging Nature." [Nicolson, 1959, 198] over all down ye Brow of some of the hills. From these great ffells there area several All this was changed with the Deluge. springs out of ye Rocks in the way, when When Noah alighted from the Ark, something obstructs their passage and so they come with more violence, that gives a according to Burnet, he viewed a ruined pleaseing (sic) sound and murmuring noise.” world, which "Time's comforting hand [Hussey, 1927, 91] gradually overlays with healing scars the 'raw and ghastly' wounds of nature" [Ibid, Her description gave no sense of the 200] Where previously there had lain "a sublime, picturesque or romantic qualities wide and endless Plain, smooth as the that latter writers would extol. calm sea" now there were "wild, vast and indigested Heaps of Stone and Earth." The About 20 years later, Daniel Defoe made a mountains stood as the spectacular "Ruins similar tour of the country. Like Fiennes, of a broken World" [Ibid, 200], a dismal he clearly “preferred scenes of activity and prospect indeed. evidence of man’s endeavor than wild uncultivated stretches of country. The Burnet resurrected the idea of the earth as natural landscape left them unmoved; at an egg, but unlike the egg of the ancients, most it made them thankful when they Burnet's was informed by science and reached civilization once again.” [Clark, based on natural principles. He believed 1968, 19]. Defoe wrote of the “Barren that the heavier parts of the Earth sunk Mountains of Wales”, contrasting them towards the centre and the lighter water against the “pleasant and fruitful” areas and air floated above this. There were two nearby. Of the Lake District, Defoe kinds of waters, one "fat, oily and light" and complained of “seeing nothing round me in other "more earthy like common Water", any places, but unpassable Hills, whose the two like "Cream, and thin Milk, Oil and tops, covered with snow, seemed to tell us Water" [Ibid, 202]. His egg comprised all the pleasant part of England was at an several "Orbs", a world which was not end.” [Ibid, 20] spherical but ovoid, with a solid centre, the yolk where burned the "central Fire", a Burnet's A Sacred Theory of the Earth "Membrane" above, with the earth's [1681], viewed the present world as inferior surface being the shell and an "Abyss" to the original - "its gross irregularities and underneath it. Burnet's egg model provided lack of symmetry offended his sense of the answer to the question of the source of proportion" [Nicolson, 1959, 196]. Burnet the Flood - it was the liquid within which saw that the "first Model ... was drawn in had poured forth. Measure and Proportion by the Line and by the Plummet..." whereas the modern Interestingly Newton, in considering world "...'tis a broken and confus'd Heap of Burnet's theory of mountain formation Bodies, plac'd in no Order to one suggested an alternative. He wrote "Milk is another..." [Ibid, 196-7]. Mountains were a uniform a liquor as the chaos was. If one of the major "irregularities" which beer be poured into it, and the mixture let offended Burnet's sense of decorum: stand till it be dry, the surface of the

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curdled surface will appear as rugged and Together with the cosmos and the oceans, mountainous as the earth in any place." he cited mountains as objects that gave [Ibid, 235] Perhaps the great scientist had him pleasure because of their sheer visions of God mixing beer and milk in a immensity: "The greatest Objects of Nature gigantic vat to form the mountains! are, methinks, the most pleasing to behold" [Ibid, 214]. He acknowledged their There were other theories about the majesty that drew one's mind to the formation of mountains: infinite:

• John Ray - they were "elevated by “...as all Things have that are too big for our subterraneous Wild-fire, Flatus [i.e. Comprehension, they fill and overbear the blowing], or Earthquakes" Mind with their Excess, and cast it into a • Edmund Halley of comet fame - they were pleasing kind of Stupor and Admiration.” formed by the "Choc" [i.e. collision] of a [Nicolson, 1959, 214] comet • John Beaumont - fermentation "after the Burnet sought to rationalise his feelings by manner of leaven in dough" distinguishing responses to beauty from • Richard Jago - formed on the third day of responses to vastness, the former to be creation when under the influence of the based on order, symmetry, decorum, sun's heat, vapours rose within the earth's reason and restraint; the latter based on crust and with these also rose "rugosities" grandeur, leading to contemplation of God which hardened in the heat. [Nicolson, 1959, 242 - 5] and infinity. Vastness however carried with it a certain repulsion: “Vastness signifies (4) Change in Attitudes towards an excessive Greatness” [Ibid, 216]. Mountains Describing this as the “Aesthetics of the Burnet’s visit to the Alps in 1671 shattered Infinite”, Nicolson postulated the model: his long cherished notions of proportion, symmetry and order. From a distance the Alps appeared to meet classical God expectations but when among them and climbing them he found the "incredible Confusion" appalling: Cosmos

"These Mountains are plac'd in no Order one with another, that can either respect Mountains and Oceans Use or Beauty;... There is nothing in Nature more shapeless and ill-figur'd than an old Rock or Mountain ... if you look upon an Cosmos Heap of them together, or a mountainous Country, they are the greatest Examples of Confusion that we know in Nature." God [Nicolson, 1959, 210]

Burnet had commenced writing his Latin version of A Sacred Theory of the Earth From thoughts of God, humans think of the while in the Alps. He stubbornly refused to infinitude of the cosmos and then transfer accept that the Alps were created by God such thoughts to mountains and oceans of but they were a "secondary Work, and the the earth. In reverse the mountains and best that could be made of broken oceans raise one's thoughts to the cosmos and thence to God. Nicolson believes the Materials." [Ibid, 212] Grouping mountains th with clouds and stars, Burnet considered 17 century discovered what she termed, that none of them displayed order or the "Aesthetics of the Infinite": "Awe, proportion. He often wrote that it would compounded by mingled terror and have "cost no more" to put these things in exultation, once reserved for God, passed "better Order"! [Ibid, 214] over in the seventeenth century first to an expanded cosmos, then from the Yet despite his horror at what he saw in macrocosm to the greatest objects in the the mountains, he also experienced awe geocosm - mountains, ocean, desert." and attraction of their vastness, the [Nicolson, 1959, 143] The pleasure derived beginnings of a love/hate response. from nature "lay in the enlargement of the soul to experience more completely the

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powers, desires, and aspirations given by He made his generation "mountain its great Original, the true Infinite. [Ibid, conscious" [Ibid, 253] and led to a new 321] Shepard [1967, 159] noted a similar interest in geology [Ibid, 269]. English hills transfer of awe from sky spirits to stars and were described as "Burnet mountains"- planets and then to earth. poets dwelt on the theme of Burnet's mountains as heaps of ruins: Burnet faced an internal conflict between reason and emotion. On the one hand his "Hills pil'd on hills, and rocks together hurl'd; training was based on reason: Sure, Burnet, these the ruins of thy world." [The Prospect, quoted by Nicolson, 1959, "He was taught that the external world 231] reflects some shadow of the first Beauty, that all things in Nature exhibit design and Burnet's book led to a new aesthetic - the plan, that proportion, relation, sublime. Nicolson wrote of "an era that correspondence, symmetry are repeated in went mad over sublimity." [Ibid, 231] macrocosm, geocosm, microcosm, that Regularity vs. irregularity became a major Beauty is consonant with Reason, to be area of debate with the former being apprehended by the rational faculty." regarded as classical, the latter English. It [Nicolson, 1959, 219-220]. led to questions of absolute and relative

standards of beauty and whether beauty On the Alps, Burnett came face to face was inherent in the object or in the mind of with what he termed "Phansy", an early the viewer. term for "fantasy". The emotions he felt were: "enthusiastic, primitive and violent John Ray's The Wisdom of God and as such repellent to a disciple of Manifested in the Works of Creation Reason." [Ibid, 220] He was "both shocked [1691] resorted to the conventional and enthralled" at what he saw. The utilitarian argument and provided an feelings and words that came to him were impressive list of twenty "uses" of those that had legitimately been applied to mountains, including their role in God and the vastness of space. Now he transforming evaporated salt water from found himself applying them to mountains. the sea into the of rain and for

the provision of minerals. Ray also Burnet’s dilemma was a conflict between expressed his delight in the beauty of cognition - his reason and learning, and mountains, responding directly to Burnet's emotions - what he liked and disliked. As concept of them as a "Heap of Rubbish there was no place in his philosophy for and Ruins": beauty to derive from emotional response - he had to rationalise it - he linked it with "I answer, That the present Face of the the response to the Divine. Earth, with all its Mountains and Hill's, its Promontories and Rockes, so rude and In his Sacred Theory, Burnet was the first deformed as they appear, seem to me a to distinguish between the emotional beautiful and pleasant Object, and with all effects of the beautiful and of the sublime that Variety of Hills, and Valleys, and in nature. In his lifetime, mountains did not Inequalities, far more grateful to behold, become beautiful but they did become than a perfectly level Country without any sublime. Importantly his book is one of the Rising or Protuberancy to terminate the Sight." [quoted by Nicolson, 1959, 261] first to find that beauty exists, not in external objects [objectivist approach] but On 5 December, 1692, Richard Bentley’s in our subjective response to them, in Boyle Lecture opposed Burnet's thesis. Burnet's terms, in the "soul" of the man Speaking of mountains, he used the perceiving the object. classical and scriptural arguments and was Burnet's book raised the proverbial one of the last to describe mountains in hornet's nest with protagonists and such disparaging terms as "Warts and supporters attacking and defending it, superfluous Excrescences". Steeped in respectively. Burnet was regarded on the book knowledge, he failed to share continent as one of the most important Burnet's actual experiences of mountains. thinkers of his generation [Ibid, 233]. He However, he did question the classical was quoted by numerous writers, some notion that irregularity equals deformity, ranking him with Newton and Descartes. arguing that: Many books and pamphlets were written supporting, opposing or amplifying Burnet.

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"There is no Universal Reason that a Figure experienced first hand the source of the be called Regular, which hath equal Sides sublime. and Angles, is absolutely more beautiful Writing to a friend of his journey across the than any irregular one." [quoted by Nicolson, Alps, Dennis used phrases such as 1959, 262] "wonders", "astounding prospects", "horrid,

hideous ghastly Ruins", "monstrous A mountain that appears perfectly formed heaps", "horrour" [sic] joined with from a distance can become a formless harmony", "a view [that] was altogether mass when viewed nearby [Monk, 1935, new and amazing", "a delightful Horrour", 2]. Bentley said that the supposed "a terrible Joy" [Thorpe, 1935, 465-8]. "deformity" was not in Nature but rather Dennis's words indicate a mixture of horror was read into Nature: "This objected and joy, feelings that he considered were Deformity is in our Imaginations only, and inconsistent with reason. not really in the things themselves". With these words he, together with Burnet, Dennis identified three causes for feelings recognised the subjectivist element in the of the sublime: 1. God, 2. the cosmos, and appreciation of beauty. The very act of 3. earthly elements - wind, meteors, the recognising that beauty may be sea, rivers and mountains. These aroused subjectively based, instead of being "Enthusiastick Passions" of admiration, inherent in the object presupposes a terror, horror, joy, sadness and desire separation of mind and nature that was [Nicolson, 1959, 282]. In his frequent use unlikely to have occurred prior to of the word "soul" to describe the seat of Descartes. With Burnet and Bentley we emotions about the sublime, Dennis was see the glimmerings of a new approach articulating the result of the "Cartesian which grew to their full flowering in the 18th shears that had separated 'the world out and 19th centuries, culminating in the there' from the 'mind in here' (and) had laid works of Hume and Kant. upon thoughtful men a burden of

discovering how nature affected the mind The trickle that Burnet launched in the late and how mind knew nature." [Ibid, 285] 17th century turned into a flood during the following century as more and more Dennis distinguished beauty from the travellers to the Alps experienced the sublime, the former being based on dilemma Burnet faced when attempting to reason, order, regularity, symmetry while reconcile their cultural upbringing in the the later was the emotional response to classics, the Bible and the Church Fathers objects that create a sense of awe and with their experiences on the ground. horror. Dennis regarded the sublime as

something quite the opposite of beauty. John Dennis set off to see the Alps in 1688 and experienced what Burnet had Anthony Ashley Cooper [1671 - 1713, born experienced. He too returned to write the year of Burnet’s revelatory visit to the about his experiences [Miscellanies in Alps], was the third Earl of Shaftesbury Prose and Verse, 1692], developing "an and a noted philosopher, visited the Alps in aesthetic that had been only embryonic 1686 and wrote that the sublime derived when he went abroad, to seek for new from God and, in Nicolson's words, "in the criteria against which to test literature, and manifestations of Deity in the to make the first important distinction in superabundance and diversity of His English literary criticism between the cosmic and terrestrial works." [Ibid, 295] Sublime and the Beautiful." [Nicolson, Shaftesbury regarded the sublime as the 1959, 279] Although dubbed by "Sir higher, more majestic beauty; it was a Tremendous Longinus" by Pope and Gray, power: as though he had assumed the mantle of

Longinus35 in regard to the sublime, "which naturally captivates the heart, and Dennis actually went far beyond the Greek raises the imagination to an opinion or rhetorician. Unlike Longinus who focused conceit of something majestic and divine... on the effects of the sublime, Dennis had We cannot help being transported with the thought of it. It inspires us with something

more than ordinary, and raises us above 35. Cassius Longinus [AD 213 - 273] was a ourselves." [quoted by Nicolson, 1959, 300] Greek philosopher who is purported to have written the book, On the Sublime. However the book is first century AD and may have been written by Dionysius.

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While beauty drew admiration, the sublime stars and the cosmos - reflecting the glory evoked a deeper emotion, drawing one of Deity. Three distinctive characteristics of closer to God. the sublime had been defined: firstly the distinction between the sublime and Joseph Addison [1672 - 1719] took his beautiful, secondly that the sublime is a tour of the Alps in 1699 and, writing about higher beauty, and thirdly an emphasis on his observations, quoted from Latin poets the vastness of objects that God or man but could find few poems of the have made. On these concepts were mountainous areas [Ibid, 304]. Like Burnet based future developments of the sublime. he described the mountains as "vast heaps of mountains ... thrown together with such About 1699, William Nicholls proposed irregularity and confusion." On arrival in that, though travelling in mountainous Geneva he wrote to a friend: areas was dangerous, it could offer aesthetic satisfaction: "My head is still Giddy with mountains and precipices, and you can't Imagine how much "Those Spectacles which you suppose give I am pleas'd with the sight of a Plain ..." Horror, strike us rather with an awful [quoted by Nicolson, 1959, 305] Reverence; appear, methinks, like stately Monuments of the Magnificence and While the vastness of the mountains did Grandour [sic] of their Author, and the weary not affect Addison as it had affected Traveller himself at once pants and Dennis, he nevertheless felt "an agreeable admires." [quoted by Aubin, 1936, 71] kind of horror" [Ibid, 307]. In describing the "great", Addison focused not on the object With the new century, mountains were but on the "largeness of a whole view": increasingly experienced first hand as growing numbers of wealthy English made "Our imagination loves to be filled with an the Grand Tour of Europe, particularly after object, or to grasp any thing that is too big the Treaties of Utrecht established peace for its capacity. We are flung into a pleasing between various European powers in astonishment at such unbounded views, and 1713. Experiential knowledge gradually feel a delightful stillness and amazement in replaced, or at least supplemented, book the soul at the apprehension of them." knowledge. Irregularity in nature, which in [quoted by Nicolson, 1959, 314] the classical sense was detested, came to be appreciated as travellers acknowledged In describing beauty, Addison convention- the beauty of mountains and clouds. ally followed the practices of his time - it Natural caves and grottoes had been was characterised by elegancy, decorum, abhorred but were now of interest, symmetry, proportion and smallness rather resulting in the proliferation of grottoes in than vastness. He wrote: English gardens. A greater tolerance of the different and the unclassical was apparent "A beautiful prospect delights the soul, as although the classical influence was still much as a demonstration. We are struck, we know not how, with the symmetry of strong. anything we see, and immediately assent to the beauty of an object… A curiosity of the era was the significance of colour following the discoveries of "There is nothing that makes its way more Newton's prism. Combined with the directly to the soul than beauty, which growing interest in geology and immediately diffuses a secret satisfaction gemstones, beauty was seen in the and complacency through the imagination." colours of the gems and other objects of [quoted by Nicolson, 1959, 312] nature, while light which was regarded as the "effluence of Deity" was considered There are inklings of the subjectivist view sublime [Nicolson, 1959, 345]. Thus in the in these words. Addison's differentiation of early 18th century, colour equalled beauty; the beautiful and the great were the basis light equalled sublime. of the important distinction between the sublime and the beautiful that developed in th Poems about hills became far more England during the 18 century [Ibid, 313]. common in the 18th century than in the preceding century, although this was due Dennis, Shaftesbury and Addison all in large measure to the popularity of viewed the sublime as deriving from vast Denham's poem, "Coopers Hill". objects in nature - mountains and oceans,

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Mountains were no longer the 'warts and the Alps was to remain with Gray wens' and monstrosities of the previous throughout his life. He found the mountains century, but were emerging as significant "astonished me beyond expression" and aesthetic objects and essential parts of a the vast, wild, and irregular enthralled him diverse world. This was not fully achieved [Ibid, 357]. The influence was apparent in in the early part of the 18th century and his description of a visit to Scotland in reversals to the old classical position 1765: continued. But a major shift in Western attitudes towards mountains had began "I am returned from Scotland, charmed with and there would be no turning back. Poets my expedition; it is of the Highlands, I writing of the Alps recorded their speak; the Lowlands are worth seeing once, impressions, not in the “shock/horror” but the mountains are ecstatic, and ought to th be visited in pilgrimage once a year. None phrases of the 17 century writers but but those monstrous creatures of God know rather in a more objective fashion. James how to join so much beauty with so much Thomson, a prominent mountain poet, horror." [quoted by Ogden & Ogden, 1955, drew on classical images but also wrote of 357-8] the beauty, the romance, and the terror of mountains. During the 18th century, the prominence given to the vast objects of nature - Bishop Berkeley’s descriptions of Italy in mountains, oceans, the cosmos - 1714 illustrated the love of that land by the overshadowed the works of man as English and a more moderate attitude subjects of poetry. More fundamental towards mountains: “wonderful variety of changes had also occurred. Geology had hills, vales, ragged rocks, fruitful plains, replaced Genesis as the explanation of and barren mountains, all thrown together nature, the six days of creation were in a most romantic confusion...” [quoted by replaced by "long and leisurely earth Manwaring, 1925, 12] processes" [Ibid, 368], and classical and Biblical descriptions of mountains in In 1739 the youthful Horace Walpole and allegorical terms had made way for Thomas Gray struck out on their Grand descriptions from observation. The horror Tour, Gray later to be recognised as and abhorrence formerly associated with England's best classical scholar. Visiting mountains had disappeared, giving way Grand Chartreuse, in a passage that many gradually to a delight and love of regard as a hallmark of the Romantic mountains. Movement, Gray described its psychological effect on him: Travel burgeoned during the 18th century, not only to the Continent on Grand Tours “I do not remember to have gone ten paces but also throughout Britain. Many books without an exclamation that there was no were written of tours undertaken. The restraining: not a precipice, not a torrent, not gradual establishment of railways and of a cliff, but is pregnant with religion and steamboats on rivers and lakes, poetry. There are certain scenes that would th awe an atheist into belief ...You have death particularly in the early 19 century, made perpetually before your eyes, only so far travel more popular and common. removed, as to compose the mind without frightening it. One need not have a fantastic Enthusiasm for the picturesque led to a imagination to see spirits here at noonday.” growing appreciation of the Lake District in [quoted by Hussey, 1927, 94] England in the later quarter of the 18th century by painters, poets and tourists Walpole said of Italy "our memory sees [Manwaring, 1925, 215]. “There is a Rage more than our eyes in this country", for the Lakes, we travel to them, we row reflecting his classical education [Ogden & upon them, we write about them, and Ogden, 1955, 354] and the influence of about them” wrote Hester Piozzi in 1789 their 'memories' was also apparent in their [Andrews, 1989, 153]. “Picturesque travel” journey through the Alps. A thorough was aided by guidebooks, such as grounding in the classics was usual in Thomas West’s Guide to the Lakes in England at the time. The influence of the 1778, and the identification in these books sublime, of the picturesque, Italian of stations from which to view picturesque , and of the admiration scenes. At Station III, West described the of the vast, the grand and the wild, were all view over Derwentwater is described: prominent [Ibid, 355]. The experience of

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“Here is all that is great and pleasing on the embosom’d in the dark cliffs ... to the left the lake, all that is grand and sublime in the turbulent chaos of mountain behind environs, lie before you in a beautiful order, mountain roll’d in confusion; beneath you ... and natural disposition.” [quoted by Watson, the shining purity of the Lake, just ruffled by 1970, 13] the breeze enough to shew it alive, reflecting rocks, woods, fields, & inverted West’s guidebook went through seven tops of mountains ...” [quoted by Manwaring, editions over the next 20 years. It 1925, 182] conducted tourists: During the 1760s and 1770s Thomas Gray “from the delicate touches of Claude, also visited the Wye Valley and parts of the verified on Coniston Lake, to the noble West Country, the Peak District and the scenes of Poussin, exhibited on Scottish highlands, the principal regions of Windermere-water, and from there to the Britain most visited by enthusiasts of the stupendous romantic ideas of Salvatore picturesque. His descriptions had a Rosa, realized in the Lake of Derwent.” powerful effect in shaping aesthetic taste [quoted by Hussey, 1927, 126]. and ensuring the popularity of all of these

areas - except the Peak which he found Celia Fiennes recommended visiting the ugly, “black, tedious, barren, and not Lakes to cure “the evil itch of over-valuing mountainous enough to please one with its fforeign [sic] parts” [Hussey, 1927, 97]. Dr horrors” [Ibid, 183]. Brown published a letter about a visit to the Lakes in 1768: Rousseau’s influence on European

attitudes towards mountainous landscapes “On the opposite shore [from Keswick], you will find rocks and cliffs of stupendous was also felt. In the 1760s he wrote to a height, hanging over the lake in horrible friend about climbing: grandeur, the woods climbing up their steep and shaggy sides, where mortal foot never “Upon the top of mountains, the air being yet approached; on those dreadful heights subtle and pure, we respire with greater the eagles built their nests; a variety of freedom, our bodies are more active, our are seen pouring from their minds more serene, our pleasures less summits, and tumbling in vast sheets from ardent, and our passions much more rock to rock in rude and terrible moderate. Our meditations acquire a degree magnificence: while on all sides of this of sublimity from the grandeur of the objects immense amphitheatre the lofty mountains around us. It seems as if, being lifted above rise round, piercing the clouds in shapes as all human society, we had left every low spiry and fantastic as the rocks of Dovedale. terrestrial sentiment behind.” [quoted by “ [quoted by Hussey, 1927, 99-100]. Biese, 1905, 276]

Brown’s letter was a factor in causing Goethe made his first visit to the Swiss Thomas Gray and Arthur Young to visit the Alps in 1775 but did not come to Lakes and with the improvement of roads appreciate them until a later visit in 1779, in the area it became a popular place to when he was “the first German poet to fall visit. Young, a farmer, wrote in romantic under the spell of the mountains” [quoted terms of the Lakes similarly to Brown: “the by Biese, 1905, 314]. He wrote “These towering rocks, many of them of terrible sublime, incomparable scenes will remain size” [Ibid, 104], while Gray viewed them in for ever in my mind” and described the picturesque terms, with “a certain intimacy mountains across Lake Geneva “The view of comprehension, a depth of tone which was so great, man’s eyes could not grasp makes his descriptions seem like it” [Ibid]. He described the effect the nineteenth-century work” [Ibid, 105]. Gray mountains had on him: viewed the scene as a painter rather than a poet; to him a landscape was more than “The passage through this defile roused in a picture, it “had sentiment, character, me a grand but calm emotion. The sublime meaning, almost personality” [Ibid, 106]. produces a beautiful calmness in the soul, which, entirely possessed by it, feels as His descriptions of the Lakes helped make great as it ever can feel. How glorious is it a fashionable place to visit: such a pure feeling, when it rises to the very highest without overflowing. .... When we “...the most delicious view, that my eyes see such objects as these for the first time, ever beheld. Behind you are the magnificent the unaccustomed soul has to expand itself, heights of Walla-crag; opposite lie the thick and this gives rise to a sort of painful joy, an hanging woods of Ld [sic] Egremont, and overflowing of emotion which agitates the Newland Valley, with green & smiling fields

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mind and draws from us the most delicious Kant’s Critique of Judgement has a similar tears ...” [quoted by sBiese, 1905, 316] point of view to Wordsworth’s Prelude [Monk, 1935, 5]. Increasingly during the 18th century, travellers experienced the European Alps In the 20th century, a review of English with attitudes "diametrically opposed to landscape tastes in the post-war period those of Burnet and Dennis" [Nicolson, failed to include mountainous landscapes 1959, 372]. By the 1760s, Rousseau had among the categories identified36 “the ear of Europe and [was telling them] [Lowenthal & Prince, 1965; see also of the beauties and subtlities of Alpine Lowenthal, 1978, 388]. scenery” [Monk, 1935, 127]. Armed with guidebooks travellers sought the (5) Mountains - Conclusions experiences of sublimity. In 1785 a Guide to Travelling in the Harz was published Western cultural attitudes to mountains and in 1806, a Guide to Switzerland derived originally from classical and appeared. Pinkerton’s Catalogue of scriptural origins, the former defining what Voyages and Travels in 1814 identified was acceptable and which, from a 360 guidebooks, 276 being for travel on scriptural view, established what was the Continent [Reynolds, 1909, 223]. “good” and hence of Divine origin, it being

th axiomatic that God would not create Writers and poets of the 19 century were anything that was not good. Because interested in the geology of the mountains mountains did not fit into the classical and features such as caves and chasms definition of beauty, being irregular, which were "symbols of the secret places asymmetric and without due restraint, it in the soul of man" [Nicholson, 1959, 379]. followed that they were loathsome and to They delighted in natural extreme events be despised. Based on human analogy, such as storms, avalanches, earthquakes th mountains were regarded as excrescences and volcanic eruptions. While 17 century and blisters, marring the earth’s beauty. To poets were self conscious about space cap it off they were also regarded as and 18th century poets self conscious th largely useless, unproductive and barren. about time, the Romantic poets of the 19 Many accounts of mountains by travellers century were comfortable with notions of over the centuries spoke of them as both infinity and eternity [Ibid, 381]. Writers monstrosities and terror-filled places. of Burnet, Dennis and Addison's time distinguished clearly the sublime and the Then through first hand experience of beautiful but by the time of the Romantics mountains, a change occurred in the late this distinction was no longer apparent 18th century as travellers experienced [Ibid, 384]. Shelley had a vastly different both the terror of mountains and a sense impression of Mont Blanc from his of awe and attraction to their vastness. predecessors: Feelings that had been reserved for God were applied to earthly elements such as “Far, far above, piercing the infinite sky, mountains. These feelings aroused by vast Mont Blanc appears, - still, snowy and objects were called sublime and were serene.” [quoted by Nicolson, 1959, 387] distinguished from the classical notions William Wordsworth expressed himself that defined beauty in terms of regularity, across the range of emotions about proportion, symmetry and restraint. mountains. The Alps he found Experiential learning displaced book overwhelming and unstable, the mountains learning. of the English Lake District he found stable and permanent, a "tranquil sublimity": During the 18th and 19th centuries, many

"... the brook itself, English experienced mountains for Old as the hills that feed it from afar, themselves, initially experiencing them first Doth rather deepen than disturb the calm hand as “a delightful Horrour” and “a Where all things else are still and motionless." [quoted by Nicolson, 1959, 36. Lowenthal and Prince [1965] identified the 391] following categories: the bucolic, the picturesque, the deciduous [trees], the tidy Wordsworth’s subjectivity, focusing on the [nothing out of place], façadism, influences of an object on the mind, has antiquarianism, rejection of the present and been likened to the philosopher, Kant. the sensuous and the functional, historical associations, and genius loci.

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terrible Joy” but, as technology overcame spectacular, beautiful, awesome places. the terrors of travelling, began to enjoy The abundance of picture books, them as beautiful and delightful in their calendars, paintings and articles and own right. Mountains became a favourite stories of them and the many tourists, subject of writers and poets and with the walkers and climbers who visit them understanding provided by geology and attests to this. It would be almost other natural sciences the mythologies incomprehensible for someone to describe attached to mountains evaporated. such areas in the terms used 350 years ago. The cultural paradigm shapes the The history of Western culture’s perception individual perceptions and can provide of mountains is testimony to a either a negative or a positive context for revolutionary shift in perception - in individual perceptions. Marjorie Hope Nicolson’s words “one of the most profound revolutions in thought The lesson of mountain aesthetics that has ever occurred.” While she therefore is this: while the reality may be focussed on the change from viewing constant, culture and other influences mountains as excrescences and warts that influence its perception and interpretation. marred the beauty of the earth to viewing them as places of sublimity, the revolutionary shift is more than this. It also 6.5 THEME TWO: LANDSCAPE AND marked the shift from an objectivist to a ART subjectivist approach to aesthetics. As an expressive medium, paintings and For centuries it was taken as self-evident drawings often reflect the idealised that mountains were monstrous “horrours” essence of that form of physical and while such descriptions were merely environment that is regarded by the the adjectives applied by the mind, they prevailing cultural norms as beautiful. were regarded as objective descriptions of mountains. The Cartesian shears The very concept of capturing in a small separated what was out there from what picture an image of the wider world is itself was in here. With Burke, Kant and other a staggering advance. It is noteworthy that philosophers came the realisation, brought no Palaeolithic cave paintings contained into stark clarity by concept of the sublime scenes of nature other than animals and that these descriptions were essentially some human forms, not even the ground subjective, and did not exist outside the was depicted. Certainly landscape scenes mind. While humans thought they were were never included. An analysis of 2188 objectively describing the mountains as figures in 66 caves in Europe painted excrescences, these descriptions were between 3,000 - 8,000 BC found they were merely subjective tags. all animals.37 Clearly, these paintings were motivated by The example of mountain aesthetics also something other than an aesthetic desire, provides a case study into the influence of possibly they were totemic, religious, a cultural norms and expectations in shaping charm to ward off spirits, or representative individual perceptions. Throughout history, of possession of a locality. up to the time of Burnett and with very few exceptions, the ruling cultural paradigm The ancient Egyptians appeared that had been derived from classicism and disinterested in aesthetics - their fine Scripture, defined the individual's view of sculptures and paintings were located in mountains. The cultural paradigm created tombs and temples rather than being for a womb-like enclosure, cutting off the general view. As well, the many individual from other influences and inscriptions praising the work of architects ensuring conformity of the individual to this and builders were in terms of the durability paradigm. The individual's view of and strength of the work, never its beauty mountains is thus based, not on objective [Beardsley, 1966, 22]. fact, but on the image provided by one's cultural blinkers. It takes a courageous 37. See A. Leroi-Gouram, 1982. The Dawn of individual to break out of this mould, to re- European Art - An Introduction to Palaeolithic define what this paradigm should be. Cave Painting. Cambridge University Press; The ruling cultural paradigm today, at least M. Ruspoli, 1987. The Caves of Lascaux, The in the West, is that mountains are Final Photographic Record. Thames & Hudson.

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Paintings by Australian Aborigines are houses and trees depicted accurately and maps of Dreamtime stories representing a pleasing unity created from the various relationships between elements that elements of the paintings [Hunter, 1985, symbolise features such as streams, 61 - 70]. billabongs, rocks and snakes. They are painted as a plan view from above and require interpretation. The Western concept of a view or a scene as a way of conceptualising landscape was unknown to the Aborigines [Taylor, 1994, 42].

The art historian Otto Pacht wrote, "The discovery of the aesthetic value of landscape was the final outcome of a complex ripening process in which every form of imagination was involved and which concerned the entire attitude of man towards his physical environment." [Shepard, 1967, 119]

(1) Landscape in Pre 17th Century Art

In the Western culture, the first glimpse of landscapes appeared as backgrounds to scenes of the Virgin or the nativity or other religious subjects as early as the 13th century. Giotto’s frescoes of the life of St Francis, painted at the Basilica in Assisi Source: Clark, 1976 between 1296 and 1304, included trees de Limbourg brothers, Tres Riches Heure du painted as symbols and overall, the Duc de Berry, 1416 frescoes lacked Francis’s empathy for the [the very rich hours (i.e. time) of the Duke of Berry] natural world. Fra Angelico [1387-1455] painted Noli me Tangere with flowers and trees but they lacked any sense of reality.

The brothers de Limbourg, achieved a more realistic depiction of landscapes in France in 1416 with the paintings, Très Riches Heure, on the theme of the months in the countryside. Clark considered them significant because they lay between symbol and fact [Clark, 1976, 22].

The Flemish paintings of the Van Eyck brothers of this time portrayed realistic landscapes. A 1432 altarpiece at Ghent, by the Van Eycks, accurately represented plants in a luxuriant valley with rocky vegetated walls [Biese, 1905, 191].

Other artists of the Low Countries followed the lead of the Van Eycks including Dierick Bouts, Roger van der Weyden, Joachim de Patenir, Simon Bennick, Hieronymus

Bosch and Pieter Brueghel. The seasons Source: Clark, 1976 in the countryside were a popular theme; de Limbourg brothers the works of Bruegel [born around 1520] are perhaps the best known and depicted plump peasants disporting themselves in various rural and household activities, with

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Source: Clark, 1976

Albreht Durer, View of the Arco, 1490s

The Flemish influence reached south to Italy and influenced Renaissance artists. Sandro Botticelli [1447-1515] included Source: Clark, 1976 glimpses of landscapes of northern Europe Leonardo da Vinci, Landscape Drawing [top] and Deluge drawing [bottom] rather than of Italy in some paintings such as Adoration of the Magi [1481]. While Renaissance artists were inspired by the some Italian artists painted realistic classics, particularly the poems of Ovid scenes, in most the landscapes were and Virgil. The latter’s sensitive merely a “decorative and romantic” image understanding of the countryside [Hunter, 1985, 73]. An early topographical combined with the dream of the Golden painting was the Swiss Konrad Witz’s The Age. Virgilian landscapes, an “evocation of Miraculous Draught of Fishes [1444] which the antique world” [Clark, 1976, 113], detailed Lake Geneva [Clark, 1976, 39]. became a staple of artists from the Renaissance through Claude Lorraine and Albrecht Durer [1471 - 1528], an the Italianate artists of the 18th century to outstanding draughtsman and water- the Romantics of the 19th century. colourist, painted scenes of Innsbruck in 1494 and later, scenes of lakes that are th Steeped in classicism, Michelangelo not unlike Turner’s of the 19 century. regarded the value of art as deriving from the moral or historical importance of the The paintings of Leonardo da Vinci clearly subject; realism whether of landscapes or reflected observations of real landscapes portraits was inferior. He rebuked the captured in his notebooks and used in the Flemish landscape painters for not backgrounds of paintings such as the dignifying their paintings with “reason or Virgin and Child, Mona Lisa and Madonna art... symmetry or proportion” [Rees, 1978, of the Rocks. His careful scientific 52-4] and his distaste of such painting observations of rock formations are influenced his contemporaries. evident in his paintings.

th The Venetians created a new approach to The 15 century saw the development of the ancient concept of the Golden Age. perspective by the architect Alberti. Early Giovanni Bellini [1430-1516] of Venice artists painted the foreground and the predated Brueghel but painted similar background in perspective but had landscapes. His Madonna of the Meadows problems linking through the middle and St Francis in the Wilderness are ground. Sometimes they constructed striking for the realism of their landscapes, paintings so as to avoid the problem, such inclusive of symbolic objects such as the as from a high viewpoint, at other times ass in the latter painting. Near the end of making rather botched attempts to paint his life, Bellini painted The Feast of the the middle ground in perspective. Gods [1514] with figures of gods, Gradually however they mastered it. goddesses and satyrs feasting in the foreground amid tall trees and rocky

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outcrops, all imbued with a golden light. England, and soe lately come a shore, as The painting, harking back to Arcadia and all the Language within our fower (four?) the Golden Age, is not unlike a Claude Seas cannot find it a Name, but a Lorraine or Nicolas Poussin of the next borrowed one, and that from ... the Duch" century [Hunter, 1985, 74 - 77]. [Norgate, c1621, Quoted by Whinney & Millar, 1957, 260; spelling is Norgate's] He From his earliest age, the Venetian was referring to the Dutch term "landskip" Giorgione had astonishing skill in painting from whence the English "landscape" was and rendered the perspectives of lands- derived. capes expertly. His park-like scenes were suffused with a golden light and his Norgate was correct in his assessment of “flowing rhythm” made a natural lyricism the newness of landscape art to England. [Clark, 1976, 114]. The structure of his The 16th century had seen virtually no paintings, looking through dark masses of interest in landscape painting until the trees or rock on the sides to a distant latter decades when several books that scene provided the model for Claude [Ibid, covered it in part were published or 115]. translated. By 1600, however, landscape painting was only nascent, occasionally Another Venetian, Titian was one of the used as a backdrop to a portrait or a first to paint nature as he saw it: “the broad tapestry, but was not an identifiable genre masses of sward and foliage, the light of art. This was to emerge in England over glinting through leaves and catching the the following century. tree trunks” [Hussey, 1927, 9]. He developed the theme of Bacchanal, a (2) Landscape in 17th Century Art favourite classical theme, with nymphs and satyrs rollicking amidst Arcadian scenes. Henry and Margaret Ogden Another artist who painted broadleaved comprehensively assessed the emergence deep forest scenes was the German, of landscape in art in English Taste in Altdorfer [1480 - 1538] whose inspiration Landscape in the Seventeenth Century was the high northern forests. His painting [1955]. The growing role of landscape in of St George [1511], though small, is art was expressed mainly in paintings but packed solid with leaves of trees, not light also in tapestries, book illustrations and and airy but “menacing, organic growth, masque scenery (i.e. backdrops for plays). ready to smother and strangle any Using catalogues of art collections taken intruder” [Clark, 1976, 75]. during this period, the Ogdens established quantitative indicators of the proportion of landscapes in collections and analysed the subjects of landscapes and the changing taste of landscape.

Landscapes drew heavily from Continental influences, the major schools being the Italianate (Roman and Venetian), Dutch and Flemish, and French. Italianate artists included Paul Brill [1554 - 1626], Nicolas Poussin [1593 - 1665], Gaspar Doughet [1613 - 1675] who was Poussin’s brother- in-law and also known as Gaspard Poussin, Claude Lorraine [1600 - 1682], and Salvatore Rosa [1615 - 1673] each of whom had significant influence on English landscape taste. Several of these, particularly Lorraine and the Poussins, were influential French painters.

Source: Clark, 1976 Joos de Momper [1564 - 1635], Rubens Altdorfer, St George, 1511 [1577 - 1640], Jan Brueghel [1568 - 1625] and seven other artists of the Brueghel th In the early 17 century landscape painting family, were all influential Flemish painters. was described as "an Art soe new in These are just a few of the very many

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Continental landscape artists who were caring more for perfect truth to life, the well known in England during the 17th and Dutch for beauty.” [Biese, 1905, 194] 18th centuries. In the first half of the 17th century, Inigo Jones [1573 - 1652] was the The Ogdens distinguished between ideal most important English artist but many (or imaginary) landscapes and others emerged in the latter part of the topographical (or actual) landscapes, the century, including Robert Aggas [c1619 - former being by far the more popular. c1682], Robert Streater [1624 -1679], Prosper Henry Lankrinck [1628 - 1704], Most of the topographical landscapes were Robert Streater the Younger [d 1711] and associated with cities, buildings and ruins. Thomas Manby [d 1695]. A few were 'prospects' [i.e. landscapes with a long view to the horizon], and included such well known views as Greenwich over the Thames Valley, "the most popular view in England" [Ogden & Ogden, 1955, 59] and described by Barclay as the “best Prospect in Europe” [Manwaring, 1925, 9]. Another favoured location was Richmond Hill where the Thames meandered through a vale of large trees, creating an Italianate-like landscape.

Although there were paintings of actual scenes, the artists used considerable

Source: Clark, 1976 freedom of interpretation to create the Rubens, Philemon and Baucis, early 17th C. mood sought. Side-framing trees, and/or a central clump of trees were common Rubens had a major influence on northern devices to highlight the foreground and to European art, out of all proportion to his frame the central object of interest [Ogden output. His paintings: & Ogden, 1955, 60]. Far prospects might be included and hills enlarged. Figures “were more realistic than anything hitherto were often added for variety, to fill space seen in painting by his contemporaries, yet and to direct the viewer. they were bursting with the glow and freshness and drama of Titian’s Towards the end of the century, there was landscapes.” [Hussey, 1927, 11] a less sharp distinction between actual and imagined landscapes and the Ogdens Rubens’ paintings contained exquisite considered this to be of "great significance detail, sensitively executed and a delicacy for development of the appreciation of of atmosphere that could stand alongside natural scenery" [Ibid, 163]. The aesthetic Turner and Monet [Clark, 1976, 100]. values imputed by painters in their ideal landscapes were transferred to their Adam Elsheimer [1578 - 1610], a German paintings of actual scenes, from whence: painter, created classical scenes with an enamelled quality similar to Altdorfer. His "it was an easy step to transfer the same Flight into Egypt [around 1600] is a night- values to natural scenery itself, to find the time campsite scene with powerful dark same kinds of enjoyment in actual views as shapes illuminated by light from the moon in ideal prospects, and to associate with and campfire. external nature the moods imparted by landscapists in their canvases." [Ibid, 163] Based on the paintings of Elsheimer, Brill and Rubens, Holland produced a Ideal or imagined landscapes were based generation of landscape painters that mainly on European landscapes: produced the “naturalistic type of picturesque landscape” complete with old "The cardinal fact about seventeenth- gnarled trees, water and windmills, rustic century taste is that all the more obvious features of European scenery were , hovels and shaggy animals [Ibid]. admired.... The Europe depicted was mainly The Flemish and Dutch painters had pastoral and unenclosed, and the terrain differing styles however, the “Flemings more suitable for grazing and hunting than for plowing and cultivating. As for the

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alleged dislike of barren and mountainous landscapes they experienced and painted scenery, the paintings do not substantiate it. "prospects", scenes from a high viewpoint The liking for great rock masses in the which "seemed to exude a comfortable foreground and frequent use of mountains sense of plenitude." [Shepard, 1967, 123]. and hills at the horizon, not to mention the Dutch painters visited England and made Alpine landscapes, make it clear that painters and picture collectors admired a comfortable living painting country mountainous scenery as much as any other manors and setting them amidst idealised kind." [Ogden & Ogden, 1955, 36]. parks and gardens. These paintings led to the English enthusiasm for the Given the antipathy in literature towards picturesque. The establishment of mountain landscape in the 17th century, the landscape gardens fulfilled the paintings’ positive image of mountains and their idealised landscapes. frequency in paintings is surprising. The th reason for this is not clear but it is In the 17 century, landscape painting, noteworthy that the literary view changed together with travel painting emerged. once writers began to gain first-hand Classical themes from Greece and Rome experience of mountainous landscapes dominated "preconditioning British eyes to instead of merely writing and reading wonderful and impossible notions of about their imaginary horrors. Whether classical and Alpine landscapes by Gothic painters were documenting an actual artists" [Shepard, 1967, 165]. The standard landscape or creating an imaginary one, setting was a northern Italian countryside they may have derived their inspiration scene. from personal knowledge of mountainous landscapes. The mountainous landscape The enthusiasm with which society sought paintings doubtless prepared the English to rediscover the glory of the classical mind for a change in its attitude to worlds of Greece and Rome underlay the mountains which occurred early in the importance of ruins in landscapes; in following century. America which lacked ancient structures, even a burnt out house would attract 17th Century Landscape Tastes people to ponder the remaining ruins [Shepard, 1967, 184]. America however During the 17th century, ten types of had dead trees in abundance and painters landscapes developed in painting. These sometimes used these as a substitute for a were harbours, ruins, farm/villages, ruin [Johnson, 1979, 29]. In England on forests, rivers, animals, mountains, the other hand, gardeners planted a dead waterfalls, moonlight and the prospect. tree in Kensington Gardens to provide the Any single painting could include many of desired effect! these features. The principles of variety and contrast were th The following summarises features of the important in 17 century landscape principal landscape types, based on the painting. Variety was achieved through Ogdens' analysis. what would now be regarded as the 'busyness' of paintings, containing varied Derived from both Flemish and Italianate topographies, trees, fields, rivers, castles, schools, the paintings often included as ruins, livestock, and figures. Contrast was much land as water and featured achieved through the "juxtaposition of the mountains, cliffs, buildings and ruins as fertile and barren, the smooth and the well as ships and the sea. Later paintings rough, the near and the far" together with provided areas for promenading figures. contrasts of tone and colour [Ogden & Ogden, 1955, 38]. According to the Ogdens, the "liking for an extensive and variegated view was the An important mood, at least in the first half th dominant characteristic of English taste in of the 17 century, was that of an ascetic landscape” during the first half of 17th mysticism evoked by paintings of saints in century [Ibid, 48], popularity which wild mountainous settings. The theme was continued to the second half, albeit for popular in the Renaissance and was somewhat more limited view. "extremely influential in shaping the growth of seventeenth century landscape." [Ibid, During the 17th century, Flemish artists 52]. were among the first to paint the

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"The kind of landscape regarded as Another mood, epitomised by the works of conducive to religious ecstasy was mountain Claude Lorraine38 was the classical scenery with rocky crags and ravines, landscape - complete with ruins and twisted trees and broken limbs. The wilder figures from classical literature. Northern the scene, the more fitting it was thought for painters who visited Italy "Arcadianized" religious contemplation and exaltation, because the farther removed from worldly the landscape. They "felt the rhythms of associations. … Historically, such pictures elegiac verse in Italian scenery, and they may be regarded as an important factor in saw in it the imagery of pastoral eclogues." creating the vogue of mountain scenery." [Ibid, 53] This Italianate landscape, the [Ogden & Ogden, 1955, 52] "Italian legend" [Ibid, 147] became the most important of the latter half of the 17th Later in the century, these landscapes century. Interestingly, almost exclusively gave way to a mood of horror and drama non-Italian artists painted them - even associated with mountains, a mood the Claude was French born. Ogdens suggest stemmed from Burnet's ideas about mountains and the qualities of The Ogdens identified four main "delightful Horrour, a terrible Joy" components of the Italianate landscape: expressed by Dennis. The paintings of Salvator Rosa, a Swiss-born Italian painter • Italian climate and scenery who best illustrated this mood, were • ruins and buildings characterised by their wildness: • contemporary inhabitants • classical literature [Ogden & Ogden, 1955, "they show sky beyond dark, windy 147]. subpromontories among the large rocky debris at the base of the upper slopes, cliffs The many hundreds of paintings of this bounding streams near their junction with period combined strong images of light, of the valley floor, sparse trees thrusting ruins, of classical figures disporting through rock outcrops with the flush valley adjacent." [Shepard, 1967, 165] themselves amidst attractive landscapes, creating a mood of pathos that was evoked Figures were posed at a critical moment or by the combination of images of life and of in a "stance expressive of dramatic death. But such paintings were also happy. emotion" [Ogden & Ogden, 1955, 49]. Claude's paintings for example depicted a Storms among the mountains were a world in which Virgilian figures: popular theme. "of epic or pastoral quality move nobly amid the beauty of an Italian dawn or evening, the The dramatic moods of Rosa's paintings softness of the Italian climate, and the could not be in greater contrast to the majesty of Italian architecture. The mood is dominant mood of landscape painting sedately happy, dignified but easy, th during the first half of the 17 century, restrained but highly romantic." Ogden & which the Ogdens termed “well being”, Ogden, 1955, 148] “prospering activity”, or “Christian optimism.” “Man and nature are The Italianate landscape was based accomplishing their appointed tasks." largely on the Campagna region that lies [Ogden & Ogden, 1955, 50] north and east of Rome, an area of volcanic hills and lakes. This new Arcadia This mood of "diffused euphoria" continued with a soft golden light suffusing the scene throughout the 17th century and was created a dreamlike quality. The inclusion particularly influential among the works of of ruins in the scenes provided the Northern artists. The peaceful scenes classical cues so important to the spirit of evoked a feeling of "a quietly functioning the age. cosmos ordained by God to fulfil purposes essentially benevolent, that is, the feeling of well-being." [Ogden & Ogden, 1955, 146] The physico-theologists could 38. Claude Lorraine was born Claude Gelle in scarcely have said it better, such Champagne, Lorraine in France. A painting of landscape paintings were a visible him in 1777 is labelled “Claude le Lorrain” manifestation of their philosophy of natural [Manwaring, 1925, 36 plate] The spelling of theology. Claude Lorraine’s name varies: Claud, Claude and Lorrain, Lorraine, Lorain. He was often referred simply as Claude. The Anglised version, Claude Lorraine is used here.

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tone and other aspects were established. Finally the painting would be executed. The result was what used to be called Keeping - “Everything is in Keeping, there is never a false note” [Clark, 1976, 128]. This approach was classicism at its best and was not broken until the Impressionists of the late 19th century sought to capture the immediacy of a scene.

These three moods: well-being and activity, mountain horror and drama, and the Italianate, dominated landscapes in England in the latter 17th century and through the 18th century.

The 17th century landscapes were largely Source: Clark, 1976 inspired by influences from the Continent, Claude Lorraine, Hagar and the Angel the 18th century would see an indigenous English taste develop and mature. Claude perfected the Italianate style of scenes of trees, ruins, mountains and (3) Landscape in 18th Century Art rivers. In Italian Landscape in Eighteenth Century “He inspired the very elements with mind England [1925], Elizabeth Manwaring and feeling; his valleys, woods, and seas were just a veil through which divinity was demonstrated the profound influence that the paintings of Claude Lorraine, Salvatore visible. All that was ugly, painful, and th confused was purified and transfigured in Rosa and other Italianate artists of the 17 th his hands. There is no sadness or denection century had on English taste in the 18 [sic] in his pictures, but a spirit of serene century. There were many imitators of beauty, free from ostentation, far-fetched these artists, and countless engravings contrast, or artificial glitter. Light breezes and prints of their works that adorned the blow in his splendid trees, golden light homes the English middle class. Though quivers through them, drawing the eye to a few of these artists lived to see the 18th bright misty horizon...” [Biese, 1905, 196-7] century, they nevertheless had an amazing

far-reaching influence on art, poetry, The standard format of a Claude painting literature and garden design in England in and that of his many imitators was: th "from a slightly elevated viewpoint, with the 18 century and beyond. Their mountains in the distance beyond a still influence on gardens is examined in body of water, a temple or ruin in the middle section 6.6. Here their influence on English ground with shepherds or a pagan taste in art is examined. ceremonies in a park-like clearing, and the near ground with a few identifiable plants Although the Dutch and Flemish artists and large trees or buildings framing the were more accurate in their portrayal of scene. Such compositions in three planes scenes, the Italianate artists were favoured [i.e. foreground, middle distance, far for ‘improving’ on nature: distance] and muted colour has in the

course of three centuries so deeply etched itself on the collective memory that it “On their canvases the English visitor saw a unmistakably influences general ideals of powerful representation of scenes already in beauty and scenery. [Shepard, 1967, 124] his memory ... the Virgilian tranquillity, the evocation of a Golden Age, had been felt

with infinitely more dreamy sweetness by Claude, like all artists of his time, did not Claude Lorrain [while] the awe, which he simply “dash off” a major oil painting. His called horror, that had stricken the traveller paintings were based on drawings of as he crossed the dizzy crags of his journey, actual scenes, generally undertaken in the the sense of the might and vastness of open and sometimes almost nature and the littleness of man, the thrill of Impressionistic in their appearance. This the wild and untameable, Salvatore Rosa would be followed by trial studies for the had felt more passionately.” [Manwaring, painting in which the composition, balance, 1925, vi]

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During the 18th century England, art assumed an importance and role not hitherto present. Paintings were to be found, not only in galleries and churches, but also in the homes of all the well-to-do, original paintings in the homes of the rich, prints, engravings and imitations in the homes of the more ordinary folk. Copies were important: “Diffusion of the Italian ideal of landscape came chiefly through Claude Glasses the engravers” [Manwaring, 1925, 79]. Books on painting techniques abounded, Illustrative of his popularity was the the number of amateur artists multiplied, invention of the Claude-glass, a plano- and many painting schools were convex, low-toned pocket mirror about established. By 1730, collecting art had 10cm across, encased in leather and used become fashionable and sales and to view the scene. The darkening of the auctions were well patronised. Paintings of mirror created the muted tones favoured the Italianate artists were scoured from by Claude and was used in sunny Italy and brought to England. conditions while a second glass of silver was used for cloudy weather. Foliage and Visits to Italy on the Grand Tour were rocks were particularly Claude-like when occasions to view and to purchase viewed through the mirror. The convexity originals of the great Italianate artists. of the mirror miniaturised the landscape, English visitors to Italy became so reducing the extensive Lake Windermere th numerous during the first half of the 18 for example to manageable proportions. century that by 1740 Lady Hertford Use of the Claude-glass was absolutely complained that summer in Italy was indispensable for viewers of landscape. Its dreadful because of the hordes of English use indicated a “subtle change of attitude visitors! [Manwaring, 1925, 57] A visitor in to viewing the landscape. For the first time the 1790s described the Italianate in England the rugged scenery is paintings in her letters with exclamation appreciated for its own sake” [Clark, 1968, marks suggesting Baedeker’s star rating of 20]. Thomas Gray’s use of the Claude- sites: glass was typical:

“A battle, by Salvatore Rosa!!!”; “A beautiful “On the ascent of the hill above Appleby, the landscape by Claude Lorain!!!!”; “Two capital thick hanging wood and the long reaches of landscapes by Salvatore Rosa!!!”; “...a the Eden ... winding below with views of the Claude!!!... a Claude!!!...a Claude!!!!” [Ibid, Castle & Town gave much employment to 60-1]. the mirror.” [Manwaring, 1925, 182] The increasing travel, according to Manwaring, developed the English taste Claude’s strengths lay in depicting light for scenery, pictures and picture galleries. and especially the rising or setting sun, and also his use of water - rivers and the It is difficult to comprehend now the sea, and of ruins and buildings. His figures esteem with which Claude Lorraine was though were weak. Richard Wilson, an 18th th held in England in the 18 century. The top century painter of the Claude tradition, art connoisseurs of the period extolled him; described his depth of view: “you may walk comparisons with Raphael were not in Claude’s pictures and count the miles” uncommon; “a temperate hand, and colour [Barrell, 1972, 8]. His paintings were made dipt in Heav’n” wrote one enthusiast [Ibid, for the eye to wander around and discover. 39]; Constable described him as the “most The horizon is the climax of Claude’s perfect landscape painter the world ever paintings and the eye is led back and forth saw” [Ibid, 43]; vast outpourings of verse to the foreground and across the painting. referred to Claude landscapes and if The standard that he established became imitation is the best form of compliment, the model for English painters to follow Claude’s paintings were probably among [Ibid, 12]. the most copied of any artist. The regard with which Salvatore Rosa was held by the 18th century English was only slightly less than that of Claude. While Sir

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Joshua Reynolds described Claude’s A quote from Thomas West’s Guide to the paintings as comprising the “tranquillity of Lakes [1776] provided a similar description Arcadian scenes and fairy-land” [Ibid, 41] - in the section on mountains: a sweet dream, Rosa’s were like a nightmare incarnate, a “sort of wild and “from the delicate touches of Claude, Savage Nature” [Ibid, 49]. Thomas Gray verified on Coniston Lake, to the noble described them: scenes of Poussin, exhibited on Windermere-water, and from there to the stupendous romantic ideas of Salvatore “Excelled in savage uncouth places, very Rosa, realized in the Lake of Derwent.” great and noble style; stories that have [Hussey, 1927, 126]. something of horror and cruelty” [Manwaring, 1925, 49] The wildness of Rosa’s paintings, filled with storms, rocks, mountains and dark Like Claude, Rosa was immortalised in th verse and literature and his paintings forebodings appealed strongly to the 18 copied and imitated. Travelling to the century romantics [Monk, 1935, 194]. Continent, English travellers saw Claude When Horace Walpole visited Grand and Rosa in the landscapes of Italy. Chartreuse with his friend Thomas Gray in Although very different in their styles, 1739, he exclaimed in a letter: “Precipices, Claude and Rosa’s names were frequently mountains, torrents, wolves, rumblings, linked, Claude was characteristic of the Salvatore Rosa” [Ibid, 211]. beautiful, Rosa of the sublime39. The poet James Thomson summarised it in a typical Claude’s friend, Nicolas Poussin came to fashion thus: painting late in life and painted “austerely classical works” [Greenhalgh, 1978, 163]. “Whate’er Lorrain light-touched with Poussin conceived of his scenes as softening hue, comprising a harmony of horizontal and Or savage Rosa dashed, or learnèd Poussin vertical elements disposed of in the golden drew.” [Monk, 1935, 210] section [i.e. a line is divided into two unequal parts so that the proportion of the smaller part to the larger part is the same as the larger part is to the whole]. He overcame the lack of verticals in landscapes by introducing buildings, which convey a sense of geometry and order [Clark, 1976, 129-130]. His later landscapes combined symbols of both pagan and Christian beliefs.

The various influences on the creation of the English landscape ideal was described

Source: Clark, 1976 by Crook thus: Nicolas Poussin, Summer “The English landscape tradition of the mid eighteenth century was not, of course, Grecian in origin but Italian: in its early stages, the Roman and Renaissance garden anglicized; in its full-blown phase, the landscape of the Campagna filtered 39. The Art Gallery of South Australia [Gallery 13] through the golden haze of Claude and the has examples of these painters including: Poussins and transmuted empirically into le Claude Lorraine’s Caprice with Ruins of jardin anglais.” [Crook, in Clarke, 1989, 47] Roman Forum [1634] , two paintings from

Greek history by Salvatore Rosa: Thales th Causing the River to Flow on Both Sides of The mid 18 century was a period that saw the Lydian Army [1663-4] and The Deaf-mute the demise of neo-classical art which had Son of King Croesus Prevents the Persians sought to establish perfect balance and from Killing his Father [1663-4], Gaspar harmony along classical lines. The so- Poussin’s Aminta about to Rescue Silvia called Augustan Age, based on classical [1631] and a Landscape [1650s]. The theories and tastes, weakened from the overriding impression of the Claude is a scene 1750s on, giving way to new enthusiasm bathed in gold, while that of Rosa’s is bathed fired by ideas of sublimity, imagination, in black, due in part to the darkening of the varnish over the centuries. original genius and Romanticism [Monk,

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1935, 87, 103]. As this occurred the associated with a thatched cottage, a classical origins of the Arcadian landscape rustic mill, a shaggy ass [Manwaring, weakened and romanticism assumed a 1925, 169] indicative of the close link stronger influence. between the picturesque and the romantic.

During the latter half of the 18th century, Thomas Gray was one of the early users annual art exhibitions contained many of the term ‘picturesque’, describing paintings of sublime scenes with classical scenes of Roman palaces, churches, origins and romantic topographical squares and fountains as picturesque and paintings reflecting a growing taste for the noble as also were the cliffs of Dover. natural beauty of Wales, the Lake District and the Scottish Highlands [Ibid, 198]. Use of the Claude-glass converted a landscape into a picture. The extent to Overlaying the concepts of the beautiful which the Claude-glass contributed to the and the sublime came a new term, the emergence of the picturesque does not “picturesque”. The term originated early in appear to have been addressed by writers the 18th century, “rises into frequency by but would seem probable. 1760, is general after 1780, and ridiculously hackneyed after 1800.” During the 18th century the “blue-stocking [Manwaring, 1925, 167]. Christopher ladies” sought out picturesque scenes to Hussey [1927, 4] considered that each art paint and their attitudes contrasted with - poetry, painting, gardening, architecture Celia Fiennes, only 50 years earlier. A and even travel - progressively passed picturesque picnic in 1754 at Tunbridge through the picturesque phase between Wells in Kent that was attended by 1730 and 1830 and in each case was a Elizabeth Montagu, William Pitt and the prelude to Romanticism. He considered Wests was described thus: the picturesque to be an interregnum between classic and romantic art that “We drank tea yesterday in the most enabled the “imagination to form the habit beautiful rural scene that can be imagined ... of feeling through the eyes” [Ibid]. [Mr Pitt] ordered a tent to be pitched, tea to Classical art involved thinking, the be prepared, and his French horn to breath th music like the unseen genius of the wood.... romantic and imaginative art of the 19 After tea we rambled about for an hour, century involved feeling, whilst picturesque seeing several views, some wild as art made one see - “It records without Salvatore Rosa, others placid, and with the contemplating” [Ibid, 245]. setting sun, worthy of Claude Lorraine.” [Hussey, 1927, 96] The picturesque painting was rarely an accurate painting of a scene, rather it During the 1760s and 1770s, Gilpin visited described the world “as it might have been many parts of Britain while on vacation, had the Creator been an Italian artist of the and a decade later he published his seventeenth century.” [Monk, 1935, 204] observations in a series of books40 on the This illustrates the paradoxes of the picturesque beauty he observed. picturesque, firstly it delighted in nature but then wanted to “improve” it, and secondly it Accompanied by his aquatints, the books delighted in English landscapes but were greeted warmly and had a wide represented them as imitations of Claude influence, satisfying a taste that was or Rosa [Andrews, 1989, 3] already extant. His influence extended to Europe [Hipple 1957, 192]. The Reverend William Gilpin defined the picturesque as “that kind of beauty which would look well in a picture.” [Hussey, 1927, 168]. The meaning gradually shifted towards a “landscape that ought to be pictured, a scene that was a potential 40. Gilpin’s eight books covered the following subject, a source, for creation of an art areas: River Wye and South Wales, Lakes work.” [Kroeber, 1975, 5]. At least initially, District, Scottish highlands, New Forest, Isle the picturesque was equated with of Wight and Western parts of England, Salvatore Rosa’s paintings, the irregular coasts of Hampshire, Sussex and Kent, the and the wild, the sublime - the combination counties of Cambridge, Norfolk, Suffolk and of beauty and horror. But it was also Essex, and North Wales. They were published between 1782 and 1809.

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Gilpin recognised the subjectivist basis for aesthetics when he wrote to a friend in 1769:

“I have had a dispute lately … on an absurd vulgar opinion, which he holds - that we see with our eyes: whereas I assert, that our eyes are only mere glass windows, and we see with our imagination.” [Quoted by Crook, in Clarke, 1989, 45, emphasis added]

This is an excellent description of the distinction between the objectivist and subjectivist approach to aesthetics. In this Gilpin was reflecting the views of the philosopher, Hutcheson [1726]: “All beauty is relative to the sense of the mind perceiving it” and also of David Hume from Source: Bermingham,1987 William Gilpin, “Non Picturesque” and 1757: “Beauty is no quality in things Picturesque Mountain Landscape, 1792 themselves; it exists merely in the mind which contemplates them... Each mind Gilpin laid down rules to guide the perceives a different beauty.” [Ibid, 48]. landscape artist defining what he considered to be “correctly picturesque” Following Gilpin’s example, picturesque tours became popular, informed by books [Manwaring, 1925, 185]. The perfect river 42 painting has four parts: the river, two side on each area . Hannah More travelling screens that are the opposite banks and down the Wye River in 1789 used Gilpin’s that provide perspective, and the front book as her instructor: screen which emphasises the river’s windings. Gilpin simplified Claude’s multi- “sailing down the beautiful river Wye, looking at abbeys, and castles, with Mr. depth paintings and established that Gilpin in my hand to teach me to criticise, landscape paintings should comprise three and talk of foregrounds, and distances, and parts - the background of mountains and perspectives, and prominences….” lakes, the “off-skip” [middle distance] of [Manwaring, 1925, 195] valleys, woods and rivers, and the foreground containing rocks, cascades, Tours were taken with the express ruins [Hussey, 1927, 113]. purpose of discovering picturesque scenes, similar to the earlier journeys Groupings of cows were important - two seeking experiences of the sublime. being insufficient for a group: Gilpin Contemplation of landscapes was reproved his wife for suggesting only two regarded as a legitimate activity for those cows for their domestic needs saying with taste and involved, as More’s “Lord, my dear, two cows you know can description suggests, a proper procedure never group.” [Hussey, 1927, 119] “With involving composition of the scene, three, you are sure of a good group, analysis of its associations and meanings, except indeed they all stand in the same rearranging objects in one’s imagination attitude at equal distances.” [Manwaring, and adjusting one’s position until the scene 1925, 186] He also recommended came right [Barrell, 1972, 5]. landowners placed five cows in their meadows rather than four as four will not compose [Rees, 1978, 52]. Following Gilpin’s formula, books appeared illustrating a range of figures for use in gates etc much like a computer clip art paintings.41 package of illustrations. See Hussey, 1927, 118. 42. Malcolm Andrews’ 1989 book The Search for 41. For example, W.H. Pyne’s Picturesque the Picturesque - Landscape Aesthetics and Groups for the Embellishment of Landscape Tourism in Britain, 1760-1800 describes the which contained over 1000 subjects of figures tours in the Wye Valley, north Wales, the Lake such as bandits, ferry boats, gypsies, toll- District and the Scottish Highlands.

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By the 1780s, an English school of beauty into picturesqueness with the landscape painters had become passage of time. Curiously, nature can established, paralleling the picturesque combine the beautiful and the picturesque poets of the time. Hussey [1927] included - the rose is an example, a beautiful bloom an appendix describing nearly 70 such surrounded by thorny twigs and jagged painters. Heffernan [1984, 3] considered leaves [Hipple, 1957, 210-1]. that the arts of poetry, painting and landscape gardening together defined Art historian Richard Payne Knight landscape in the 18th century leading to the identified the subjectivist foundations of the development of the picturesque. picturesque, that the picturesque parts of nature are: In 1794, the art connoisseur and critic, Uvedale Price published his 3 volume “those which nature has formed in the style Essays on the Picturesque43 which sought and manner appropriate to painting; and the to define the characteristics of the eye, that has been accustomed to see these picturesque. He defined its origin to be the: happily displayed and embellished by art, will relish them more in nature ... The

spectator ... applies them, by the "irregular details, rough surfaces, and spontaneous association of ideas, to the coarse textures in nature that please the eye natural objects presented to his eye, which with their shadowy chiaroscuro44. The thus acquire ideal and imaginary beauties; picturesque was characterised by that is, beauties, which are not felt by the roughness, irregularity, abruptness, variation organic sense of vision; but by the intellect and the broken interplay of light and shade." and imagination through that sense.” [Shepard, 1967, 126] [Heffernan, 1984, 3; emphasis added]

Price's picturesque was thus not simply Interestingly, Knight defined the one of bland insipid pastoral landscapes, picturesque as “merely that kind of beauty or even the strictly classical view. His was which belongs exclusively to the sense of a scene of interest, containing features vision; or to the imagination guided by that such as bark, rocks, knobbly trees, ruins, sense” [Raval, 1978, 251], an obviously old oaks, and rustic bridges. The subjectivist position regarding the picturesque thus diversified and made landscape which he derived from Hume. more interesting the pastoral scenes of trees and meadows. Beauty was regarded Despite the extensive debate that occurred as smoothness, equality and uniformity in throughout the 18th century over the contrast to the roughness, irregularity and concepts of beautiful, sublime and variety of the picturesque. picturesque little discernible progress was achieved, and successive writers generally Price sought to be more definitive than failed to develop the concepts of previous Gilpin in his definition of the picturesque, writers: “Intellectual history ... is a record of regarding it as a distinct quality lying haphazard mutation and opportunistic between the sublime and the beautiful [in development” [Ibid, 311]. There was “no Burke’s terms], between roughness and consistent evolution” of ideas [Ibid, 317]. smoothness. Awe and horror, which were The concept of the picturesque has, the hallmarks of the sublime, had no place however endured, and continues to be in the picturesque. While he held that closely associated with the English Gothic architecture is picturesque [Gothic landscape; it was among the categories of ruins were often built in gardens as a English landscape taste defined by picturesque feature], Grecian architecture Lowenthal and Prince [1965, 190], defining was beautiful and its ruins were it as a preference for the irregular, the picturesque. Buildings, trees and even complex, the intricate and the ornate. The people changed gradually from a thing of picturesque is also the basis of a “heavily anglicized” landscape taste in the United Full title of Uvedale Price’s book: Essays on States [Hugill, 1986]. 43. the Picturesque, As Compared with the th Sublime and the Beautiful; and on the Use of (4) Landscape in 19 Century Art Studying Pictures, for the Purpose of Improving Real Landscapes. London, 1794. In 1805, Richard Payne Knight, published 44. Chiaroscuro: the style of pictorial art in which An Analytical Inquiry into the Principles of only the light and shade are represented; Taste. In an interesting mix of the black (or sepia) and white - Shorter Oxford. objectivist and subjectivist positions,

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Knight contended that the origin of the vindicated the “imagination as an picturesque: interpreter of experience” [Ibid], it was irrelevant whether a painting accurately “was objective insofar as it had to do with the depicted a landscape, what was important pleasure we derive from colour and light, was the eye of the imagination - the inner and subjective insofar as it depended on an eye. Seeing into “the heart of things” was association made between actual objects the key difference between the picturesque and those represented in pictures.” [quoted and the romantic. The picturesque traveller by Barrell, 1972, 57] sought scenes of Claudian beauty or Like Alison, Price wrote with the Salvatorian sublimity, but Wordsworth prescience and insight of psychology taught one to not only see but also to about the significance of association in the interpret by one’s own imagination and mind, a theme that would be more fully intuition. th explored during the later 19 century. th Although originating in the 18 century, the 19th century saw Romanticism blossom into its full flowering. The term “Romanticism” was originally a derisive term, used to describe imaginary absurdities such as from the days of chivalry. However by about 1720 it gained standing and was used to describe interesting, imaginative and even beautiful phenomena [Lister, 1973, 8]. Originating in England, Romanticism spread to France and Germany. Viewed in hindsight, Romantic characteristics are evident from virtually every period. Indeed Clark asserts

Source: Clark, 1976 that artists of the first rank have frequently J.M.W. Turner, Fire at Sea combined classicism and Romanticism [Clark, 1973, 19]. However the period in Price also wrote of the importance of which it was dominant was from about colour in art, advocating the view that 1750 to 1850. At least for the first half of colour produced emotions of its own, this it paralleled the interest in the independent of the content of the scene. picturesque and especially the sublime, a During the 19th century, J.M.W. Turner and quality with which it had much in common. the French Impressionists built on Knight's This period also saw major social revolutionary suggestion, painting dislocation including the French revolution, landscapes which were abstractions of war with America and the Napoleonic reality and in which colour, along with line, Wars. mass, symmetry, balance, texture and other characteristics were the subject Romanticism arose when “art shifted its matter. appeal from the reason to the imagination. ... The Romantic movement was an Towards the end of the 18th century, the awakening of sensation….” [Hussey, 1927, picturesque had become rather hackneyed 4]. As stated earlier, classical art involved and was attacked by, among others, thinking, the picturesque involved seeing, Wordsworth [in The Prelude, Book XII]: and now Romanticism involved feeling - the picturesque provided a path between “...Even in pleasure pleased the “Cartesian appeal to reason and the Unworthily, disliking here, and there Romantic appeal to imagination.” [Monk, Linking; by rules of mimic art transferred 1935, 205] It went further, the Romantic To things above all art” uses a scene to “delve into his own psyche and to analyse its effect upon his According to Samuel Monk, Wordsworth emotions.” [Lister, 1973, 36] “most effectively broke the spell that Italian landscape had woven over English taste ... The definition of Romanticism is difficult, The result was a new ability to see and indeed the one thing that authorities agree love the natural world for its own sake” on is its elusiveness in definitional terms. [Monk, 1935, 204]. Romanticism Failing to define it they tend therefore to

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describe what things and activities are Romantic art, whether painting, poetry or Romantic. It is Romantic to: build an music, did not follow rigid forms; indeed it aqueduct over a Welsh valley, revel in the is not so much on the outward form as “on sublimity of the surrounding mountains, the steady flow of emotions and ideas that paint in exact detail watercolours of plants grow out of each other” [Monk, 1935, 149]. growing there, travel to remote and exotic countries, and to write and illustrate books The key Romantic landscape painters about them, study the past, paint historical were: Richard Wilson [1714-82], Alexander subjects [Lister, 1973, 3]. A common Cozens [1717-86] and John Cozens [1752- feature is the link between the individual 97] [father and son], Thomas and the particular. In contrast with Gainsborough [1727-88] who loved to classicism, which focused on generalities, paint landscapes more than his superb Romanticism focused on particulars. portraits, William Blake [1757-1827], a consummate artist and poet of the first rank, Thomas Girten [1775-1802], J.M.W. Turner [1775-1851], John Constable [1776-1837], John Cotman [1782-1842], Samuel Palmer [1805 - 81], and the French artists Courbet, Géricault and Delacroix. Rosa’s savage and wild scenes were considered Romantic rather than picturesque. Lister’s book contains a checklist of 32 pages of British Romantic artists.

The English landscape gave plenty of scope for the Romantic artist:

“the landscape itself, was, and still is, more varied both in form and in atmosphere, than that of any other comparable area. It is an island landscape, swept from all directions by breezes and winds, drenched in mists and fogs, illuminated by hazy sunlight or gentle moonlight. Here, indeed, was material to inspire the cosmic vision of Turner, the dancing lights and clouds of Constable, Cotman’s solitude, the meticulousness of John Middleton, and Source: Open University Course Book, Samuel Palmer’s paradises of moonlight.” Romanticism [Lister, 1973, 163] John Martin, The Bard Based on the Romantic’s quest for the The characteristics of the Romantic emotional content of scenes, Romantic included [Lister, 1973]: painting was filled with emotion, sublimity and grandeur [Lister, 1973, 36]. Painters • strong interest in the historical, a fascination toured the British Isles and the continent in with the past search of Romantic scenes, locations such • an anti-religious stance, particularly anti- Christian as the Lake District, Wales, Scottish • the symbol of love highlands and islands, as well as the Alps • interest in human madness and a and the Pyrenees. However while in preoccupation with melancholy, gloom and picturesque paintings the emphasis was death on the scene, Romantic artists sought to • imagination, a quality regarded so important instil something of themselves into the that it was regarded as the reality painting so that it reflected their own • delight in the inventions and machines of the emotions and personality. Thus the artist industrial age became the subject: “the Romantic Man • keen and detailed interest in Nature saw himself reflected, like an image in a producing countless books of paintings of Claude glass” [Lister, 1973, 165]. birds, plants and other natural phenomena, together with vast collections of natural Turner, an outstanding landscape artist, objects such as shells and rocks created scenes of colour and light unseen

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before. He painted light so that: “every the Dutch painters]. In a letter Constable detail, even to the tiniest nuance, is a exclaimed, “I can hardly write for looking at reflection, a dance, as it were, in the silvery clouds” [Pevsner, 1956, 150]. accompaniment to sunrays, moonbeams, Clouds were a Romantic favourite for prismatic raindrops, candlelight, or the Constable who saw in them “his own glow of fireworks” [Lister, 1973, 122]. Lister transient but aspiring spirit buffeted, regarded him as the greatest English shaped and sometimes left floating in landscape painter: “No other painter has peace, but always changing at the whim of been able so to convey the quality and exterior forces” [Lister, 1973, 170]. power of light, of the terror of vastness, of the elemental force of the weather” [Ibid, 168]. Visiting Italy in 1819 Turner produced over 1500 drawings and watercolours in three months, but paradoxically the visit weaned him off his strong classical foundations; he had spent years copying Claude and Cozens. Returning home, he created impressionist scenes consisting of splashes of colour that were called by Ruskin “nonsense pictures” [Clark, 1976, 186].

Turner painted scenes from the Lake District, Scotland, Switzerland and Italy, he specialised in maritime scenes, and throughout his paintings “there is always the Romantic preoccupation with the vastness of mountain or precipice, the infinity of the sea, and, dominating everything else, the pervasiveness of light” [Ibid, 168]. Clark considered that in “the vast range of his work Turner fulfils practically every aim that the earlier Romantics foreshadowed.” [Clark, 1976, 195]

Over his lifetime Turner shifted from the J.M.W. Turner, The Falls of the Clyde representative painter, detailing the scene 1802 [top] and 1835-40 [bottom] before him, to an impressionist painter, capturing its essence in regard to colour Like Wordsworth, Constable loved nature. and light. For example, Turner first painted He said “I never saw an ugly thing in my The Falls of Clyde in 1802; 30 years later life.” [Clark, 1976, 153] His strong he painted the same scene. Although the objectivist view is evident: “You never contents and composition were identical enjoy the world aright, till the sea itself the latter appears as though viewed floweth in your veins, till you are clothed through a fog and the painting comprises with the heavens, and crowned with the “marvellous transitions of colour - all the stars” [Ibid]. Large landscape paintings, way from blue to gold” [Clark, 1973, 246]. known as “six-footers”, established Constable’s reputation as a landscape Constable belonged more to the rustic painter [Bermingham, 1987, 136]. The landscape tradition than Turner, his subject of these paintings was a four mile landscapes are closer to the earth. While stretch of the canalised Stour River, and his finished paintings lacked immediacy included The White Horse, Stratford Mills, and appeared rather contrived, his rapidly A View on the Stour, The Leaping Horse, painted watercolours, with sparing strokes, A Boat Passing Lock and most famously, were delights of observation and sparkling The Hay Wain. These were mostly painted light. Constable’s specialty was clouds, a in the 1820s. dominant feature of his East Anglia flats, and he painted them as they had never Samuel Palmer was the last painter of been painted before [apart from some of Arcadian myth, the Golden Age, the Virgilian landscape, which, in 19th century

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England was fast disappearing under the establishing the approach from then on to imprint of industrialisation. the present day. Monet, Sisley and Pissarro, the early Impressionists, painted scenes of utter naturalism in the 1860s, but with a unity which is lacking where the artist makes no attempt to relate the parts to each other. From the combination of Renoir’s skill and sense of colour, together with Monet’s perception of nature and tone, Impressionism was born. The sparkle and reflection of light on water was the subject that united them [Clark, 1976, 173]. Impressionism was the “painting of happiness” [Ibid, 198].

Source: Bermingham,1987 Monet and Renoir were joined by other Samuel Palmer, A Rustic Scene artists including Manet, Pissaro and Sisley. Clark described how Palmer ended the During the 1870s, Impressionism era: blossomed to its full flowering but by the mid 1880s was in decline. Monet “Virgil remained his source of inspiration, but continued exploring the sensation of light, his images grew fainter and his style more virtually ignoring the subject and commonplace. And with him there ended concentrating on the effect of light on it. that beautiful episode in European art, which Cathedrals and haystacks were favourite from Giorgione’s day till the nineteenth subjects, the former not a good choice century had been a source of enchantment because they lacked sparkle. He and consolation. ... by 1850 Malthus and discovered the waterlilies in his garden Darwin had made them into moonshine.” pond and responding to nature afresh, “he [Clark, 1976, 143] transposed it, without any loss of truth, into

sweeps and scrawls and blots of paint that With the end of the image of Arcadia to express his deepest emotions.” [Clark, inspire painters, there “vanished the 1976, 177] concept of the ideal landscape” and with it the feeling that “some God is in this place” Two outstanding Impressionist painters [Ibid, 145]. were Seurat and Cézanne, vastly different

in styles from each other but profoundly Eventually Romanticism descended into influential in their own unique ways. sentimentalism and painting became photographic realism. Pretty and bucolic Seurat integrated all the influences of his scenes replaced the power and insights of time as he sought to create timeless Turner, Constable and a host of other paintings of the scale of Renaissance Romantic artists. Industrialisation was frescoes. Working carefully from small field transforming the countryside and the paintings, he built up the scene, English landscape. Yet the Romantic spirit establishing its tonality and composition, lived on in the delight in natural beauty and and with his pointillism technique created in the quest to conserve nature and paintings of authority. His landscapes, preserve the historical. whether of the seaside, a river scene or a

th park, convey a feeling of stillness, as By the mid 19 century, the schools of art though all the figures are frozen in time. ruled and required that nature be improved The pale tonality gives a sense of lightness - it was considered vulgar to paint what but not of joy, the quietness of a hospital one saw [Clark, 1976, 164]. There were ward. This is not to suggest that they were artists such as Courbet in France, who without colour, Seurat had developed a rejected the official line and expressed pseudo-scientific theory of colour and themselves. Another was Daubigny, the placed complementary flecks of colour grandfather of Impressionism, who had a together - orange and purple, green and great influence on painters such as Monet. red, yellow and blue, juxtaposing them His paintings were of plain common carefully to achieve the effect sought. subjects requiring no effort and thus

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speak to the senses and to our emotions and we can continue to gain from repeated viewings of them.

Source: Clark, 1976 Cézanne, Mountains at L’Estaque

(5) Landscape & Art - Conclusions

Source: Clark 1976 Kenneth Clark considered that landscape Seurat painting was the chief artistic creation of th The Hospice de landscape Phare at Honfleur the 19 century, a tribute to the [top] and contributions of Turner, Constable, Wilson The Bridge at Courbevoie [bottom] and the many other artists of the Romantic period together with those of the In contrast to the cool scientific approach Impressionist era [Clark, 1976, viii]. Its of Seurat, Cézanne was a more ebullient dominance was the culmination of the and rich personality. Painting the emergence of landscape painting from its landscapes of Provence he gave them “the tentative beginnings following the eternal harmonies of a classical Renaissance with the contributions of the landscape” [Ibid, 222], establishing their Dutch, French and Italian artists and finally pictorial qualities in the way that Claude the English landscapists. By the 17th had established Campagna as the century, landscape painting emerged for definitive landscape. Cézanne’s paintings its own sake and by the 19th century was of Provence over thirty years had a the dominant art form [Ibid, 229]. worldwide influence of landscape painters. His paintings of the mountains of Over these centuries, landscape changed L’Estaque or of farmhouses illustrate his from objective fact to subjective desire to capture the solidity of objects by Impressionism. Nature was treated painting them in small facets, each with its symbolically throughout this period. The unique colour, creating a prismatic quality artists painted as they interpreted what to his landscapes. Like Monet with his they saw, and their interpretation has haystacks, Cézanne’s model was Mont influenced society to see landscape as the Sainte Victoire of which he made artist saw it. So the culture was affected innumerable studies in a process of by their contribution. As Clark said, development and self-realisation. “Almost every Englishman, if asked what he meant by “beauty”, would begin to Overall, Impressionism “enlarged our describe a landscape” [Ibid, 230]. range of vision” [Clark, 1976, 178] and it brought colour into art in a way not Emerging from its subservient role, as previously apparent. It also concentrated backgrounds to paintings of religious and on the effect of the object on our senses, other subjects, landscape painting the subjectivist approach. This may explain developed as a subject in its own right why Impressionism continues to hold a through the Dutch, Flemish and other profound appeal and influence. Paintings European schools of the 17th century. of scenes painted in an objectivist way are Claude Lorraine and Salvatore Rosa of seen once and their full message is this period had an immense influence in gained. Impressionist paintings however shaping aesthetic sensibilities in England

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in the 18th century. The 18th century saw pardes, meaning a garden or park the sublime, the beautiful and the enclosure, and in Greek paradeisos means picturesque defined and distinguished as a kingly or sumptuous and extravagant distinct aesthetic concepts. Romanticism, park [Thacker, 1979, 15]. which appealed to the emotion more than the eye, developed and was followed in After hunting, pastoralism represents the France in the later 19th century by next development of human society Impressionism, which further sought to through the domestication of the horse, convey feeling rather than objective fact. cow, sheep and goat. Compared with agriculture which developed later, it did not The development of landscape painting involve arduous labour, the image of the has been marked by a progressive shift, or shepherd tending quietly grazing animals evolution, from the of the early appears leisurely and idyllic and was the painters and of Claude’s school to the basis for much classical mythology. From greater emotional content, and the earliest times, parks and gardens have of the Romantic and held an indelible fascination for humans; in Impressionist schools. contrast to the pastoral landscape they paradoxically demand considerable effort to create an apparently restful and 6.6 THEME THREE: GARDENS, undemanding environment. PARKS AND THE PASTORAL LANDSCAPE The pastoral landscape in which animals grazed bushes and lower limbs and (1) Significance of Gardens, Parks cropped the grass, created more open and the Pastoral Landscape areas of standing trees and grass, the progenitors of parks. "The pastoral ideal Gardens, parks and the pastoral was a Golden Age of youth and of antique landscape speak to the subconscious mind man" [Shepard, 1967, 74]. It formed the of pleasant idleness, of an absence of basis of dramas of Arcadia, and necessity of work, and of bounteous generations of poets and writers referred provision. As enclosed areas, parks and to the pastoral landscape in philosophy, gardens isolate and insulate the individual theology and allegory. It was a place in from the external world, they cosset the which to discuss, to think, to make music individual in an environment in which time and dance and to make love. and space and the demands of life are less important for a while. Kenneth Clark (2) The Classical Era considered the enchanted garden one of “humanity’s most constant, widespread In ancient times, gardens were often and consoling myths” [Clark, 1976, 6]. sacred groves, places consecrated to a Gardens and parks reinforce the spirit or god. The Old Testament has many attractiveness of pastoral scenes, scenes references to such groves dedicated to of bounteous provision and harmony, Baal and Homer’s Odyssey also refers to which provide for human needs without such areas. In Greek mythology there apparent effort. were garden spirits including Flora, goddess of flowers, Demeter, goddess of This section examines the contribution that corn, and Dionysus, god of vines [Thacker, parks, gardens and the pastoral scene 1979, 12-13]. have made in influencing Western attitudes towards landscapes. The In about 500 - 600 BC the Hanging assumption is that parks and gardens, Gardens of Babylon were regarded as one being artificial creations, reflect the of the Seven Wonders of the World. The idealised form of micro-landscape; their Hanging Gardens were constructed on a design and characteristics epitomise the ziggurat, an artificial hill that enabled the ideals which society seeks from such Sumerians to worship their mountain gods. landscapes. In one of the only two extant descriptions of the gardens, Diodorus of Sicily called As explained earlier [sec 6.3], the word them a paradise. ‘paradise’ derived from the ancient Persian word pairidaeza meaning an enclosed The Persians who conquered Babylon in area such as a park. In Hebrew it became 538 BC were similarly enamoured with

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parks and the Xenophon [427 - 355 BC], a imagery into the castles and palaces of pupil of Socrates, described their Europe. importance to the Persians: On conquering Persia, Alexander the "In all the districts the Great King resides in Great discovered the extensive parks and and visit he takes care that there are was so enthralled with them that he paradises [Xenophon was the first to use reserved one quarter of Alexandria as park this term], as they call them, full of all the [Shepard, 1967, 66-67]. The Persian parks good and beautiful things that the soil will included shrines and avenues of trees and produce, and in this he spends most of his time, except when the season precludes it." the influence of these changed the more [Hunter, 1985, 16] natural form of Greek parks with their sacred groves. Public parks were common Many of the Persian parks were extensive, in Greece, the Lyceum being a public park located in the flood plains of rivers, and set aside for meditation, a quiet stroll, or were walled to confine animals for hunting. discussion. Although distant from Europe, Persia continued to exert a powerful influence on In Athens, the Philosopher's Garden [or Western culture, particularly in regard to Academy] combined veneration of groves attitudes to landscapes. A country of of trees with the Eastern paradise. Plato's diverse landscapes, ranging from the house in the Academy, together with its tropical through the mountainous to the garden and gymnasium became, the arid desert, Persia's location astride the model throughout the classical world trade routes to and India facilitated although by Roman times the gymnasium the movement of its ideas and goods was replaced with fountains, sculptures westward into Europe. and colonnades. Greek cities generally established public gardens for pleasure and relaxation, and included springs, shady nooks and walks and seats - although they disappeared after the Grecian era to be re-established only in recent centuries, they were virtually identical to present day parks.

Both the Greeks and the Romans continued the Persian's love of trees and planted them in the towns, around their villas and homes, near their public buildings and even around their tombs. Source: Thacker, 1979 The Romans combined the functional and Persian Carpet – central water source, four rivers. Plane trees mark intersections. ideal to produce as complete an attitude to Garden is protected by trees. landscape as has ever been achieved since, at least in the West [Hunter, 1985, Persian rugs, commonly incorporated 25]. To the Romans, nature was animate stylised scenes of trees, rivers and and powerful; activities such as farming gardens, and were patterned after the had to be carried out with due reverence ground plan of pleasure gardens. These and deference to spirits of nature. Wealthy rugs brought the garden into the house. Romans established country villas, The rugs spread the Persian's delight in combining agriculture and love of nature parks and gardens to the west - as early with the Greek philosopher's garden. as the 5th century BC Plato had a Rome was eventually surrounded by villas magnificent set of Persian rugs. and gardens.

Rugs were shown in Western paintings When Rome descended into intrigue and through to the 16th century often depicting political turmoil after the assassination of a central water source flowing out through Julius Caesar in 44 BC, Virgil and others four rivers [cf Genesis account of Eden] moved to live in the country, finding there and with plane trees around the source. the peace and serenity lacking in the city. French tapestries with similar depictions of Together with a later poet, Horace, Virgil parks, gardens and water carried the dreamed of a new Golden Age “embodying

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the of peace, productivity and communities, the villas’ owners often continuity.” [Turner, 1986, 10] joining or leading them [Hunter, 1985, 40]. Wall paintings at Pompeii and (3) Middle Ages to 18th Century Herculaneum display the completeness of the Roman appreciation of landscape: In the East, the Mughal emperors established impressive gardens through "... the functional landscape of farming in the Afghanistan into India, including an plains and foothills, groves, temples and extensive and luxuriant garden 'sacred sites'. Rocky mountains beyond, surrounding the Taj Mahal at Agra - a lakes and sea coast overlooked by portico garden which has since been cleared to villas, islands and ships. These were the views from favoured country villas; in town give full view of this magnificent building. In houses they were the creations of painters Turkey also, gardens were established who used the device of dividing up the wall with Persian characteristics. The Arabs with pilasters, columns and architraves, with who invaded Spain in 710 established landscapes in between, to give the illusion Moorish gardens, some of which survived of looking through a pierced wall or portico in the gardens of the Generalife and the to the countryside beyond." [Hunter, 1985, Alhambra at Granada [Thacker, 1979, 41]. 32] Further east, in China and Japan, gardens The derivation of present day landscape assumed a symbolic importance that was paintings is obvious. The descriptions Pliny greater than anywhere else in the world. the Younger [60 - 111] made of of his villas These are a study in their own right, and and gardens provided the basis for although they exerted an influence in the Renaissance planners. The landscape West, particularly in the 19th century, their setting of his Tuscan villa was of primary existence has not had a major bearing on importance: the development of western gardens. The reason for this is because, having a strong "The countryside is very beautiful. Picture to symbolic content, Chinese and Japanese yourself a vast amphitheatre such as could only be a work of nature; the great gardens can become trite and spreading plain is ringed by mountains, their meaningless if separated from the culture summits crowned by ancient woods of tall from which they sprang. The symbolism of trees ... Down the mountain slopes are nature implicit in Chinese gardens, their timber woods interspersed with small hills of close links with poetry, the inspiration they soil so rich that there is scarcely a rocky gave landscape painters, and the outcrop to be found... Below them the cultivation of many species of flowers and vineyards spreading down every slope plants in the gardens established gardens weave their uniform pattern far and wide, as very significant places in Chinese their lower limit bordered by a belt of shrubs. culture. Similarly, gardens in Japan were Then come the meadows and cornfields, where the land can be broken up only by significant places. Images of perfect heavy oxen and the strongest ploughs... The pleasure were their basis and strict rules meadows are bright with flowers, covered governed the placement of rocks, trees, with trefoil and other delicate plants which lakes, islands and other features of the always seem soft and fresh, for everything is gardens. fed by streams which never run dry ..." [Pliny, 1963]. In the West, during the Middle Ages, following the decline of the Roman Empire, Emperor Hadrian's Villa d’ Este at Tivoli, Christian monasteries became the main was a vast palace with extensive gardens centre for the establishment of gardens. that respected the spirit of the place, Monasteries often established a pleasure following the lie of the land. Water garden that simulated the Garden of Eden, dominated the setting in the forms of a cultivation of which was regarded as great , cascades, fountains, pools reliving a part of creation [Glacken, 1967, and nymphae. The park in which the villa 348]. Cloister gardens provided a quiet was set linked it directly to the surrounding area for study and relaxation. The cloister agricultural land without any dividing wall gardens provided an environment, to separate the 'ideal' landscape within separated from the world, in which the from the functional landscape without. monks could contemplate God. The monks grew vegetables, herbs, fruits and flowers With the decline of Rome, many of the and in these gardens, which often had a villas and estates were given to Christian well or fountain in their midst fashioned to

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symbolise the four rivers which flowed mosaics and as carvings on cathedral from Eden [Hunter, 1985, 41]. Flowers pillars contained this meaning. [Clark, such as the iris, lily and rose were grown 1976, 6] as much for their medicinal properties as for beauty [Thacker, 1979, 82]. From the In England, the landscape garden 11th century, the paradise garden was developed as a lawn or glade encircled by prominent in the highly idealised epics and the forest wall, "an inverse oasis, an island songs that extolled the chivalry, knights of open space in the continuum of forest." and courts of the time: [Shepard, 1967, 77].

"The garden [was] the embodiment of By the 15th century, hunting parks were sensual delight, a refuge of love and being established by every lord who was happiness, sheltered by wall, hedge or pale able to obtain a licence from the Crown to from the unpredictable, disordered and enclose land. The parks appeared potentially dangerous world outside. Natural relatively natural, even wild, as indicated in reality is distrusted ..." [Hunter, 1985, 50] paintings of the time. Well-spaced trees A contrary view was that of St Anselm in were isolated or in stands, providing the early 12th century who considered that glades and vistas with the grass grazed by things were harmful in proportion to the deer or rabbits, which met the needs of the number of senses they delighted. He hunt. With the addition of a temple or two therefore rated gardens as particularly and a lake, the landscapes would be almost identical to the planned landscape dangerous since one could use sight, th smell, touch, taste and even hearing gardens of the 18 century [Hunter, 1985, [Clark, 1976, 3]. Other more open minds 55-6]. regarded the garden as a forerunner of paradise. Prior to the Renaissance, Italian gardens were characterised by their formality with a In Old Saxon, the word 'paradise' central fountain and " a modified monastic translated as 'meadow' [Hunter, 1985, 77]. patio severely dominated by orthodox By the 12th century, the pastoral ideal was symbolism and beautifully integrated into rediscovered and informed a new an overall religious architecture" [Shepard, 1967, 78]. During the Renaissance, in the sensitivity towards nature. th 16 century these blossomed into major “... (the) pastoral fancy still tended to bring works of art. Some like the Villa d' Este at the loving soul in touch with nature and its Tivoli were among the "most brilliant beauties.... Out of the simple words of gardens of history" [Ibid, 79]. This exultation at the joy caused by sunshine and particular garden, established from 1550 to shade, birds and flowers, the loving 1580, provided extensive views over the descriptions of scenery and rural life Campagna towards Rome and was called gradually develops” [Huizinga, quoted by a water garden because of its extensive Shepard, 1967, 75]. use of water in fountains, cascades, sprays and pools. The terrace of the Apart from its security, the walled garden Hundred Fountains, the Dragon fountain, had Christian symbolism. This sprang from the “joyously fecund statue of Diana of the the Song of Solomon where the virgin Ephesians” and female sphinxes with bride is described “You are a garden water gushing from their breasts, locked up, my sister, my bride; you are a expressed the symbolism inherent in water spring enclosed, a sealed fountain.” [4:12]. as life and fertility [Thacker, 1979, 100]. It is a short step from this to equating the virgin bride with the Virgin Mary whom Renaissance gardens were enclosed by Medieval paintings often showed in an walls and comprised strong axial hedges enclosed garden with the means of and topiary, paved paths, grottos, and enclosure - a wall, fence or paling, ponds connected with fountains. These carefully depicted [Thacker, 1979, 83]. In were not gardens in the modern sense - psychoanalytical terms the symbolism of they lacked grass and flowers though they sexual inaccessibility created by the wall is were often surrounded by parkland. Their obvious. formality was seen as defining nature in the classical, regular mould, thus Symbolism extended to the flowers and improving on the irregularity and trees that were symbols of the divine and imperfection of nature. their inclusion in designs such as early

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Half a century later, Lord Kames, in Elements of Criticism [1763], wrote of Versailles as a monument of depraved taste: “its groves of jets d’eau, statues of animals conversing in the manner of Aesop, water issuing out of the mouths of wild beasts gave an impression of fairy-land and witchcraft” [Malins, 1966, 92].

In 1739, Horace Walpole described them as:

Source: Hunter, 1985 “forced, all is constrained about you; statues Villa d’ Este, Tivoli, 16th C. and vases sowed everywhere without distinction; sugar loaves and minced-pies of Alexander Pope [1688 - 1744] provided yew; scrawl-work of box, and little squirting detailed descriptions of hunting parks and jets-d’-eau, besides a sameness in the gardens in England - they included the walks” [Malins, 1966, 5] temple, cascades, ruined castle, bridges and lofty trees to frame the view [Ibid, 97]. He thought them suited to a “great child’, Pope considered “all gardening is his estimation of Louis XIV [Malins, 1966, landscape-painting, just like a landscape 119]. The geometrical patterns which hung up” [Quoted by Barrell, 1972, 47]. underlay the design of these gardens was pure classicism; irregular curves were With the outbreak of peace in France in regarded as deformed, straight lines and the 17th century, new country houses were circles dominated, trees and flowers were established with extensive grounds that represented by standardised and perfect were transformed into vast gardens. shapes reflecting the perfection of nature - Gardens were equated with and that nature “is striving to realise herself in French aristocrats sought to out-do each regular forms” [Barrell, 1972, 45]. other in the immensity and content of their gardens. Covering hundreds of acres, they contained lawns, hedges, and ponds; some royal parks extended to the horizon, ponds became lakes, paths became avenues, garden temples became palaces, and whole forests [rather than mere hedges] were sculptured.

Versailles, the most extensive of the French gardens, had a Great Canal a mile long along its central axis. The garden was established by Louis XIV between 1661 Source: Hunter, 1985 and 1700 as a creation through which, Leyton Grange, Co. Essex, 1720 together with the chateau he could demonstrate his glory to the world. The In 17th century England, some gardens gardens take visitors a day to cover. In were established following the French Louis’ time Versailles was a water garden formal mode - Hampton Court and St with many fountains that today are much James Park are examples. Palaces and fewer and smaller in size. An English gardens were constructed in the manner of visitor in 1698 wrote: Versailles, examples include Boughton, Cassiobury, Blenheim, Castle Howard, “In a Word, these Gardens are a Country Stowe and an outstanding formal garden laid out into Alleys and Walks, Groves of at St Paul’s Walden Bury in Hertfordshire, Trees, Canals and Fountains, and built in the first half of the 18th century. everywhere adorned with ancient and modern Statues and Vasa [urns] When Celiea Fiennes [1662-1741] toured innumerable” [quoted by Thacker, 1979, 152]. the country in the 1690s, she visited a number of gardens and her descriptions indicate the widespread formality: “rows of

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trees paled in gravel walks, fine cut “Our first impressions of the Beauty of hedges, flower-pots on walls, terraces, Nature had been gained from the statues, fountains, basins, grass squares Compositions which delineated such and exact, uniform plots” [Malins, 1966, scenery; and we were gradually accustomed to consider them as the standard of Natural 16]. Some of the formal gardens survived Beauty.” [Ibid]. the ‘natural’ gardens of the later 18th and th 19 centuries, but the English generally He argued, disliked formality - Shaftesbury for example wrote: “the English first copied Italian scenes, with much use of temples, ruins and , but “I shall no longer resist the Passion growing later arrived at more correct imitation of in me for Things of a natural kind; ... Even natural scenes, in the spirit of the painters.” the rude rocks, the mossy caverns, the [Ibid, 162]. irregular unwrought grotto’s, and broken falls of waters, with all the horrid graces of In Italian Landscape in Eighteenth Century the wilderness itself, as representing England [1925], Elizabeth Manwaring NATURE more, will be the more engaging, and appear with a Magnificence beyond the entitled her chapter on landscape gardens formal Mockery of Princely Gardens.” “The Creation of Italian Landscape in [Manwaring, 1925, 122-3] England”, thus emphasising their roots and objective. In this chapter she traced the Shaftesbury preferred what he termed influence of the Italianate paintings on the “ordered wildness”, which today would development of the English landscape seem an oxymoron. garden. Christopher Hussey, in The Picturesque [1927] similarly argued that The French gardens were seen to reflect the English landscape garden was the autocratic monarchy: modelled on the paintings of Claude, Poussin and Rosa. This view has been “The subjugation of Nature by Art, whether disputed by Lang arguing that it does not in the detail of clipped trees and hedges, or take account of the garden’s slow in the basically concentric plan of French development [Lang, 1974, 3]. gardens, was fundamentally autocratic.” [Malins, 1966, 16] The great country estates were established by reclaiming former small The English characteristics of benevolence enclosures. Influenced by their Grand and moderation were contrary to the Tours to the Continent, English gentry French manner and besides, the English surrounded their country manors with lacked the funds to establish such vast parks and gardens. They established gardens. settings without walls so that the eye

th would not be imprisoned and the park By the end of the 17 century, country extended unbroken to the surrounding living was an accepted way of life and countryside. Removal of the walls allowed many estates were established [Turner, the landscape garden to blend with the 1986, 12-13]. surrounding country. This was a feasible

th proposition in well-watered England but (4) 18 Century Landscape Gardens impossible in the drier Mediterranean or Middle Eastern lands, where it would have In place of the French formality, the resulted in the irrigated gardens English turned to the Italian landscape as contrasting with the surrounding arid land. epitomising the desired natural and classical associations. It was a landscape The removal of the walls was made portrayed in an idealised way by the possible by the development of the ha ha, Italianate paintings of Claude Lorraine, a sunken fence in the form of a ditch that Salvator Rosa, Poussin and others. At the th provided a barrier without interrupting the end of the 18 century, Archibald Alison, in view. The ditch had to be sufficient width Essays on the Nature and Principles of and depth to prevent stock crossing. Its Taste [1790], attributed the creation of name derived from the expression of English landscape gardening to admiration surprise on finding the obstacle and came of these artists’ Italianate landscapes into use about 1712 [Shorter Oxford [Manwaring, 1925, iii]. He wrote: Dictionary].

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One of the early landscape garden planners, the Yorkshire artist, William Kent Ruins were one aspect of the falsity of [1685 - 1748], spent some years in Italy garden decorations: like movie sets some and on returning to England about 1719 gardens used one-sided bridges through set about designing everything from which the garden could be framed, and “palaces to petticoats, but especially ... one writer suggested vistas might furniture and grounds” [Manwaring, 1925, terminate with painted canvas backdrops! 129]. In 1743, Walpole wrote approvingly [Crook, in Clark, 1989, 45]. of his gardens: he “can make bleak rocks and barren mountains smile” and, through Over the 18th century, landscape gardens Kent’s use of the ha ha “He leaped the became more complex, including grottos, fence, and saw all nature was a garden”. caves, cliffs, hermitages, falls, statuary, exotic objects and even macabre scenes Walpole observed the inspiration provided [Shepard, 1967, 87]. There gradually by the Italianate artists: “he [i.e. Kent] developed two schools; those preferring realised the compositions of the greatest the simple lawns and woody clumps - the masters in painting.” [Manwaring, 1925, classic pastoral, and those who followed 130] His imitations extended as far as painting as the model and included many inserting dead trees in the Kensington and symbolic objects. Many hundreds of Carlton gardens, reflecting Salvatore landscape gardens were established in Rosa’s motifs. The Stanstead gardens of England in the 18th century and over the the Earl of Halifax, according to Walpole, following century their trees came to “recall such exact pictures of Claude maturity. Lorrain that it is difficult to conceive that he did not paint them from this very spot.” Some authorities of taste, such as the [Ibid, 131] artist Sir Joshua Reynolds, held that gardening is not a fit subject for painting A later landscape gardener, William because it is a derivation of nature. Shenstone, a gentleman amateur, However, the landscape designers commenced work in 1745 and specialised believed that they were implementing in creating pictures in the landscape - Longinus’ dictum, that “to achieve siting seats and summer houses in the perfection, art must be disguised as best places to view the gardens. He used nature”46 [Heffernan, 1984, 6] foliage gradations, the size of trees, and buildings to lengthen vistas, and created The outstanding landscape garden “garden-scenes” of the sublime, the designer in the 18th century was Lancelot beautiful and the melancholy. [Ibid, 135]. “Capability” Brown [1716 - 1783], who “reigned” from 1750 to 1783 and who As befitted Italianate landscapes, English designed over 200 parks [Turner, 1986, gardens contained ruins, specially 98]. He was dubbed “Capability” because designed and constructed for the setting. he often spoke of “the 'capabilities ’ he Often these were Gothic, sometimes discerned in the chaos of nature” [Cook, Roman or Greek and ivy and other plants 1974, 177]. Although in his lifetime he was were encouraged to grow over them. While considered by some to produce monotony often ridiculed, the artificial ruins reinforced and tameness, and is criticised now for his the image of the garden as capturing the destruction of existing avenues of trees, landscapes of Claude or Rosa, they were his creations brought him great fame. He both objects and symbols. Sanderson excelled in the use of water - it “was his Miller was a chief designer of ruins (!), boast that Thames could never forgive him mingling classic and medieval, Gothic and for the glories of Blenheim” [Manwaring, Italian. Janowitz argues that ruins “serve 1925, 140]. as the visible guarantor of the antiquity of the nation, but as ivy climbs up and claims the stonework, it also binds culture to nature ...” [Janowitz, 1990, 54]. Books on Zucker, P., 1968. Fascination of Decay: Relic 45 the design of ruins appeared up to 1800. - Symbol - Ornament. The Gregg Press, Ridgewood, New Jersey. 46. Longinus wrote “Art is perfect just when it 45.See for example, Janowitz, A., 1990. seems to be nature, and nature successful England’s Ruins: Poetic Purpose and the when the art underlies it unnoticed” [Malins, National Landscape. Basil Blackwell, Oxford; viii]

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Following the lead of the Italianate the River Glyme. To make the River painters, Brown used water, clumps of somewhat larger than its rather paltry size, trees and particularly sweeps of lawns very it was proposed to dam it and create a effectively. He guided the landscaping of canal. An engineer, Colonel Armstrong, many country estates, following a formula designed a formal canal scheme that of unbroken turf, sinuous streams, clumps would create an expanse of water 30 of trees arranged to provide vistas beyond, metres across. This was constructed in the and an encirclement of woods. The aim 1720s. was to capture the peace, tranquillity and idyllic feeling associated with the classic pastoral scene. A minimum of 30 - 40 acres of lawn and trees was required. Undulating belts of trees surrounded Brown’s gardens, which served to accentuate contours and hide boundaries. The beauty of these landscaped gardens derived from their sense of detail, smoothness of line, and the gradual rather than sudden changes. "The beautiful landscape was characterised by symmetry, graceful curves, grazing animals, and a mixture of lawn, water and trees." [Shepard, 1967, 87] The tourist, looking for picturesque scenes, revelled in Brown’s works.

Brown’s reputation was such that shortly before his death a group of Irish noblemen sought him to work in Ireland, but he refused, boasting he had not yet finished Source: Bond & Tiller, 1987 Blenheim across Capability Brown’s Lake, England! 1842 [top] and 1983 [bottom]

In the mid 18th century, Walpole wrote, “the Following Marlborough’s death in 1722 country wears a new face; everybody is and his widow Sarah’s death in 1744, the improving their places” [Manwaring, 1925, property passed to their heirs. In about 144]. In the latter half of the century, many 1760, Capability Brown was commissioned books and poems about gardening were by the fourth Duke to improve the grounds. produced. Speaking of Capability Brown, He transformed them “into a ‘naturalistic’ one poet wrote of the Italianate influence: landscape which retained many of the

essential features of the earlier design but “At Blenheim, Croom and Caversham we trace at the same time brought them together Salvatore’s wildness, Claud’s enlivening into a single, united composition” [Bond & grace...” [Manwaring, 1925, 146] Tiller, 1987, 91]. Brown reshaped some areas, created a great lake of 150 acres, The example of Blenheim illustrates the created the Cascades - a low , contemporaneous changes to the state of and established clumps of trees around gardens and to fashion. Woodstock Park the lake together with extensive shelterbelt was established in the Middle Ages. In around the park. 1705, Queen Anne gave it to the Duke of Marlborough in recognition of his After Brown, new designers added victories against the French at Blindheim, classical temples, gardens around the after which it was called Blenheim. With Cascades were established by the fifth the architect Vanbrugh, the Duke of Duke in the 1820s, parts of the Great Park Marlborough set about establishing were used for agriculture, formal gardens Blenheim Palace and the gardens. These were established near the Palace, and were originally designed by Vanbrugh and further clumps of trees were planted Henry Wise, the Queen’s master gardener. around the lake, some unfortunately, th Charles Bridgman, an apprentice to Wise blocking views. Early in the 20 century, designed the Grand Avenue and Vanbrugh the ninth Duke established a water garden designed the Grand Bridge which crossed to the west of the palace and replaced the

137 6. Culture and Landscape

elms of the Grand Avenue, which The Development of Blenheim Park extended nearly two miles. Unfortunately, th these were destroyed in the 1970s by Toward the end of the 18 century, the Dutch elm disease and were replaced by Grand Tour extended from Rome to the eleventh Duke. Greece, then to the Aegean as interest grew in Grecian classical culture. As this This case history illustrates that gardens, occurred, ‘Greek’ ruins were constructed in unlike paintings, are living objects that gardens, instead of Romanesque ruins change over time, are subject to the which dominated in the first half of the vagaries and stresses of climate and century. The Grecian motifs made the disease, and to changing fashions. Arcadian vision appear even closer [Crook, in Clarke, 1989, 49].

Thomas Whately, who wrote Observations on Modern Gardening [1770], considered gardening “as superior to landscape painting as reality to representation.” [Ibid, 146] Using five materials, ground, wood, water, rocks and buildings, the landscape gardener “stood with a spade in one hand, and Burke On the Sublime and Beautiful in the other” and created “great ideas” or “ideas of beauty or variety” [Hussey, 1927, 152]. Horace Walpole’s Essay on Modern Gardening [1771] became the standard for the fashionable, Manwaring writes “it was in all polite hands”, and provided an historical overview of the subject. Walpole

waxed rhapsodical about the English achievements of landscape gardening, a term which he believed he had created:

“How rich, how gay, how picturesque, the face of the country! The demolition of walls laying open each improvement, every journey is made through a succession of pictures ... Enough has been done to establish such a school of landscape as cannot be found on the rest of the globe. If we have the seeds of a Claud or a Gaspar among us, he must come forth. If wood, water, vallies, glades, can inspire a poet or a painter, this is the country, this is the age, to produce them.” [quoted by Manwaring, 1925, 148]

The 18th century saw landscape gardening become a significant enterprise, giving rise to much poetry, literature and debates; Manwaring considered that no other century has seen the garden a “more constant subject of literary treatment than in the eighteenth” [Ibid, 166]. Unfortunately, the French Revolution associated sumptuous gardens with aristocratic decadence, resulting in the destruction of many hundreds of gardens both in England and on the Continent.

The development of the landscape garden Source: Bond & Tiller, 1987 and its appearance, not aberrations isolated from the wider cultural ideas of

138 6. Culture and Landscape

nature, they were a direct manifestation of Repton often softened Brown’s principles; the ideal landscape as then perceived. whereas Brown had turf extending to the Natural landscapes were still regarded as house, Repton provided beds of flowers too irregular to contain beauty, so the and reintroduced the fountain which had landscape gardens created islands of been banished from the 18th century perfect "nature". Interestingly the gardens “natural” gardens because of its artificiality. then influenced cultural norms about Following his lead, interest grew in the nature, as noted by garden historian Marie traditional cottage gardens near ordinary Luise Gothein "the feeling for nature was houses and with the growth of a more inspired in the main by the artistic beauties educated and affluent middle class in of the garden." [Quoted by Shepard, 1967, England, gardening became a popular 88] activity. Gardening manuals and periodicals flooded the market in the first By the late 18th century, however, a new half of the 19th century. view about landscape gardens emerged, one that was less enamoured with During the mid 19th century, flower Capability Brown. In 1794, Uvedale Price gardens were formalised along with and Richard Payne Knight respectively, hedges, and formality became the published An Essay on the Picturesque, hallmark until, in the 1880s, it was and The Landscape, a Didactic Poem in countered by works such as William Three Books, Addressed to Uvedale Price. Robinson’s The Wild Garden [1870] and Price considered that gardens should be The English Flower Garden [1883]. “judged by the universal principles of Robinson denounced the formality of painting” [Hussey, 1927, 173]. Knight’s “pastry-work gardening” and the works of lengthy poem (12,000 lines) was a diatribe “fountain mongers” arguing for a natural against Brown’s school of landscape approach [Hunter, 1985, 129]. Fashion gardening. seesawed between formalism and informality. Thacker terms it a shift from Brown’s mantle was assumed by the picturesque of the 18th century to the Humphrey Repton [1752 - 1818], gardenesque of the 19th, gardenesque continuing what Price and Knight being qualities that displayed the art of the considered the “insipidity” of the Brownist gardener. Gardens were “tidy, imaginative, stamp of landscape gardening. Central to historically-based, attractive and with a the dispute was the question of whether comfortable and human scale” [Thacker, landscape painting, particularly that by 1979, 227]. During the Victorian era: Claude Lorraine, can serve as an adequate basis for landscape gardening. “the opulence of the ornamental grounds of The argument raged back and forth over their great houses seems incredible: the the following decade and is largely of armies of gardeners required to maintain the academic interest now. When Repton parterres of bedding plants and rake acres of gravel, the collections of every exotic tree published his Observations on the Theory and shrub that could be induced to survive, and Practice of Landscape Gardening and the stonework of terraces, stairs and [1803], he argued that a gardener does not ornaments.” [Hunter, 1985, 123] follow a painter, yet his designs suggested otherwise - closely following Claude in William Robinson helped introduce many many features. exotic species into England for use in “natural” gardens and his mantle passed Repton sought to emulate the perfection on to Gertrude Jekyll [1843 - 1932], an he already saw in nature - in contrast to accomplished landscape gardener, and Brown who sought to bring order out of Edwin Lutyens, a formal garden designer. chaos. His Red Book series illustrated Working together, the themes of wildness before and after scenes of the gardens and formality were resolved in outstanding that he designed. Repton’s influence was ways. World War 1 effectively ended the immense. In Regents Park and St James great age of landscape gardens in Park in London [both designed by others], England, the economics of husbanding and even in the parks of Olmsted such as large gardens in straightened times saw to New York’s Central Park, his touch is that. The National Trust in Britain owns evident. and maintains some of the houses and grounds that had been landscaped by Kent, Brown or Repton [cf Thomas, 1983],

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but the home gardens of today tend to be through the Greek and Roman cultures, a pale imitation of the vastness of former gardens have held an eminent position in times: Western culture. Unlike the gardens of the East that contain significant symbolic “While the parkland tradition lingers on import, Western gardens are generally forgetful of its origins, the garden tradition symbol free. However, the free-spirited, has become democratised, the weekend natural gardens that were developed in hobby of every family lucky enough to own a England during the 18th century were seen few square yards of space around their to epitomise the English characteristics of houses” [Hunter, 1985, 132]. benevolence and moderation, and Although the Brown/Repton approach to contrasted with the formality of the French landscape gardening ceased in Britain, its creations which were regarded as symbols natural style had a major influence in North of an autocratic monarchy.

America, where the natural environment is th important. The contrasting American and The 18 century landscape gardens were English cultural attitudes is illustrated by probably England's most lasting the comments of an American visitor to the contribution to gardens, and their influence view overlooking countryside near London has been enormous. Their picturesque in 1835. The English regarded the scene qualities, deriving inspiration from the as one of the most beautiful, varied and paintings of Claude, Salvatore and extensive. The whole scene was a garden Poussin, created images of naturalness, in cultivation, every field enclosed by understatement, peace and contentment hedgerows. As these receded in the that transcended their physical elements. distance, less and less could be seen of Such gardens represented the ideal the fields, but the trees could be seen to landscape, classical images of the Golden the extreme distance. Age with its pastoral imagery, gardens which did not suffer the irregularities and “And do you call this beautiful?" said [the disfigurements of a natural landscape, but American], “In America we would consider it rather one in which everything was in one of the most desolate scenes that the keeping. mind can conceive. It resembles a country 47 that has never been cleared of wood." The design of gardens reflected prevailing [Shepard, 1967, 133]. English taste about the wider landscape, as reflected in its attitude to mountains and Such is the influence of culture upon one’s in its art. The fulfilment of the garden perceptions. The quote also illustrates the design obviously involves a greater span fallacy of assuming that the Western of time between conception and realisation cultural perspective towards landscapes is than in art and in the attitudes towards a homogeneous unity, although there are mountains, but a consistency is clearly areas of commonality which derive from a apparent between the three. partly shared heritage, there are also distinctive national differences. This lends credence to focusing the view in this 6.7 SUMMARY chapter to mainly that of a single country: England. Tables 6.1, 6.2, 6.3 and 6.4 summarise the significant findings for the classical and (5) Gardens & Landscape teleological foundations, the attitudes to Conclusions mountains, the development of landscape art, and the development of gardens and Parks and gardens provide an opportunity parks respectively. Figure 6.1 indicates the to create in a small space an idealised duration and relative timing of the various landscape, one that surrounds the influences, significant publications, and life individual and separates them from the spans of key individuals. external world. With origins extending back into pre-classical times in Persia, then

47. See for example, Jackson, 1965, Lowenthal, 1966, Nash, 1975, Erickson, 1977, Gidley & Lawson-Peebles, 1989 and Conzen, 1991 for treatments of the historical development of landscape values in North America.

185 8. Findings of Landscape Preference Studies

CHAPTER EIGHT

FINDINGS FROM TWENTIETH CENTURY LANDSCAPE STUDIES

8.1 INTRODUCTION evaluation are overwhelmingly dominated by empirical methodology, [and] that they could In this chapter the findings of the 191 be greatly strengthened if they were landscape preference studies are underpinned by a more convincing summarised. The characteristics of these theoretical base” [1975b, 120]. Buhyoff and were described in Chapter 7. A model of Wellman [1980, 258] considered that the human-landscape interaction that will guide point has been reached “where [a] the analysis of findings was described in theoretically based model development Chapter 1. Five components were identified: should become a primary goal”.

• landscape theory In a landmark review of over 160 landscape • research methodologies research papers, Zube, Taylor & Sell • characteristics of the observer “identified a conspicuous theoretical void in • presentation of the landscape - e.g. use of the majority of the research” [1982, 25]. surrogates However, in a subsequent paper, they • preferences for the landscape and its identified perception research to be based components on “a scattering of diverse theoretical origins.” [Sell, Taylor & Zube, 1984, 61]. Each component is reviewed in this chapter. Using the four paradigms of perception research they had identified, they describe these theoretical origins, which are 8.2 LANDSCAPE THEORY discussed below. Nevertheless Zube, Taylor & Sell also agree with Appleton that the lack This section examines the need for theory “of a unifying theoretical structure does not and then describes the four principal allow a rational basis for ‘diagnosis, theories advanced in the area of landscape prescription and prognosis.’” [Ibid]. aesthetics. It also reviews two quasi-theories or models for looking at landscape While the lack of theory is widely aesthetics. All four theories are variations of recognised, the reason for the void is less an evolutionary perspective, as each apparent. Part of the reason may be that the assumes that landscape preferences are philosophy of aesthetics and the literature survival-enhancing. The theories and on landscape design and art history have models are: much about aesthetics but notoriously little of a practical orientation which could apply • habitat theory [Orians] to landscape quality assessment [Dearden & • prospect - refuge theory [Appleton] Sadler, 1989, 6]. Also, because of rapid affective theory - psychoevolutionary • changes to landscapes, some argue that approach [Urlich] • information processing theory - a practitioners “were not going to fiddle with functionalist evolutionary approach [Kaplan & theory while the landscape burned.” [Ibid]. Kaplan] • tripartite paradigm of aesthetics [Bourassa] Why is it necessary to have a theoretical • pyramid of influences [Dearden] basis? If the community is concerned about landscape quality, is that not enough? While The section concludes by assessing the people’s opinions may be sought about the adequacy of the theories. worth or quality of a landscape, there is no way of making sense of these views without (1) Need for Theory a theoretical construct. Theoretical paradigms can provide managers with the Consistent with the development of a new basis for management action, by allowing area of intellectual inquiry, the landscape prediction of consequences following action. field has been characterised as “rampantly A further reason is analogous to the empirical” [Porteous, 1982, 63], lacking a understanding of the human body that sound theoretical base to guide it. Appleton separates a doctor from the person in the similarly stated that the “techniques of street in making a diagnosis; as Appleton 186 8. Findings of Landscape Preference Studies

aptly put it: “just as the Brisbane wicket after rain used to be said to reduce all batsmen to Habitat theory postulates that, because the an equal plane of incompetence, so this habitats in which humans are believed to absence of aesthetic theory brings the have evolved were dominated by grasslands professional down to the same plane as the and scattered trees with water in close man in the street.” [1975b, 122] Theory can proximity, this became a preferred visual thus provide a basis for elevating the level of landscape for humans. Until recently it has analysis from common to expert. Theoretical been believed that the East African savanna perspectives also assist framing problems, was the cradle of humanity [Leakey, 1963, in defining what to look for and in what ways 1976]. Balling and Falk state that much of to look [Gärling & Golledge, 1989, 204]. our “biological apparatus, most obviously bipedalism, is that of a savanna primate.” Following the comprehensive review that he [1982, 9]. undertook with Taylor and Sell, Zube stated that the lack of theory and narrow Research by Rabinowitz & Coughlin [1970] approaches restrict the future growth of the found that there was a general preference field [Zube, 1984, 104]. The lack of an for landscapes that were “parklike” or adequate theoretical base constrains the “obviously man-influenced” [Ibid, 7]. identification, assessment and protection of landscapes. The “task of theory in “Mowed grass and scattered large shade landscape aesthetics”, according to trees seem to be the determining factors. Bourassa [1991, 64] “is one of identifying may say, ‘This is nice because it looks aesthetic laws, if they exist, and of natural, away from civilization.’ However, the scenes to which they are referring are not in a identifying the general characteristics or wild or natural state but clearly ‘landscaped’.” types of aesthetic rules and strategies.” These environments, the authors suggest, (2) Habitat Theory - Orians provide feelings of openness and seclusion, or in Appleton’s terms, prospect and refuge. Habitat theory is an overarching paradigm Habitat theory may provide a plausible within which fit information-processing explanation for the importance of the theory and Appleton’s prospect-refuge pastoral landscape, from the Arcadia of theory. Bourassa [1991, 76] suggested the antiquity through the paintings of Claude overlap between these two theories and and Poussin and the landscape gardens of Appleton viewed his theory as having its Capability Brown to the municipal parks of roots in habitat theory. Habitat theory may today. The preference for parklike be defined as: landscapes is the only landscape form that appears to have endured across the “the theory that aesthetic satisfaction millennia [see Chapter 6]. Balling and Falk experienced in the contemplation of the landscape stems from the spontaneous ask: perception of landscape features which, in their shapes, colours, spatial arrangements “Are many of the parks and backyards people and other visible attributes, act as sign-stimuli have so assiduously created wherever they indicative of environmental conditions have lived in part an expression of an innate favourable for survival, whether they are really predisposition for the savanna?” [Balling & favourable or not.” [Appleton, 1975, 269] Falk, 1982, 10]

In the early 1970s when Appleton wrote his Urlich found in a survey of Swedes and book, information processing theory (insofar Americans a preference for park-like as its application to landscape) was in its scenes. These were: infancy. “distinguished by the presence of scattered G.H. Orians, an evolutionary biologist, and trees or small groupings of trees, and all had even or fine ground textures. In some cases the principal advocate of the theory, states the scenes had been landscaped and the that its biological underpinnings are that: textures consisted of mowed grass. The even ground textures contained relatively little “natural selection should have favoured complexity; rather, the bulk of the complexity individuals who were motivated to explore and consisted of vertical elements - trees and settle in environments likely to afford the bushes - which stood out clearly against the necessities of life but to avoid environments unambiguous depth “sheet” of the ground with poorer resources or posing higher risks.” surface. “ [1977, 8] [Orians & Heerwagen, 1992, 557] 187 8. Findings of Landscape Preference Studies

The most attractive trees [Table 8.1] had According to Orians the: highly or moderately layered canopies, lower trunks, and higher canopy width/tree height “savannas of tropical Africa have high ratio. Factors such as broken branches, resource-providing potential for a large, deformed trunks, and highly asymmetrical terrestrial, omnivorous primate ... In savannas canopies, indicators of resource depletion, ... trees are scattered and much of the depressed attractiveness scores. productivity is found within two metres of the

ground where it is directly accessible to people and grazing and browsing animals. Table 8.1 Comparison of Most & Least Biomass and production of meat is much Attractive Trees higher in savannas than in forests.” [1986, 10] 7 most 7 least t p Based on this, Orians suggests that: attractive attractive Mean 3.91 2.9 12.58 .000 “savanna-type environments with scattered attractiveness trees and copses in a matrix of grassland score should be highly preferred environments for Trunk height/ 0.17 0.33 8.24 .000 people and should evoke strong positive tree height emotions.” [Ibid, 110]; ratio Canopy 1.93 1.53 5.89 .000 and width/tree height ratio “tree shapes characteristic of environments Canopy width/ 3.63 3.56 0.2 .83 providing the highest quality resources for canopy height evolving humans should be more pleasing ratio than shapes characterising poor habitats.” Source: Heerwagen & Orians, 1993, 160 [Heerwagen & Orians, 1993, 157] Interpreting their results, the authors noted G.H. & E.N. Orians photographed African that “a low trunk is easier to climb than a savanna trees, in particular the Acacia high one; a broad umbrella-like canopy tortulis, and selected trees varying in affords greater refuge from sun or rain than height/width ratio, height of branches, extent a narrow, high canopy.” [Heerwagen & of canopy layers. Photographs were Orians, 1993, 160]. The results were selected to test four hypotheses: considered to support the functional- evolutionary perspective. • trees with lower trunks should be more attractive than trees with high trunks Orians and Heerwagen also compared the • trees with moderate canopy density should forms of African savanna trees with maple be more attractive than trees with low or high and oak trees found in Japanese64 parks canopy density and gardens. Comparing three • trees with a high degree of canopy layering morphological differences - height vs canopy should be more attractive than trees with low width, trunk height vs total height, and or moderate degrees of layering canopy depth vs canopy width - they found • the broader the tree canopy relative to its height, the more attractive the tree should be close similarities: [Heerwagen & Orians, 1993, 158] “Garden conifers are highly modified by Measures were taken of each tree canopy’s pruning them to grow broader than tall; trunks are trained to branch close to the ground; width and height, tree height and trunk foliage is trimmed to produce a distinct height. These were converted into ratios of layering similar to that of a number of savanna canopy width/height, canopy width/ tree species.” [Ibid, 1993, 157]. height, and trunk height/tree height. Respondents rated attractiveness of While suggesting that achieving a growth photographs [b & w] of the trees on a 6 point form similar to that of savanna trees was a scale. The study found that trunk height, criterion subconsciously employed by canopy layering and canopy width/tree Japanese gardeners, Orians recognised that height ratio significantly influenced many other factors also have had an attractiveness scores, but the canopy influence [Orians, 1986, 13 - 15]. width/canopy height did not have a significant effect. 64. The choice of Japanese parks and gardens rather than European or North American is not explained. 188 8. Findings of Landscape Preference Studies

deciduous forest, coniferous forest, tropical In another study, Heerwagen & Orians rain forest and desert. Both found savanna sought evidence for Appleton’s prospect and to be the most preferred of the five biomes. refuge among landscape paintings and the They found that preference for savanna was Red Books of Humphrey Repton, the 18th highest among the age 8 - 11 year olds after century English landscape architect [see which it slipped behind deciduous and rain Chapter 6]. Their analysis of Repton’s Red forest and, in Lyons’ study, behind rain Books also examined whether he created forest. Balling & Falk found that overall savanna-like scenes. These books preference for natural environments illustrated the “before” and “after” changed as a function of age [Ibid, 16], [F = appearance of properties, showing the 89.62, df 5, 492, p <0.001]. effects of his landscaping. Examination of 18 designs found that Repton frequently moved Figure 8.1 indicates the shift in preferences trees out into open space, thereby creating for savanna with age. While the scores differ an uneven wood edge, a feature between the studies, the pattern is similar: characteristic of savanna environments. In high scores among the young that fall his book, The Art of Landscape Gardening, progressively with age, stabilising in Repton noted that too many trees “make a adulthood. place appear gloomy and damp” [Ibid, 1993, 155]. Both found the preference for savanna was strongest when a lush green savanna was According to Sommer and Summit, research used in preference to a drier African-like on tree preferences in Argentina, Australia savanna. The difference was so striking that and United States found that: Lyons dropped the lush green savanna. The use of the greener savanna in the Balling “respondents preferred canopies to be and Falk study probably accounts for the moderately dense and trunks that bifurcated higher ratings. near the ground. Trees with high trunks and skimpy or very dense canopies were While Balling and Falk believed the results considered to be least attractive by all these provide “limited support for the hypothesis groups, findings considered to be consistent with the savannah hypothesis” [Sommer & that people have some innate preference for Summit, 1995, 542]. savanna-like environments” [Ibid, 22], Lyons disputed this on the basis that the Sommer and Summit used computer drawn preference for savanna could be related to images of tree shapes to test preferences its familiarity for children who play in with variations in height and width. They savanna-like parks and backyards. found preferences for large canopies [χ2 = Commenting on the functionalist- 195.7, p < 0.001], low trunk height and thin evolutionary perspective she noted: trunk thickness [both p < 0.001], the first two properties being consistent with savanna “This perspective is also plagued by the same hypothesis and the third [trunk thickness] dependence on optimality theory that is being irrelevant [Ibid, 551]. evident in much of biological evolutionary theory; it does not recognize that natural selection is not precise, that the current Both Balling and Falk [1982] and Lyons function of a structure cannot be used to infer [1983] assessed the preferences for a range of environments illustrating savanna, 189 8. Findings of Landscape Preference Studies

6 Lyons 5 Balling/Falk

4

ences 3 efer

Pr 2

1

0 Adult Lower Upper Elderly primary primary Mid teens Late teens Source: Balling & Falk, 1982; Lyons, 1983. Note: Lyons study results significant at p < 0.05; Balling & Falk at < 0.001

Figure 8.1 Comparison of Preferences for Savanna by Age

its adaptive origin, and that some structures the Australian Aborigines and the North or processes that affect landscape preference American Indians, encouraged the may in fact be maladaptive but persists development of savanna-like vegetation. because of the correlational structure of the While the purpose of this was to create human genome.” [Ibid, 507] favourable conditions for game, it raises the question whether it was unconsciously Woodcock [1982] also examined directed to create a preferred savanna-like preferences for three biomes: rain forest, landscape. In both cases the cessation of savanna and mixed hardwoods and found fires after European settlement resulted in the hardwood to be the most preferred the savanna appearance gradually being [rainforest 2.83, savanna, 3.06, dense lost65. hardwood with underbrush, 3.04, open hardwood with open ground, 3.73]. It is also Orians [1980] cites the perceptions of early possible that this may be due to familiarity explorers in North America who seemed to as suggested by the Kaplans [1989, 287]. prefer savanna-like landscapes, although this may be to provide grazing land and Fenton [1985] analysed the underlying dimensions of meaning or content that individuals use in discriminating natural settings. He found that the majority of participants preferred scenes characterised by: open grasslands, verdant, water, natural, and with pathways [Ibid, 340]. He viewed these findings as supporting the Kaplans’ 65. E.g. see Denevan [1992] who suggested theory, but they also lend support to Orians’ that in 1492 the native American landscape habitat theory. was a humanised landscape and that with the decimation of the Indian population by disease and war, the vegetation was re- Schroeder [1991], studying preferences for established. “A good argument can be made scenes in an arboretum in Chicago, found that the human presence was less visible in natural deciduous wood scenes, large trees, 1750 than it was in 1492.” [Ibid, 369]. and water attracted the highest ratings but Similarly Bourassa quotes the archaeologist, scenes of trees and lawn - the classic Dr Rhess Jones, that after the Aborigines pastoral landscape, were less preferred. “had either died or had been removed ... soon afterwards it was noticed that the Among the evidence cited to support habitat plains were becoming filled with sour grass and light scrub so that it was becoming theory is the observation that no difficult to graze sheep on them, the attempt archaeological evidence has been found to being abandoned with great financial loss indicate early human occupation of dense about 10 or so years later.” [Bourassa, forest, rainforests or deserts [Isaac, 1980]. 1991, 69] The loss of pastoral landscapes Use of fire by indigenous people, including was also apparent in many other locations. 190 8. Findings of Landscape Preference Studies

reduce hiding opportunities for natives. neither in beautiful objects nor in the eyes of Bourassa notes that similar preferences the beholder but rather in the relationship were apparent among explorers and settlers between the individual and the environment in Australia and New Zealand [1991, 69, 71]. - what Dewey calls ‘experience’ [Ibid, 48]. In his book, Future Eaters [1994], Tim Such experience covers both the habitat Flannery included a chapter titled “Like theory and information processing theory Plantations in a Gentleman’s Park”, in which that aesthetic satisfaction from landscapes he wrote of the settlers’ efforts to transform derives from their favourability for survival the Australian landscape into an English [1975a, 69]. landscape. In King Solomon’s Ring [1952], Konrad Many early paintings of the Australian Lorenz wrote of seeing without being seen, landscape also displayed park-like which relates to habitat theory. Appleton environments. Favoured scenes among built on this, arguing that a landscape need painters were pastoral landscapes, only provide the appearance of satisfying environments which also made for good survival needs. Certain sign-stimuli provided grazing land and which did not require by the landscape comprise the core of clearing to be productive. By contrast, Appleton’s prospect-refuge theory. He Bernard Smith refers to von Guerard’s termed the sign-stimuli that provide paintings of virgin forest that “amply convey opportunities to see a prospect while those the depressing effect so frequently which provide an opportunity to hide he mentioned by travellers and settlers.” [1971, termed refuge [Ibid, 73]. Appleton 59]. Anthony Trollope, the English novelist, summarised his theory thus [Ibid, 73]: toured Australasia in the 1870s and wrote, “the fault of the Australian scenery is its “Habitat theory postulates that aesthetic monotony.” [1873, 78]. pleasure in landscape derives from the observer experiencing an environment Tim Bonyhady identifies a triad of images favourable to the satisfaction of his biological needs. Prospect-refuge theory postulates portrayed by the 19th century artists: an that, because the ability to see without being “antipodean arcadia untouched by European seen is an intermediate step in the settlement and occupied only by Aborigines satisfaction of many of those needs, the enjoying a bountiful existence” [1985, xii], a capacity of an environment to ensure the pastoral arcadia occupied by squatters and achievement of this becomes a more their sheep, and a magnificent wilderness, immediate source of aesthetic satisfaction.” as yet untamed. Appleton developed the imagery and While there are findings and anecdotal symbolism of the theory. Prospects can be evidence supportive of the habitat direct or indirect and include panoramas and hypothesis, these are not definitive. Lyons’ vistas while refuges can be classified by alternative explanations of familiarity may function [e.g. hides and shelters], by origin account for the preferences found by Balling [natural or artificial], by substance [in the and Falk’s study. earth such as caves or in vegetation], by accessibility and by efficiency. One senses (3) Prospect and Refuge Theory - that some of these are classification for Appleton classification’s sake but Appleton is nothing if not exhaustive in the development of his Jay Appleton’s prospect-refuge theory has theme. become one of the most widely quoted landscape theories. It derives its inspiration He examined and classified hazards, from both habitat theory and information surfaces and related components, processing theory. Hudson described it as a discussed landscapes which are dominated “seminal contribution” [1992, 53]. Appleton, by prospect, refuge or hazard [pp 146 - 168], a geographer at the University of Hull, the place of man in nature [pp 169 - 191] England, described the theory in, The and then reviewed prospect and refuge in Experience of Landscape [1975]. The parks and gardens, in architecture and book’s name derives from the view of the urban design, painting, film, literature [pp philosopher, John Dewey66, that beauty lay 192 - 219] and the application of prospect- refuge theory to the landscape gardens of Capability Brown, Repton and le Nôtre’s 66. The title of Dewey’s book, Art as Experience Versailles [pp 220-8]. He commented on (1934) may have inspired Appleton’s title. 191 8. Findings of Landscape Preference Studies

fashion and taste [pp 220 - 237] and finally refuge. Overall though, the study failed described the application of the theory to “either to support conclusively or to negate case studies of landscapes in several the central claim of [the] theory” and “despite countries. [pp 238 - 256]. every effort [by the judges they] remained unconvinced that they were tapping some Over a decade later, Appleton described underlying perceptual force” [Ibid, 8]. how he developed his theory: Orians suggested that scenes with a high “I was looking for a simple model that could proportion of prospects compared with relate the idea of preference to a typology of refuges would be favoured as familiarity of landscapes through the medium of the the observer increases and the risks they biological and, more particularly, the present decrease accordingly [1986, 9]. He behavioural sciences.” [1988, 28]. observed that closed forests are deficient in

prospect while desert and grassland scenes The theory potentially offers an explanation are deficient in refuge. [Ibid, 16]. Savannas, to the perennial question of why people by contrast provide a good combination of climb mountains. The answer is not prospect and refuge. Elsewhere, Orians and “because it’s there” but rather because the Heerwagen [1992, 571] suggest that mountain represents the best prospect Appleton’s theory means that an available and, hence, being on top of it environment judged pleasant will be one enhances survival. The fact that this may with a balance between prospect and refuge lead people to climb very high mountains opportunities, with screening elements to and to even be killed in the attempt does not provide privacy and variability in desired negate this hypothesis, it merely suggests levels of intimacy in a space. that optimality applies in the selection of mountains to provide prospects and that Heerwagen & Orians [1993] tested the high mountains may actually be sub-optimal evidence for prospect and refuge in for this purpose. landscape paintings, by examining gender

differences in preferences and by examining In a Spanish study, Abelló, Bernaldez & the before and after pictures by the English Galiano [1986] found preferences for forest landscaper, Humphrey Repton, and by the landscapes, a preference for fertility and painter, John Constable. These are plant vigour, some pattern or rhythm, and a summarised below. structural legibility in winter defoliation [Ibid,

168]. The survival-promoting preferences Sunsets in Landscape Paintings tend to support Appleton’s thesis: they Based on a assumption that paintings of “correspond either to signs indicating sunsets represent refuge symbolism, it environmental virtues (fertility and plant would be expected that artists would include vigor healthy biomass) or hazards references to places in which people could (environmental hostility present in defoliated spend the night. Out of 46 paintings of wintry vegetation)...” [Ibid, 173]. sunsets and sunrises [including many by

Frederick Church], 35 were sunsets and 11 Using a very limited sample of four were sunrises indicating they believed that participants [including the authors], Clamp “the information provided by a sunset is and Powell [1982] sought to test Appleton’s much more valuable and requires more theory by rating 40 panoramas of urgent attention than ... a sunrise.” [Ibid, landscapes for landscape quality, prospect, 148] The sunset paintings scored very highly refuge, hazard, and the balance of prospect in refuge symbolism: 66% scored highly in and refuge. The authors calculated that, 67 refuge compared with 9% for sunrises [ 2 = although the quality ratings correlated well, χ 10.89, p = 0.004]. Sunset paintings had there were no significant correlations more built refuges whereas sunrise between preference and prospect-refuge paintings had very few. Paintings that balance [p < 0.001]. Some correlation was included a built refuge also included obtained between preference and prospect. additional refuge symbols: 46% had a light They found a significant negative correlation in the window, 12% had smoke from the between prospect and refuge - the finding is chimney, while 7% had both a light and not surprising as something that provides smoke. good prospect is unlikely to be a good

Gender differences 67. A sample of 4 is usually regarded as insufficient for correlations. 192 8. Findings of Landscape Preference Studies

Their hypothesis was that females find Researching forest and field environments, refuges more attractive: “a greater affinity for Herzog [1984] used factor analysis to enclosure and protected places than do identify three dimensions: unconcealed males” [Ibid, 150] due to pregnancy and vantage point, concealed vantage point, and childcare, as well as protection from the large trees. The parallels with refuge and elements, which drain energy. To avoid prospect are obvious. Both the unconcealed being trapped or being taken by surprise, an and concealed vantage points were open refuge would be advantageous. moderately well liked with similar ratings of Content analysis of 108 landscape 3.27 and 3.39 on 5-point scale, suggesting paintings, painted by both male and female little difference in the preferences for each artists [52 by females, 56 by males] was type. He found stronger preferences for used. Prospect symbolism included open large old trees [3.79], which provided a landscapes, opportunities for views [hills, significantly higher rating [p < 0.05]. When mountains, rock outcrops], and a view of the these trees were viewed in combination with horizon at least half the width of the painting. pathways, ratings of 4.0 were obtained. Refuge symbolism included houses and Herzog speculated that this may be due to vegetative cover, especially in the the large old trees providing an “especially foreground. In summary [Ibid, 152 - 3]: pleasing effect as pathway border elements” [Ibid, 351], - an artistic explanation but it • Women’s paintings: nearly half were high in might also suggest that the combination of refuge symbolism compared with 25% for tree and path provide ideal refuge and men’s paintings [χ2 = 6.89, p = .03]. 75% prospect combinations. Herzog was aware had no horizon or peephole, these being of Appleton’s work, but confined the symbolic of prospects. implications of the study to Kaplan’s theory.

• Men’s paintings: nearly half were high with In a study of waterscapes, Herzog [1985] prospects compared with 25% for women’s referred to Appleton’s prospect as an paintings [χ2 = 12.07, p = .002]. Nearly 75% affordance in Gibson’s [1979] terms, but did had moderate-high prospect symbolism 68 compared with less than half for women’s not analyses his findings in these terms . paintings. The horizon was more than half He found preferences were, in order [5-point the width in 58% of paintings compared with scale], mountain waterscapes [3.99]; large 14% of women’s paintings. water bodies [3.28]; rivers, lakes and ponds [3.11]; and swampy areas [2.13]. He found Before and After Scenes swampy areas to be distinguished by low Heerwagen & Orians examined the before spaciousness [2.45] while large water and after designs of Repton and Constable, bodies were distinguished by spaciousness the former for his landscaping of properties [4.11] and coherence [3.66]. Spaciousness and the latter of his sketches for later could be equated with prospect, as both paintings. In 18 scenes Repton enhanced denote similar qualities of openness of view. the refuge and prospect character of the The mountain waterscapes were high in properties by: spaciousness and would also be expected to be high in prospect, while swampy areas were low in spaciousness and would also be • adding copses of trees at the water’s edge which increased refuge expected to be low in prospect [but possibly • removing trees to open views to the horizon high in refuge, which tends to be ranked which increased prospect negatively in preferences].

Examination of nine of Constable’s sketches Herzog & Smith [1988] examined and paintings indicated that he frequently and urban alleyways to examine Appleton’s altered the vegetation to open views to the concept of hazard and how this related to horizon or to make refuge features such as Kaplan’s predictor variables of mystery. houses more conspicuous. In six of the pairs Overall, they found that “both danger and he enhanced the refuge conditions by mystery predict preference, the former adding buildings and changing vegetation negatively and the latter positively.” [Ibid, [Ibid, 156]. 342].

The findings by Heerwagen & Orians support the prospect and refuge symbolism as an unconscious organising attribute. 68. See Section 8.6 for a fuller description of this study. 193 8. Findings of Landscape Preference Studies

Hull & McCarthy [1988] used scenes of the including primary and secondary prospect, Australian bush to assess the impact on and primary and secondary refuge69. He preferences of wildlife in scenes. Three found prospect to be positively related to dimensions were identified: water, enclosure preference [0.55] while refuge appeared to and concealed view, the latter be negatively related [-0.59], an unexpected corresponding, they acknowledged, with result which led him to propose additional Appleton’s theory. In a concealed view, predictors including agoraphobia and foreground vegetation concealed the view claustrophobia. but not enough to block views to the middleground or background [Ibid, 273]. Overall the evidence is not compelling for Appleton’s theory and indicates that some Nasar et al [1983] examined the preferences refinement may in order. While prospects expressed from two locations in a city park. generally correlate with preference this may At each location the observer viewed the derive from the appeal of mountains. scene from a protected position [enclosed] Refuges are generally regarded negatively. and an unprotected position [Figure 8.2]. A strong dichotomy by gender in They assessed the scene on a nine bi-polar preferences for prospect and refuge adjective scale [e.g. repelling-inviting, appears present - males preferring open relaxed-tense]. prospects, females preferring safe vantage points. While Appleton regards the balance between prospect and refuge as important, 5.8 few studies have attempted to tackle what this balance might be. 5.6 Kaplan’s concepts of coherence, complexity, Open 5.4 legibility and mystery appear to have some

ences observation point overlap and parallels with Appleton’s efer 5.2 prospect and refuge, for example prospect Pr Enclosed and legibility, refuge and mystery, and this 5 observation point could be explored further.

4.8 Appleton’s theory has been described as a Female Male “sociobiological account of aesthetic value” Source: Nasar et al, 1983 [Carlson, 1992, 79] while Bunkse [1977, Figure 8.2 Interactive Effect of Refuge and 150] described it as “hide and seek Gender on Preferences aesthetics”. Bunkse considered that the theory “seems to answer many unanswered They found that the open views were questions” [Ibid], including the human regarded as safer than closed views [F = preference for natural habitats rather than 8.18, df = 1, 56; p < 0.01], which accords artificial ones, and in treating the vast with Appleton’s theory. However they also differences in French and Japanese found that females preferred the enclosed gardening styles as attempts to fulfil innate, observation point to the open one, while the biologically determined preferences. opposite applied to males [F = 3.73, df = 1, Appleton considered that cultural differences 56; p = 0.06]. The notion of males preferring can be explained by their biological viewing points with less refuge is contrary to underpinnings, a view not universally Appleton’s theory. shared70. Jeans stated [1977, 346]: “The

Strumse’s [1996] finding of higher preferences for green, grassy fields among 69. The primary prospect is a photo taken from women than men [males 2.99, women 3.22; a high vantage point showing the 5-point scale] could reflect a preference for surrounding landscape while the secondary the “open and well defined settings, which prospect shows a good vantage point; similarly the primary refuge is of a photo most probably induce feelings of security” which indicates that it was taken from a [Ibid, 27]. Such landscapes offer good concealed location, whereas the secondary prospects in Appleton’s terms. refuge only indicates good refuges in the landscape. Woodcock [1982] assessed preferences for 70. E.g. Bourassa: “While arguments such as three biomes [savanna, rain forest and Appleton’s are rather extreme assertions of hardwoods] on the basis of six affordances, a biological basis for aesthetics...” [1991, 49]. 194 8. Findings of Landscape Preference Studies

survival of primitivist urges in man, like landscapes and architecture [Hudson, 1992, territoriality, is so overlaid by cultural 56, and Hudson, 1993, 76]. accretions and modifications that it seems uselessly oversimplistic to seek to apply While there is a considerable level of them to human behaviour.” support for Appleton’s theory, it lacks strong supporting evidence. The findings of studies Bunkse also questioned the theory’s ability suggest the need for further elaboration and to deal with ambiguities, such as whether consideration of the theory. darkness is a prospect or refuge, and he cast doubts about its reliance on innate (4) Affective Theory - Urlich drives saying [1977, 151]: Affective theory considers that natural “It cannot be denied that a good deal of settings and landscapes can produce in human behaviour can be compared with their viewers, emotional states of well-being animals, but as a species we have developed that can be detected through psychological our own unique traits which can be and neurophysiological measures. The main understood only through direct study of proponent of the theory is Roger Urlich, humans. Such understanding must be couched not only in terms of biological drives originally a geographer at the University of analogous to those in animals, but also in Delaware and more recently with the terms of human imagination and the ability to College of Architecture at A & M apprehend the self in the environment, and University. the will to act originally.” Affect is used by Urlich synonymously with Several reviewers have observed that emotion and include feelings such as Appleton’s theory, which suggests that each pleasantness, calm, exhilaration, caution, scene has to be broken down into its fear and anxiety [Ruddell et al, 1989, 400] prospect and refuge symbolism, “is but excludes drives such as thirst and reductionist in the extreme” [Bunkse, 1977, hunger [Urlich, 1983, 86]. Although it is 150]. Jeans [1977, 346] described it as measured on a like-dislike dichotomy, it has “ridiculously reductionist” while Tuan also been shown to be highly correlated with described it as “a tour-de-force of scales such as beautiful - ugly or scenic reductionism” [1976, 104]. Urlich considered quality scales [Urlich, 1986, 30]. Appleton’s theory, in which elements are seen to have actual or symbolic survival The affective model of preference is based significance, to be “a rather extreme, on the premise that emotional [i.e. affective] ethologically based adaptive position” responses to landscapes occur before [Urlich, 1983, 88]. cognitive information processing. With the development of cognitive psychology in the In 1991, Appleton published The Symbolism 1960s, affects were regarded as products of of Habitat: An Interpretation of Landscape in cognition [i.e. they are post-cognitive]. In a the Arts which extended the theme of The widely quoted paper, Feeling and thinking, Experience of Landscape to the arts. Today, preferences need no inferences, Zajonc Appleton’s concepts are used consciously [1980] argued against the prevailing doctrine by landscape designers [Frey, 1986, 56]. that affect is post-cognitive and provides They are cited in site planning text-books experimental evidence that discriminations and are used in the analysis of literary 195 8. Findings of Landscape Preference Studies

3

2.5

2

1.5 es [5 pt] or c

S 1

Urban group 0.5 Before slides Urban group 0 After slides Nature Group Before slides

Feel sad Nature Group Feel angry Feel fearful Feel elated

Feel friendly After slides Feel carefree Feel attentive Source: Urlich, 1979 Figure 8.3 Affect Scores Before and After Slides

[like-dislike] can be made in the complete absence of recognition memory. He He also suggested that an “evolutionary concludes that affect and cognition are: perspective implies that adaptive response to unthreatening natural settings should “under the control of separate and partially include quick-onset positive affects and independent systems that can influence each sustained intake and perceptual sensitivity” other in a variety of ways, and that both [Ibid, 226]. constitute independent sources of effects in information processing.” [Ibid, 151] Basic to Urlich’s framework is that of

adaptive response, adaptive meaning the Urlich also cites evidence in support of affect wide array of actions and functioning which being precognitive [Urlich, 1986, 30 - 31, can foster well-being [Urlich, 1983, 93]. Urlich et al, 1991, 206-7]. Ruddell, et al Adaptive behaviour may, for example, consider that the affective state “heavily comprise staying and viewing an attractive influence the subsequent cognitive appraisal scene or setting out to explore it [Ibid, 95]. of a setting as contributing to or detracting from personal well-being.” [Ibid, 400] Urlich [1979] tested participants feelings Based on this premise, Urlich constructed a before and after viewing slides of urban and model of affective reactions preceding natural scenes. The results [Figure 8.3] cognition but both influencing the post- indicates that urban scenes generally cognitive affective state and actions that resulted in more negative feelings [e.g. one then arise [Urlich, 1983, 89 - 93]. He termed grew sadder, less elated, less friendly], the framework a psycho-evolutionary theory, whereas the opposite occurred after viewing where the positive emotions and the nature slides. physiological effects have survival benefits. Negative feelings were lessened and In contrast to the Kaplans’ cognitive positive feelings became more positive [p < perspective, Urlich proposed that: 0.005] from viewing nature scenes. Urlich showed that the variation attributable to slide “immediate, unconsciously triggered and content was highly significant [p = 0.002]. initiated emotional responses - not ‘controlled’ and concluded that the importance of visual cognitive responses - play a central role in the landscapes is not confined to aesthetics, but initial level of responding to nature, and have that they also give rise to emotional states, major influences on attention, subsequent urban scenes having a negative effect and conscious processing, physiological the nature scenes positive. responding and behavior” [Urlich et al, 1991, 207-8]. 196 8. Findings of Landscape Preference Studies

5

4

3

2

Nos. of Doses Strong Moderate 1

0 Wall group Tree group Wall group Tree group Wall group Tree group Days 0-1 Days 2-5 Days 6-7

Source: Urlich, 1984 Figure 8.4 Analgesic Doses per Patient - wall & tree views

In a second study, Urlich [1981] used important findings of the study and support psycho-physiological measures to assess “the conclusion that the subjects felt more the effect of viewing slides of nature with wakefully relaxed while viewing the water, nature with vegetation, and urban vegetation as opposed to urban scenes” environments with neither water nor [Ibid, 546]. Heart rates were generally higher vegetation. He measured alpha waves and while viewing either water or vegetation heart rates71 and asked subjects to rate their compared with urban scenes - water 71.3 feelings using semantic ZIPERS scale72 beats/minute, vegetation 71.1, urban 70.2 [p before and after viewing the slides. He < 0.20]. Urlich concluded “people benefit found: most from visual contact with nature, as opposed to urban environments lacking • attentiveness declined but less so for water nature, when they are in states of high scenes [p < 0.001] arousal and anxiety.” [Ibid, 550]. • sadness increased markedly from viewing urban scenes but only slightly for vegetation Urlich [1984] reported on investigations of and was constant for water - the difference the recovery of patients in a hospital, between the influence of urban and water comparing patients whose rooms viewed a scenes was highly significant [p = 0.005] but blank wall with those who could see trees less so between urban and vegetation [Figure 8.4]. The patients had undergone scenes [p = 0.07] • fear arousal emotion increased slightly with cholecystectomy [gall bladder] operations. urban scenes, decreased slightly with The study found that those who viewed the vegetation and declined more sharply with trees had shorter stays in hospital: 7.96 water [urban/water difference p < 0.02] days vs 8.70 days [T(17) = 35, z = 1.965, p = 0.025], took fewer analgesics sand The physiological measures showed that received fewer negative evaluative alpha amplitudes were consistently higher comments in nurse’s notes: 3.96 per patient when viewing vegetation than urban scenes for those facing wall compared with 1.13 for with water scenes lying between these [p < those facing trees [T(21) = 15, z = 3.49, 0.05]. The significantly higher results for p=0.001]. vegetation were cited as one of the most The analgesic doses did not vary significantly between the two groups for the 71. Alpha waves reflect brain electrical activity. first day or the last days but for days 2 - 5 High alpha amplitudes indicate lower levels 2 of arousal and of wakeful relaxation while the difference was statistically significant [T anxiety is related to high arousal and low = 13.52, F = 4.30, p < 0.01]. The results alpha amplitudes. Rapid heart rates reflect imply that “hospital design and siting strong emotions such as anxiety or fear decisions should take into account the [Urlich, 1979, 532, 536]. quality of patient window views” [Ibid, 421]. 72. The ZIPERS scale assesses feelings on five Parsons [1991] considered the results could factors: fear arousal, positive affect, reflect the differences in complexity between anger/aggression, attentiveness, and a brick wall and a stand of trees. sadness. A 5 pt scale is used for each. 197 8. Findings of Landscape Preference Studies

existence of subcortical ‘hardware’ and Urlich also found that individuals shown processing which is supportive.” [Ibid 6]. He scenes of cities with trees and other considered that the “immediate affective vegetation showed significantly reduced responses to environments may influence feelings of fear and increased positive environmental preferences ... and trigger feelings of affectation and delight, compared physiological processes that can influence with individuals shown scenes of treeless the immune system, and thereby, physical city scenes [Urlich, 1979]. well-being” [Ibid, 2].

Urlich et al [1991] extended physiological Overall, Urlich’s research findings provide measures to include skin conductance, support for his theory that “immediate, pulse transit time, muscle tension and heart unconsciously triggered and initiated period. Participants were first tested, they emotional responses - not ‘controlled’ then viewed a ten-minute stressful video [on cognitive responses - play a central role in workplace accidents], and then viewed a the initial level of responding to nature” second ten-minute video showing everyday [Urlich et al, 1991, 207]. Although Urlich has outdoor settings - two natural [vegetation carried out some of his studies with and water] and four urban. Pair-wise tests colleagues, there are few other researchers showed that, following viewing natural in what would seem such a profitable field. scenes, positive affect scores increased significantly compared with either the (5) Information Processing Theory pedestrian mall [p < 0.01] or traffic [p < 0.001]. Results from the four physiological During the 1960s and 1970s environmental measures showed that the nature scenes psychologists focussed attention on the reduced stress, indicating their “greater perception of the environment [see Chapter recovery influence” [Ibid, 222]. The study 4]. Of particular relevance to landscape is also found that nature scenes resulted in the work of Stephen and Rachel Kaplan of more rapid recovery from stress, suggesting the University of Michigan who applied the that even momentary viewings of trees information processing approach to through a window can have benefit. landscape aesthetics to explain the interactions between humans and the An early study using eye pupillary dilation as landscape. an autonomic measure of aesthetic reaction was undertaken by Wenger and Videbeck The Kaplans hypothesise that "the [1969]. Applying the technique to both perceptual process involves extracting campers and non-campers they found that, information from one's environment." although the test provided a reliable pattern [Kaplan, Kaplan & Brown, 1989, 514] They of differences between the two groups, the suggest that humans seek to make sense of results were opposite of their expectations! the environment and to be involved in it. On the basis of this finding, the authors They identified four predictor variables, two concluded that another autonomic measure of which (coherence and legibility) help one might be preferable and that the information understand the environment and the other processing hypothesis may better explain two (complexity and mystery) encourage its the observed pupillary movement. exploration [Figure 8.5].

Parsons [1991] noted that, although there is • Coherence is the ease of cognitively no direct empirical evidence supporting organising or comprehending a scene - Urlich’s theory, the sensory model of “good gestalt”. It involves making sense emotions by LeDoux and Henry’s73 model of of the scene. It includes factors which endocrine responses in stressful situations make the scene more comprehensible - “constitute prima facie evidence for the

73. LeDoux, J.E., 1986. Sensory systems and emotions: a model of affective processing, Integr Psychiatry, 4, 237 - 248. Henry, J.P., 1980. Present concept of stress theory, in E. Usdin, et al, [Eds], Proceedings of the Second International Symposium on Catecholamines and Stress, Sept 1-16, 1979, Czechoslovakia, Elsevier.

198 8. Findings of Landscape Preference Studies

Understanding Exploration Making sense Being involved Immediate Coherence Complexity The visual array Making sense now Being involved immediately Orderly, “hangs together” Richness, intricate Repeated elements, regions Many different elements Inferred Legibility Mystery Future, promised Expectation of making sense in future Expectation of future involvement Three-dimensional Finding one’s way there & back Promise of new but related information space Distinctiveness Source: Kaplan, Kaplan and Brown, 1989, 516; Kaplan, 1979, 245 Figure 8.5 Kaplans’ Predictor Variables

• to organise it into a manageable number legibility is concerned with movement of major objects and/or areas. Research within it. indicates that people hold onto information about scenes in chunks and • Mystery is the promise that more that up to five can be retained in the information could be gained by moving working memory. A scene with about five deeper into setting, e.g. a trail major units will be coherent. Repetition of disappearing, a bend in a road, a brightly elements and smooth textures help to lit clearing partially obscured from view identify an area. Changes in texture or by foliage. New information is not present brightness should correspond with an but is inferred from what is in the scene, important activity in the scene - where it there is thus a sense of continuity does not, the scene lacks coherence. between what is seen and what is anticipated. “A scene high in mystery is Complexity is the involvement one in which one could learn more if one component - a scene's capacity to keep were to proceed further into the scene.” an individual busy, i.e. occupied without [Ibid, 244] The Kaplans used the term being bored or overstimulated. Often “mystery” reluctantly because they could referred to as diversity, variety or not find a more suitable term. A better richness it used to be regarded as the term might be “anticipation”. single most important factor. The Kaplans describes it as how much is In their book, The Experience of Nature “going on” in the scene - a single field of [1989], the Kaplans described the studies corn stretching to the horizon will not that contributed to the development of their have the same level of complexity as theory. many fields of many crops on undulating land with hedgerows and cottages. The An early study, Kaplan et al [1972] focussed more complex scene will tend to be on the single factor of complexity and found preferred to the simple. a 0.37 correlation with preference. A second study [R. Kaplan, 1975] found a correlation • Legibility is the ability to predict and to of 0.62 between complexity and two new maintain orientation as one moves more variables, mystery and coherence. However deeply into a scene. It entails “safety in the correlation between complexity and the context of space” [Kaplan, 1979, 244] preference, when assessed independently, and is similar, though much broader, to was -0.47, in contrast with the original Appleton’s concept of refuge. Legibility, +0.37. She put this down to content, the like mystery, involves an opportunity to later study being of urban scenes rather promise to function, to know one’s way than of nature. Using regression analysis, and the way back. It thus “deals with the the R2 for the three informational factors was structuring of space, with its a promising 0.49, indicating that together differentiation, with its readability” [Ibid, they accounted for around half the variance. 245]. Legible scenes are easy to Mystery was particularly significant (r = oversee, to form a mental map. Legibility 0.56), coherence slightly weaker (0.33), and is enhanced by distinctive elements such complexity a negative factor (-0.39). as landmarks, smooth textures, and the Coherence and complexity are considered ease of compartmentalising the scene to involve minimal analysis, whereas into parts. While coherence focuses on legibility and mystery require more time and the conditions for perceiving the scene, thought. Scenes of high preference tend to be those with legibility and mystery; 199 8. Findings of Landscape Preference Studies

coherence and complexity help create the were the best predictors of preference for scene, but high levels of these do not residents and students. necessarily result in high preference. Table 8.2 Informational Processing Factors Through the 1980s, further studies by the as Predictors of Preference for Groups Kaplans, Herzog, Anderson and others reinforced and gave coherence to the Factor Professional Resident Student definition of the informational variables. Coherence 0.51 0.55 0.53 Following their review of over a decade’s Legibility - 0.18 - 0.15 - 0.22 research, the Kaplans concluded: Mystery 0.07 0.42 0.39 Complexity 0.33 0.24 0.30 1) “In each of the studies the combination of Spaciousness - 0.13 - 0.38 - 0.30 these informational predictors yielded Source: Anderson, E., 1978. p<0.05 significant results. 2) Complexity was a significant positive Brown & Itami [1982] proposed a model that predictor in only a single study (and a related scenic resource values to landscape negative predictor in urban scenes). preference components as defined by the 3) Legibility’s role is hard to judge. In four of the Kaplan model. five studies where it was included, legibility did not play a significant role. In Anderson’s study it was found to be a negative predictor. The Brown & Itami framework comprises 4) Coherence proved to be a significant two inter-related systems - the natural (land predictor in the majority of the studies where form) & cultural (land use). These describe it was included; in one case it was the only the physical components. Landform reflects significant predictor in the regression “immutable“ components and the cultural analysis. system is reflected by land use and land 5) Finally, Mystery is the most consistent of the cover pattern. informational factors.” [Ibid, 66] Kaplan model: Most of the studies to which the Kaplans Making sense Involvement referred are summarised in Appendix 8.1, Visual array Coherence Complexity which covers 27 studies; some of these are 3-D space Legibility Mystery discussed more fully below. Brown & Itami model: Abello, Bernaldez & Galiano [1986] Making sense Involvement concluded from their analysis of forested Visual array Slope Spatial diversity landscape preferences that plant fertility/ Relative relief Relief contrast vigour factor was a key factor in preference 3-D space Naturalism Height contrast followed by the strong expression of pattern/ Compatibility Internal variety rhythm/recurrent texture of landscape elements. Factor analysis indicated Brown, Keane and Kaplan [1986] tested this correlations of -0.84 and -0.89 of these model by comparing the preferences respectively with the factors they identified. obtained for scenes with those predicted by The authors acknowledged that the results the Brown & Itami model. The correlation of lend support to an evolutionary or socio- 0.61 is significant at p < 0.001. ecological basis of landscape aesthetics including Kaplan’s “cognitive characteristics A further analysis was undertaken by related to predicability (pattern recurrent grouping scenes using factor analysis; four textures) and meaning (legibility of groupings were obtained [Table 8.3]. structures, capacity of seeing through Comparison of the predicted average values barriers)” [Ibid]. and preference ratings indicated identical rankings for the two procedures [5-point Ed Anderson’s [1978] study of forest scale]. management assessed informational factors for professional, resident and student groups. Table 8.2 summarises these factors as predictors of preference for these groups. All of the factors were consistent across all groups with the exception of mystery, which played a negligible role for the preferences of professionals. Coherence and mystery

200 8. Findings of Landscape Preference Studies

Table 8.3 Relationship between predicted • Spatial definition: degree to which the values & preference ratings landscape elements surround the observer • Physical accessibility: apparent means of Category Predicted Preference moving through or into the landscape as a Mean Rank Mean Rank result of finely textured surfaces in the Manicured 4.16 1 3.80 1 foreground; provides way of exploring landscapes landscape to gain more information Mostly 3.62 2 3.50 2 • Radiant forests are special cases in wooded vegetation areas where the immediate foreground is in Pastoral 2.91 3 3.08 3 shade and an area further in the scene is brightly lit. These are consistently ranked Residential 2.52 4 2.81 4 high for mystery. Source: Brown, Keane & Kaplan, 1986

Gobster & Chenoweth [1989] analysed the According to the authors, the results provide physical, artistic and psychological variables support and encouragement for further of landscapes and found that all three work. The higher preference values aspects could explain preferences. The ten occurred for smooth-textured grassy areas, psychological descriptors included mystery, suggesting that coherence is more important harmony, legibility, awe and pleasantness. than indicated by the model. Similarly, low They also found that the three variables preference values occurred in relatively were interrelated within a definable barren scenes, suggesting the importance of structure. A conceptual interrelatedness was complexity. also found between descriptor variables with

the artistic and psychological dimensions Gimblett, Itami & Fitzgibbon [1985] asked defining separate constructs relating to the respondents to rate photographs on the compositional and affective-informational basis of the Kaplans’ dimension of mystery meanings. Multi-dimensional scaling using a 5-point scale. Analysis found a high indicated that the psychological descriptors degree of agreement regarding mystery in yielded the highest multiple correlation of R the landscape and analysis of the = 0.84 [< 0.0005], significantly higher than photographs identified five attributes that that for the physical descriptors [r = 0.67, p < were associated with mystery [Table 8.4]. 0.05] or artistic descriptors [R = 0.69, p <

0.05]. Table 8.4 Physical Attributes of Mystery

Mean ratings 1.0 - 2.0 2.0 - 3.9 4.0 - 4.5 They concluded: & mystery Low Moderate High class “These findings should be of interest to those Screening none partial partial to full concerned with theory and application in landscape research. Aesthetic theories based Distance of far moderate close solely on formal-artistic, bioevolutionary and view other singular sets of properties (i.e. physical- Spatial open partially enclosed ecological, psychological-affective) etc may definition enclosed not do justice to the richness of human Physical - - defined path aesthetic response to landscapes. To build an assessibility aesthetic theory of landscapes, investigators Radiant forest - - forest need to broaden their understanding of the illumination multidimensional nature of aesthetic Source: Gimblett, Itami & Fitzgibbon [1985] preferences.” [Ibid, 68; my emphasis]

The five physical attributes were defined as In Gregory & Davis [1993], the positive follows [Ibid, 90 - 92]: factors [trees, tree trunks and water depth] can be considered as contributing to the • Screening: degree to which views of the legibility and coherence of a riverscape, larger landscape are visually obstructed or while the negative factors [water colour, obscured channelisation, sinuosity and • Distance of view: measured from viewer to debris in the river] may be considered as nearest forest stand; as distance increases, mystery decreases 201 8. Findings of Landscape Preference Studies

4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 Spaciousness 2 Texture Coherence 1.5 Rating Means Complexity 1 Mystery 0.5 Identifiability 0 Mountain Swampy Rivers, lakes Large water waterscapes areas & ponds bodies

Source: Herzog [1985] Figure 8.6 Rating of Waterscapes by Variables contributing to the complexity and mystery of • by contrast the other water bodies are more the scene. These are my interpretations; the interesting, being high in mystery and authors did not assess the riverscapes in complexity yet being reasonably coherent; informational terms. Water colour, bank • they thus reward immediate involvement yet stability and water depth together accounted hold out promise of more; for nearly 90% of the variation in the • the distinguishing features of [1] mountain riverscape preferences. waterscapes are their low textures which suggest that they are difficult to navigate; [2] low spaciousness of swampy areas; [3] Thomas Herzog undertook a series of identifiability of rivers, lakes & ponds; [4] studies in the 1980s to explain and assess large bodies of water have the most the validity of the Kaplans’ information distinguishing features. processing model. Waterscapes high in spaciousness, In Herzog’s [1984] study of field and forest coherence and mystery but low in texture environments, moderate correlations [0.45 [e.g. uneven land] were preferred. Inter- to 0.55] were obtained for the three correlations with preference were: predictors of the unconcealed vantage point spaciousness 0.42 [p < 0.01], coherence dimension: identifiability [i.e. familiarity], 0.33 [p < 0.01], mystery 0.09, texture -0.15 coherence and spaciousness. These help [Ibid, 235]. Those that are at least one organise and make sense of a setting in moderately high in making sense Kaplans’ terms. Herzog comments that “their [understanding] and involvement prominence as predictors suggests that [exploration] were preferred. The content of when one is out in the open, there is a the water is also important; rushing water is premium on being able to figure out where preferred over stagnant creeks. Herzog one is and where one could get to quickly” found the information approach useful in [Ibid, 353-4]. In the large trees category, accounting for waterscape preferences. high ratings were obtained for the making- sense [i.e. identifiability, coherence, texture] Herzog [1987] examined mountainous and involvement [i.e. mystery] properties, scenes using the same six predictor which supports the Kaplans’ contention that variables and preference as the criterion scenes high in both of these properties will variable [Figure 8.7]. He found [Ibid, 148]: be most preferred. Herzog [1985] used the same predictor variables to rate • deserts are low in spaciousness, [the waterscapes [Figure 8.6] and found: predictor is a feeling of spaciousness offered by the scene] but are only moderate in other • spaciousness was best shown in large water ratings bodies; these also showed highest texture • snowy mountains are high in spaciousness and coherence but lowest complexity and but are of low complexity while smaller mystery - these water bodies lack interest mountains are also high in spaciousness and and are easy to make sense of; identifiability

202 8. Findings of Landscape Preference Studies

4

3

2

eans [5 pt scale] Spaciousness Texture

1 Coherence Rating m Complexity Mystery Identifiability 0 Deserts Snowy Smaller Narrow Spacious Mtns mtns canyons canyons

Source: Herzog [1987] Figure 8.7 Rating of Mountainous Scenes by Variables

• narrow canyons have the most extreme The basic predictor variables as established profile being low in spaciousness, texture by the Kaplans were developed in other and identifiability but very high in mystery. studies. Strumse [1994b] applied them, Spacious canyons [e.g. Grand Canyon] are together with perception-based variables high in spaciousness, coherence and [e.g. openness, smoothness, ease of complexity. locomotion] in western Norway, and found the informational variables were the most Intercorrelations with preference were: 2 identifiability 0.61 [p < 0.00], spaciousness effective predictors of preference [r of 0.66]. 0.32 [p < 0.01], texture 0.22 [p = 0.06], Urlich [1977] developed focality [i.e. a focal mystery 0.13 [p = 0.29]. While the mountain point], as an extension of coherence, ground categories are reasonably high on textures as a factor in complexity, and spaciousness, the two canyons differ depth, or a sense of space, as an element in markedly on this variable. The difference in exploration and legibility. Whitmore [1995] identifiability between the mountain scenes applied the basic predictor variables to a is likely to be due to the familiarity of small canyon landscape, describing water, ranges to the participants. The lower rating vegetation and landforms in informational of texture for small mountains reflects their terms. less smooth, more rugged appearance of the snowy mountains, in which snow and The Kaplans’ theory has been subjected to a clouds tend to obscure their true ruggedness range of studies and they all provide support [Ibid, 148-9]. As texture reflects the for its elements. There would appear, affordance of locomotion the results suggest however, to be a fair degree of interpretation that this is not validly measured by texture. required of the application of these four predictor variables in the landscapes Again Herzog found the informational studied. The nebulousness of the concepts approach useful in accounting for natural involved suggests that they are still evolving landscape preferences and supported the and this is likely to continue for some time. approach of examining both content and cognitive processes in the evaluation of The predominance of photo ranking as the these preferences. The “pattern of main instrument used in the studies is worth significant variables changes substantially noting. The nine studies by the Kaplans and when content categories are included” [Ibid, their colleague, Herzog, contributes to this 151]. A positive predictor of preference is dominance. Out of the total of 227 studies identifiability [i.e. familiarity] that gives only 29% used photo ranking but 84% of the “eloquent testimony to the strong cognitive information processing studies used it. need to make sense of the environment in such settings.” [op cit] Stephen Kaplan acknowledges that his approach is an evolutionary view based on 203 8. Findings of Landscape Preference Studies

habitat theory, with human preferences legibility, mystery and complexity. He deriving from the adaptive value offered by concluded that there is clearly more to particular settings [Kaplan, 1987, 14]. aesthetics than optimal complexity and that Preferences were regarded by Kaplan as: the "acquisition of new information and its comprehension (are) central themes “an intuitive guide to behavior, an inclination underlying the preference process." to make choices that would lead the individual away from inappropriate environments and Zube summarised the Kaplans’ approach towards desirable ones” [Ibid, 14-15]. thus [1984, 106]:

He stated: "The Kaplans propose that long term survival of the human species was dependent upon “The central assumption of an evolutionary development of cognitive information perspective on preference is that preference processing skills which in turn led to plays an adaptive role; that is, it is an aid to preferences for landscapes that made sense the survival of the individual.” [1982, 186]. to the observer. In other words, landscapes were preferred that could be comprehended, Every aspect of preference should provide where information could be obtained relatively some “discoverable benefit or payoff” [Ibid]. easily and in a non-threatening manner that Deriving environmental preference occurs provided opportunity for involvement, and that very rapidly and unconsciously. It is: conveyed the prospect of additional information. According to this framework, landscapes that are preferred are coherent, “the outcome of what must be an incredibly legible, complex, and mysterious." rapid set of cognitive processes which integrate such considerations as safety, access and the opportunity to learning into a Balling and Falk summarised Stephen single affective judgement” [Ibid, 187]. Kaplan’s contribution [1982, 8]:

Kaplan considered that the character of “Taking an evolutionary perspective, S. predictor variables and the nature of Kaplan has asserted that the long-term preference responses support an survival of the extremely knowledge- dependent human species required that evolutionary interpretation. In support, he people should actually like to obtain cited the preferences for savanna [Balling information about landscapes, and that they and Falk, 1982], the similarity of landscaped should be able to process certain kinds of parks to savanna [Orians, 1986] and the environmental information very efficiently.” prospect-refuge theory of Appleton [1975]. An evolutionary analysis, Kaplan asserted, Bourassa notes that the information achieves a number of objectives, it: processing theory emphasises “only some of the biological bases for aesthetics, not to • indicates the importance of preference mention the fact that it ignores cultural and • provides an expectation of underlying personal modes of aesthetic experience” commonality in preferences across individuals [1991, 84-5]. • suggests that preference research has a substantial theoretical interest (6) Tripartite Paradigm of Aesthetics • identifies variables likely to be effective in

predicting preference [1982, 187]. Stephen Bourassa, now at the Department An evolutionary viewpoint lead Kaplan to of Urban and Regional Planning, University conclude that: of Sydney, worked for several years in addressing the biological, cultural and “Aesthetic reactions reflect neither a casual personal attributes of landscape perception. nor a trivial aspect of the human makeup. He published several papers later Aesthetics is not the reflection of a whim that consolidated in The Aesthetics of people exercise when they are not otherwise Landscape [1991]. The following sums up occupied. Rather, such reactions appear to his quest: constitute a guide to human behaviour that has far-reaching consequences.” [Kaplan, S, “If both biology and culture serve as distinct 1987, 26] bases for aesthetic behavior, then it is necessary to go beyond both biological and Kaplan went on to state that organising cultural toward a theory which workspace, arranging one's home, avoiding would fully embrace both biological and certain directions and approaching others cultural factors. It is also necessary to may reflect factors such as coherence, consider the role of personal idiosyncrasies 204 8. Findings of Landscape Preference Studies

and particularly personal creativity...” rational and cognitive responses. In other [Bourassa, 1991, 49]. words, there could be separate innate and learned responses to landscape.” [Ibid, 59] Bourassa drew on the work of the Russian psychologist, Vygotsky. Vygotsky was Similarly he quoted Izard: “although emotion regarded as a non-person in Stalinist Russia and cognition are in large measure and his ideas have been slow to appear in interdependent, another body of evidence English. He sought to accommodate both suggests as well that emotion processes the biological and cultural aspects of and cognitive processes have a significant behaviour. He focussed on the process of degree of independence” [Ibid, 61]. While development rather than its product and, in cognitive psychology assumes that feeling so doing, was able to provide explanations follows cognition, Bourassa also quoted of behaviour rather than mere descriptions. Zajonc’s [1980] argument that affect is pre- Vygotsky’s tripartite development approach cognitive, citing a lack of evidence for the is summarised in Figure 8.8, together with post-cognitive view [see also Kaplan, 1987, the three modes of aesthetic experience 21]. Bourassa cited experiments that have suggested by Dewey’s theory of aesthetics. demonstrated preferences for stimuli, even in the absence of any cognitive knowledge Bourassa is cautious about paralleling of these stimuli [Ibid, 61]. Bourassa urged Dewey’s modes of aesthetic experience with caution on the issue of pre-cognitive affect Vygotsky’s theory, but noted that the and summarised the position thus: eminent 18th century Scottish philosopher, David Hume, also suggested a tripartite “The research findings ... suggest that: basis for aesthetics. In his book, Treatise of 1) there are dual perceptual systems involving Human Nature, Hume wrote: “beauty is such both the uniquely human and the more primitive parts of the brain an order and construction of parts, as either 2) the more primitive parts of the brain function by the primary constitution of our nature, by on the basis of emotion rather than cognition custom, or by caprice is fitted to give a 3) the primitive brain can respond to stimuli in pleasure and satisfaction to the soul.” the absence of cognitive awareness of those [Quoted in Bourassa, 1991, 56]. Hume’s stimuli categories are remarkably similar to 4) consequently, affective response to stimuli Vygotsky and Dewey. may under some circumstances occur separately from cognitive knowledge” [Ibid, Bourassa questioned whether the aesthetic 63]. experience is separate for the biological and cultural modes or whether they are Based on this, Bourassa concluded that inextricably intertwined. Based on work of ‘biological’ responses to landscape could the neurophysiologist, P.D. MacLean, occur separately to ‘cultural’ responses. Bourassa believed there are dual modes of Based on work by Meyer [1979], he then perception. The neurophysiological research argued that the three levels [biological, suggests that: cultural and personal] require respectively aesthetic laws, rules and strategies. “instinctual and emotional responses to landscape could occur separately from

Processes of Development Products of Development Modes of Aesthetic Experience Phylogenesis [biological evol.] ------> Umwelt [biological world] ------> Biological Sociogenesis [cultural history] ------> Mitwelt [social or cultural world] ------>Cultural Ontogenesis [individual dev.] ------> Eigenwelt [personal world] ------>Personal

Source: Bourassa, 1991 Figure 8.8 Vygotsky’s Development Paradigm + Dewey’s Modes of Aesthetic Experience 205 8. Findings of Landscape Preference Studies

At the biological level, he reviewed Bourassa had doubts himself as to whether Appleton’s prospect-refuge theory, habitat he had established a theory, on balance he theory and information processing theory. At felt that he had. the cultural level, he reviewed Costonis’ cultural-stability-identity theory of aesthetics Based on the Shorter Oxford English in which groups seek to perpetuate the Dictionary definition of theory as “a symbolic landscape as a means of self- systematic statement of rules or principles or preservation. Finally, for the personal level, a scheme or system of ideas as an he reviewed theories of creativity and its role explanation of facts or phenomena”, the in landscape perception. benefit of the doubt should be given and Bourassa’s contribution regarded as a Having established biological, cultural and theoretical framework. However, despite the personal dimensions of landscape critiques he offered of various existing perception, Bourassa then sought to techniques, the application of the framework demonstrate its application. He noted, for to the determination of landscape quality is example, that the preference found for not clear. Nor are there clear ways by which natural scenes over urban ones could be it could be tested or applied in a predictive. explained by his tripartite paradigm; natural Nevertheless, it does provide a landscapes are experienced more in the comprehensive integrated framework biological mode while urban landscapes are covering the three dimensions which can be experienced more in the cultural mode [Ibid, used to inform further analysis and to assess 120]. He also considered that the formalist, the results of studies. objectivist approaches involving quantitative measurement of landscapes could only be In a review of Bourassa’s The Aesthetics of applied to the biologically based Landscape, Seamon [1993] was critical of preferences: Bourassa on a number of counts, including a “bias against a formalist approach to “Outside of that realm, cultural and personal landscape”, an ignorance of phenomen- values must also be considered and ological research which is supportive of landscape aesthetics must be viewed in terms landscape contributing to the aesthetic of the experiential interaction of the perceiver experience, and his reduction of the and the landscape.” [Ibid, 122] aesthetic experience to “the three rather

standard ... dimensions of biology, culture, On this basis, he was critical of the method and individual” [Ibid, 524]. Overall, he by Shafer et al [1969] of deriving regression considered Bourassa’s theory “provides little equations from analyses of landscape understanding of the powerful feelings that photographs, a “kind of gross empiricism landscape, place, and environment can [which] can often lead to spurious results.” evoke...” [Ibid, 525]. [Ibid, 124]

Since completing his book, Bourassa has Although Bourassa has provided a service ceased to be involved in research related to to landscape interests by constructing an landscape aesthetics [pers. comm, 1994]. integrated framework within which to consider the biological, cultural and personal (7) Dearden’s Pyramid of Influences dimensions of landscape preferences, it is questionable whether it amounts to little A model postulated by Phillip Dearden more than a framework or paradigm. [1989] of the University of Victoria, British

Columbia has close parallels with While he initially referred to the need for a Bourassa’s tripartite paradigm [Figure 8.9]. theory [p 49] and to his “tripartite theory of aesthetics” [p 64], he subsequently referred Dearden noted [1989, 42] that the hierarchy to it as a “tripartite framework” [p 66] and a is not intended to imply the relative “tripartite paradigm” [p 120]. However, in his importance of the variables but rather final chapter on postmodernism [the recognises that each variable is present in relevance of which is unclear], he reverted to influencing landscape preferences. The referring to “the aesthetic theory presented emphasis of the hierarchy is to reflect the in this book” and the “aesthetic theory potential degree of social consensus developed in Chapters 1 to 6” [p 133]. It must therefore be assumed that while

206 8. Findings of Landscape Preference Studies

SOCIETAL LANDSCAPE PREFERENCES Degree of Individual Observer-based Difference Differences SOCIO-ECONOMIC/ VARIABLES Individual DEMOGRAPHIC

Common to Region FAMILIARITY

Common to Society CULTURE

Common to Mankind INNATE Landscape-based Techniques Source: Dearden, 1989 Figure 8.9 Dearden’s Hierarchy of Societal Landscape Preferences related to each variable. Innate factors Zube [1984, 104] described them as deriving from human evolutionary history are “theories and concepts that are embedded, common for all people; cultural factors are but not always explicit, in much of the work.” common for a particular society, while factors such as familiarity and socio- Zube went on to describe the theoretical economic and demographic factors are far origins according to the disciplines involved more related to particular individuals in time in landscape assessment [Ibid, 104]: and space. Disciplines Theoretical origins Based on this model, Dearden suggests that the techniques for landscape assessment Planners, Principles of visual need to relate to the degree of individual landscape aesthetics and landscape differences. Techniques which are architects, natural design, ecological theory resource and biological resource landscape based [objectivist] are managers: management appropriate in assessing innate and cultural Behavioural Signal detection, stimulus- factors, but techniques which provide for scientists: response, arousal, greater probing of individual perceptions adaptation level and [subjectivist] are appropriate for assessing information processing individual influences. Humanists and Sense of place, cultural transactionalism, (8) “Diverse Theoretical Origins” geographers: historicism, phenomenology

Having reviewed the key theoretical While several of these constitute theoretical constructs, we return to the assertion by constructs, others are simply in the form of Sell, Taylor and Zube that landscape principles or “rules of thumb” developed by perception research is characterised by a professionals in a discipline. Zube [1984, “scattering of diverse theoretical origins.” 105] drew on work by Moore et al [1982] in [1984, 61]. In their original work, Zube et al proposing a four level structure of theory: found a diversity of theoretical backgrounds to the literature: art theory, ecological Level 1: Theoretical orientations or general concepts, stimulus-response behaviourism, theories representing broad signal detection theory, adaptational concepts that serve as heuristics in theories such as ‘optimum stimulus level’, orienting ways to look at ‘prospect-refuge’ and ‘information phenomena and to identify lines of processing’; personal construct theory, research behaviour-setting theory, phenomenology Level 2: Frameworks representing and transactional theory [1982, 23]. relationships among existing findings that provide a conceptual Sell, Taylor & Zube [1984] grouped these and systematic organisation to data about phenomena theoretical sources by the paradigms they Level 3: Conceptual models which provide identified [see Chapter 7]. In many cases the descriptions of variables and of theoretical origins are implicit and assumed relationships among variables but rather than explicitly defined in the studies. not necessarily explanations of 207 8. Findings of Landscape Preference Studies

phenomena within a larger from those cases where the following criteria theoretical context are achieved [Ibid]: Level 4: Conceptual models which provide descriptions of variables and of Internal Conditions are reliably relationships among variables but validity: represented not necessarily explanations of External Conditions typify those found phenomena within a larger validity: in other situations theoretical context Reflexivity: New concepts are generated by comparing information Zube suggests that most of the work has obtained through different been in levels 3 and 4, which seems a rather methods generous assessment. Assuming that levels Translatability: Consensus is promoted with 3 and 4 reflect greater levels of specificity I conflicting frames of reference suggest that habitat theory is at level 1, while information processing and prospect- These criteria derive from work by Dunn and refuge theories are level 2. Bourassa’s Swierczek [1977] and are used by Sancar to tripartite paradigm and Dearden’s hierarchy develop the procedure for what she terms “a of preferences appear also to be level 2. reflective-dialectical strategy of inquiry and choice” [Ibid, 123] emphasising the Within the social sciences, three main generation of theory rather than the testing approaches to theory generation have been of theory. suggested [Sancar, 1985, 119]: Carlson [1993] distinguishes between Universalistic: Abstracts, formalises and explanatory theory, the kind used in science generalises relations using a to explain, predict and control, and that hypothetico-deductive which he terms justificatory theory, with its approach origins in philosophy. Justificatory theory: Situational: Generates contextually relevant information for “concentrates on our ideas or concept of planning and management in things, indicates the reasons why these ideas specific settings and concepts are as they are, and thereby Integrative: Through induction, generates aids in justifying our views about things.” [Ibid, grounded theory which is 53] based on the premise that the adequacy of a theory cannot He suggests, that although writers have be divorced from the process by which it was generated noted the theoretical vacuum in landscape studies, it is the justificatory form rather than Sancar considered that Zube et al’s expert the explanatory form that should be sought. and psychophysical paradigms are In contrast to the explanatory form, a situational, while their cognitive and justificatory theory seeks to explain why the experiential paradigms are of the subject [e.g. landscape quality] is important universalistic type. She considered that in our lives. Commenting on Bourassa’s none of the paradigms may be associated approach, he considers that, although it is with the integrative approach. She “rich in orientational, organizational, and considered the “need for an integrative explanatory power, [it is] poor in justificatory approach to fill the theoretical void in power.” [Ibid, 53] landscape aesthetics research” [Ibid]. He believes that justificatory theory is not As much research seeks to verify a imposed but rather grows out of a field, preconceived theory but the real issue is the being: theoretical void that exists, she suggested the real need is for theory generation. She “the result of a lifetime of experience in and appreciation of the landscape, together with proposes the “grounded theory” approach, deep and reflective thought about the nature which is “based on the premise that the and the meaning of such experience and adequacy of a theory cannot be divorced appreciation.” [Ibid, 55] from the process by which it is generated.” [Ibid] This may be achieved through The influence of Carlson’s ideas has yet to comparative analysis, use of quantitative be seen in landscape research. and qualitative data and secondary analysis of substantive data. In particular, the (9) Theory - Conclusions characteristics of the theory would derive 208 8. Findings of Landscape Preference Studies

Clearly a robust theory of landscape which multidimensional nature of aesthetic provides an all-encompassing framework preferences.” with which to understand and to predict landscape preferences, does not currently exist. At present there is a range of theories 8.3 Influence of Observer on Preferences that offer explanations of aspects of landscape preferences but which fall short of (1) Introduction a definitive explanation. Landscape preferences are the product of Of the theories available, the Kaplan’s “what’s out there” with “what’s in here”, the information processing theory appears the observable, objective fact of the physical most supportable, based on the range of landscape as perceived and interpreted by studies that have assessed its validity and the eyes and mind of the viewer. That which explored the dimensions of the factors is “behind our eyes” is as important as that involved. which in front of our eyes.

Appleton’s prospect-refuge theory has In this section, the influence of observer intuitive appeal but the studies undertaken characteristics upon preferences is fail to provide conclusive support, if anything examined to identify the important factors tending to indicate its shortcomings and and to gauge their relative importance. areas in which the evidence is contrary to the theory. Some of his elements have Chapter 7 reported the extent to which the parallels with the dimensions of the Kaplans’ surveys assessed the characteristics of the information processing [e.g. prospect and participants. The key findings were: legibility, refuge and mystery], although it is acknowledged that each area is coming • Tertiary students dominated, accounting for from very different intellectual positions. 41% of participants, sometimes with other participants, but in 28% of surveys, students Urlich’s affective theory has good support only were used from studies but, like habitat theory, its usefulness in understanding and predicting • Members of the general community were 23% of survey participants and visitors to landscape preferences is limited, Rather it parks or sites being investigated were a focuses on the positive effect that landscape further 11%. Other participants included can play on emotional states of well being. natural resource professionals [8%], design professionals [4.5%], university staff [4.5%] While the Kaplans’ theory offers the most landowners and residents [3%] and children comprehensive explanation of landscape [2%] preferences, it is not a theory that is readily applicable in a field situation to evaluate • Only 37% of surveys sought data about the landscape. By contrast, the appeal of characteristics of their participants, a Appleton’s and Orian’s theories is that they surprisingly low figure but partly explainable by the high proportion of students. offer explanations that can be readily applied in the field. • Age, sex, education, employment and socio- economic status were the main details If the mark of solid theory is in its use in sought [total 75%]. Other details were applications, then none of the theories childhood residence, culture & ethnicity, currently available provide a useable expert & non-expert, and race. framework for the evaluation of landscape in (2) Respondent Characteristics a field situation. While they can offer tantalising glimpses of understanding, they This part examines the influence of fall well short of comprehensively enabling respondent characteristics [i.e. age, gender, the evaluation of landscapes. education, employment and socio-economic status] on their landscape preferences. The conclusion of Gobster and Chenoweth Appendix 8.2 covers studies that assessed [1989] is confirmed, existing theories based the influence of participant characteristics on on artistic, bioevolutionary or other landscape preferences. properties fail to capture the “richness of human aesthetic response to landscape”. Balling & Falk, 1982 and Lyons, 1983 both They suggest the need for researchers to examined preferences for differing biomes “broaden their understanding of the 209 8. Findings of Landscape Preference Studies

by different age groups. Their findings were age had no effect while four studies examined in section 8.2. detected some:

Zube et al [1983] examined the changes to • Respondents aged over 25 were more critical landscape preferences over the lifespan, of artificial changes to the landscape and covering children, adults and elderly more appreciative of natural elements subjects. Figure 8.10 correlates scenic value [Banarjee, 1977] ratings with the six age groups. It shows that young children [6 - 8 years] correlate • Preferences weakly related to age [Penning- reasonably well with the older children [9 - Rowsell, 1982; Cherem & Driver, 1983]

11 years] but much less with teenagers [12 - Only Zube’s findings could be regarded as 18 years]. Better correlations with adults are definitive - that the preferences of young achieved by older children [9 - 11 years] children, particularly the 6 - 8 year olds while those of teenagers are virtually group, differ substantially from older children identical with adults. The correlations with and from adults. This reinforces the finding the older adults [over 65] also varied by Balling & Falk [1982] and Lyons [1983] significantly from those with other adults. that the preferences for savanna by children

aged 8 - 11 years differed significantly from Most of the surveys that covered one or older children and adults. more of respondent characteristics did not use these in their analysis of preferences. Regarding gender, only two studies found it Only 12 [5% of total] compared the results influenced preferences, which is too limited with some or all of these characteristics. The to be definitive: main reason for collecting this data was to assess whether the sample was • Males are more likely to view the ground, representative of the population. topography & ephemeral objects [Hull & Stewart, 1995] Of the five basic characteristics, only age and to a lesser extent, gender exhibit an • Females are more sensitive to lack of cover influence on preferences. The evidence is & to differences in mystery in savanna conflicting, eight of the 12 studies finding [Woodcock, 1982]

1

0.9

0.8

0.7

coeff 0.6 r 0.5

son cor 0.4 6 to 8

Pear 0.3 9 to 11 0.2 12 to 18 0.1 19 to 35 36 to 65 0 9 to 11 12 to 18 19 to 35 36 to 65 Over 65

Source: Zube, Pitt & Evans, 1983 Figure 8.10 Correlations for Scenic Preference by Age Group 210 8. Findings of Landscape Preference Studies

Overall, the basic respondent characteristics indicate their preference. Factor analysis of age, sex, education, employment and identified three dimensions: socio-economic status appear to have a nil or negligible influence on preferences. • illumination: clear, illuminated scenes rich in Some indications exist that the preferences detail illuminated vs gloomy, shadowed of young children [< 11 years] differ scenes with less detail significantly from older children and adults. • diversity: diverse, contrasted, varied scenes vs more monotonous landscapes (3) Children • harshness: rough scenes with edges and aggressive forms vs bland, smooth surfaces Preferences of young children [6 - 11 years] differ from adults and older adults [> 65 years] differ Younger children differed from the older from other adults [Zube, Pitt & Evans, 1983] children: Differences in the landscape preferences of children and adults can indicate the • they disliked darker scenes with less detail influence of acculturation [socialisation] on [factor 1] [t = 4.09, p < 0.01] these preferences and the extent to which • they disliked harshness in scenes [factor 3] [t preferences are inherent or are learnt. = 2.92, p < 0.01]

The findings of Balling and Falk [1982] Younger children’s preferences for diverse regarding preferences for savanna scenes [factor 2] were similar. Interpreting landscapes by children, and the opposing the results, Bernaldez, et al, considered that view of Lyons [1983] were examined earlier factors 1 and 3 are forms of a more general [section 8.2(2)]. While Balling and Falk “risk, uncertainty factor” [Ibid, 173] that play regarded the high preferences of young an important role in landscape preferences. children [8 - 11 years old] to be indicative of They linked this with Appleton’s notions of inherent preferences with an evolutionary prospect and refuge. While the darkness origin, Lyons suggested that this could be and deep shadow in factor 1 scenes has explained by familiarity with similar links with Kaplan’s mystery factor, there is a environments in parks and backyards. point at which risk and uncertainty shift from exciting and stimulating to fear and Bernaldez et al, [1987] examined the frightening. Fear of darkness, the authors landscape preferences of children on the noted, is common among children. The shift Canary Islands. Two age groups were used; in the 11 and 16 years olds on this factor 11 and 16 years old. Pairs of photographs indicates the older children are less were used and the children asked to

0.6 6 to 8 9 to 11 0.5 12 to 18 19 to 35 0.4

0. coeffs 3 r

0.2 son cor

0.Pear 1

0

-0.1 Perceived Land use Relative relief Percent naturalism compatibility water

Source: Zube, Pitt & Evans, 1983 Figure 8.11 Correlations with Age Group Scenic Ratings

211 8. Findings of Landscape Preference Studies

influenced by this fear and are more inclined can influence preference, either directly or to find it stimulating. be influenced by personality factors. Abello & Bernaldez [1986] found that the common Zube et al, [1983] carried out a lifespan group had no relationship with personality analysis, examining how landscape types, however individuals having low preferences changed over age groups. The emotional stability prefer landscapes ages ranged from 6 years to over 70 years. exhibiting “recurrent patterns” and “structural The study found that children rate rhythms” [Table 8.5]. landscapes differently from adults. The authors comment: Figure 8.11 summarises the correlations of each age group’s scenic ratings with “Apparently, such individuals try to selected landscape dimensions. The 6 - 8 compensate their lack of stability with extreme age group and, to a slightly lesser extent the preference for environmental regularity and prevision.” [Ibid, 24] 9 to 11 age group, have markedly different preferences to adults. This indicates that Table 8.5 Influence of Personality on naturalism and strong physical relief are Landscape Preferences [correlations] relatively unimportant to children but water is particularly important. Factors Personality factor 1 2 3 The few studies that have included children Common traits 0.02 0.08 indicate that their landscape preferences Emotional stability - 0.02 - 0.18** - 0.08 differ significantly from adults. However Responsibility - 0.09 - 0.08 - 0.17** there are insufficient studies at present to be Notes: Factor 1 - fertility, vigour, exuberance definitive. Factor 2 - recurrent patterns & rhythms Factor 3 - defoliation (structural legibility assoc. (4) Personality with hostility). Significance: ** p = 0.05

Spanish researchers have examined the The strongest relationship of the “sense of influence of personality on preferences. The responsibility” dimension of personality is research design involved use of paired with factor 3 and is negative. This indicates photographs of scenes together with a that these respondents “reject hostile, cold, personality test to identify personality types. wintry scenes with defoliated vegetation, Factor analysis was used to identify the although the same scenes are more legible differences. Maciá [1979] separated the and generally appreciated” [op cit]. results for male and female. For men, he found: The Spanish studies provide tantalising indications of the influence of personality • men with mature personalities who dealt with upon landscape preferences. It is to be reality prefer humanised landscapes [r = hoped that their work will be replicated in 0.427, p < 0.01] other cultures. • men who score high in emotional control prefer pleasant landscapes [r = 0.543, p < (5) Culture 0.01] • extroverted men prefer landscapes with Chapter 6 traced the development of diffuse forms and rounded trees [p = 0.236, p Western appreciation of landscape through < 0.05] three themes - attitudes to mountains;

landscape and art; and gardens, parks and For women, Maciá found: the pastoral landscape. That chapter also

described the powerful influences of • women with a sensitive, insecure personality prefer natural, unaltered landscapes [r = classicism and teleology on Western 0.228, p < 0.01] attitudes. • women with astute, worldly personalities prefer dry, cold landscapes [r = 0.233, p < Given the influence of these cultural factors, 0.01] it is surprising that studies have found • extroverted women prefer landscapes with culture to have a negligible effect on diffuse forms and rounded trees [p = 0.183, p landscape attitudes. This section examines < 0.05] these studies. Appendix 8.3 describes 11 Maciá concluded that personality structure studies in which the influence of culture on conditions landscape choice, and gender landscape preferences was examined. 212 8. Findings of Landscape Preference Studies

adopted western values. Nevertheless they Buhyoff et al, [1983] examined the considered that the only moderate level of preferences of participants from the US, the agreement on scenic beauty [F = 1671, df = , Sweden and Denmark for 2, 777, p < 0.001] suggested that substantial slides of the Rockies and Appalachians. differences existed between cultures; the Correlations were highest between the Balinese preferred scenes with traditional Danish and Dutch and between the architecture [t = 2.89, df = 48, p < 0.01] while American and Swedish [Table 8.6] the tourists preferred scenes with people and scenes of wide, lush green tropical rice- Table 8.6 Correlation [Pearson] matrix field landscapes [t = 2.06, df = 48, p < 0.045]. Netherlands Sweden United States Denmark 0.84* 0.755* 0.727** Certain mountains, trees, agricultural scenes Netherlands 0.586*** 0.550*** or views towards or away from ‘evil’ or Sweden 0.890* ‘good’ would influence the Balinese ratings, * p > 0.01; ** p > 0.05; *** p > 0.10 yet these meanings would be unavailable to tourists. The authors suggest: “meaning In a finding which may reflect familiarity, influences aesthetic evaluations of Buhyoff et al noted the: environments. Hence, to some extent, scenic beauty is learned.” [Ibid, 189] “Danes and Dutch prefer flat and open landscapes, whereas Americans and Swedes show a higher appreciation of forested and Overall, however Hull & Revell concluded mountainous scenes.” [Ibid, 188] that despite the “enormous differences which exist between the Balinese and - a finding which may reflect familiarity. western culture” [Ibid, 189] “the results suggest that there was perhaps more Hull and Revell [1989] found that the level of similarity than difference between the two agreement regarding the scenic beauty of groups in their scenic evaluations” of the Bali among the Western tourists was Balinese landscape [op cit]. significantly higher [0.86] than among the Balinese [0.79] which was surprising given Based on the study by Purcell et al [1994], that the tourists came from many countries Figure 8.12 compares the responses by [Ibid, 186, 188]. Hull and Revell considered Italian and Australian students to that the Balinese who had been exposed to photographs of landscapes from both Western culture for decades might have countries. Preferences for natural vistas

6

Italians 5 Australians

4

3 Rating

2

1

0 Lakes Forests Hills Landscape Country Canal City edge

Source: Purcell et al, 1994. Figure 8.12 Comparison of Italian and Australian Landscape Preferences 213 8. Findings of Landscape Preference Studies

100

90 80

70 60 ence Values

efer 50 40 val Pr 30 20

LCJ Inter 10 0 1234567891011 Nepal Thailand Landscapes Sri Lanka Taiwan Bangladesh Indonesia Western

Source: Tips & Savasdisara, 1986a Figure 8.13 LCJ Preference Values for 11 Landscapes were generally higher amongst the Italian Savasdisara [1986a], using the LCJ method. participants than amongst the Australian It indicates, with some exceptions, a participants but the differences were only reasonable degree of similarity across slight. different nationalities. Note for example, # 9 [which gained first preference rating of 100 Sonnenfeld [1967, 1969] studied for all but one group - Bangladeshi] and # 4 environmental perception of Eskimos and [which was ranked among the lowest scores Americans in and compared their in most cases]. The standard deviations, a responses with a control population in measure of consensus, ranged from 2 [# 9] Delaware. He was interested in the levels of to nearly 23 [# 7] and averaged 12.4. The adaptation to the harsh Arctic environment correlations of nationalities with Western by differing groups. He found that current tourists [Appendix 8.3] indicated that, apart and past environmental experience had a from the Bangladeshies and to a lesser major influence on environmental attitudes extent the Nepalese, the responses were and perceptions. Preferences for comparable with those of Western tourists. landscapes reflected not only what is attractive but also what was deficient in the A study that examined a Third World home environment [e.g. a lack of fuel in the culture’s view of landscapes was conducted home environment increased the preference by Chokor and Mene [1992] in Nigeria. The of Eskimos for trees]. study is unique in being the only landscape study in Africa and one of the few in a Third Commenting on Sonnenfeld’s studies, Zube World country. The study used 15 colour & Pitt [1981, 72] considered that the photographs of urban, rural and natural differences found between Australian, scenes in and around the city of Warri, Scottish and American cultures [Zube & which is the hub of the country’s oil industry Mills, 1976, Shafer & Tooby, 1973] were not with petroleum, refinery, steel and other as great as between the Alaskan native and industries. Warri is located in flat, marshy non-native populations that Sonnenfeld had terrain surrounded by traditional farming and studied. fishing communities. The photographs were judged by four groups; the poor and Figure 8.13 indicates the preference values uneducated and the rich and educated in of Asian respondents obtained by Tips & both rural and urban areas. 214 8. Findings of Landscape Preference Studies

14

12 ]

nks 10 a

8 ence r the better

efer 6 Urban landscapes

[lower 4 Rural Mean pr 2 landscapes Natural 0 landscapes 123456789101112131415 Photographs of Landscapes

Source: Choker & Mene, 1992 Figure 8.14 Preference Ratings of Nigerians

Figure 8.14 shows the ratings for each other cultures. The use of scenes from landscape. The highest ranks were for another country introduces problems of natural landscapes followed by rural unfamiliarity, of possibly associating the landscapes - a result not dissimilar to scene with tourist travel literature, even of Western studies. linking with aspirations among Third World cultures to live in the United States. To their The rankings of urban landscapes varied credit, Purcell et al, 1994, used photographs widely with both the best and worst scenes from both countries in testing the as judged by the Nigerians. Average scores preferences of Italians and Australians. overall [lower the better] were: urban 8.3, Another option would be to use scenes from rural 8.8, natural 7.5. Comparing the a third country, unrelated to either. responses of the four sample groups, Choker & Mene found the rural people (6) Familiarity preferred urban landscapes while urbanites “overwhelmingly favoured nature scenes Writing about the ongoing change to the over rural and urban scenes” [Ibid, 245]. British landscape, I.G. Simmons wrote Perhaps, like Westerners, Nigerian perceptively in 1965 that there was no “right urbanites enjoy a contrast to their home landscape, only a familiar one” [Ibid, 29]. In environment. their seminal paper on English Landscape Tastes, Lowenthal and Prince [1965] Overall, these studies indicate that the identified rejection of the present as one of influence of culture is not as great as might the characteristics of English preferences - a be expected. Acculturation with Western delight in the history of the landscape and a values may be a partial explanation, but is preference for the familiar. not adequate. For example, Zube and Pitt found to their surprise a very low correlation The British have a particular fascination with by a small subgroup of black city-centre the immutability of their landscape, residents in Hartford, Connecticut [Ibid, 76], esteeming its beauty and expressing grave a group that one would expect to be well concerns about changes brought about by acculturated. modern agricultural practices, such as the removal of hedgerows which add I have an unease about the use of considerable diversity to the scene. Articles photographs from the United States in have abounded with titles such as: testing the preferences of other cultures “Changes in the English landscape” [e.g. Shafer & Tooby, 1967; Tips & [Jackson, 1964], “The British landscape is Savasdisara, 1986a]. Kaplan & Herbert, losing its character” [Lovejoy, 1968], “The 1987, found that American students viewed future of the British countryside” [Green, the scenes of Western Australian forests as 1975], “The farming landscapes of England “foreign” [Ibid, 291] and the opposite may and Wales: a changing scene” [Leonard & apply to viewing of American scenes by 215 8. Findings of Landscape Preference Studies

Cobham, 1977] and “Shroud for the Scottish Dearden suggested that housing density landscape” [McCluskey, 1986]. occupied as adults is a good predictor of familiarity [Ibid, 299]. No significant The strength of attachment that the English relationships were apparent between city have to their landscape illustrates the size and landscape preference. important role of familiarity in influencing landscape preferences. While “familiarity Factors perceived by respondents to be breeds contempt” in many situations, important in influencing landscape landscapes appear to be an exception. preferences included past landscape Familiarity transforms a mediocre landscape experience, travel, present residential into a scene that is loved and cherished by environment and recreational activities. those who have grown to experience it. These were the first four ranks out of 11 options and support the influence of Appendix 8.4 summarises the findings of 12 familiarity on preferences [Ibid, 303]. relevant studies. Dearden considered familiarity with Dearden [1984] examined the influence of landscape types to be a persuasive several factors including familiarity on influence [Ibid, 304]. He contrasted this with landscape preferences [Figure 8.15]. He the finding of Wellman & Buhyoff [1980] of found that respondents who lived in more no regional familiarity effect and suggested natural, low-density housing for most of their the viability of generic landscape preference adult lives feel more positively about rural models. and natural scenes than residents from high- density housing. Hammitt [1979] asked some visitors to a bog environment [i.e. wetlands] in a Virginian Only three of the correlations were National Forest to rate photographs of the significant: site prior to their visit and again following the visit. Other visitors were only asked • housing density occupied as adults following the visit. Preference was rated on correlates with rural and wilderness a 5-point scale and familiarity was rated on preferences the visitor’s recall of having seen the scene • housing density occupied over last 5 years using a 3-point scale [familiar, not familiar, correlates with rural preferences not sure]. Information on prior visits to the • the lower the density of housing site was also obtained [Figure 8.16]. environment, the higher the relative scores for less developed landscapes. Hammitt found that the ratings of scenes were virtually identical [rho = 0.97] and prior visits appeared also to have virtually no

0.3

0.2

0.1

0

-0.1 Kendalls Correlation -0.2 Rural Urban Wilderness -0.3 Adult Child density Housing < 50,000 City size > 50,000 Lived in > 5 years > 250,000 Wilderness Recreated in Source: Dearden, 1984 Figure 8.15 Correlations of Familiarity with Socio-Economic Variables

216 8. Findings of Landscape Preference Studies

effect with only one photograph showing the findings “support the hypothesis that a significant difference [chi test]. Hammitt person’s landscape preference is strongly considered that “a single on-site experience influenced by his or her residential is sufficient for developing a sense of experience in different biomes.” [Ibid, 503]. familiarity” [Ibid, 222]. Her comment was noted earlier in this chapter that Balling and Falk’s attribution to habitat theory of the savanna preferences of 90 children was more likely to be due to the familiarity of children to savanna-like parks and backyards. 60

Nieman [1980] examined the landscape preferences of residents near the Long

Familiarity 30 Island coast and the Great Lakes shore and found that the residents strongly preferred the environment with which they were most 0 familiar [Figure 8.17]. Similar results were 0306090 found when respondents were asked which Preference coastal area they would most prefer to live - in both cases, 82% preferred to live where Source: Hammitt, 1979; units are notional. they were rather than in the other location Figure 8.16 Preferences vs. familiarity [Ibid, 55]. - Bog environment

Comparison of preference and familiarity 100 Great Lakes indicated a positive relationship [rho = 0.53] Long Island 75 with the majority of scenes being strongly s e correlated. Hammitt considered that scenes s n o high in ‘distinctiveness’ and ‘involvement’ p 50 are more familiar than featureless scenes s offering little appeal for visual involvement. % re 25 He also found that high familiarity with low preference can also occur and that therefore 0 “familiarity, per se, is [an] insufficient basis Great Long Other for appreciation.” [Ibid, 223]. Lakes Island

Although Hammitt did not derive a Residence regression line for his data, the equation for the data in Figure 8.16 is y = 0.53x + 21.2, r2 Source: Nieman, 1980; = 0.2874. Scenes of low familiarity have a n=981, χ = 59.278, df = 2, p<.01 wider scatter of preferences than familiar Figure 8.17 Preferences vs. familiarity: Great Lakes and Long Island scenes.

Strumse [1996] assessed the landscape Lyons [1983] asked respondents to indicate preferences of students for Western their preferences for six biomes and Norwegian agrarian landscapes. Contrary to examined their changes with age. Figure her expectations, she found that the two 8.29 [section 8.5] summarises the findings. familiarity variables, geographical region Adults top preferences were for coniferous during childhood and population density and deciduous forests. Lyons considered during childhood, had an insignificant

influence on preferences. For example, she 74. Deletion of the four extreme data points in or near the high preference/low familiarity found that the preference of students who quadrant and the high familiarity/low lived in Western Norway during childhood preference quadrant yields an equation of y was 3.62 compared with 3.64 for those who = 0.868+7.84, with a much improved r2 of grew up elsewhere [5 point scale]. Similarly, 0.82. This suggests a much closer the preference of those who grew up in relationship between familiarity and urban areas was 3.66 compared with 3.60 preference than indicated by Hammitt. from rural backgrounds. However the deletion of these data points Those living in Western Norway had cannot be justified on the basis that they moderate preferences [mean 3.56], for were incorrect. 217 8. Findings of Landscape Preference Studies

western Norwegian agrarian landscapes, while those from other regions had higher • housing density occupied as adults appears preferences [mean 3.83] for the area. to be a good predictor of familiarity However, those living in rural areas had a [Dearden, 1984] higher preference for farming landscapes • a general familiarity with landscape types [mean 3.87] than urban residents [mean tends to be a persuasive influence 3.52]. Overall, Strumse concluded that, [Dearden, 1984] • a single on-site experience is sufficient for while childhood residence and population developing a sense of familiarity [Hammitt, density did not affect preferences, the 1979] respondent’s present location did have an • scenes high in ‘distinctiveness’ and influence. ‘involvement’ are more familiar than featureless scenes offering little appeal for Wellman and Buhyoff [1980] sought to visual involvement [Hammitt, 1979] examine the extent to which regional • high familiarity with low preference occurs - familiarity affected landscape preferences. familiarity of itself is an insufficient basis for Students in Virginia and Utah were shown appreciation. [Hammitt, 1979] slides of the Rocky Mountains and • scenes of low familiarity produce a wider Appalachian Mountains. Information about range of preferences than when the scene is very familiar [based on Hammitt, 1979] their residency was obtained. The • landscape preference is strongly influenced experimental group was told they would be by his or her residential experience in evaluating a mixture of Eastern and Western different biomes [Lyons, 1983] [i.e. in the US] slides while the other group • strong preference for the environment with were given no information about the origin of which the respondents were most familiar the scenes [control group]. [Nieman, 1980] • while childhood residence and population Table 8.7 Comparison of Preferences between density did not affect preferences, the Groups respondent’s present location did have an Question Spearman’s Pearson’s influence [Strumse, 1996] Rho r 1. Utah control vs Utah 0.69 0.78 Some studies found familiarity had little or experimental negligible effect on landscape preferences 2. Virginia control vs 0.85 0.93 (e.g. Cook & Cable [1995] and Wellman & Virginia experimental Buhyoff [1980]). Penning-Rowsell [1982] 3. All Utah vs all 0.92 0.90 asserted that familiarity appeared to result in Virginia greater criticism of the landscape qualities Note: p < 0.05 and that consensus in fact appeared to The study produced three findings [Table decline with familiarity. An instance where 8.7]: familiarity had a negative effect was reported by Kaplan & Herbert [1987], who • prior information about the scenes made no found that pines tended to be regarded difference to their ranking of photographs negatively among Australian students, • there was no inherent preference for either region whereas the opposite occurred in North • subject’s evaluated landscapes similarly America [Lyons, 1983]. regardless of the familiarity with the region Summarising, it appears that, if the Based on these findings, the authors respondents do not normally regard the concluded that inherent familiarity does not scene positively, familiarity will not alter this appear to be present. They found that basic perception but, however where the “subjects from widely different geographic scene elicits a positive response, this will be regions evaluated the landscapes, in terms reinforced and even increased by its of preference, in essentially the same familiarity. manner.” [Ibid, 110]. (7) Expert vs. Lay Despite this, the studies reviewed indicate that, on the whole, familiarity has a In an early seminal study, Fines [1968] significant influence on landscape initially used respondents with no design preferences and this is usually a positive training, but then rejected their ratings in influence. Among the findings are: 218 8. Findings of Landscape Preference Studies

4

3.5 Heavily manipulated

3 e Dense forest 2.5

ence scor 2 Pine

efer plantations 1.5 Planned

Mean pr 1 spacious openings Open unused 0.5 land

0 Students Professionals Residents

Source: Anderson, E., 1978 Figure 8.18 Landscape Preferences by Groups preference to a smaller group with less variation in their ratings. The other two considerable training and experience. His groups expressed much greater sensitivity to justification of this was twofold: firstly, “such the range of scenes.” [Ibid, 120] people [i.e. those with training] are most likely to seek and to obtain the greatest Buhyoff undertook a series of experiments enjoyment from landscape” [Ibid, 43] and involving foresters and non-foresters secondly, the majority may some day aspire assessing the impact of beetle damage on to similar values - a justification which forests. However, because the focus of appears quaint and elitist by today’s these studies was on the perception of standards. However, the assumption damage rather than landscape aesthetics, underlying Fine’s approach was that the they are not included here. Some studies landscape ratings of the majority would differ that examined the difference between from that of the trained minority. Does the expert and non-expert participants focused evidence support his assumption? on issues other than landscape quality [e.g. Kaplan & Herbert’s study of Western Appendix 8.5 summarises the findings of 14 Australian natural settings included an studies that have examined the differences expert group from the wildflower society]. between the expert and the lay in landscape evaluation. Buhyoff et al [1978] assessed the ability of trained landscape architects to reproduce Anderson [1978] examined the preferences the preferences of their client group. They of samples of the community, students and found that, given general information on natural resource managers in regard to the what the clients like and don’t like about the Michigan landscape. Figure 8.18 summarises scenes, they could “come close” [Ibid, 259] the preferences of each group and indicates to their client’s rank orderings. Their own considerable variation. The study divided personal preferences were found to be residents and students by race [black and quite “unrelated to other person’s white] and analysed the differences further. preferences” [op cit].

Anderson concluded that the preference Vodak et al, [1985] found that scenic ratings of professionals were distinctly beauty ratings by students who were different from those of students and uninformed about forest harvesting residents: techniques were similar to those of forest landowners: r = 0.93. The correlation was “They tended to prefer scenes of heavy even higher with students who were manipulation such as clearcuts, recently informed about harvesting methods: r = cutover areas and poorly stocked areas, dense 0.949. The authors concluded that the forest stands, either managed or unmanaged, result “lends further validation to the use of and open unused lands. Professionals showed 219 8. Findings of Landscape Preference Studies

student panels in landscape aesthetics research.” [Ibid, 299]. (8) Reliability over time

Zube [1973] used widely differing groups to The reliability of observer responses has evaluate photographs of landscapes - the been assessed by examining the extent to groups included environmental designers, which they change over time. Coughlin and resource managers, environmental Goldstein [1970] examined the consistency technicians, students, housewives and of ratings one month after the initial rating. teachers, and secretaries. The first four They found a reasonably good correlation groups were essentially all male, the latter of 0.73 between the two ratings. Hull & three mainly [>90%] female. He found close Buhyoff [1984] reassessed preferences correlations amongst the six groups - r2 after the elapse of more than twelve averaged 0.74 [p < 0.01]. Zube commented months. Individual observer reliability that the data indicated that: averaged nearly 80% while group consensus values were very reliable [r = “agreement tends to be strongest on the 0.956, p < 0.05]. The authors evaluation of the highest and lowest qualities - recommended that group data be used in the most scenic and the least scenic - within a preference to individual responses. group of landscapes. Polar positions are apparently more easily identified on a continuum of scenic landscape values even (9) Influence on Preferences of when the comparison is limited to everyday Observer Characteristics - rural landscape. The innumerable shades of Conclusions gray that lie between the two poles are much less sharply defined. It is also probable that This section has examined whether the wider the range of alternatives being preferences are related to observer evaluated, the larger the gray area is likely to characteristics. Summarising its findings: be.” [Ibid, 372]. • The basic respondent characteristics of age, Based on his findings, Zube suggested that gender, education, employment and socio- qualitative scenic judgements be limited to economic status generally have a nil or three levels - high-medium-low, as more negligible influence on landscape than this may imply a “degree of visual preferences. discrimination” that is probably rare. • The sole exception to the above is that Resulting from these studies, the similarities there are indications that the preferences of between lay and expert observers appear to young children [<11 years] differ significantly from older children and adults, outweigh the differences. Similar ratings or however the number of studies are preferences were found across a wide range insufficient to be definitive. of groups, including foresters & city dwellers [Kellomaki & Savolainen, 1984], students, • There is some evidence that personality natural resource managers, river users, and structure type can influence the choice of university staff [Mosely, 1989], planners, landscapes and preferences but again the farmers, residents [Sullivan, 1994], evidence is confined to a few studies. landowners & students [Vodak, et al, 1985] and environment professionals, wives & • The studies on the influence of culture on teachers, and secretaries [Zube, 1973]. preferences have found that culture has a relatively slight influence and the commonalities across cultures appear to be Paradoxically the one professional group greater than the differences. whose preferences appear to differ from that of the community are landscape architects. • Familiarity with landscape is one of the More surveys found that their preferences stronger factors and usually has a positive differed [Anderson & Schroeder, 1983; influence, but some studies have found the Brown, 1985; Buhyoff et al, 1978; Miller, opposite. Interpreting this it appears that, if 1984] than studies that found similarities the scene is not normally positively [Craik, 1972, and Schomaker, 1978]. Thus, regarded, familiarity will not alter this, whilst while the preferences of natural resource where a scene elicits a positive response, this will be reinforced and even increased by managers generally correspond reasonably familiarity. well with those of the community, the views of landscape architects appears to be at • Like the influence of culture, the similarities significant variance to the community. between lay and expert observers appear to

220 8. Findings of Landscape Preference Studies

outweigh the differences, and similar ratings Field observations take time whereas an of preferences were found across a wide observer may view a photograph for only a range of groups. few seconds. Field observations have their own advantages: they generally occur while Overall, landscape preferences appear to be in motion, observing the same scene from a surprisingly consistent across respondent range of viewpoints, even allowing one to characteristics of age, gender, education, enter into the scene and gain an socio-economic status, culture, and whether appreciation of its depth and height and expert or a lay observer. Two possible width experientially. In contrast, a exceptions to this are young children [< 11 photograph represents in two dimensions a years], whose preferences differ from older scene that one views over time as a children and adults, and the influence of spectator, not as participant in the three familiarity with a given landscape. Generally, dimensions of the true scene. Thus, a familiarity contributes to positive photograph reduces the experiencing of a preferences, if the scene is normally scene in the field, not from three regarded positively. dimensions to two, but from four dimensions to two.

8.4 Mode of Presentation This process of simplification focuses attention on the visual quality of the scene (1) Photographs rather than on aspects that are irrelevant to this purpose. In Chapter 7 it was reported that nearly 90% of studies used photographs to represent The field of vision of the eye is much larger the landscape in the surveys of preferences. than that contained within the typical Most of these [79%] were colour photograph: the human eye views a cone of photographs. How adequately do vision of 130° [with peripheral vision photographs represent landscapes? extending to 208°] compared with only half

of this, 65°, for a wide angled 35 mm Differences between an actual field camera lens [Shuttleworth, 1980, 63]. Add observation and a photographic to this the greater field of view provided by representation are immediately apparent. A motion, and it is evident that photographs field observation allows one to absorb a provide a very restricted view. Field range of scenes of a given area whereas a observations are frameless, the landscape photograph generally represents a single exists in its totality without being bound by scene, separated from its context. 75 some artificial contrivance to contain it

whereas a photograph is a sample of the Photographs allow viewers to immediately scene. Viewing a scene in the field allows compare scenes from widely separated one to choose what to view, whereas areas, which is impossible in the field. While photographs reflect the choices made by the range of landscapes viewed in the field the photographer, thus limiting their is generally narrow, being constrained by individuality. the range of scenes present, the range for a set of photographs of scenes can be far Viewing the scene in the field is frameless, wider. Viewing photographs quickly a lateral 360° view plus upwards and establishes the relative values of widely downwards. By contrast, a photograph is dispersed landscapes, an extremely difficult limited, the frame denying the view beyond. achievement for field surveys; in the field the Photographs present a static scene which scenes set their own values unrelated to any one observes from a distance, as though in common base, and it is difficult, if not a mirror, without opportunity to enter or impossible, to relate this to a common become involved - the observer “of the standard in the field. natural environment is in [the] environment

in a way in which the spectator of a Not only does photography save the time photograph is not in the photograph” and expense that might be required for [Carlson, 1977, 143]. participants to travel between locations, but it also allows compression of seasonal variations into a few moments – a feat that field observations cannot hope to achieve. 75. See Section 6.5(3) for description of the Claude glass which miniaturised the landscape.

221 8. Findings of Landscape Preference Studies

In transforming a three dimensional photographs of the same scenes. However, landscape into a two dimensional image, a the popularity of a locality may be due to photograph subtly changes the scene’s factors other than its landscape (e.g. Dunn, appearance. A photograph of a scene, [1976] found that a particular site was more particularly a black and white rendition, popular than others due to its convenience highlights the formalist qualities of line, form, for local, short-stay recreation trips). colour, texture, proportion and balance. Indeed when viewing a photograph the The influence of the photograph goes elements can be seen as forms, lines, beyond the emphasis of the formalist, the textures whereas in the field they are trees, composition of the landscape elements in a grass, water, clouds and so on. photograph has played a role in shaping community landscape preferences [Stilgoe, In the field one can be aware of the effect of 1984]. Since the end of the 19th century the time, season and ephemeral phenomena combination of cars and cameras has such as lighting on the appearance of the resulted in the photography of countless landscape - the scene on a dark night, lit by scenes, particularly along popular scenic moonlight, snow covered or drenched with routes. rain, the scene amidst a storm, lit by a setting sun, or the boughs of trees bent by a According to Stilgoe, rules of composition strong wind. Photographs used in surveys were promulgated by popular magazines - are generally taken during the 10 am to 4 rules such as not allowing the horizon to pm period to gain maximum light bisect the scene, having a broad penetration, reduce shadows, and avoid the foreground with a tree, fence or road, an ephemeral effects provided by sunrise and unimportant middle ground and having sunset. Photographs in tourist brochures mountains, clouds or other features of generally show the scene under ideal interest in the background. Care was taken conditions; similarly, photographs used in to avoid anything indicative of industry - surveys can convey an ideal state that fails telegraph poles along early roads were a to reflect the full diversity of conditions in the bane and an early professional field. photographer removed these from his negatives. Field observations allow the observer to be aware of other stimuli on the senses - the These rules are clear parallels with the sounds of birds, leaves, wind, water; the Gilpin’s 18th century notions of the smell of the woods and of the air; touching picturesque - “that kind of beauty which the bark of the trees, the feel of the track would look well in a picture” and of the rules under the feet, the coolness of the wind or he established, particularly of the the water in the stream; and the taste of foreground, middle ground and water or berries off bushes. background.

While photographs have none of these A range of studies has been conducted into peripheral stimuli directly, viewing the suitability and effectiveness of photographs of scenes can bring photographs as alternatives to field recollections of the actual experiences in observation. These are summarised below. similar locations. This will obviously apply more readily where the observer is familiar The effect on preferences of the location of with the kind of area represented by the vegetation in a scene was examined by photographs. Patsfall et al [1984]. Their first study found that foreground vegetation on the right Generally speaking an observer in the field hand side of a scene gave positive has chosen to visit the location and, preferences, but this was negative if the therefore presumably has a preference for vegetation was on the left side. However a the scenes to be experienced. By contrast, a second study reversed the slides so that participant in a landscape preference study the content that had been on the right was has not necessarily any real desire to visit or now on the left. The result was that the left experience the scenes portrayed. Thus, one foreground was positively valued while the would expect the preferences gained from right foreground was negatively valued. The field observers who have voluntarily visited findings suggest that placement of content the area to exceed those of a random in the foreground affects preferences rather sample of the community chosen to view the

222 8. Findings of Landscape Preference Studies

than its location on one or other side of the paired photographs; a comparison of 15 scene. scenes requires 105 paired photographs.

Relevant to composition was Nassauer’s Shafer’s method of analysing photographs [1983] comparison of responses to 50 mm of landscapes would be difficult to replicate slides and 35 mm wide angle slides. She in a field situation - he cautiously stated in combined three 50 mm photographs to his paper that the “model does not predict provide a panoramic scene and compared landscape appeal directly. Rather it predicts these with the wide angle view. Responses the appeal for a photograph of a landscape” for 17 pairs of matched sets indicated that [Shafer et al, 1969, 14]. Photographs thus the rating of the panoramas were higher enable the use of techniques that would be than the wide angled scenes [p < 0.05]. virtually impossible to employ in the field. The SBE method, however, can be used While clearly there are significant equally in the field and with photographs. differences between photographs and field observations the cost and logistical difficulty Zube et al [1987] traced the development of of taking large numbers of observers into the simulation techniques, from the field militate against field based development of early drawings and models assessments. Dearden’s study [1980] near through to photography, videos and Victoria, BC is one of the few preference animation. They also reviewed the literature studies based on field assessments - 12 on photographic representations. observers were transported by mini-bus through the area over two days. Robinson et Given the differences between photographs al [1976] also used field methods in and field observations, it is not surprising surveying the Coventry-Solihull- that Carlson states “It goes without saying Warwickshire region of England and Briggs that photographs are not landscapes and & France [1980] transported observers landscapes are not photographs” [1977, through the study area in South Yorkshire. 142]. Some surveys have sought to answer the question, how adequately do Some studies have overcome the difficulties photographs represent landscapes? of field-based surveys by interviewing those on site. Brush and Shafer [1975] interviewed Brown et al [1988] found that scenic ratings campers in the area being assessed. This taken directly in campgrounds were results in only those with an interest in the consistently higher than ratings based on area being interviewed. Differential colour photographs of the same areas accessibility of sites may affect the selection [Figure 8.19]. T-tests for each of the of the population being studied samples indicated that the direct ratings [Shuttleworth, 1980, 62]. were all significantly higher than the photo- based ratings [p < 0.001]. A second test, Photographs can be modified to include or undertaken the following year and using delete certain features enabling assessment ranking of scenes instead of rating, derived of this on preferences. Hull & McCarthy similar results. [1988] used photographs of the Australian bush with and without wildlife to assess whether wildlife enhances preferences [it does!]. Similarly photographs can be used to depict changes to the landscape which could not be simulated in the field [e.g. Trent et al, 1987, 226; Zube et al, 1987, 68].

Some techniques to assess landscape preferences would be difficult if not impossible to use in a field situation. In the LCJ, Q-sort and rating methods participants compare a range of photographs at a sitting. The Q-sort method requires participants to place photographs of scenes in up to say seven piles and allows the participant to change their choices. Similarly the LCJ method requires the participant to compare

229 8. Findings of Landscape Preference Studies

River Dump Path thro' woods River valley Algae in stream Wooded valley Stream & trees Mountain - flat Mountain - conical Coal waste pile Frozen creek Mountains & mist Meadow & trees Falls

-2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 Attribute Scores

Source: Calvin et al, 1972; Note: factor scores signs reversed to correspond with positive & negative perception of scenes. Factor scores shown are for Factor 1 - natural scenic beauty factor Figure 8.22 Scores for Landscape Scenes

shown at Appendix 8.6 to describe the • large water bodies were distinguished by scenic preferences of riverscapes. It spaciousness, texture and coherence but indicated that nearly 90% of the average were low in complexity and mystery scenic preference variation could be defined by the water colour, the stability of Table 8.14 Correlation of Variables with the channel banks and the average depth Preference of water [Ibid, 181]. Variable Correlation A definitive study of water preferences was Spaciousness 0.42** undertaken by Herzog [1985]. Using factor Texture - 0.15 Coherence 0.33** analysis of preference ratings, he identified Complexity 0.18 four waterscape types: mountain Mystery 0.09 waterscapes; swampy areas; rivers, lakes Identifiability - 0.11 and ponds; and large bodies of water. Source: Herzog, 1985; ** p < 0.01 Based on S. Kaplan’s theories of information processing, the study used as Herzog found that only spaciousness and predictor variables: spaciousness, texture, coherence were significant predictors of coherence, complexity, mystery, and preference [Table 8.14]. Regression identifiability with preference used as a analysis of the variables against the criterion criterion variable. variable of preference indicated that “waterscapes high in spaciousness, Table 8.14 summarises the mean ratings coherence, and mystery, but low in texture obtained for each predictor variable showing (i.e. featuring coarse or uneven ground how they varied across each type of surface), were preferred to waterscapes with waterscape. These indicate that: the opposite characteristics.” [Ibid, 235] The six predictor variables accounted for 71% of • mountain waterscapes were distinguished preference variance in mountain by low textures waterscapes, and for 74% in swampy • swampy areas were distinguished by low spaciousness waterscapes. • rivers, lakes & ponds were distinguished by high identifiability In terms of content, “mountain lakes and rushing water are the people’s choice,

230 8. Findings of Landscape Preference Studies

whereas swampy areas are unlikely ever to relaxation. However, the water bodies attract an enthusiastic following“ [Ibid, 237]. ranked lowest for excitement - which In terms of predictor variables, the most probably reflects the placid types of lake and preferred waterscapes were high in river encountered. spaciousness, coherence and mystery but low in texture. Large water bodies and mountain waterscapes, both high in Mountains spaciousness were the most preferred while swampy areas are lowest in this variable and in preference. Field & forest

In a later study, Herzog and Bosley [1992] included a wider range of scenes to evaluate Deserts the role of tranquillity on preference. Predictor variables used were mystery, Large water bodies coherence, spaciousness and focus, with tranquillity and preference the criterion variables. The preference means for the Rushing water different landscapes are summarised in Table 8.15 and indicate that in terms of both -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 tranquillity and preference, water ranks highest among the landscapes evaluated. Correlations Mystery Coherence Table 8.15 Comparison of Mean Scores for Spaciousness Focus Tranquillity and Preference [5 pt scores] Source: Herzog and Bosley [1992] Figure 8.23 Correlations of Preference and Tranquility Preference Variables Mountain 3.87 3.84 Field-forest 3.51 3.15 Deserts 2.98 2.81 Ephemeral Large water bodies 4.19 3.90 Rushing water 3.76 4.00 Mountains Gardens 3.01 3.05 & valley Misty mountains 3.05 2.77 Excited Source: Herzog & Bosley, 1992 Trees Relaxed Correlations between the descriptor Satisfied Trail & Beauty variables and preference for the landscapes rocks evaluated [Figure 8.23] indicated high correlations for coherence and, to a lesser Lake & degree, focus. Mystery and spaciousness river were negatively correlated for rushing water. Not surprisingly, the authors found that the 02468 turbulence in rushing water decreases the Score [7 pt scale] sense of tranquillity. While turbulence can focus one’s attention thereby aiding Source: Hull & Stewart [1995] preference, it also conveys a lack of Figure 8.24 Feeling States along Trails calmness that decreases tranquillity [Ibid, 125]. Palmer [1978] reported the results of an extensive landscape research project in Using tape recorders and visitor Connecticut River valley led by Ervin Zube. photography, Hull & Stewart [1995] The study identified 22 landscape surveyed trail users on the views they dimensions, including water/land edge encountered. Feeling states were recorded density per unit area and percentage water by participants en route and were classified area per unit area. About 50% of the thus: beauty, satisfied, relaxed, and excited. variation in scenic resource value was Figure 8.24 summarises the average rating explained by seven of these dimensions. of these. It indicates that the water bodies Scenic value was found to increase with contributed most in terms of beauty and naturalism [regression coeff = 0.59], were also rated high for satisfaction and

231 8. Findings of Landscape Preference Studies

landform variation [0.58], water/land edges on emotions and, in particular, sharply [0.42] and the length of views [0.33]. reduced feelings of fear [Ibid, 544]. Findings related to specific land uses included: Yang & Brown [1992] found the most preferred scenes to be those with a • Farm landscapes - water area density had a dominance of water and a Japanese garden major negative influence, suggesting that style. Reflections across the water of farm views dominated by large areas of surrounding trees were a common feature. water were not as scenic as those with smaller areas or water accents. In contrast to other researchers who used

photographs, Brown and Daniel [1991] used • Open water landscapes - scenic value increased with water/land edge and 12-second video clips to capture the decreased as the proportion of water surface dynamic nature of stream flow not apparent area increased. An elevated viewer position, in still photographs. Although the study increased difference between elevations focussed on the influence of stream flow within the view, and increased naturalism volume to scene quality, the researchers contributed to scenic quality. took care to ensure that this was not apparent. Paired comparisons were used, • Wetlands and streams landscapes - scenic one showing a higher stream flow than the value increased with naturalness. In contrast other, and the respondent choosing the to most studies, it was found that diversity in most attractive. Regression analysis was land use and contrast in naturalism decreased scenic quality. used to analyse the influence of a range of variables in the landscape estimated from Schroeder [1991] analysed the meaning that the video scenes. These included the the Morton Arboretum in Chicago had for its proportion of sky, water, exposed riverbed, many visitors. The Arboretum includes water stream channel width and vegetation in the features - lake, pond, stream and river. scenes. These, together with the forest and colours were the most frequently mentioned The results indicated that scenic beauty features. Serenity was a word used to increases with stream flow to a mid point describe places with water. The “ability of and then diminishes [Figure 8.25]. trees, other vegetation, and bodies of water to function as ‘natural tranquilizers’ may be 20 one of the most significant human benefits 10 ] of preserving nature...” [Ibid, 245]. E 0 -10 In his analysis of landscape photographs -20 used in the development of a regression auty [SB e -30 equation, Shafer et al [1969] found through B c -40 Fort factor analysis that water features had Collins among the highest factor loadings of any of -50 Sceni the variables in a 26 X 26 correlation matrix. -60 Tucson The area of the water features - stream, -70 waterfall and lake, yielded slightly higher 100 400 700 loadings than the perimeter of these 1000 1300 1600 1900 2200 2500 features. Shafer’s regression equation Flow [cfs] contained ten terms and the water area featured in three of these, thereby indicating Source: Brown & Daniel, 1991 the importance of water in the landscape. Figure 8.25 Influence of River Flow on Scenic Beauty Urlich’s [1981] study found that while attentiveness declined regardless of the In two groups sampled, the scenic beauty environment viewed, “the drop was was maximised at 1285 cubic feet per significantly less when the scenes contained second [cfs] in the Fort Collins case and water” [Ibid, 543]. He considered that water 1092 cfs in the Tucson case. Scenic beauty had “greater attention-holding properties” ratings were similar for low flows at 100 cfs [op cit]. He also found that whereas scenes as for high flows at 2000 cfs [all p < 0.001]. of urban areas increased feelings of The findings indicated that flow quantity sadness, that water had a stabilising effect influences riparian scenic beauty up to a point and then decreases at higher flows.

232 8. Findings of Landscape Preference Studies

This finding was consistent across a wide & Chenoweth, 1989; Herzog & Bosley, range of vegetation, topographic and scene 1992; Schroeder, 1991]. Water holds one’s compositions. attention and has a stabilising effect on emotions [Urlich, 1981]. Hetherington, Daniel & Brown [1993] replicated the above finding using sound as Overall, water was found to be a major and well as videos of river flow [see Section 8.6]. positive factor by Calvin et al [1972]; Choker & Mene [1992]; Dearinger [1979]; Dunn Summary - Influence of water on [1976]; Herzog & Bosley [1992]; Hull & landscape preferences Stewart [1995]; Orland [1988]; Shafer et al [1969]; Urlich, 1981; Vining et al [1984]; and It is evident from the range of studies that Zube [1973]. water has a profound effect on landscape preferences. The studies reported that Why is water an important landscape scenic value increased with: element ?

• water edge [Anderson et al, 1976; Palmer, While the studies have thus far established 1978; Whitmore et al, 1995] the importance of water in the landscape • water area [Anderson et al, 1976; Brush & they offer little explanation of the reasons for Shafer, 1975] this importance. Is it simply, as Bourassa • channel stability & depth are important notes, that humans have consistently had a factors in river scenic quality [Gregory & need "to remain fairly close to bodies of Davis, 1993] water because humans need a constant • moving water [Craik, 1972; Dearinger, 1979; Hammitt et al, 1994; Whitmore et al, 1995] supply of fresh water" [1991, 68].

In the Rockies, Jones et al [1976] found that It is noteworthy that a significant textbook water bodies were the third most important Water and Landscape - an aesthetic landscape component in defining overview of the role of water in the preferences after the high mountains and landscape [Litton et al, 1974] approaches forests. In New Zealand, Mosley [1989] the subject from an objectivist viewpoint as a found water ranked fifth in importance after landscape architect or designer might, and forests, view angle, relative relief and alpine offers no discussion on the role that water components [e.g. snow and ice]. might play in our psyche. However, other Significantly he found the river environment literature provides some discussion of this. to be more important than the river itself in determining preferences. In the less Herzog [1985] provided a useful review of spectacular landscape of the Connecticut the information processing approach to River valley, Palmer & Zube [1976] found water preferences, drawing on the work of that after landform, water was the second the Kaplans, Gibson’s affordances and most important dimension. Appleton’s prospect and refuge. Given that water is essential for survival and that the Herzog [1985] assessed the preferences for key tenet of the information processing different kinds of water bodies and found in approach is that “humans evolved in order: mountain waterscapes; large water environments wherein the processing of bodies; rivers, lakes & ponds; with swampy spatial information was crucial to survival” areas last. [Ibid, 226], it would be expected that the Factors which were found to decrease the preference for water therefore lies in its scenic value of water included pollution and survival enhancing qualities. Good quality waterlogging [Choker & Mene, 1992], water water - fast flowing, large bodies would be colour [Gregory & Davis, 1993], and litter, preferred over swamps and small ponds. , water quality and structures [Nieman, 1978]. Interestingly Hodgson & Herzog’s findings about the preferences for Thayer [1980] found that water bodies different water bodies support this. He labelled as artificial rather than natural [e.g. concluded from his study that the “results reservoir instead of lake] scored lower than confirm the general usefulness of the natural labels [see Section 8.52]. informational approach in accounting for waterscape preferences.” [Ibid, 239] Based Serenity and tranquillity contrasting with awe on the results, he suggested that clarity and and arousal were found to be psychological freshness of water, as embodied in factors deriving from water bodies [Gobster mountain lakes, and rushing water are

233 8. Findings of Landscape Preference Studies

highly valued. In information processing same level of preference apparent for liquid terms, the most preferred waterscapes are water. moderately high in both the making sense [i.e. legibility and coherence] and I believe that these explanations - involvement [i.e. complexity and mystery] information processing, evolutionary, variables [Ibid, 240]. cultural, historical, and utility, all fail to explain sufficiently the depth of attachment Urlich however suggests that the appeal of and affinity which humans have for water water may be partly biologically-based and and the positive role it plays in landscape largely independent of informational preferences. For example, the survival characteristics [Urlich, 1983, 105]. Earlier theory fails to discriminate between fresh [1977, 291], he suggested that water may water and undrinkable seawater despite serve: cues such as sandy beaches and the smell of salt laden air. The dislike of polluted and “as a focal element and by enhancing stagnant water can be due to factors such subjective depth. The major preference as smell, concern about health and effects of water, however probably stem more mosquitoes. from content per se than from informational factors.” An alternative hypothesis approaches the

affinity for water from a psychoanalytical Balling and Falk [1982] explored the perspective and suggests that it is an evolutionary model in a study of preferences unconscious desire for the pre-natal in-utero for differing biomes, including savannas and state in the amniotic fluid that all humans although their study specifically excluded share. I suggest that the desire to view water, they recognised its importance to water in its many states [e.g. rivers, falls, their model. lakes, sea], to enjoy recreation in it and on it,

to live near it, and to have water features in The Kaplans noted [1989, 9] that the appeal our cities such as fountains derives from the of water is not just as a pretty picture - positive pre-cognitive experience of water people love to live near water and many gained while in the womb. The ubiquity of recreation activities involve water. Ryback preferences for water across all cultures and and Yaw [1976] traced the historic value of time lends support to this hypothesis. water as a sacred element, noting the importance of springs to the Greeks; the The amniotic fluid is a pale straw-coloured mythical “fountain of youth” and “water of liquid, 99% water, formed from maternal life” notions, with the concept of Eden being plasma and for the first half of pregnancy associated as a place of eternal spring. The 76 has a similar composition . Later, in the Christian sacrament of baptism symbolises second half, its composition becomes similar purification and rebirth and fountains have to foetal urine. During the first half of been symbols of purity. The practice of pregnancy the foetal skin is highly throwing coins in fountains for a wish or permeable to both water and sodium and it good luck may have developed from an can transfer urea, but by the 25th week the appeasement to the gods of the waters. skin becomes keratinised and impermeable Whalley [1988] reviewed the importance of to the fluid. Additionally, in the second half of water as a landscape element in the the pregnancy there is a constant process of gardens of history. foetal swallowing and urine production of

about 500 ml/24 hour period. The volume of A further idea relates the preference for amniotic fluid increases with the growth of water to its utility value [transport, fishing, the baby and stabilises at about one litre by recreation, industry etc], but this use is the 28th week. The fluid is in constant unrelated to aesthetic preferences. One change with a complete turnover every three uses a road, a mineral, air or land for a hours. The growing baby thus has a close, variety of purposes without any feeling of vital relationship with its watery environment, aesthetic delight being associated with its drawing from it as well as passing waste into use. While the ever changing appearance of it. water [changing light, sparkling, smooth or rough] contributes to its enjoyment, it is 76. The information about the amniotic fluid is insufficient of itself to substantiate the largely derived from: Reece, E. A., J.C. strength of preference for water. Clouds Hobbins, M.J. Mahoney & R.H. Petrie, 1992. exhibit similar changeability, and consist of Medicine of the Fetus and Mother. J.B. water vapour, but they do not stimulate the Lippincott & Co.

234 8. Findings of Landscape Preference Studies

The amniotic fluid is of vital importance to The amniotic fluid is the first external contact the baby permitting movement, protecting it for the baby as they are immersed in it. Thus from umbilical cord compression and helping the first experience of the world outside of to maintain an even temperature in the self is of fluid. womb. It allows symmetrical external growth It necessarily takes a leap into the unknown of the foetus, prevents adherence of the to suggest that the same in-utero experience amnion [i.e. the membrane sac] to the of a warm, cosy, safe, quiet and nutritious foetus, cushions it against injuries and environment in which every human begins impacts received by the mother, and life also provides the explanation for the enables it to move freely, thus assisting human preference for water. musculoskeletal development. The psychoanalytical model may provide a Stages in the development of the foetus are vehicle for understanding this. The basis of well established [Concar, 1996]: psychoanalysis is the unconscious needs and desires of which the person is scarcely • 13 weeks - electrical activity occurs above aware and which develop during the the brain stem and the foetus can possibly individual’s earliest years. There is little in feel pain the literature on the development of such • 14 weeks - the body responds to touch outcomes from the pre-birth period. • 16 weeks - eye movements commence • 20 weeks - full movements and responds to A finding that lends support to this sound hypothesis is that by Zube et al, [1983] • 22 weeks - cortex is fastest growing region which examined the changes to landscape of brain and develops its six layers • 25 weeks - ‘righting reflex’ - foetus has preferences over a lifespan. While they preferred position found that children were not particularly • 26 weeks - blinks at light on mother’s interested in either naturalism or mountains stomach [see Figure 4.2], their landscape • 22 - 24 weeks - nerves connect to brain’s preferences were strongly influenced by the cortex - some argue the feeling of pain is presence of water [Figure 8.26]. Moreover, not possible before now this preference was found to decline with • 29 weeks - first sign of electrical activity in age until late middle-age, when it rose brain’s cortex slightly.

Although a keen debate has been in According to a psychoanalyst colleague, progress regarding the capacity of the foetus water and the sea are taken to be symbolic to feel pain prior to birth, and at what stage of the mother. The nurturing mother womb is this occurs, there is general agreement that the source of creation and has primal the foetus is certainly capable of registering connotations. There is a universal desire to its environment from early in the second half return to the womb. Regarding the idea that of the pregnancy. There would seem no the in-utero experience might provide the reason, therefore, why it should not start to basis for water preferences, he was open - perceive, albeit in a primitive way as its brain while this could be, it is generally held that a develops, the amniotic fluid in which it is baby does not create fantasies in the womb. located. Of course, the unborn baby cannot However, he admitted the evidence for this see with its eyes while in the womb, rather it was based more on logic than on would derive information about its habitat knowledge. through other senses such as touch.

Ryback and Yaw [1976, 82] come close to this when they suggest that the in-utero experience of the womb is our first environment and “may be the basis for ‘pre- conditioning’ of our psychological responses.” They suggest that the soothing rocking of a cradle for the baby and of music for the adult replicates the “monotonous biologic rhythmicity of fluid and organ movement while immersed in an aqueous medium” [op cit].

235 8. Findings of Landscape Preference Studies

that could provide substantiation. Evidence 0.5 from physiological and psychoanalytical research may provide support. 0.4

ent (3) Mountains ci

0.3 Given the revolutionary change in Western attitudes towards mountains that occurred 0.2 during the 18th century it could be expected that studies would indicate that mountains affect preferences positively. Appendix 8.7 0.1 Pearson corr coeffi summarises the results of 13 studies that have included mountains, and some of 0 these are discussed below.

8 18 35 65 11 o o o o to

6 Brush [1981] re-tested Shafer’s original 9 t

12 t 19 t 36 t Over 65 photographs with a similar group of campers Source: Zube, et al, 1983 and found a strong relationship between Figure 8.26 Correlation of Age Groups with landform and scenic preference [Table Preference for Water 8.16]. Brush found the Kendal’s rank order correlation between landform class and It is not intended to pursue this line of inquiry scenic preference was -0.37 and was very at this point except to say that as a highly significant. The correlation is negative hypothesis it may be difficult to obtain the because Shafer’s method results in low necessary supporting evidence. It is preferences shown by high scores, thus insufficient to point to the ubiquity of preference scores decrease as relative relief preferences for water, although the types of increases [Ibid, 302]. water preferred may provide some measure of evidence. For example, the preference for Buhyoff & Wellman [1980] tested a range of both fresh water and seawater accords with regression functions - linear, exponential, it. Similarly the preference for running water power and loge - against preference data. over still stagnant water fulfils it and for They found the logarithmic scenic water bodies rather than water vapour in the preference functions result in the highest r2 form of rain, fog, mist, hail and snow. It for differing scenes [Table 8.17]. would be difficult to devise a questionnaire

Table 8.16 Frequency of scenes by landform and scenic preference score

Preference score Flat land Low hill Steep hill Mountain High preference 60 - 89 1 90 - 119 1 3 120 - 149 1 4 4 150 - 179 1 3 10 2 180 - 209 4 2 2 1 Low preference 210 - 239 1 1 Total 6 6 18 11 Source: Brush [1981]

Table 8.17 Regression Coefficients for Specific Landscape Dimensions

Landscape Dimensions Linear Exponential Power Loge Rolling Mountains .12 1.4E-06 .08 .33 Sharp Mountains .39 .11 .17 .47 Snow .14 .06 .14 .48 Foreground Vegetation .007 .01 .04 .15 Source: Buhyoff & Wellman [1980]

241 8. Findings of Landscape Preference Studies

R value -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6

Undev coast Oak woods Rocky coast Sandy coast Pine woods Relative relief Scattered trees Mudflats Marina Undev shoreline Unpaved roads Hedges Natural lakes Farmland Dev shoreline Rivers Parks Trad housing Artificial lakes Orchard Powerlines Fences Scrub Waste tips Highways Greenhouses Modern housing Airport Paved roads Industry

Source: Dearden, 1980 Figure 8.32 Regression “R” Values - Landscape Elements Vancouver Island

Forests are preferred with moderate density, Figure 8.31 indicates the ratings of the not too dense but also with a spaciousness landscape features. This indicates that the of openings and the ground cover being natural landscape elements were rated visible. People are more definite about what amongst the highest while the artificial they dislike in forests - images of slash, elements were rated low. downed trees, thinning, and especially clear cuts, destroy the illusion of a natural forest Dearden [1980] measured 30 landscape and remind the observer that the forest they elements per 1 km grid square on are viewing is managed for economic ends. Vancouver Island and used respondents to rate the scenic quality of these grid squares. (5) Naturalism Using regression analysis, the weights of each landscape element were derived. The Naturalism, the natural qualities of the ‘R’ scores are shown in Figure 8.32 and landscape, is the most prevalent element their size indicates the correlation between examined by studies. It is the element visual quality and the landscape element underlying the specific attributes of water, [Ibid, 63], with the figure indicating whether it trees and mountains examined separately. is a positive or negative relationship. The ‘R’ Appendix 8.9 summarises 30 studies in value is shown here instead of the R2 to which naturalism has been examined. retain the positive or negative relationship.

Civco [1979] assessed the natural, rural and Many of the positive features are natural urban landscapes of Connecticut by asking elements of the landscape, the top 8 being: respondents to rate [7-point scale] the 32 undeveloped coast, oak woods, rocky landscape features contained in landscape coastline, sandy coast, pine woods, relative photographs, features such as lakes, relief, scattered trees and mudflats. various types of trees, hills, shore-lines, Interestingly natural lakes and rivers were wetlands, roads, fences, houses. Following ranked lower than some artificial elements this, they were asked to rank another set of and the reasons for this are unknown. photographs in terms of scenic quality.

242 8. Findings of Landscape Preference Studies

Herzog [1984] examined preferences for could not account for the difference in waterscapes while Herzog [1987] assessed preference values “even though higher preferences for mountains, canyons and complexity values are related to higher deserts. His findings for these were preference values within each group.” [Ibid, reviewed earlier and are not repeated here. 355]. Correlations between complexity and Suffice to say that both of these natural preference for nature scenes and urban landscapes produced high preference scenes were significantly correlated: r = 0.69 ratings. and r = 0.78 respectively.

Hodgson and Thayer [1980] examined the effect that varying the labels on photo- 5 graphs had on preferences. Their findings 4 are reviewed in Section 8.4(2) and showed that labels indicating natural sites [e.g. lake] 3 were invariably preferred to ones labelled

artificial [e.g. reservoir] [Table 8.20]. eference r 2 P Table 8.20 Features Viewed from Road in 1 Rockies 0 Positive rated scenes Negatively rated scenes 01234 high mountains 80.5% deserts 44.3% Complexity cliffs, capes, rocks 49.9% swamps & marshes 49% canyons 46.3% scrubland 46.9% beaches 44.0% billboards 78.3% Source: Kaplan, Kaplan & Wendt, 1972 waterfalls/rapids 72.9% commercial bldgs 62.6% Note: Triangles - nature scenes, squares - urban ocean 66.4% industry & railroads 51.8% scenes swift rivers 52.5% suburban houses 43.2% Figure 8.33 Nature & Urban Scenes - snow & glaciers 51.4% Complexity vs Preference evergreen forest 86.9% parks & recreation In addition to the influence of mountains on 53.1% landscape rating, Kane [1976, 1981] showed harbors/waterfront 46.1 naturalism to be a key factor. Table 8.21 Source: Jones, et al, 1976 summarises Kane’s descriptions of the Jones et al [1976], surveyed the community topmost 10 scenes and the bottommost 5 on their enjoyment of views from a road scenes and illustrates the strong influence of through the Rockies in the State of naturalism. Washington. Prominent among the positive features were natural scenes, while negative Knopp, Ballman and Merriam [1979] scenes included artificial features but also assessed the preferences for 39 natural features such as deserts, wetlands environmental elements among users in a and scrubland. This suggests that it is not river environment. Figure 8.34 indicates the simply naturalism per se which influences top twelve rankings. Natural landscapes preferences, but also the content of the were the equal topmost variable and all of scene. the other elements are aspects of the natural environment. It is notable, however, that the ratings given to these negative natural scenes were Lamb and Purcell [1990] examined the generally less than for the artificial scenes, perception of naturalness associated with suggesting that the feelings against them differing vegetation formations found in New are not as strong as against, for example, South Wales. Perception of naturalness billboards, industry and the like. increased with the height of vegetation and density of foliage cover [Figure 8.35]. In an early study, R. and S. Kaplan and J. Vegetation with dominant trees of 10 - 30 m Wendt [1972] examined the preferences for in height were judged more natural with scenes of nature and of urban areas and dense foliage than medium cover. found a distinct preference for the former [Figure 8.33]. They found that complexity

243 8. Findings of Landscape Preference Studies

Table 8.21 Influence of Naturalism on Rating of South Australian Landscapes

Rank Description Checklist Score Bipolar Score 1 Warren Gorge near Quorn, FR [Flinders Ranges] 82 80 2 Eastern Wilpena Pound rim from Pound floor, FR 81 79 3 Rawnsley Bluff from highway to Hawker, FR 81 82 4 Aroona Valley from Aroona ruins, FR 79 71 5 Parachilna Creek & Gorge, FR 79 77 6 River Murray & cliffs, Memdelbuik Reserve, near Berri 79 77 7 Cliffs along Murray River, Murtho Park 79 79 8 Murray River & , Headings Cliff 78 84 9 Seascape from above Sellicks Beach 77 74 10 Mallee scrublands on dunes, Overland Corner 77 81

41 Martins Bend Picnic Reserve, Murray River, Berri 55 71 42 Oraparinna Barytes mine workings, FR 52 41 43 Main street of small town of Carrieton, FR 50 50 44 Small railroad station, Upper Sturt, Adelaide 47 52 45 Mt Barker Road highway interchange, Crafers 41 42 46 Rubbish heap near Victor Harbour 33 29 Source: Kane, 1981

Swimming water

Small wildlife

Fine weather

Large wildlife

Own campsite

Rare wildlife

3.7 3.8 3.9 4 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 Mean Preferences [ 5 pt scale]

Source: Knopp, Ballman & Merrian, 1979 Figure 8.34 Preferences for Environmental Variables - River Environment

The interaction of height and density is important, The reasons for structural change included not their separate contributions. Low vegetation of grazing, fire, weeds and dereliction due to 2 - 5 m restrict the extent of view and offer little failed agriculture. Fire was not regarded ‘prospect’ in Appleton’s terms and also limit negatively, which indicates the influence of legibility and mystery of the landscape in Kaplan’s familiarity with Australian biomes where fire is terms: “restriction of mid-ground view causes considered to be part of the ecosystem. reduced preference” [Ibid, 347]. Changes to the vegetation structure are detectable by Grazing and dereliction produced the greatest respondents and are perceived to reduce its negative effects on perceived naturalness. The naturalness. The ability to discriminate changes resultant landscapes were “relatively open, park- increases with the vegetation density but like, and ordered yet the perceived naturalness is decreases with its height. low” [Ibid, 350]. Based on this, the authors suggested that preference and naturalness were not always

250 8. Findings of Landscape Preference Studies

251 9. Acquiring the Data

CHAPTER NINE

ACQUIRING THE DATA

9.1 METHODOLOGY • Applications The understanding gained is applied including mapping of landscape quality Based on the findings of Chapter 7 on the methodologies of existing studies, and of their The relationship of these components is findings summarised in Chapter 8, the illustrated by Figure 9.1. Figure 9.2 lists the methodology to be followed comprises the parts of each of the components in the first following elements: three steps of the methodology. In subsequent sections, each of these • Independent variables Photographs which components is described. serve as surrogates of the landscape to be assessed Chapter 7 described the range of research • Dependent variables Preferences of instruments used in existing studies. Each of respondents for the landscapes depicted in the the instruments has advantages and photographs disadvantages and selection must often • Statistical analysis Relationships between the preferences and the landscapes are determined

Applications of knowledge Independent variables of relationship between Sample of landscapes depicted by preferences and photographs. Statistical analysis of landscapes Measurement of characteristics results and derivation of equations relating independent variables Dependent variables [preferences] to dependent Community preferences derived for variables [scenes]. Mapping of landscape photographs of landscapes. quality for area

Figure 9.1 Methodology for Landscape Quality Assessment

Independent Variables [Photographs of landscape] • Use of slides vs alternatives • Derivation of landscape character regions of S.A. • Criteria for photographs • Photographing the landscape • Selection of additional photographs Analysis of Ratings • Assessment of coverage of photographs • Statistical analysis of results • Selection of slides for rating sessions • Overall characteristics • Group characteristics • Relationship of responses with respondent characteristics Dependent Variables [Community Preferences] • Relationship of responses with • Selection of groups physical characteristics of scenes • Derivation of rating instrument and session parameters • Holding of slide rating sessions • Entering of results - handling of discrepancies • Comparison of test group with South Australian community

Figure 9.2 Summary of Components of Methodology

252 9. Acquiring the Data

seek the best compromise between several community should provide the basis of competing objectives. For example the preferences for the study. paired comparisons method appears capable of providing very precise While it was possible to invite participation differentiation between photographs but is among South Australians by providing them limited by practical considerations to about with an Internet address, again the number 15 photographs, certainly insufficient for this with access to computers was limited and a study. Similarly the Q-sort method offers a considerable investment of time by such reliable and valid method but requires respondents would be required. Apart from individuals to sort photographic prints of the novelty of the new technology, it was not scenes thereby requiring considerable time apparent that it offered significant for each individual and necessitating the advantages over well-established methods. expense of large prints. Field assessment of landscape quality is clearly impractical for a The most widely used instrument is rating of large area. colour slides and this is the preferred method for the study. Chapter 7 found that Since many of the studies reported in of the 211 studies examined, 189 [90%] Chapter 7 were conducted, the Internet has used photographs as the means of depicting become available and consideration was the landscape. While some used black and given to using it to display scenes and white photographs and a few used film or obtain responses. Research on landscapes video, the majority used colour slides. in Scotland has been conducted using this method [Wherrett, 1997]. She found that the Slides have the advantages of having no sample using it to be extremely diverse but limitation on number, of being able to be restricted to users of the Internet. The time used for small or large groups of taken to load the graphics varies with the respondents, and of being quick and easy power of the computer and long delays can for respondents to rate. Moreover most test the tolerance of the user. The method people are familiar with viewing slides and has the advantages of no postal or face-to- thus novelty or unfamiliarity should not face interviews and a high degree of distract from the purpose. automation in processing the replies. Several versions of the survey can be run simultaneously and changes can be made to 9.2 STATISTICAL DESIGN the questionnaire easily. She gained 81 responses over a 4-week period. A The statistical design of the study covers the comparison of the ratings of scenes given by statistical instruments and methodology to the international respondents with a local be used in analysis, the size of the sample pilot sample of respondents found a of respondents required to adequately correlation of 0.90. represent the community, and the size of sample of photographs required to The sample of participants with access to adequately represent the landscapes of the this medium is unlikely to mirror the study area of South Australia. community, there is little control over their participation [e.g. an individual could submit (1) Statistical instruments multiple ratings], and the participation would be worldwide, not restricted to South Examples of the methodologies and Australians. This last point is important as instruments are summarised in Table 9.1. the assessment of landscapes with which Appendix 9.1 summarises the key features one is not broadly familiar can introduce of 32 studies. added complications, e.g. scenes of dieback in Western Australian jarrah forests were mistaken as autumn leaf-fall by students in Massachusetts [Kaplan, R & Herbert, 1980]. Similarly coniferous forests are not highly regarded in Australia or New Zealand [Kaplan R. & Herbert, 1987; Brown, S., 1985] but are native in North America. On the basis that landscape quality reflects the preferences of the community, it is considered that the South Australian 253 9. Acquiring the Data

Table 9.1 Examples of Statistical Analysis by Landscape Studies

Author Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4 Anderson & Intergroup FA of physical MR using factors as Schroeder, 1983 correlation characteristics & predictors scenic scores Balling & Falk, Interrater t tests - signif of F test of prefs - live FA of live/visit 1982 consistency - different prefs for vs visit data ANOVA biomes Carls, 1974 Tests of intergroup MR of independent FA of variables ANOVA - correlation variables Identification of respondents / factors prefs Cook & Cable, PCA/corr’s - group Divide sample into Derive SBEs MR and test 1995 homegeneity groups Dearinger, 1979 Derive means & SD Corr’s matrix of mean Intercorrelation of cluster for sample rating. FA factor scores analysis of differences Hammitt, Patterson SBE transformation FA to identify MR of prefs & Noe, 1994 landscape themes Herzog, 1985 Intercorrelation of FA of ratings - scores MANOVA - MR of prefs means for each predictor var’s & and rating categories variables Mosley, 1989 Compared scoring MR to predict value Test measured by different gps of mean score/scene values against predicted Nassauer & Attractiveness FA of feature MR of factor scores Benner, 1984 frequencies & presence on ratings variances classifications Palmer & Zube, Corr. matrix of l/s FA of these Cluster analysis 1976 dimensions & components explored rel landscapes between l/s dimensions Pitt, 1976 Means, SD, χ2, LR - physical MR of variable’s signif level dimension vs scores and scores Purcell & Lamb, Means & variances Cluster analysis Multiple dimension 1984 scaling Purcell et al, 1994 ANOVA of scene Means & standard ANOVA of type & subject errors naturalness vs country preference Strumse, 1984a & Mean, SD FA to identify ANOVA of MCA of b & 1996 dimensions demographic demographics variable vs rating as predictors Vodak et al, 1985 SBE transformation Correlation coef of LR analysis to ANOVA of group as determine best SBEs representative model Abbreviations: FA = factor analysis, LR = linear regression, MR = multiple regression, corr’s = correlations, prefs = preferences, PCA = principal component analysis, SD = standard deviations, var’s = variables, MCA = multiple classification analysis [form of MR]

Based on an analysis of these and other assessing reliability and the need for this will studies and consideration of this study’s also be considered. objectives, the following statistical analyses are proposed: c) Consideration of transforming preferences into interval scale, using either z scores or

SBEs. a) Derivation of descriptive statistics [i.e. means,

standard deviations] of the scenes for each d) Analysis that compares the physical group and respondent. These will be derived characteristics of scenes [e.g. area of water, for different types or regions of landscape as vegetation, degree of naturalness etc] with the well as for the total. preference ratings, and the consequential

derivation of equations that describe the b) Testing of inter-group means for reliability and relationship. consistency. Some studies [e.g. Dearinger,

1979, Herzog, 1985] divide the sample in half and analyse each separately as a means of (2) Sample Size of Photographs

254 9. Acquiring the Data

Consideration was initially given to using Examination of scenes of the South around 1000 slides to represent the Australian landscape resulted in the landscapes of South Australia, because any development of a hypothesis that lesser number may not provide adequate landscapes with a high degree of similarity representation in a State of nearly 106 km2. may be represented by relatively few It was proposed that the 1000 slides be photographs. It was considered likely that viewed in five sessions of 200 slides each, the range of preferences for these scenes plus a common benchmark set of 20 slides would vary over a relatively narrow range. to allow calibration between sessions with Therefore relatively few photographs could different participants. The 200 slides would represent them. This hypothesis was tested take around 30 minutes to view and, with a small pilot study involving five providing a short break was provided respondents who rated seven scenes of halfway, fatigue should not be a problem. A cereal growing areas in South Australia. The single group of respondents who would rating scale was 1 - 10. The results are attend all sessions was proposed, thereby summarised in Table 9.2. A sample of 5 is enhancing consistency and possibly too small to derive an estimate of the avoiding the need for the benchmark slides. population’s standard deviation and is Steps were taken to assemble a group of therefore used solely to indicate the range of people willing to participate in the sessions, ratings. and around 60 persons had indicated a willingness to participate. Table 9.2 Preference Rating of Similar Scenes

However, this approach was rejected Respondents following consideration of experience from Scene 1 2 3 4 5 the literature and after further viewing of the 1 5 6 4 6 5 slides involved. For example, Purcell & 2 4 7 3 5 4 Lamb [1984, 37] found that when a set of 3 4 4 4 4 4 180 slides was used, many respondents 4 4 5 3 4 4 said after the sessions that too many slides 5 4 5 3 4 4 were the same. Principal components 6 5 5 4 6 4 analysis was carried out to identify 7 5 4 5 6 4 redundancy and components with 4.43 5.14 3.71 5.00 4.14 eigenvalues greater than 1 examined. The average preferences by respondents for Considerable redundancy was found and the seven scenes ranged from 3.71 to 5.14, the slide set reduced to 105, a 40% a difference of 1.43 rating units against an reduction. overall average of 4.49. The test served to

illustrate that the preferences vary over a Viewing the slides of the South Australian relatively small range of +/- 0.7 [i.e. +/- 16%] landscape indicated considerable visual which is considered acceptable. It indicated similarity across many of the landscape that similar scenes could be represented by regions, in particular many of the relatively few slides. This assumption will be landscapes in the far northern arid region, subject to further testing in the survey to the southern cereal and sheep growing assess its validity. agricultural area, the mallee vegetation, and even areas of the coastline. The literature was examined to assess the

average number of photographs used in It was considered that there was a risk that studies. Of the 32 studies listed in Appendix redundancy in scenes, whether perceived or 9.1, the largest number of photos examined real, could result in a progressive decline in was 720 [Schroeder and Daniel, 1981]. The the number of respondents attending mean average for these studies was 115, sessions thereby affecting adversely the with a standard deviation of 161. However, results. While new respondents could make most of these studies covered relatively up the difference, the changes would confined areas; none covered an area the introduce undesirable complications into the size of the current study. methodology. Therefore a methodology was required in which respondents attended a minimum number of sessions and the (3) Sample Size for Respondents amount of redundancy in the slides was minimised. In 30 of the studies examined in Appendix 9.1, the mean average sample size of respondents is 180 with an SD of 153. The 255 9. Acquiring the Data sample size may be defined by the following of the landscape, describes the trips taken algorithms: to obtain the photographs and the selection of supplementary photographs, the selection 2 n = (zα/2•σ/e) of photographs for the purposes of rating 2 n = σ•(1-σ)•(zα/2/e) and analysis, and the means for the analysis 2 n = 0.25•(zα/2/e) of photographs. where: (1) Principles n is sample size 2 z is the z score for α South Australia has an area of 984,400 km , α is the required confidence level 80% of which receives less than 250 mm e is the acceptable error level rain annually and is essentially arid desert, σ is the population standard deviation together with 3,700 km of coastline [ABS, 1997]. At this scale it is clearly impractical to The first two versions of this formula photograph the entire landscape. It would require knowledge of the population also be impractical to sample the landscape on a grid basis with photographs taken at standard deviation [σ], which was say, every 100 km or 10 km intervals. Using unknown at the outset for this study. The a 100 km square grid would require only 100 third version does not require the photographs of South Australia, which is population SD as it assumes, for a given unlikely to be representative. By contrast, a population, the maximum value of σ•(1- 10 km grid would yield 10,000 photographs, σ) is 0.25 [Freund, 1984, 268]. which is likely to be representative but is an unwieldy large number. Moreover, the The sample size [n] for various z scores is: majority of sites are likely to be remote from access roads making photography very time z = 1.91 (95% confidence) n = 91 consuming. z = 1.96 (97.5% confidence) n = 97 z = 2.57 (99% confidence) n = 166 A sample based on a grid would be likely to z = 2.81 (99.5% confidence)s n = 198 have a high degree of redundancy, z = 3.04 (99.75% confidence) n = 231 especially in those remote parts of South all with e held at 10% (+/-5%) Australia referred to earlier. Similarly, selecting photographic points at set intervals These indicate the minimal Confidence along roads would also result in Level percentage confidence that, based on considerable redundancy. Neither approach the sample size, the true error does not would adequately cover the variety of the exceed e for the SA population. more diverse landscapes such as the Mount

79 Lofty Ranges and coast. Discussions with statisticians indicated that the number of variables being tested is an Nor would it be satisfactory to invite the important factor in determining the sample public to provide slides for the study, as size required. The variables referred to these are likely to concentrate on popular include attributes such as the area of water, areas that tend to be areas of high degree of naturalness, colour etc. A sample landscape quality and omit the majority of of 170 participants would be required for 10 the study area that is of a lesser quality. - 12 variables plus respondent variables [i.e. Many such photographs are also likely to age, gender etc]. This figure was adopted as artistically composed which would affect a minimum to aim for. preference ratings.

A guided form of sampling would therefore 9.3 DERIVATION OF INDEPENDENT be needed, one which took into account the VARIABLES need to be representative of the range of landscape quality while also recognising the In this section, the means of obtaining issue of redundancy and at the same time photographs of the South Australian recognised the practical issues involved in landscape is described. It commences by obtaining photographs and having establishing principles to guide the sampling participants rate them. The former factor would maximise the number of photographs 79. Dr R. Correll, CSIRO Div of Math Stats; Mr P. while the latter factor would minimise the Leppard, Maths and Stats Dept, Univ of number. The following principles were Adelaide. 256 9. Acquiring the Data defined together with consideration of how landscapes and for this to be applied they may be tested to help guide the across all such landscapes. While there sampling of the State’s landscape: will be some variation in the landscape quality ratings of similar scenes, it is • Principle of representativeness: expected that this variability will be including the significant types of insignificant, i.e. ~ 10% as indicated by landscapes present in South Australia the example [Table 9.2]. in the sample. The principle of equivalence will be Representativeness means that the tested by defining the range of similar sample should aim to cover the landscapes, selecting photographs diversity of landscape regions and covering the range and testing significant variations within each region. preferences for these. This led to the definition of the landscape regions and landscape types • Principle of complexity: sampling within South Australia [see (4) below]. should reflect the complexity of the landscapes. Highly familiar scenes require special consideration; scenes which would Complexity is a function of several have instant recognition such as the factors present in the scene, including Bluff at Victor Harbor, the Remarkable landform, land cover, land use, water, Rocks on Kangaroo Island or Wilpena naturalness and colour. Much of South Pound in the Flinders Ranges. Australia is flat, the land cover is largely Familiarity with a particular scene low scattered trees and bush and the enhances preferences as it triggers dominant land use is monocultures of memories and associations with factors cereals and/or grazing. Complex other than the underlying landscape landscapes such as the Mount Lofty quality. Icons trigger even deeper Ranges have differences in landform symbolic associations that need to be and land cover within a small area, a separated from landscape quality. greater mixture of land use and many Some of these should be included to water bodies present. Such areas help assess the influence of familiarity require a greater density of sampling. on preferences. By contrast, arid and agricultural landscapes are characterised by lesser Laut’s classification of the State in complexity that can be represented by Environments of South Australia relatively fewer photographs. provides a detailed analysis on the basis of biophysical attributes and This principle is an extension of the first defines areas of similar characteristics. principle of representativeness and Although the classification does not essentially describes the situation that classify landscapes, it can provide a can be demonstrated empirically. In gauge of the representation achieved. Laut’s analysis, the Mount Lofty Ranges had more environmental • Principle of equivalence: providing associations and units than regions the landscapes are of similar much larger in extent such as the South characteristics, the preference for each East or the Flinders Ranges. The should be similar. density of photographs taken to represent areas such as the Mount This is the issue of redundancy. The Lofty Ranges or the coast will need to principle means that an assessment of, be much greater than in agricultural say, a flat farming landscape in the areas or the far north. Murray mallee should yield a similar quality assessment as a flat farming (2) Photographing Scenes landscape on Eyre or Yorke Peninsula. Location is not as important to A series of trips was undertaken throughout preferences [unless of a highly familiar South Australia to obtain photographs of the scene] as the characteristics of the landscapes (Table 9.3). These were scene that are present. The confined mainly to the period through spring equivalence principle would enable a through summer to autumn to maximise single rating to be derived for similar cloud-free conditions. The long daylight 257 9. Acquiring the Data hours also provided considerable time for landscape quality, sampling photography on each day. The timing of the concentrated on typicality, the modal trips covered the full range of seasons in the average rather than the high or low agricultural region. Travel in the far north points. region was taken in autumn. Photography was spaced over two summers and thus Care was taken to record as complete took over twelve months to complete. coverage of the different landscapes as was practical. Most of the main roads in Apart from the far north trip that was an area and often some of the undertaken with the author’s wife and secondary roads were driven to ensure daughter, all other trips were done singly so a reasonable areal coverage was there was no potential for external influence obtained. regarding what should be photographed. • Principle of simplicity: landscapes In summary, 22 trips were made over 50 were photographed to contain a days, covering 18,700 km, during which minimum of components, and 1750 photographs were taken. This complicating factors and distracting averaged 1 photograph per 10.6 km elements were avoided. travelled, ranging from 18.5 km/photo in the far north to 3 - 4 km/photo in the Mt Lofty In photographing scenes, care was Ranges. taken to avoid features such as fences in the foreground, powerlines across Fuji Sensia 100 ASA colour slide film was the scene, cows or sheep, houses or used throughout. An Ashai Pentax ME roads, cars, dead trees and Super SLR camera was used with a Tamron excavations, and the presence of SP 1:4 - 4.5, 28 -135 mm zoom lens people. The inclusion of any of these adjusted to the 50 mm setting. To minimise can affect preferences and was artistic influence, no filters were used. avoided unless they were considered to be an integral part of the landscape or Two further principles were defined to help were quite unavoidable. guide the actual photographing of landscapes. These are the principles of Photographs were not taken from the typicality and simplicity. road, as this would include the foreground grasses, shrubs and fences • Principle of typicality: in sampling that would distract from the scene. landscapes, scenes were selected on Rather the photographs were taken the basis that they typified a particular from the fence line. landscape. Such scenes aimed to capture the For the purposes of statistical analysis, essential prevailing characteristics of the fewer complicating components in a the landscape. This meant that particular scene, the more likely it is characteristics that were unusual [i.e. that the preferences will reflect the they are of limited areal extent] were essential components of the landscape. avoided. Typicality means that scenes It also meant avoiding artistic were selected to reflect the prevailing composition of scenes such as placing characteristics of the landscape [i.e. a tree in the foreground or leading the they were simply average for the given viewer into the scene by the strategic area]. This is not to imply that the placement of features. The overall aim landscape quality they represented was is to evaluate mediocre - it could be low, medium or high - but rather that in measuring 258 9. Acquiring the Data

Table 9.3 Summary of Landscape Photographic Trips

Date Location Weather conditions Photos Distance 29/11 - Adelaide - Ceduna - Pt Lincoln - Quorn - Generally sunny with 358 4000 5/12/97 Mannahill [on Broken Hill road] - Jamestown occasional light cloud. km - Adelaide - Riverland - mallee - south east - Cloud increased after Adelaide. Riverland and rain in SE. Cleared by Robe. 29/12/97 Fleurieu Pen: Victor Harbor - Normanville, Sunny 31 180 Delamere-Blowhole Ck - Victor Harbor 31/12/97 Fleurieu Pen: Victor Harbor - Inman Valley - Sunny 28 100 Second Valley - Waitpinga - Victor Harbor 4/1/98 Piccadilly Valley Sunny, some light 9 50 cloud 16/1/98 Eastern Mt Lofty Range: Callington - Sunny 73 320 Angaston 13/2/98 Eastern Yorke Peninsula Sunny, some light 78 760 cloud 21/2/98 Central-north Mt Lofty Ranges: Piccadilly - Sunny 60 200 Gawler - Kersbrook 22/2/98 Central Mt Lofty Ranges: Forest Range - Sunny 49 150 Lenswood Agriculture Station 28/2/98 Central Mt Lofty Ranges; Woodside - Sunny 46 200 Kersbrook - Mt Torrens 1/3/98 Central Mt Lofty R. Verdun - Brukunga- Sunny 35 100 Hahndorf 8/3 - Western side Yorke Pen - Pt Augusta - Sunny until Pt 202 3500 12/3/98 Gawler Ranges - Ceduna - Nullabor - Lincoln, then rain and western coast of Eyre Pen - Whalers Way - cloud Pt Lincoln - Adelaide 14/3/98 Asbourne - Milang - Clayton Increasingly overcast, 7 120 trip abandoned 20/3 - South east: coast - Mt Gambier - Ngarkat - Sunny, some high 77 1200 21/3/98 Tailem Bend light cloud 11/4 - Far north: Pt Augusta - Woomera - Intermittently sunny 227 4200 24/4/98 Andamooka - Roxby Downs - Woomera - with cloudy/cirrus Coober Pedy - Marla - Oodnadatta - Coward conditions in part. Springs - Maree - Mangarannie - Birdsville - Clouds at Pt Augusta, Cordillo Downs - Innamincka - Lyndhurst - Roxby, Oodnadatta, Jamestown - Adelaide Innamincka, Jamestown 28/8/98 Central Mt Lofty Ranges: Hahndorf - Mt Sunny 47 120 Barker - Macclesfield - Echunga 29/8/98 Central Mt Lofty Ranges: Sturt Ck - Scott Ck Sunny 40 100 - Bradbury - Mylor - Longwood - Jupiter Ck 17/9 - River Murray - Riverland: Murray Bridge - Sunny 106 870 18/9/98 Swan Reach - Waikerie - Loxton - Paringa - Berri - Morgan - Swan Reach - Sedan 21/9/98 Lower River Murray - Lower North: Murray Sunny, increasing 57 420 Bridge - Mannum - Swan Reach - Sedan - cloud at Kapunda Truro - Eudunda - Kapunda 27/9/98 Mid north: Roseworthy - Snowtown - Yacka - Sunny, increasing 56 470 Clare - Burra - Tarlee cloud after Burra 1/11/98 Fleurieu Peninsula coast: Victor Harbor - Sunny 85 350 Deep Ck - Second Valley - Sellicks Beach 18 - South East - Tailem Bend - Keith - Kingston - Sunny patches but 39 1100 22/1/99 Beachport - Mt Gambier - Coorong - L. Alex. mainly cloudy 24/1/99 Middle Fleurieu Peninsula: Clarendon - Mt Sunny, some patchy 39 180 Compass - Asbourne - Meadows - Clarendon clouds in south

259 9. Acquiring the Data

the landscape, not the photographic each photograph were mapped using representation of it, and composition ArcInfo. This was overlain on the CSIRO that enhances the quality of the scene Environments of South Australia data-base as a photograph is to be avoided. [see Appendix 9.2] and the representation of Based on Shuttleworth [1980], photographs in each environmental photographs should provide foreground association and unit was assessed. context for the scene.

The following criteria were followed in taking the photographs: West Ey r e Pen Coast Far North Yorke 10% 2% • 50 mm lens - similar to human eye 12% Pen Flinders R • photography at eye level, i.e. not elevated or depressed 6% 6% • horizontal [i.e. landscape] format, not vertical Mid Nor th South format 5% Eas t • landscape view extending to the horizon - i.e. 7% not a confined close-up view Mallee • ideally sunny conditions - if cloudy, ensure 2% scene is in sun Riverland • good exposure and clarity [e.g. dust free] and 8% Mt Lofty not strong side lighting [avoid early morning, Kangaroo R/Low er late afternoon] Is Nth 0% As each photograph was taken, a record 42% was made of the film and exposure number, and a brief description written. The location Figure 9.3 Distribution of Slides by Region of the photograph was marked immediately onto a map, generally at 1:250,000 scale, (3) Supplementary Photographs except for the Mount Lofty Ranges where the 1:50,000 scale series was used. The Gaps in the coverage of the photographs location marked was as close as could be were supplemented with additional determined. For the final quarter of films photographs from various collections. taken, a Garmin GPSII geographical Access was gained to collections held by positioning system instrument was used to the Department of Environment and provide positioning coordinates at the time Heritage, specifically the Pastoral Branch, of the photograph and these were recorded the Biological Survey Branch and the in the field. Botanic Garden/State Herbarium. In addition, collections of various individuals, Where high ranges or hills were present in both in the Department and outside, were the scene, the angle of elevation was used. These were generally photographed obtained using a clinometer [Abney Level]. for environmental purposes rather than This was used by viewing the top of the aesthetic, and covered areas that would not feature through a telescopic eyepiece, usually be covered by the casual adjusting the spirit level until it was level, photographer. and reading off the elevation in degrees and minutes on the scale. This was recorded The Pastoral Branch is responsible for with a description of the scene. monitoring and assessing the pastoral condition of pastoral leases across a large Figure 9.3 summarises the distribution of part of the Far North region with the photographs by region. It indicates that most exception of the western and northwestern of the photographs were taken in the region. The Dingo Fence divides the agricultural regions, in particular the Mt Lofty pastoral area, north of which is suitable for Ranges and Eyre Peninsula. The Far North cattle grazing and south is used for sheep and the Flinders Ranges appear low in grazing. Most of the Branch’s collection terms of the numbers of photographs for related to the sheep grazing area. The their area. Branch’s photo-point photographs included a location sign that precluded their use, but Each photograph was given a unique in addition it had many slides arranged by number on the basis of its number on the the name of the pastoral properties, as well relevant map sheet. The coordinates of additional general slides of the far north. On 260 9. Acquiring the Data average, 100 slides per property were State Herbarium. These were located in the available but many of these were unsuitable Flinders Ranges [7], Lake Torrens [1] and for use as they lacked sunny conditions, Kangaroo Is [1]. were poorly exposed, contained strong evening lighting, or failed to meet the criteria In addition to these, some private collections in some way. On average, less than one- of slides of individuals in the Department of third of these slides were suitable for Environment and Heritage and the Adelaide selection. Bushwalkers Club were reviewed for suitable photographs, and slides obtained: A total of 103 slides covering pastoral stations were selected. In most cases, only Brendan Lay Far north one or two slides were selected from each Peter Copley North west property as being broadly representative of Colin Harris Far north the landscapes they contained. While this Peter Beer Flinders Ranges Tony Lothian Flinders Ranges may be regarded as somewhat restrictive, it Fraser Vickery Kangaroo Island was considered that sampling the arid zone landscapes across one hundred properties In addition, slides were selected from the should cover most of the landscapes author’s personal collection covering mainly present. the Flinders Ranges, River Murray, Kangaroo Island and Fleurieu Peninsula. The slides included pastoral stations along the Olary ridge, in the Flinders Ranges, west Altogether, these supplementary slides of Lake Torrens and in the Lake Gairdner totalled 426 - 135 from the far north, 237 area. Geo-coding these slides presented a from the Flinders Ranges, 41 from problem as the data on the location of each Kangaroo Island and the remaining 13 from slide were held in field books scattered other regions. among the staff of the Branch. Location of these and of the slide selected in each book The distribution of all slides [i.e. those taken would entail a very large time commitment. on special trips plus supplementary slides As an alternative, therefore, the centroid of from other collections], is shown in Figure each pastoral property was calculated from 9.4. Although the greatest number of slides 1:250,000 maps as representative of the covered the Mt Lofty Ranges and lower slide’s location. north, there were substantially more slides in the Far North, Flinders Ranges and The Biological Survey Branch of the Kangaroo Island. The slides totalled 2176. Department undertakes fieldwork in the State’s parks, many of which are in the far north region. Slides were selected from the West following parks and areas: Coast Eyre Pen 2% Far North 8% Cooper Creek [2] Yorke 16% Nullabor [6] Pen Gawler Ranges [2] 5% Yellabina [2] Mid Flinders Tallaringa [1] North R Coongie [4] 4% 15% Yumbarra [2] South Murray Mallee [2] East Kangaroo Island [7] 6%

In some cases the location of the slides was Mt Lofty Mallee given and its coordinates obtained. In other R/Lower 1% Nth Riverland instances, it was necessary to use the Kangaro 34% 7% centroid of the relevant park for its geo- o Is code. 2%

A small number of slides were obtained from Figure 9.4 Distribution of All Slides by Region the collection of the Botanic Gardens and 261 9. Acquiring the Data

Figure 9.5 South Australian Landscape Character Regions 262 9. Acquiring the Data

Table 9.4 summarises the total slides Table 9.5 Summary of State Landscape available. Character Derivations

Table 9.4 Location of All Slides Victoria NSW WA Region Number % Factors lf, lc, wf, lf, lc, lu lf, lc, wf, lu Far North 341 15.7 lu Flinders Ranges 337 15.5 Derivation SL, AP, SL, SI, SL, AP, South East 126 5.8 SI, F & S F&S SI, F, V Mallee 28 1.3 Regions 9 15 39 Riverland 144 6.6 Av. Area 25000 53000 65000 km2 Kangaroo Island 41 1.9 Note: lf = land form, lc = land cover, Mt Lofty Ranges/Lwr nth 750 34.5 wf = waterforms, lu = land use Mid North 83 3.8 SL = scientific literature Yorke Peninsula 111 5.1 AP = aerial photographs Eyre Peninsula 180 8.3 SI = satellite imagery West coast 35 1.6 F&S = field operatives [e.g. land management Total 2176 100.0 personnel] and specialists [e.g. botanists] V = video (4) Regional Basis for Selection of Source: Kirkpatrick, B. & A. Stuart-Street, 1992. Photographs Thorvaldson, F., 1996. Williamson D.N. & S.W. Calder, 1979. South Australia is a land of generally low relief, the inland area being largely covered by While there have been many classifications featureless plains, or sand and gibber plains. of South Australia on the basis of South Australia Yearbook, 1997. geomorphology and physiography [e.g. Jennings & Mabbutt, 1986; Learmouth 1971; The selection of slides for rating of Twidale, 1974] and vegetation [e.g. Specht, preferences was guided, firstly by the 1972; Wood, 1958], there have been none classification of landscape character of landscape character. covering South Australia and, secondly by a classification of landscape types. Appendix Twidale’s [1974] 17 physiographic regions 9.2 describes the derivation of landscape reflected the dominantly arid nature of the character regions for South Australia. State. He identified four broad regions: arid uplands, arid plains, semi-arid uplands and Simonds (1961) defined landscape semi-arid plains. Within each of these he character thus: described particular ranges, plains and deserts. “Landscape character is where there is an apparent harmony or unity among all the The most detailed and relevant classification natural elements of a landscape, including the of South Australia is Environments of South landforms, geology, vegetation etc. Each area Australia, the product of a project has its own distinguishing landscape character, and each invokes a distinct undertaken by Peter Laut and associates of response” [quoted by Stuart-Street, 1994, 3] the CSIRO Division of Land Use Research in the mid- 1970s [Laut et al, 1977]. Simonds’ definition focuses on the visual characteristics which identify the landscape Environments of South Australia provided an and which distinguish it from other areas. analysis of the South Australian environment on the basis of its biophysical attributes and, Classifications of landscape character of importantly for the purposes of landscape Victoria, New South Wales and Western character classification, defined a “four-level Australia were examined. Each of these hierarchy of areal units” being areas of States adjoins South Australia. Table 9.5 varying size and comprising similar summarises the derivation of these characteristics within each area. classifications. Maps of the landscape character in the three States are contained Environmental units were defined as the in Appendix 9.2. smallest unit. These are grouped into environmental associations that are the primary mapping unit. In turn these environmental associations are combined into environmental regions and these into environmental provinces. 263 9. Acquiring the Data

The State was divided into two broad and needs to be supplemented by a finer provinces: the far north arid province, that grained typology. accounts for nearly 86% of its area; and the southern agricultural province, which covers Table 9.6 Landscape Regions of South the remaining 14%. These represent two Australia climatic zones, each with their distinctive landforms, land cover and land uses. The Province and Region Area as classification was hierarchical: province - % of SA region - unit. Far North Arid Province 85.63 Salt lakes 3.07 As landscape quality is based on the area’s Arid dune fields 46.69 Arid ranges and uplands 7.49 physical components, such as landform, Gibber plains 4.05 land cover, land use and surface water [all Arid plains 21.77 of which were used in Laut’s classification], Flinders Ranges 2.56 the environmental associations can provide Southern Agricultural Province 14.37 a basis for defining landscape character Mt Lofty Ranges 0.63 regions. However, as noted by the Western Agricultural 12.98 Australian classification [Stuart-Street, 1994, Murray Valley 0.44 5], natural system boundaries are not Coastal 0.27 always visually distinct in the landscape. Adelaide 0.05 Furthermore, areas defined on the basis of natural systems do not necessarily Analysis was therefore undertaken of the correspond with landscape regions. Despite slides that had been gathered to identify the these qualifications, natural systems that are types of landscapes they represented. The based particularly on land form and land selection of slides for rating purposes could cover can provide a guide to the then cover the range of landscape types. identification and classification of landscape regions. The landscape types were derived for each region and, as would be expected, there The derivation of the landscape character were many commonalities between the two based on Laut’s classification is described in classifications. Landscape classification Appendix 9.2. differed from the regional classification in that it condensed the five regions of the far Table 9.6 summarises the 10 landscape north province into one region and gave far regions and their area relative to South greater prominence to the landscapes of the Australia. The landscape provinces and remainder of South Australia. Table 9.8 regions are shown in Figure 9.5. summarises the landscape types derived.

The landscape regions were divided into The description of landscape types was then landscape units that are shown in Table 9.7 used, together with their regional together with their areas. distribution, as the basis for the selection of slides for rating purposes. (5) Definition of Landscape Types (6) Selection of Photographs for The need to supplement the definition of Rating landscape character regions and units by defining types of landscapes stemmed from Nearly 2200 slides were available for the realisation that their areal extent does selection to rate the South Australian not provide an adequate basis for landscapes. The number selected from assembling a sample of representative these needed to be sufficiently small so that slides. If areal extent was to be the sole the rating sessions were not inordinately criterion, then the Mount Lofty Ranges and long and viewers maintained their interest Murray Valley would be represented by only and concentration. one slide each, while nearly half the slides would depict the arid dune fields. Landscape character provides a general classification 264 9. Acquiring the Data

Table 9.7 Landscape Regions and Landscape Units

Landscape Region Landscape Unit Area sq km % South Australia Far North Arid Province 840458 85.63 1. Salt Lakes Region Lakes Eyre, Torrens, Frome, Gairdner and others 30120 3.07 2. Arid Dune fields Region 2.1 Western dune fields including the Great Victoria 259967 26.49 Desert, including southern dune fields 2.2 Central dune fields, east of L. Torrens and 35704 3.64 between L. Torrens and L. Gairdner 2.3 North east dune fields including Strzelecki and 149141 15.19 Simpson Deserts 2.4 Canopus dune fields north of River Murray 13477 1.37 Total arid dune fields 458289 46.69 3. Arid Ranges & Uplands 3.1 North west ranges including Musgraves and 6730 0.69 Region Mann Ranges 3.2 Central tablelands incl the Breakaways, the 31238 3.18 Peake & Denison Ranges, & the Bagot Ranges 3.3 Gawler Ranges and Middleback Ranges 14066 1.43 3.4 Olary Spur 15764 1.61 3.5 Other uplands 5687 0.58 Total arid ranges & uplands 73485 7.49 4. Gibber Plains Region 39766 4.05 5. Arid Plains Region 5.1 Nullarbor 51117 5.21 5.2 Northern plains 137034 13.96 5.3 Eastern plains 25559 2.60 Total arid plains 213709 21.77 6. Flinders Ranges Region 6.1 Main high ranges 5352 0.55 6.2 Lower ranges and outliers 4117 0.42 6.3 Intramontane plains & hills 15621 1.59 Total Flinders Ranges 25089 2.56

Southern Agricultural Province 141092 14.37 7. Mt Lofty Ranges Region 7.1 Main ranges, deep valleys 602 0.06 7.2 Lower ranges and escarpments 2544 0.26 7.3 Undulating, wide valleys, plains 2994 0.31 Total Mt Lofty Ranges 6140 0.63 8. Agricultural Region 8.1 Hills and low ranges 5524 0.56 8.2 Ridges or dunes with linear valleys 25530 2.60 8.3 Plains with random dunes 71759 7.31 8.4 Plains 24592 2.51 Total agricultural region 127405 12.98 9. Murray Valley Region* 9.1 Riverland 1731 0.18 9.2 Trench 206 0.02 9.3 Lakes 1629 0.19 9.4 Coorong 788 0.08 Total Murray valley 4354 0.44 10. Coastal Region** 2665 0.27 Adelaide 528 0.05 Total 981550 100.00 * The trench section only includes part of the river valley south of Mannum – omits section to Overland Corner. ** Most of the Coastal region included in other regions; area shown is in defined coastal Environment. Associations. Note: Figures calculated by GIS. The area shown is 2750 sq km smaller than South Australia’s official area of 984300 sq km. The difference amounts to only 0.28%.

However, as many as possible of the different types of landscapes needed to be The slide projector used carousels included in order that the ratings would containing 80 slides so it was decided that provide a reasonably comprehensive coverage of the South Australian landscapes. 265 9. Acquiring the Data

Table 9.8 South Australian Landscape Types slides was considered potentially too long and tiring for participants to rate in a single Region Landscape Type sitting. The experience of showing two Far north Extensive vegetated plains carousels proved satisfactory and Extensive grassland plains participants indicated that they did not find Extensive chenopod [i.e. the length tiring. saltbush] plains Spinifex plains Having determined that 160 slides would be Water bodies used, their selection aimed to represent as Creek beds many landscape regions and units and Gibber plains landscape types as possible. The 160 slides Salt lakes and claypans comprises 7.4% of the 2176 slides available. Dunes and swales

Hills and ridges Escarpments, mesas, Five slides of interstate landscape were breakaways, tablelands included with a view to a possible future Arid ranges national assessment of landscape quality. In Flinders Ranges Rugged ranges and mountains this event, having a comparison of the South [Northern Flinders Ranges] Australia scenes with interstate scenes Vegetated, rounded ranges would assist in benchmarking future [Southern Flinders Ranges] assessments. Creek beds Low ranges and hills Table 9.9 summarises the regional Plains with ranges background distribution of the slides selected for the Gorges rating sessions and Table 9.10 summarises Southern Extensive cereal/sheep country the landscape types they represent. agricultural region Arable plains with ranges Table 9.9 Regional Distribution of Rating background Slides Hills, low ranges and ridges Vineyards Region Slides % South Pine plantations Australia Pastoral arcadian landscapes slides Mallee vegetation Far north 27 17.4% Eucalyptus vegetation Flinders Ranges 18 11.6 Lakes Mt Lofty Ranges 25 16.1 Murray valley Deep trench Agricultural region 47 30.3 Shallow trench Murray valley 17 11.0 Dairy flats Coastal region 21 13.5 Lakes [Lakes Bonney, Total South Australia 155 100.0 Alexandrina, Albert] Slides Coorong Interstate 5 Mount Lofty High hills and ranges and deep Total Rating Slides 160 Ranges valleys Low hills and ranges and Many of the slides could be allocated to shallow valleys several landscape types [e.g.: scenes of Horticulture chenopods with background hills, or coastal Reservoirs scenes with beaches, cliffs, dunes and Coast Steep cliffs and headlands rocks]. The scenes are shown in Table 9.10 Sloping cliffs and headlands on the basis of their most dominant feature. Rocky coast

Beaches and dunes The issue of redundancy was examined by Beach and high hinterland including multiple slides of the cereal- Mangroves and salt marshes growing region. These would test the range Coastal vegetation of preferences for similar landscapes and

provide a test of the principle of equivalence. sessions would comprise viewing two The scenes of the agricultural region also carousels totalling 160 slides. These could included several sets of slides of the same be viewed in less than 30 minutes. One carousel of 80 slides was considered insufficient to cover the landscape regions and units, while a set of 3 carousels of 240 266 9. Acquiring the Data

Table 9.10 Landscape Types Represented by landscape taken in different seasons to test Rating Slides the effect of seasonal colour and lushness.

Region Landscape Type Slides Not all landscape regions and units and Far north Vegetated plains 3 landscape types could be covered Grassland plains 1 adequately. Under-represented compared to Chenopod [saltbush] 3 the area were the vast arid plains and dune plains fields, the salt lakes, the lower hills of the Spinifex plains 1 Flinders Ranges, agricultural areas of Water bodies 2 Kangaroo Island, and areas of mangroves. Creek beds 3

Stony plains 4 The presentation order of the slides Salt lakes & claypans 1 comprised two parts: ten representative Dunes & swales 2 Hills and ridges 1 slides at the beginning, and the remaining Escarpments, mesas, 3 150 slides randomised. breakaways, tablelands Arid ranges 3 The ten slides at the beginning of the rating Flinders Rugged ranges/mountains 7 session represented each of the six Ranges [Northern Flinders Ranges] landscape regions, several landscape types Vegetated, rounded 2 and an interstate scene. The far north region ranges [Southern Flinders was represented by three slides to represent Ranges] the variety of this extensive region. The ten Creek beds 1 slides were selected also to indicate the Low ranges and hills 5 range of landscape quality likely to be Plains, ranges background 1 encountered in the full set of 160 slides Gorges 2 ranging from flat bare gibber through to the Agricultu Extensive cereal/sheep 27 rugged Flinders Ranges and Musgrave ral country Ranges, the coast, the River Murray, the region agricultural region and the Mt Lofty Ranges. Arable plains, ranges 2 background Hills, low ranges and 2 Showing this range at the outset was ridges designed to assist participants to set their Vineyards 7 criteria in rating slides. Some studies termed Pine plantations 2 these “training slides” [e.g. Simpson, et al, Pastoral “arcadian” l/s 2 1976]. Mallee vegetation 3 Eucalyptus vegetation 1 The remaining 150 slides were randomised Lakes 1 to ensure that no bias was present in the Murray Deep trench 9 order of their presentation. While random valley number tables or other means could have Shallow trench 2 been used for the randomisation, a physical Dairy flats 1 randomisation method was used as follows: Lakes [Bonney, Ramco, 3 Alexandrina, Albert] The slides were placed face down in a box Coorong 2 that was tilted about to mix them, the slides Mt Lofty High hills, ranges, deep 5 were selected randomly, placed in 8 Ranges valleys separate piles which were subsequently Low hills, ranges, shallow 15 split. The final selection was randomly from valleys each of 8 piles and the slides placed in the Horticulture 4 Reservoirs 1 two carousels. Coast Steep cliffs & headlands 3 Sloping cliffs & headlands 4 Appendix 9.3 lists the selected slides by Rocky coast 3 region and Appendix 9.4 describes each Beaches & dunes 5 slide in the sequence they occurred in the Beach & high hinterland 3 rating session. Mangroves/salt marshes 2 Coastal vegetation 1

267 9. Acquiring the Data

arranged in four columns and numbered consecutively down each column from 1 to 9.4 DERIVATION OF DEPENDENT 160, with 40 in each column. The slide VARIABLES number was clearly marked, although the number of each slide was generally not In this section, the derivation of community- indicated during the session. The rating based preferences for the slides selected is scale [Figure 9.6] was displayed at the top of described. The section describes the rating the rating sheet with the following instrument used and the conduct of the instructions: rating sessions, the rating sessions held and the characteristics of the respondents who “Rate how much you like the scene shown in participated. the slide. Rate from low scenic quality to high scenic quality. Use the whole range in the (1) Rating Instrument scale.”

The participant information covered the data A review of rating scales in the literature summarised in Table 9.12. found they ranged from 5 to 10. Examples are shown in Table 9.11. Table 9.12 Participant Information Sought

Table 9.11 Examples of Rating Scales Characteristic Categories

Age 6

Gender 2 Reference Scales Education 6 Anderson & Schroeder, 1983 0 – 9 Arthur, 1977 0 – 9 Family income 6 Balling & Falk, 1982 1 – 10 Birthplace country open question Bergen et al, 1995 1 – 10 Grow up - city or country 3 Brown & Daniel, 1991 1 – 10 Familiarity with South Australia 6 regions Carls, 1974 1 – 5 3 categories Cook and Cable, 1995 0 – 9 Hammitt, Patterson & Noe, 1994 1 – 5 Table 9.13 Viewing Intervals for Slides Miller, 1984 1 – 5 Mosley, 1989 0 – 9 Reference Number of Slides & Shafer, Hamilton & Schmidt, 1969 1 – 5 Viewing time Strumse, 1994a & b, 1996 1 – 5 Abello & Bernaldez, 60 slides X 10 Vodak et al, 1985 1 – 10 1986 seconds Anderson, 1981 60 X 8, followed by 30 X 5 A 0 - 10 scale would provide 5 as the mid Anderson & Schroder, 60 X 8, 80 X 5 point but it was considered that the zero 1983 could be ambiguous to some participants as Balling & Falk, 1982 20 X 8 indicating the complete absence of Bergen, et al, 1995 21 X 10 landscape quality. A ten point rating scale [1 Cook & Cable, 1995 20 X 8, 40 X 6 -10] was selected which provides a choice of Daniel, et al, 1973 150 X 5 10 points. The mid point is between 5 and 6, Daniel, et al, 1978 100 X 8 which tends to force participants to choose Herzog, 1984 100 X 15 which side of the median they prefer [Figure Kaplan & Herbert, 60 X 10, 10 shown at 9.6]. 1987 beginning to provide range The rating instrument comprised a double- Lamb & Purcell, 1990 71 X 10 Mosley, 1989 80 X 13, 60 s break sided A4 size sheet [see Appendix 9.5]. The between blocks of 20 front page contained the rating table for 160 Purcell & Lamb, 1994 180 X 10 slides, while the reverse side contained Strumse, 1994a 60 X 10, 5 filler slides questions covering respondent at beginning and end characteristics The rating table was

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 very low moderate very high

Figure 9.6 Rating Scale

268 9. Acquiring the Data

Question 4 asked the family’s income to it was approximately level with the screen cover the situation where the spouse is not and distortion from an upward tilt of the working and therefore would indicate projector minimised. Chairs were arranged virtually nil income. Question 5 on the so that all participants could gain an country of birthplace was open-ended and uninterrupted view of the screen. participants wrote the name of the country. Question 6 asked whether the participant’s Rating sessions followed a standard pattern: formative period was spent in a rural or urban environment, or in both. Question 7 1. Participants took their seats and while sought to categorise the participant’s waiting for the session to commence familiarity with the various regions of South filled out the personal details on page 2 Australia, familiarity being a factor that tends of the rating sheet. to enhance preferences [see section 8.3(8)]. 2. When all participants were present, the The time interval for viewing each slide author introduced the session by reading commenced at 8 seconds. This was based the following instructions: on existing surveys, a summary of which is shown in Table 9.13. Introduction to photo rating session These intervals are summarised as follows: Thank you for coming today. Timing Number 5 seconds 1 Your participation is important because it will help me develop an understanding of what South 8 2 Australians like and dislike about the landscape 10 5 of the state. 13 1 8 s/5 s 2 I will be showing you a total of 160 slides. This 8 s/6 s 1 may sound a lot but we will do them in two lots of 80 each with a short break in between. You will In practice, it was found that 8 seconds was view each slide for 8 seconds so that all 160 can quite sufficient and, once participants had be seen in just over 20 minutes. In case you think become comfortable, the latter two-thirds of 8 seconds is not long, you will find it quite long enough. slides were generally shown at a slightly faster rate, gradually decreasing to a 6 I ask you to rate the scenic attractiveness of each second interval. scene on a rating scale of 1 to 10, with 1 being very low and 10 being very high. I ask that you try (2) Instructions to Participants and use the entire range, don’t sit in the middle. Also think of yourself standing in the scene and The literature was reviewed to assist in asking yourself, how much do I like this scene. I framing instructions for participants in the don’t want you to rate the quality of the slide rating sessions. Table 9.14 photograph of the scene but rather the scene itself. summarises the literature. Two further things. Firstly I ask that you rate the Based on these an introduction to the scene on what you think about it, not on what you session was derived [see (3) below]. think others would prefer or what they should prefer. Secondly, if you have training and (3) Slide Rating Sessions knowledge in the life sciences - botany, biology or in land management, I ask that you put this aside. The setting for the slide ratings sessions I’m looking for rating of scenic quality, not on the was standardised as far as possible. A extent of overgrazing or degradation or in terms of ecological significance. Rollei P 37E slide projector with carousel was used throughout all sessions. This I’ll start by showing you 10 slides which will show projector had a 2.6 metre extension cord to the various regions of South Australia and will change the slides and this enabled the indicate the range of scenic quality you will see. operator to sit at a distance from the projector. The projector was normally placed Before I do this, are there any questions? so that the slide filled the width of the screen, generally at least 1.8 metres wide. The projector was placed on a stand so that

269 9. Acquiring the Data

Table 9.14 Summary of Surveys on Instructions to Participants

Reference Summary of Instructions to participants Anderson, 1981 Assign value between 0 and 9 on basis of personal evaluation of scenic attractiveness Arthur, 1977 Assign a number from rating response scale for 0 to 9 Bergen, et al, 1995 Use full scale in ratings. Preview scenes to familiarise viewers with variation in types and to establish their rating criteria Brown & Daniel, Assign 1 rating per scene and use full range of scale 1987 Brown, et al, 1988 Rate areas represented by photos, not the photos themselves Brown & Daniel, Informed participants that study was to better understand how people perceive scenic 1991 beauty. 20 preview scenes to give full range of scene types & enable them to adjust rating scale. Brush, 1979 View slides in terms of attractiveness as place to be in, not as picture or work of art. Buhyoff et al, 1978 Judge on their own preference, not on what they thought others would prefer of what they should prefer. Judge total landscape, not parts. Cook & Cable, Purpose of survey described. Rate from low to high scenic beauty. Asked for information on 1995 visits outside region Hull, et al, 1984, Asked to judge landscape scenic beauty. Hull & Revell, 1989 Miller, 1984 Asked to use full range. First 10 slides shown quickly. Mosley, 1989 Asked to rank each scene for scenic attractiveness Nassauer & Rate photos from least to most attractive Benner, 1984 Patsfall, et al, 1984 Rate each scene according to its scenic beauty, defined simply as the “overall scenic quality of the landscape, its general beauty.” Purcell & Lamb, Described aim of study and reasons for use of case study. Importance of people’s 1984 perceptions of scenic quality in planning described. Reasons for using slides rather than in- situ judgements discussed and outline of slide selection procedure given. Idea that variation in scenic quality discussed and slide selection procedure outlined. Procedure for assigning numbers to indicate scenic quality explained. Explained that 10 represents highest quality scenery and 0 means absence of any scenic quality. Purcell, 1987 and Purcell & Lamb, 1994 had similarly comprehensive explanations. Ruddell, et al, 1989 Asked to rate from very low to very high in scenic quality. Asked to rate the scenic beauty of the slide, not their evaluation of its technical quality. Ten warm up slides shown to establish comparative standard. Schomaker, 1978 Asked to evaluate each slide and assign numerical value to scene. Simpson, et al, 1976 Asked to rate from very disapproving to very approving. Training slides shown first.

3. The session commenced while the Seventeen slide-rating sessions were held author silently timed 8 seconds for each as summarised in Table 9.15. The slide. The first 10 slides were shown participants can be allocated to the following through quickly and then repeated for three categories: rating purposes. At the end of the first 40 slides, participants moved to the top of Type Number % the second rating column and the Community 49 15.4 number of that slide was called out to Professional 99 31.0 ensure everyone was at the same point. Students 171 53.6 Total 319 100.0 4. After 80 slides, a pause was taken to change the carousel and, after an Arrangements were made with for interval of about one minute, the session Adelaide’s The Advertiser newspaper to resumed. At the end of the 160 slides the include in their outdoor section of 4 session concluded, the sheets were December, 1998 an invitation to participate collected, and the participants thanked. in public sessions to rate landscape quality. The session took about 30 minutes from This was followed up by a ten-minute the time of filling out the participant interview with Philip Satchell on 5AN at 3 pm information sheet to the end of the rating on 4 December about the project and an session. invitation for listeners to participate in sessions that were held. The 270 9. Acquiring the Data

Table 9.15 Slide Rating Sessions

No. Date Participants Location Source of participants 1. 23/11/98 #1 - 3 Home Family 2. 26/11/98 #4 - 23 8th Fl, 77 Grenfell St Mainly EPA/EPD, DEH 3. 30/11/98 #24 - 48 9th Fl, 91 Grenfell St Mainly EPA/EPD, DEH 4. 3/12/98 #49 - 60 Netley offices Resource Info Group, DEH 5. 4/12/98 #61 - 62 Kensington offices Heritage & Biodiversity, DEH 6. 5/12/98 #63 - 64 10 Pultney St Public 7. 8/12/98 #65 - 84 187 Rundle St Environment Institute of Australia [SA Division] 8. 9/12/98 #85 - 92 North Tce Planning South Australia 9. 14/12/98 #93 - 97 Kensington offices Heritage & Biodiversity, DEH 10. 14/12/98 #98 - 123 Magill campus Summer school of environment. 11. 15/2/99 #124 - 129 University of Adelaide Lecturers & supervisors 12. 18/2/99 #130 - 158 Pt Adelaide TAFE 3rd yr, environmental management students 13. 18/2/99 #159 - 177 Pt Adelaide TAFE 1st yr, environmental management students 14. 10/3/99 #178 - 180 University of Adelaide 5th year landscape architecture students 15. 17/3/99 #181 - 215 South Terrace General meeting of Adelaide Bushwalkers Club 16. 24/3/99 #216 - 309 Flinders University 1st year environmental management students 17. 12/4/99 #310 - 319 Tea Tree Gully Friends of Angove Park

Assessment of South Australia’s landscape quality As part of my research into the assessment of landscape quality in South Australia I am holding a session at lunchtime, [date] to carry out a rating of landscape slides.

I need a large group of people to rate the slides on a 1 - 10 scale on the basis of their scenic beauty. No experience or qualifications is required and the survey will play an important part in developing the means for measuring landscape quality.

If you would like to take part please come along. Bring a clipboard and a pen. Please email/phone me to let me know. Details are:

[time and date] [location] Bring clipboard and pen

If you are unable to attend the … [date] session but would be like to assist, I may hold a further session. Please email/phone me if you would like to be notified.

public sessions were held in an easily of Environment and Heritage following accessible location in the city of Adelaide on emailed messages throughout the Pultney St [just north of the Target shop] at Department. The email message was sent 7.30 pm, Friday evening and at 11 am and 2 to staff in the Environment Protection pm on Saturday. Signs indicated the location Agency and Environment Policy Division of the ground floor lecture room in which the and subsequently to the Heritage and sessions were held. Biodiversity Branch at Kensington.

Unfortunately despite this publicity only two The message followed a more extensive persons arrived, both at the final session. It message sent several months previously was apparent therefore that the publicity about the project and which invited was insufficient, the timing was participation in a series of rating sessions. inconvenient, or that the community was not Reminder emails were sent when a second interested. session was held. The message was sent to 888 people throughout DEH and 68 [7.7%] Participation in sessions 2 to 5 and 9 were responded positively. held in conference rooms of the Department 271 9. Acquiring the Data

The relatively low participation rates [Table respondents split or halved a total of 201 9.16] have implications for the slide ratings - this represents 0.39% of the characteristics of the participants. Although total. Ten of these respondents were in the the email messages emphasised that no Flinders University sample. experience or qualifications were required, the project failed to attract participation by In ten cases, only 1, 2 or 3 slides were split staff that lacked technical qualifications or in this way. One individual split 65 of the expertise. Holding the sessions during slides, 40% of the total. The remaining six lunchtime may have affected participation. respondents split 8, 12, 18, 22, 27, and 39 The non-participation issue is examined slides, respectively. further in the analysis of results. In all of these cases, the rating was taken Table 9.16 Participation rates in rating down to the next integer [e.g. 5.5 became 5]. sessions While it could be argued that some accuracy was lost by this decision, it was considered Location Total Total % that, unless all respondents were given the possible participants opportunity of splitting ratings, every split EPA/EPD +others 243 19 7.8 rating was an aberration. EPA/EPD +others 243 25 10.3 RIG, Netley 110 12 10.9 (2) Zero Ratings Kensington 129 7 5.4 Planning SA 163 5 4.9 Seven respondents used zero ratings Total 888 68 7.7% instead of one for the lowest rating of slides. This was despite the verbal instructions Several sessions were held with students at reinforced by the 1 - 10 scale at the top of tertiary institutions. These provided a more the rating sheet. Three respondents used efficient means of obtaining a large number zero for only one slide, one used it for two of respondents at a single session. These slides, another for four slides and another sessions were often followed by a brief for six slides. One respondent rated 22 description of the research project and some slides as zero. of the earlier results. Minimal information was provided beforehand, other than the standard introductory material to avoid 9.6 CHARACTERISTICS OF influencing participants. PARTICIPANTS

In the largest rating session [Flinders Participants completed details about University] slide #1 was misplaced and themselves to enable comparison of the could not be used. As this session involved sample with the South Australian community 94 participants, the omission meant that the as a means for assessing their responses to slide #1 totalled 225 instead of representativeness. The data would also 319. enable relationships between preferences

and participants to be identified. The

questions covered age, gender, education, 9.5 DEFICIENCIES IN RESPONSES income, childhood residence and familiarity

with regions of South Australia. Some In tabulating the responses of participants, respondents failed to answer all questions several deficiencies were detected. These the question with the most missing values were the use of split ratings and half ratings, was about income, which was not answered and the use of zero as the base point. by 25 respondents.

(1) Split Ratings and Half Ratings As noted in Chapter 8, 63% of the 227 surveys examined sought no data on The instructions given at the outset were participant characteristics. Of those that did, explicit in asking respondents to rate the the most frequently sought information slides on a 1 - 10 scale and this was covering age, gender, education, reinforced by the reproduction of the scale at employment, socio-economic status, and the top of the rating sheet. Despite this, a childhood residence. number of respondents divided their ratings and gave either a half rating [e.g. 5½] or a split rating [e.g. 5 - 6]. Seventeen 272 9. Acquiring the Data

Data were obtained from the Australian 30 Respondents Bureau of Statistics on the characteristics of South Australia the South Australian community. 25

(1) Age 20

% 15 Table 9.17 and Figure 9.5 summarise the age characteristics of participants and 10 compares these with the South Australian 5 community. While the sample of respondents had a lower cut-off point of 16 0 years, there was no upper limit set although 0 >6

very few aged more than 70 years 16-20 21-30 31-40 41-50 51-60 participated in the survey. Therefore the Age cohorts percentages for the South Australian community have been calculated for the 16 - Figure 9.7 Ages of Participants 70 age span. Although the categories of age cohorts did not match exactly, the difference Gender of Participants is considered slight. The gender of the participants is slightly Table 9.17 Age of Participants weighted to males compared with the community but the difference is not Participant South Australian considered significant [Table 9.18]. Characteristics Community Age Groups % Age Groups % Table 9.18 Gender of Participants 16 - 20 25.4 15 - 19 9.5 21 - 30 21.9 20 - 29 20.7 Gender Participants Community 31 - 40 12.5 30 - 39 22.7 Males 55.1% 49.6% 41 - 50 19.1 40 - 49 20.8 Females 44.9 50.4 51 - 60 15.0 50 - 59 14.7 Note: 3 missing values 61 - 70 6.0 61 - 70 12.0 Total 100.0 100.0 Educational Levels of Participants Note: 1996 Census data used for South

Australian community A six level classification of education was Students were asked to indicate their age if used and this yielded the results indicated in less than 20. While not all did so, the Table 9.19. following indicates the ages of those who provided this information [about 70% of the Table 9.19 Educational levels of participants cohort]: Education %

Below year 10 0.3 Age Number Year 10 6.3 16 1 Year 12 41.2 17 14 Technical/trade qualification 10.7 18 24 Degree or diploma 21.7 19 19 Post graduate degree or diploma 19.8 Total 100.0 The respondent sample closely paralleled Note: 1 missing value the community age profile in three of the six cohorts but differed in the other three. The The ABS uses a far more complex form of large number of students in the sample classification, involving nine levels. Table resulted in the youngest cohort, 15 - 20 9.20 summarises the approximate years, being over-represented over two-fold equivalents of the community for the survey. compared with the community. At the other end of the scale, there are many more people in the community greater than 60 years old than were represented in the sample. The sample also somewhat under- represented the 30 - 40 age group.

273 9. Acquiring the Data

Table 9.20 Educational levels of community approximation is shown. Although the ABS data were for 1996, it is unlikely that the Education % proportions would have changed No qualifications/inadequate 75.1 significantly. description Basic vocational/skilled vocational 13.3 Bearing in mind the questionable reliability Assoc diploma/undergrad 10.0 of the participant data on income, the figures diploma/degree suggest that the sample enjoyed much Post graduate degree or diploma 1.6 higher incomes than the community. The Total 100.0 proportion in the lowest income category

was less than half that of the community, Overall the participants were far more highly while the proportion in the highest category educated than the community at large [e.g. was nearly three-fold the community nearly 20% held postgraduate qualifications, representation. compared with 1.6% in the community].

Although participation in the survey required Country of Birth no qualifications or experience, and this was emphasised in the publicity, relatively few Table 9.22 summarises the birthplace of the people without qualifications appeared participants and compares them with the willing to participate. community. The participants parallel fairly

closely the South Australian community’s Family Income birthplace characteristics.

This question was the least satisfactory of Table 9.22 Birthplace of Participants the participant information questions as the question was labelled “Family Income”. This Birthplace Participants Community terminology was used to cover the situation Australia 80.5% 76.1% where an unemployed person may have a New Zealand 1.3 0.8 partner earning an income, and also to Europe [incl. UK] 13.2 18.0 cover full-time students to reflect their Other 4.9 3.6 parent’s income. Without this provision Note: 11 missing values these respondents would be listed as having no income. Some respondents probably The respondents from Europe were drawn considered only their own income while mainly from the UK, but also included others may have considered their family Poland, Denmark, Sweden and Germany. income. A further problem is that many The ‘Other’ category covered United States students would probably not know their [5] and Canada [2], Asia [Japan, South parent’s income - the same problem may Korea, Indonesia], South Africa, Maldives, occur regarding the income of one’s partner. Nauru and Papua New Guinea.

Table 9.21 Income Comparison Childhood residence

Income Participants South Australians Table 9.23 summarises the location of the < $20,000 16.3% 37.4% childhood residence of participants. No $20 - 30,000 13.3 26.4 equivalent data are available covering the $30 - 40,000 17.0 21.4 community. $40 - 50,000 13.9 } } $50 - 60,000 10.9 } 53.4 } 18.7 Table 9.23 Childhood Residence > $60,000 28.6 } } Total 100.0 100.0 Childhood Residence* % Source: ABS, Weekly earnings, South Australia, In the country 24.8 Aug 1997 In a city 57.4 Note: 25 missing values in participant’s incomes Both 17.9 Total 100.0 Table 9.21 compares the responses of * Question: “Where did you grow up [0 – 10 years]?” participants with the wages and salaries of South Australians. Given that 73% of South Australian live in Adelaide, these results suggest that a The weekly earnings data of the ABS do not slightly greater proportion of the survey correspond exactly with the annual income participants resided in the country - at least question of the survey, but the best during their childhood. 274 9. Acquiring the Data

Allocating two points for “very familiar” and one point for “somewhat familiar” and zero Familiarity with South Australia for nil familiarity yields the results shown in Table 9.25. Participants were asked to rate their familiarity with six regions of South Australia The scoring indicates that the coast and the and the results are summarised by Table Mt Lofty Ranges are the regions with which 9.24 and Figure 9.8. participants were most familiar. The Flinders Ranges and agricultural region were of Table 9.24 Familiarity with South Australian comparable familiarity. Participants indicated Regions a relatively low familiarity with the River Murray and the Far North regions. Familiarity Region Very Somewhat Nil Table 9.25 Scoring of Regional Familiarity Far north 14.6 50.6 34.8 Flinders Ranges 27.0 52.7 20.4 Region Familiarity Score Agricultural 25.1 58.6 16.3 Coast 129 Mt Lofty Ranges 39.5 45.8 14.7 Mt Lofty Ranges 118 River Murray 19.4 66.1 14.4 Flinders Ranges 81 Coast 42.9 51.7 5.3 Agricultural region 75 Note: 3 missing values in the Far North category River Murray 58 Far North 43 A 3-point rating scale was used: very familiar, somewhat familiar, and not familiar. The rating is inherently subjective and provides only a general indication of familiarity. Nevertheless, it indicates that participants were most familiar with the Mt Lofty Ranges, followed by the coastal region. Participants were least familiar with the far north region and surprisingly the agricultural region was the next least familiar region.

70 Very familiar Somewhat familiar 60 Not familiar 50

40 % 30

20

10

0 Agriculture Coast Mt Lofty R. River Murray Flinders R. Far North

Figure 9.8 Familiarity with South Australian Regions

281 10. Analysis of Preferences

CHAPTER TEN

ANALYSIS OF PREFERENCES

10.1 APPROACH TO ANALYSIS 50,946 data units. This data set excludes the data relating to respondent characteristics The analysis presented comprises two major which comprises a further 3,828 data units parts: [i.e. 319 by 12 characteristics of data].

In the first part, brief analyses are presented This section examines firstly the statistics covering: relating to the ratings of 160 scenes and the following section examines the statistics • the overall statistics of the data set relating to the 319 respondents. Appendix 10.1 summarises the means and standard • the groups of respondents deviations of each scene.

• the respondent characteristics such as age, (1) Responses to Scenes gender, education, income etc. It also examines the influence that familiarity with the South Australian landscape has on The mean of responses to the 160 scenes preferences was 5.88 with a standard deviation of 0.92 that indicates a quite tight distribution. Table • the preference ratings of scenes are 10.1 summarises the key statistics for the examined on a regional basis, assessing the distribution of responses to the scenes. overall ratings of landscapes at the level of the landscape region and landscape unit. Table 10.1 Key Statistics of 160 Slide Ratings

In the second more extensive part, detailed Statistic Value analyses are presented covering the Mean 5.8806 preferences related to landscape types or SE of Mean 5.163E-02 the content of scenes. This covers the Median 5.94 influence of following attributes on Mode 5.93 preferences: SD 0.92 Variance 0.85 • land form Skew -0.15 • land cover Kurtosis 0.44 • land use Range 5.83 • presence of water Minimum 2.67 • diversity Maximum 8.50 • naturalism Percentiles • cloudiness 25 5.32 • colour 50 5.94 75 6.47 Finally a comprehensive summary and discussion of the findings is presented. Omitting the five interstate scenes, the mean of South Australian scenes is 5.83 and standard deviation of 0.93. These are the ANALYSIS OF PREFERENCES PART A figures that will be used in the analysis of landscape types in the second part that 10.2 OVERALL STATISTICS focuses on the South Australian landscape. However in this first part the statistics for the In this section the overall statistics of the entire set of 160 scenes are described. responses to the scenes are presented. Figure 10.1 shows the distribution of means The data set comprises 319 respondents for the responses to scenes. and 160 scenes, a total possible of 51,040 data units. However because the first slide The standard deviation of 0.92 indicates was omitted from the assessment by the 94 that, assuming the distribution is normal; students at the Flinders University, there are • +/- 1 SD covers 68% of observations: 282 10. Analysis of Preferences

4.98 to 6.80 10 • +/- 2 SDs covers 95.5% of observations: 4.04 to 7.72 9 • +/- 3 SDs covers 99.7% of observations: 8 3.12 to 8.64 7 Thus over 95% of responses lie between the 6 ratings of 4 and 8.

Mean 5

4 40 3 2 30 1 0.5 1.5 2.5 3.5 4.5 20

equency Standard deviation Fr

10 Figure 10.2 Means vs Standard Deviations of Slide Ratings 0 1. 1. 2 3 3 4 5. 5. 6. 7. 7. 8 9 9 1 8 .5 .1 .8 .5 2 8 5 2 9 .5 .2 .9 QQ plots were used to examine the Mean normality of the distribution using. Figure 10.3 shows a QQ plot for the means of the Figure 10.1 Distribution of Means of 160 Slide ratings of 160 scenes that indicate that the Ratings distribution is normal. The median of the 1 - 10 rating scale is 5.5 so the mean of 5.8806 is slightly above this 3 point. The distribution of means has a slight negative skew [-0.15] towards the higher 2 values. The 5% trimmed mean is 5.8843, very near to the mean and thus indicating 1 rmal

that any outliers do not greatly alter the o mean. The mean therefore provides a good 0 measure of the distribution. The interquartile -1 range is 1.13 and covers 50% of the Expected N distribution between the 25 and 75 percentiles. -2

-3 Figure 10.2 plots the means against the 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 standard deviations. This indicates a very Observed Value weak relationship, y = -0.43x + 6.76, r2 = 0.05, between the mean and standard deviations. Interestingly the distribution Figure 10.3 QQ Plot of Means of Scenes suggests that as the quality of a scene is perceived to increase, so the standard The normality of the distribution is further deviation [or variance] decreases. Variance examined by the stem and leaf plot of Figure would normally be expected to increase with 10.4. This indicates a high degree of ratings, i.e. higher the rating, the higher the symmetry in the distribution of ratings. SD. The trend is thus opposite of that expected. This indicates that respondents Figure 10.5 summarises the distribution of rate scenes of high quality slightly more scenes arranged in ascending order. Overall consistently than scenes of lower quality. A the distribution has a slight ‘s’ curve, curving similar occurrence was found by Lamb and down at the lower ratings and arcing up Purcell, 1990 for respondents assessing slightly at the top ratings. This suggests a naturalness of scenes, and by Williamson tendency to place a slightly more extreme and Chalmers, 1982. It suggests that the value on scenes of low or high quality. The judgement of what a community prefer is simplest line of best fit, a simple linear trend more homogeneous than what it dislikes.

283 10. Analysis of Preferences

4.00 Extremes (=<3.6) 4.00 3 . 6889 17.00 4 . 00012333444444444 28.00 4 . 5555566666677777888888999999 47.00 5 . 00001111111122222222222222333333333333344444444 72.00 5 . 555555555555555666666666666777777777777777788888888999999999999999999999 72.00 6 . 000000000000001111111111122222222222222333333333333333344444444444444444 46.00 6 . 5555555555555555666666666677777788888889999999 18.00 7 . 000011122333334444 7.00 7 . 6678999 1.00 8 . 0 3.00 Extremes (>=8.3)

Stem width: 1.00 Each leaf: 1 case

Figure 10.4 Stem and Leaf Plot of Means of Scenes

10 Table 10.2 Key Statistics of 319 Respondents’ 9 Ratings 8 s g 7 Statistic Value n 6 Mean 5.88

rati 5 SE of Mean 0.119 4 Median 5.69 Mean 3 Mode 4.43 2 SD 1.42 1 Variance 2.00 0 160 Slides in Ascending Order Skew 0.11 Kurtosis -0.635 Range 6.48 Figure 10.5 Ratings of Scenes Arranged in Minimum 2.40 Ascending Order Maximum 8.88 Percentiles 80 2 line , has the equation: y = 0.03x + 3.45, r 25 4.81 = 0.98. This line is shown as the black line 50 5.69 on Figure 10.5 and provides a good 75 6.96 approximation with the exception of the lowest and highest rated scenes. The The mean is identical to that of the ratings of equation indicates that, arranged in scenes [5.8806] that is to be expected, but ascending order of means, the scenes most other parameters differ. Overall the increase on average by 0.03 for each scene, distribution has a greater spread than that of commencing at a base of 3.45. Thus the 50th the scenes and this is reflected by the larger rated scene has a score of 4.95. standard deviation [1.42 here cf 0.92] and range [6.48 cf 5.83]. The 5% trimmed mean (2) Ratings of Respondents is 5.8783 that is similar to the mean and indicates the absence of any significant The previous set of statistics described the outliers that may affect the validity of the ratings for the 160 scenes and examined the mean. The interquartile range of means is extent of variation in the ratings of scenes. 2.15 which is nearly double that of the In this section the ratings of the 319 scenes [1.13], reflecting the greater spread respondents are described. It examines the of the distribution. extent of variation between respondents, the degree to which they differ in their rating of The distribution of respondents’ mean the scenes. Table 10.2 summarises the key ratings [Figure 10.6] indicates a series of statistics for the 319 respondents’ ratings. high points and a positive skewness towards the lower ratings. The QQ plot for the 80. The two-order polynomial line of best fit has distribution of respondent means [Figures the equation: y = 4E-05x2 + 0.02x + 3.61; r2 = 10.7] indicates a high level of normality, 0.98. The r2 is virtually identical to the straight while the stem and leaf plot [Figure 10.8] line and the added complexity of the formula indicates a fairly symmetrical distribution, is not considered warranted. 284 10. Analysis of Preferences though as for the histogram, it has a The curve is very similar to the former curve depression in the middle. and the equation for the line of best fit81 is similar: y = 0.01x + 4.33, r2 = 0.93.

20

9 15 7

10 5 equency

Fr 3 Mean rating

5 1 1 320 Respondents' Ratings in Ascending 0 Order 1 1. 2. 3. 3. 4. 5. 5. 6. 7 7 8 9 9. .2 8 5 2 8 5 2 8 5 .2 .8 .5 .2 8

Mean Figure 10.9 Ratings of Respondents Arranged Figure 10.6 Distribution of Mean Ratings of in Ascending Order Respondents A z score transformation82. of the respondent 3 ratings of scenes was undertaken. The effect of this is to remove linear differences 2 which occur between respondents, for

1 example their starting points [i.e. lowest rating] may differ and some may use the 0 entire range so their intervals between ted Normal ratings are larger while others are more pec -1 Ex restricted [Brown & Daniel, 1990].

-2 20

-3 2 4 6 8 10

15 Observed Value

Figure 10.7 QQ Plot of Respondents’ Means 10

Frequency Stem & Leaf 5 1.00 2 . 4 1.00 2 . 8 0 4.00 3 . 1223 -1 -1 -1 -1 -. -. -. 0. .2 .5 .7 1. 1. 1. 7 5 2 .7 .5 .2 .0 5 0 5 00 5 0 5 00 25 50 6.00 3 . 566799 5 0 5 0

15.00 4 . 011111233334444 Z Scores 21.00 4 . 556666777777788999999 27.00 5 001111111123333333444444444 13.00 5 . 5555677789999 Figure 10.10 Distribution of Z scores for 17.00 6 . 00011111113333344 Respondents 18.00 6 . 556666667788889999 11.00 7 . 00002233444 The distribution as shown in Figure 10.10 is 12.00 7 . 555556668899 very similar to the conventional distribution 9.00 8 . 011122234 [Figure 10.1]. The mean of the respondents’ 5.00 8 . 56778 distribution is of course zero and the standard deviation of 0.52. The range of z Stem width: 1.00 scores is from -1.85 to 1.48. The Each leaf: 1 case(s) respondents displaying the extreme values

[Figure 10.10] had directly opposite Figure 10.8 Stem and Leaf Plot Respondents’ Means 81. The two order polynomial is: y=-5E-06x2 + Figure 10.9 shows the distribution of ratings 0.01x + 4.2; r2 = 0.93 by respondents arranged in ascending 82. Z scores show the distance from the mean in order, similar to Figure 10.5 of slide ratings. standard deviation units. Thus a z score of 1.50 is 1.5 SDs from the mean. 285 10. Analysis of Preferences responses to the same set of scenes. The Table 10.3 Correlations between Respondents respondent with a z score of -1.85 rated the scenic quality as 1 in 54 of the scenes, Resp 1 2 3 4 … 318 319 however the respondent with the z score of 1 1.00 0.68 0.75 0.70 1.48 gave the highest rating of 10 to 39 2 1.00 0.67 0.55 scenes. By far the majority of respondents 3 1.00 0.59 however, followed the instructions to use the 4 1.00 entire range of the rating scale and the 5 overall distribution assumes a classical bell 6 shape. 7 … Consideration was given to using z scores 318 1.00 0.62 319 as the unit for analysis. While the z scores 1.00 deals with linear differences, the raw data has the distinct advantage that it reflects the 100 original rating scale and the results will thus be in units which will be more readily 80 interpretable and understandable. Z scores are particularly useful for small samples but y 60 with over 300 respondents and a distribution which has been shown to be close to Frequenc 40 normal, z scores offer no advantage. 20 (3) Correlations between Respondents 0 .0 .0 .1 .2 .2 .3 .4 .4 .5 .6 The correlations [r] between respondents 2 8 5 1 8 4 1 7 4 0 provide a measure of respondent Pearson Correlations consistency in rating the scenes. The correlations assess the level of agreement Figure 10.11 Histogram of Correlations between respondents. Where there is a high level of agreement, i.e. the scene is rated The average correlation for each respondent equally by respondents, then the correlation was determined from each row [or column]. approaches 1.00. Low levels of agreement These provide an overall assessment of the yield figures that approach zero. Statisticians degree of agreement for each respondent 2 prefer to use r as the basis, thus a with other respondents. It is not to be correlation of 0.7 indicates 0.49 level of expected that this would approach 1.00 as it agreement. Table 10.3 illustrates a section would be extremely unlikely that all of the correlations and Figure 10.11 respondents would be in agreement over all illustrates the distribution. of the scenes. The correlations also enable the identification of respondents whose With 319 respondents the total possible ratings differ considerably from all others. correlations exceed 100,000. The SPSS program is limited to 100 variables [i.e. respondents] so the correlations were performed in batches of less than 100. Overlaps between the batches enabled a check of the consistency of the results between them and they were found to be identical83..

83. For example batch one covered respondents 90 - 189 while batch 2 covered 180 - 265, thus with an overlap of 180 - 189. The results for 180 - 189 are as follows: Correlations Resp. 90 - 189 180 - 265 185 .65 .65 180 1.00 1.00 186 .53 .53 181 .57 .57 187 .65 .65 182 .58 .58 188 .59 .59 183 .53 .53 189 .52 .52 184 .67 .67 286 10. Analysis of Preferences

0.70

0.60

0.50

elations 0.40 r

0.30 son Cor 0.20 Pear

0.10

0.00 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 Respondents

Figure 10.12 Distribution of Correlations between Respondent Ratings

Table 10.4 Respondents with Low Correlations

Category Respondent Correlation Group Characteristics* 0.2 - 0.299 238 .27 Flinders Uni Australia, M, 18 165 .27 Pt Adelaide TAFE England, F, 21-30 247 .26 Flinders Uni Australia, M, 51-60 163 .23 Pt Adelaide TAFE Australia, F, 41-50 100 .20 Uni SA Magill Japan, M, 21-30 259 .20 Flinders Uni Australia, M, 31-40 0.1 - 0.199 287 .19 Flinders Uni Australia, M, 18 154 .17 Pt Adelaide TAFE Australia, F, 21-30 309 .17 Flinders Uni UK, M, 41-50 267 .14 Flinders Uni Australia, M, 19 0 - 0.99 159 .08 Pt Adelaide TAFE Australia, M, 18 281 .06 Flinders Uni Australia, M, 19 63 .00 Public invitation Australia, F, >60 * Respondent birthplace, gender, age group

Figure 10.12 provides a visual indication of 319 respondents. The difference is not the distribution of Pearson correlations significant [χ2= 0.5, df 1, p = 0.5]. Five of the between the ratings of the respondents. respondents are males in their late teens, Figure 10.12 provides a histogram of the 38.5% of the sample compared with 25% in distributions. All correlations are significant the entire respondent population. Again the at 0.01 level (2 tailed). The mean correlation difference is not significant [χ2= 1.33, df 1, p [r] was 0.49 that indicates that the = 0.25]. respondents were in agreement with about a 2 quarter [i.e. r = 0.24] of the scenes. The sole non-student respondent had a correlation of zero. Inspection of her rating The distribution identified several form indicated that she omitted scenes 2, 3 respondents with low correlations. Those and 8. It is possible that her ratings were with correlations less than 0.3 totalled assigned to different scenes, however thirteen as summarised in Table 10.4 comparison of her ratings with other together with the groups they were in and respondents, including examination of their individual characteristics. adjacent ratings to see if they indicated misplacement, did not indicate this. It was Notably all but one of the respondents with therefore included in the sample. low correlations were from the student populations. These include only three who Consideration was given to deleting the were born overseas which is 23% of the twelve student respondents with low sample compared with 18% for the entire correlations. This was rejected because 287 10. Analysis of Preferences

firstly, they amount to less than 4% of the overall average was 0.49 that indicates that total respondents and so their influence is respondents were in agreement with about minimal, and secondly and more quarter of the scenes. Thirteen respondents importantly, they represent a segment of the had low correlations [<0.3] and all but one of population whose landscape preferences these were students including several who differ markedly from that of the general were overseas born and several in their late population. This may be a function of their teens. Neither attribute was found to be age and it seems important that their significant. opinions should not be excluded.

(4) Overall Statistics - Summary 10.3 GROUP STATISTICS

The distribution of responses to the scenes (1) Aggregation of Groups has a mean of 5.88, slightly above the scale’s median [5.5] and a standard The slides were shown to a total of deviation of 0.92 that suggests a tight seventeen groups, ranging in size from two distribution. Over 95% of the responses to 94. The group participants were allocated occur between the ratings of 4 and 8. The into nine major groups as indicated by Table distribution of respondent’s ratings is 10.5. The nine consolidated groups used for somewhat more widely spread, with a SD of analysis are summarised by Table 10.6. It is 1.42. Both distributions exhibit normality. recognised that groups 2 and 4 are small but Correlations between respondents provide a neither group can be easily combined with measure of respondent consistency. The

Table 10.5 Consolidation of Respondent Groups

Group Participants Number Original Group Consolidated Group 1. 1 1 Home [author] DEHAA 2. 4 - 23 20 DEHAA [EPA/EPD] DEHAA 3. 24 - 48 25 DEHAA [EPA/EPD] DEHAA 4. 49 - 60 12 DEHAA [Netley] DEHAA 5. 61 - 62 2 DEHAA [Kensington] DEHAA 9. 93 - 97 5 DEHAA [Kensington] DEHAA 8. 85 - 92 8 Planning SA Planning SA 7. 65 - 84 20 Env. Inst. of Australia Env. Institute of Australia 11. 124 - 129 6 Uni of Adelaide Lecturers Uni of Adelaide Lecturers 1. 2, 3 2 Home [family] Public 6. 63, 64 2 Public invitation Public 17. 310 - 319 10 Friends of Angove Park Public 15. 181 - 215 35 Adelaide Bushwalkers Club ABW 12. 130 - 158 29 Pt Adelaide TAFE Pt Adelaide TAFE 13. 159 - 177 19 Pt Adelaide TAFE Pt Adelaide TAFE 10. 98 - 123 26 Uni SA Magill campus Uni SA & Uni Adelaide 14. 178 - 180 3 Uni Adelaide l/s arch students Uni SA & Uni Adelaide 16. 216 - 309 94 Flinders University students Flinders University students Acronyms ABW Adelaide Bushwalkers Club DEHAA Department of Environment, Heritage and Aboriginal Affairs EPA Environment Protection Agency EPD Environment Policy Division TAFE Technical and Further Education Table 10.6 Groups of Respondents for Analysis Number Group Respondents 1 Department of Environment, Heritage & Aboriginal Affairs 65 2 Planning South Australia 8 3 Environment Institute of Australia (South Australian Division) 20 4 University of Adelaide lecturers 6 5 Public 14 6 Adelaide Bushwalkers Club 35 7 Port Adelaide TAFE 48 8 Uni of South Australia (Magill) and Uni of Adelaide - landscape students 29 9 Flinders University students 94 Total 319 288 10. Analysis of Preferences

Table 10.7 Key Statistics of Respondent Groups Group Mean 5% SE of Median Standard Minimum Maximum Inter- trimmed mean Deviation quartile mean range 1 5.97 5.95 0.11 5.97 0.96 3.96 8.50 1.14 2 6.28 6.29 0.31 6.54 0.86 4.94 7.44 1.52 3 5.85 5.84 0.18 5.70 0.80 4.46 8.07 0.58 4 5.69 5.68 0.30 5.67 0.73 4.92 6.58 1.28 5 6.13 6.08 0.20 5.96 0.75 5.18 7.94 0.83 6 5.03 5.04 0.16 5.28 0.95 3.31 6.47 1.83 7 6.07 6.12 0.13 6.17 0.93 2.67 7.63 1.16 8 6.34 6.32 0.17 6.37 0.91 4.68 8.39 1.35 9 5.85 5.83 7.86E-02 5.81 0.76 4.44 8.31 0.99 another group as they comprise, The standard deviation varies from 0.73 to respectively, planning professionals and 0.96. This corresponds with the size of the university lecturers. The allocation of total ranges, a large standard deviation such respondent groups into these nine groups is as 0.96 yields a large range - in this case solely for the purposes of assessing their 4.54, whereas the range for a small SD of characteristics and differences [see next 0.73 is 1.66. section] and for the remainder of the analysis the 319 respondents are treated as The trimmed means differ only slightly from a single group. the normal means, the average difference is 0.02. This suggests that outliers are not a (2) Characteristics of Groups problem and that accordingly there is no need to analyse the results with the extreme Table 10.7 summarises the key statistics for values omitted. these nine groups. These statistics indicate generally a close similarity between The boxplot84. [Figure 10.14] shows the seemingly diverse groups. Apart from group group distributions and the relationship 6 [Adelaide Bushwalkers Club], the means between the groups. Apart from group 6 range over only two-thirds of a rating unit [Adelaide Bushwalkers Club], the medians [i.e. 0.65]. The groups with the highest lie across a range of 0.87 while the ABW average ratings were the University South group lies somewhat lower. The boxes vary Australia [Magill] students [Group 8] and from small for the groups 3 and 5 to large for Planning South Australia [Group 2]. group 6.

The ABW group [Group 6] is distinguished by its lower ratings than other groups. Its Highest mean 6.34 +7.8% lower mean has the effect of dragging down the overall mean somewhat compared with

the other groups. Without this group, the

Overall mean 5.88 0% overall mean would be 5.9856 [SD 1.40], about 1.7% higher than the 5.8806 mean. While the group has experience of a wide 2nd lowest mean 5.69 -3.2% range of landscapes across Australia it is not unique in this regard among the groups Lowest mean 5.03 -14.5% sampled and this factor does not appear to provide a sufficient explanation of the difference. Further analysis of the Figure 10.13 Summary of Means respondent characteristics is provided in the

next section that may help elucidate the The means extend from +7.8% of the overall mean to -14.5%. However if Group 6 [ABW] is omitted, then the second lowest mean is 3.2% below the overall mean [Figure 10.13]. 84. The boxplot shows the interquartile range [i.e. The standard error of the mean is 25% - 75% of values] and the outliers show reasonably small and indicates that the the highest and lowest values. It provides a mean provides a good estimation for useful visual image of the variance of data samples drawn from the same distribution. and the relative position of differing groups.

289 10. Analysis of Preferences

10

9

8

7

6

Mean 5

4

3

2

1 N = 65 8 20 6 14 35 48 29 94 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Group

Figure 10.14 Boxplot of Group Distributions

Table 10.8 Group Ratings in Descending originally in colour] the comparison Order illustrates the consistency of ratings between groups. Most values occupy a narrow band Group Name Mean along the mean. The band of values narrows 8 University South Australia [Magill] 6.34 slightly for the low and high values + Uni Adelaide l/s students suggesting greater consistency for the 2 Planning South Australia 6.18 scenes at the extreme ends of the rating 5 Public 6.13 range. The values for Group 6, Adelaide 7 Port Adelaide TAFE students 6.07 Bushwalkers Club [i.e. lowest dark line] are 1 DEHAA 5.97 3 Environment Institute of Aust. 5.85 consistently lower than most other groups 9 Flinders University students 5.85 across the full range of values. 4 University Adelaide lecturers 5.69 6 Adelaide Bushwalkers Club 5.03 An ANOVA of all groups indicated that the Note: Groups 3 and 9 had equal mean ratings differences are significant [Table10.9], however omitting Group 6 from the analysis reasons. Arranging the groups in [Table 10.10] the differences between the descending order of ratings [Table 10.8] other groups are not significant. In both indicates that the student ratings are ANOVAs, the differences within the groups distributed across the scale from top through are far greater than between the groups. to the third from the bottom. The environmental professional respondents are Table 10.9 ANOVA - all Groups largely near the mean value of 5.88 and include the groups from the Department of SS df MS F Sig. Between 36.08 8 4.51 5.97 .000 Environment, Heritage & Aboriginal Affairs groups and from the Environment Institute of Within 234.36 310 .76 Australia. Interestingly the planning groups professionals in Planning South Australia Total 270.43 318 rated the scenes somewhat higher than the average. Public respondents were also Table 10.10 ANOVA - all Groups Except slightly above average. Group 6 [ABW]

A further insight into the distribution of SS df MS F Sig. ratings can be gained by comparing the Between 7.49 7 1.07 1.45 .185 group means for each scene. In Figure groups 10.15 the slide rankings are arranged in Within 203.58 276 .74 ascending order and the average ratings for groups each group shown. Although the figure is not Total 211.07 283 very legible in black and white [it was

291 10. Analysis of Preferences

(3) Groups - Summary indicator. Student groups were distributed from above the overall mean, through to just under The groups are fairly consistent and their ratings, the mean which indicates that they are good varying from +8% to -3% from the overall mean. raters of landscape. Similarly environmental However one group [ABW] had particularly low professionals scored around the average but the ratings and lower this range to -14.5% below the planning professionals rated a little higher. The overall mean. The trimmed means are similar to public respondents were also a little above the group means and indicate that outliers do not mean. present a problem and the mean is a reliable

Figure 10.16 Distributions and QQ Plots of Respondent Groups DEHAA QQ Plot of DEHAA 14 3

12 2

10

al 1 rm

8 o

0 ed N equency 6 t r F pec -1

4 Ex

2 -2

0 1.2 2.1 3.0 3.9 4.8 5.7 6.6 7.5 8.4 9.3 -3 1.7 2.6 3.5 4.4 5.3 6.2 7.1 8.0 8.9 9.8 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Average Ratings Observed Value Planning SA QQ Plot of Planning SA 1.5 3.5

3.0 1.0

2.5 .5

2.0 0.0 ed Normal t

equency 1.5 r F pec -.5 1.0 Ex

.5 -1.0

0.0 -1.5 1.2 2.1 3.0 3.9 4.8 5.7 6.6 7.5 8.4 9.3 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 1.7 2.6 3.5 4.4 5.3 6.2 7.1 8.0 8.9 9.8 Observed Value Average Ratings QQ Plot of EIA Environment Institute of Australia 2.0 10 1.5

8 1.0

.5 6 0.0 equency r 4

F -.5 Expected Normal -1.0 2 -1.5

0 -2.0 1.2 2.1 3.0 3.9 4.8 5.7 6.6 7.5 8.4 9.3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1.7 2.6 3.5 4.4 5.3 6.2 7.1 8.0 8.9 9.8 Observed Value Average Ratings QQ Plot of Uni Adelaide Lecturers Uni Adelaide Lecturers 1.5 2.5

1.0 2.0

.5

1.5 0.0 equency r 1.0 F -.5 Expected Normal

.5 -1.0

0.0 -1.5 1.2 2.1 3.0 3.9 4.8 5.7 6.6 7.5 8.4 9.3 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 1.7 2.6 3.5 4.4 5.3 6.2 7.1 8.0 8.9 9.8 Observed Value Average Ratings 292 10. Analysis of Preferences

Public QQ Plot of Public 5 2.0

1.5

4 1.0

.5 rmal y

3 o

0.0 equenc r 2 pected N

F -.5 x E -1.0 1 -1.5

0 -2.0 1.2 2.1 3.0 3.9 4.8 5.7 6.6 7.5 8.4 9.3 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 1.7 2.6 3.5 4.4 5.3 6.2 7.1 8.0 8.9 9.8 Observed Value Average Ratings QQ Plot of ABW Adelaide Bushwalkers Club 2 10

1 8 al

y 6 0 ed Norm

4 Frequenc Expect -1

2

-2 0 3 4 5 6 7 1.2 2.1 3.0 3.9 4.8 5.7 6.6 7.5 8.4 9.3 1.7 2.6 3.5 4.4 5.3 6.2 7.1 8.0 8.9 9.8 Observed Value Average Ratings QQ Plot of Pt Adelaide TAFE Students PT Adelaide TAFE Students 3 14 2 12

1 10 y 8 0 ted Normal

6 pec -1 Ex Frequenc

4 -2 2 -3 0 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1.2 2.1 3.0 3.9 4.8 5.7 6.6 7.5 8.4 9.3 1.7 2.6 3.5 4.4 5.3 6.2 7.1 8.0 8.9 9.8 Observed Value Average Ratings QQ Plot of Magill/Uni Adelaide Students Students - Magill & Uni Adelaide 2 8

1

6 y 0 4 Frequenc Expected Normal -1 2

0 -2 1.2 2.1 3.0 3.9 4.8 5.7 6.6 7.5 8.4 9.3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1.7 2.6 3.5 4.4 5.3 6.2 7.1 8.0 8.9 9.8 Observed Value Average Ratings QQ Plot of Flinders Uni Students Flinders Uni Students 3 30

2

1 20

0 equency r

F -1 10 Expected Normal

-2

0 -3 1.2 2.1 3.0 3.9 4.8 5.7 6.6 7.5 8.4 9.3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1.7 2.6 3.5 4.4 5.3 6.2 7.1 8.0 8.9 9.8 Observed Value Average Ratings

293 10. Analysis of Preferences

10.4 RATINGS BY RESPONDENT The boxplot [Figure10.18] indicates similar CHARACTERISTICS size boxes [i.e. interquartile range] for all classes, however the 21 - 30 group is In Chapter 9 the characteristics of slightly smaller [IQ 0.99] and the >60s participants were compared with the group is double [IQ 1.97]. This indicates a community. In this section these wider range of opinion about preferences in characteristics are summarised and the the >60s age group and a narrower range ratings by each class examined. for respondents in their 20s.

(1) Age 6.1

Table 10.12 summarises the number of 6 respondents in each of the age classes and their relevant statistics. 5.9

Table 10.12 Average Ratings by Age Class 5.8

Age Classes 5.7 Ratings 17 - 21 - 31 - 41 - 51 - 60 >60 20 30 40 50 5.6 Resp. 81 70 40 61 48 19 % 25.4 21.9 12.5 19.1 15.0 6.0 5.5 0 Mean 5.90 6.06 5.88 5.88 5.63 5.77 5.4 SD 0.87 0.84 0.80 0.96 0.99 1.30 <20 21 - 31 - 41 - 51 - >60 Range 4.33 - 2.67 - 3.96 - 3.46 - 3.31 - 3.81 - 30 40 50 60 8.31 7.94 7.48 8.39 7.94 8.50 Age Groups IQ 1.22 0.99 1.16 1.23 1.21 1.97 range Skew 0.30 -0.98 -0.20 -.056 -.016 0.27 Figure 10.17 Average Ratings by Age Class

The means for age groups vary across a 10 relatively small range [0.43]. There is a slight trend downwards in ratings from the 9 21 - 30 group onwards although this is offset slightly by the > 60 age group [Figure 8

10.17]. The 21 - 30 age group has a strong 7 negative skew to the higher ratings as reflected in its mean, while the 17 - 20 and 6 >60 age groups are skewed to the lower 5 ratings. Interestingly the ratings of the 17 - Ratings 20 age group [5.90] which comprised 4 tertiary students, are very close to the overall mean of 5.88 and their SD [0.87] 3 was also similar to the overall SD [0.92]. 2 Apart from the >60 age group, the standard 1 deviations are fairly consistent. It is difficult N = 81 70 40 61 48 19 to identify the reason why the SDs for the < 20 21 - 30 31 - 40 41 - 50 51 - 60 > 60 >60 group should be 50% more than other Age Categories age classes, indicative of far greater variability of opinion within that group. The SD’s increase in each of the age classes Figure 10.18 Boxplot of Ratings by Age Class from the 31 - 40 group but the increase in the > 60 group is well beyond that of the The ANOVA found no significant other intervals. The mean for the >60 group differences between the age classes [Table is in the middle of the range of means of 10.13]. The major differences are within the classes. age classes rather than between them. The Bonferroni test found no significant Figure 10.17 indicates that the overall trend differences between the age classes. in ratings decreases with age as indicated by the algorithm: y = -0.05x +6.05; r2 = Correlations between the age classes are 0.52. summarised by Table 10.14. This indicates 294 10. Analysis of Preferences very high correlations between all age Table 10.16 ANOVA of Gender Classes classes, which gives confidence in using the ratings across the range of ages. SS df MS F Sig. Between 6.69 1 6.69 8.05 .005 Table 10.13 ANOVA of Age Classes groups Within 263.74 317 0.83 SS df MS F Sig. groups Between 5.58 5 1.12 1.32 0.26 Total 270.43 318 groups

Within 264.85 313 0.85 40 groups Total 270.43 318 30 Table 10.14 Correlations between Age Classes 20

1 2 3 4 5 6 equency Fr 1 1.00 0.98 0.94 0.93 0.94 0.92 2 1.00 0.97 0.96 0.96 0.94 10 3 1.00 0.98 0.97 0.94 4 1.00 0.98 0.96 0 5 1.00 0.97 1 2 3 3 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. .2 .1 .0 .9 8 7 6 5 4 3 6 1.00 Ratings

Overall, while the ratings by age classes are reasonably consistent the SD’s for the Figure 10.19 Distribution of Ratings by Males >60 age group indicate a much wider range of opinion than by other groups. This 30 suggests that the use of small groups of older people should be minimised in surveys of this kind unless complemented by younger respondents. The ratings and 20 SDs by students [17 - 20] were close to the

overall average, indicating that they can equency Fr make good subjects for rating purposes. 10

(2) Gender

Table 10.15 summarises the number of 0 1 2 3 3 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. respondents for each gender and their .2 .1 .0 .9 8 7 6 5 4 3 Ratings relevant statistics. The distributions for each gender are shown by Figures 10.19 and 10.20. Figure 10.20 Distribution of Ratings by Females Table 10.15 Average Ratings by Gender

10 Male Female 9 Number 176 143 % 55.2 44.8 8 Mean 5.75 6.04 7 SD 0.88 0.95 6 ngs ti Range 3.31 - 8.50 2.67 - 8.39 a 5 R

Interquartile range 1.11 1.23 4 Skew -0.268 -0.122 3

Males rate the landscapes about 5% lower 2 1 than females and the ANOVA indicates that N = 176 143 the difference is significant [Table 10.16]. Males Females The differences within each gender group Gender are much greater than that between genders. Figure 10.21 Boxplot of Ratings by Gender Class

295 10. Analysis of Preferences

The boxplots [Figure 10.21] indicate the 6 slight difference in ratings by the genders. As shown by Table 10.14 the interquartile 5.95 range of the female respondents [i.e. the box] is slightly larger than for males and 5.9 indicate a slightly wider range of opinion.

5.85 The correlation in ratings between the genders is 0.985, p < 0.01 [r2 = 0.97], which Ratings 5.8 is very high and indicates negligible difference between male and female. 5.75

(3) Education 5.7

e ipl d Table 10.17 summarises the number of D respondents in each of the education /tra Year 10 Year 12 ch egree/ Post Grad

classes and their relevant statistics. Te D Table 10.17 Average Ratings by Education Class Figure 10.22 Trend of Average Ratings by Education Class Education Classes Tech/ Year Year Degree/ Post Table 10.18 ANOVA of Education Classes Trade 10 12 Diploma Grad Resp. 34 20 131 69 63 SS df MS F Sig. % 10.7 6.3 41.2 21.7 19.8 Between 1.61 5 0.32 0.37 .87 Mean 5.79 5.83 5.91 5.89 5.90 groups SD 0.76 1.22 0.85 1.00 0.98 Within 268.44 312 0.86 Range 4.17 - 3.31 - 2.67 - 3.64 - 3.46 - groups 7.40 7.97 8.31 8.50 8.39 Total 270.05 317 IQ range 0.93 1.67 1.12 1.32 1.06

Skew -0.374 0.097 -0.303 -0.186 -0.027 10 Note: excludes one respondent < year 10 education, mean 4.81 9

The means by education class have a very 8

narrow range, from 5.79 to 5.91. The 7 largest standard deviation was with the year 10 respondents but the year 12 6

respondents had the second smallest SD 5 so it cannot be assumed that consistency Ratings of opinion varies with education. The group 4 with the lowest mean was by those with technical and trade qualifications and these 3 were also the most consistent group with 2 the lowest SD and interquartile range. 1 Trade/Tech Year 10 Year 12 Degree/DiplPost Grad Figure 10.22 indicates the relationship between preferences and education and Education Level

assumes that the technical/trade education is lower than year 10. On the basis of this, 2 Figure 10.23 Boxplot of Ratings by the relationship is y = 0.03x + 5.78; r = Education Class 0.73. Table 10.19 summarises the correlations The ANOVA [Table 10.18] indicates that between the education classes. Leaving the differences in preferences by different aside class 1 that comprised a single classes of education are not significant. individual, the high correlations indicate that education does not serve to separate The boxplots [Figure 10.23] indicate similar the aesthetic ratings of individuals. medians across all classes although the interquartile ranges vary from 0.93 to 1.67 [Table 10.16] as reflected in the size of the boxes. 296 10. Analysis of Preferences

Table 10.19 Correlations between Education Classes 6.2 6.1 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 1.00 0.69 0.69 0.72 0.71 0.70 6 2 1.00 0.96 0.96 0.98 0.98 5.9 3 1.00 0.95 0.95 0.95 4 1.00 0.96 0.94 5.8 Ratings 5 1.00 0.98 5.7 6 1.00 Note: Class 1 was one individual only 5.6

5.5 (4) Income

$20k $60k Table 10.20 summarises the number of < > respondents in each of the income classes $20 - 30k $30 - 40k $40 - 50k $50 - 60k and their relevant statistics. Figure 10.24 is Income a boxplot showing the medians and quartiles for each group. The results cannot be regarded as ideal as there were 25 Figure 10.24 Relationship between Ratings missing responses for the income question and Income and the question was not clear as some respondents considered family income Table 10.21 ANOVA of Income Classes while others considered only their individual income [see Chapter 9]. SS df MS F Sig. Between 3.14 5 0.63 0.77 .58 groups The ratings vary over a narrow range of Within 245.99 300 0.82 only one-third of a rating unit [0.33] groups although they do trend downwards with Total 249.13 305 increasing income. A close relationship between age and income is suggested as the trends are similar and also possibly 10 between income and education although 9 this does not show the downward trend. 8

Table 10.20 Average Ratings by Income 7 Class 6 Income Classes 5 < $20 - $30 - $40 - $50 - >$60 Ratings

$20k 30k 40k 50k 60k k 4 Resp. 58 39 50 43 32 84 % 16.3 13.3 17.0 13.9 10.9 28.6 3 Mean 6.02 6.06 5.96 5.84 5.73 5.85 2 SD 0.90 0.95 1.03 0.73 0.80 0.93 Range 3.31 - 2.67 - 3.81 - 4.09 - 3.89 - 3.68 - 1 N = 58 39 50 43 32 84 7.63 8.07 8.50 7.07 7.25 8.39 <$20k $20 - 30k $30 - 40k $40 - 50k$50 - 60k >$60k IQ 1.22 0.97 1.11 0.94 1.05 1.31 range Income Categories Skew -0.47 -0.71 0.11 -0.48 -0.52 0.25

Note: 25 missing values Figure 10.25 Boxplot of Ratings by Income

Class Figure 10.24 indicates the relationship between ratings and income: y = -0.06x + 2 classes are greater than for the others 6.11; r = 0.70. The ANOVA indicates the [Figure 10.25]. Correlations for income differences between the income classes classes were not calculated because of the are not significant [Table 10.21]. The deficiencies in the data referred to above. Bonferroni test found no significant differences between the classes. (5) Country of Birth

The boxplots indicate very similar medians, Table 10.22 summarises the number of boxes and whiskers although the respondents in each of the country of birth interquartile ranges for the <$20k and $60k classes and their relevant means and

297 10. Analysis of Preferences standard deviations. No pattern is apparent both country and city are higher again in these figures. [2.7%] However the ANOVA and Bonferroni tests found that the differences are not Table 10.22 Average Ratings by Birthplace significant [Table 10.25]. Class Table 10.24 Average Ratings by Childhood Australia Europe Other Residence Resp. 257 39 16 % 81.8 12.5 5.1 Country City Both Mean 5.88 5.80 5.87 Number 79 183 57 SD 0.92 0.99 0.77 % 24.8 57.4 17.9 Notes: Australia includes NZ, Europe includes Mean 5.91 5.83 5.99 UK SD 0.88 0.91 1.00

The ANOVA found no significant The correlations between the three classes differences in preferences between the of childhood residence are very high as classes of birthplace with the major summarised by Table 10.26. difference being within each birthplace class rather than between classes [Table Table 10.25 ANOVA of Childhood Residence 10.23]. Classes

Table 10.23 ANOVA of Country of Birth SS df MS F Sig. Classes Between 1.19 2 0.60 0.70 0.50 groups SS df MS F Sig. Within 269.24 316 0.85 Between 0.26 2 0.13 0.15 0.86 groups groups Total 270.43 318 Within 265.40 309 0.86 groups Table 10.26 Correlations between Childhood Total 265.99 311 Residence Classes

(6) Childhood Residence Country City Both Country 1.00 0.99 0.98 City 1.00 0.98 10 Both 1.00 9 All significant at 0.01 [2 tailed]

8 (7) Correlations between Respondent 7 Characteristics

6 Table 10.27 summarises the correlations 5 Ratings between the respondent characteristics. It

4 indicates the characteristics that are significantly correlated are: 3

2 0.01 correlation Age - Income [0.291] Age - Education [0.456] 1 N = 79 183 57 Age - Birthplace [0.157] In the country In a city Both Income - Education [0.375]

Categories 0.05 correlation Age - Gender [-0.138]

Income - Gender [-0.139] Figure 10.26 Boxplot of Ratings by Childhood Residence These relationships are summarised by Figure 10.27. This indicates that the age Table 10.24 summarises the number of characteristic is a key and links with most respondents in each of the childhood other characteristics. The strongest resident classes and their relevant relationships are age - education [0.456] statistics. and income - education [0.375] thus supporting the earlier finding in Section 3.4. The location of childhood residence Both relationships are positive. The influences ratings [Figure 10.26]. negative correlations with gender may be Preferences are slightly higher [1.4%] for due to this being dichotomous whereas the those from the country than for those from other characteristics are multiple. Although the city. Ratings of those who resided in the correlations shown are significant 298 10. Analysis of Preferences

Table 10.27 Correlations of Respondent Characteristics

Age Income Gender Education Birthplace Grow up location Age Correlation 1.000 .291** -.138* .456** .157** .008 Significance . .000 .014 .000 .005 .882 N 319 306 319 318 312 319 Income Correlation .291** 1.000 -.139* .375** .021 .083 Significance .000 . .015 .000 .719 .148 N 306 306 306 305 299 306 Gender Correlation -.138* -.139* 1.000 -.099 -.020 .028 Significance .014 .015 . .078 .726 .621 N 319 306 319 318 312 319 Education Correlation .456** .375** -.099 1.000 .024 .050 Significance .000 .000 .078 . .677 .375 N 318 305 318 318 311 318 Birthplace Correlation .157** .021 -.020 .024 1.000 -.024 Significance .005 .719 .726 .677 . .674 N 312 299 312 311 312 312 Grow up Correlation .008 .083 .028 .050 -.024 1.000 location Significance .882 .148 .621 .375 .674 . N 319 306 319 318 312 319

Note: Pearson correlations used. All significance tests are two-tailed

** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). * Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

-0.019 0.025 Gender Age Birthplace

-0.019 0.085 0.208

Income 0.141 Education

Note: r2, not r, are shown. Solid lines are significant at 0.01 level, dashed lines are significant at 0.05 level

Figure 10.27 Correlations [r2] between Respondent Characteristics statistically, those with links to gender and These absolute and relative sizes of the to birthplace are very small. values are summarised by Table 10.28.

(8) Summary of Respondent Table 10.28 Size of Ranges of Values Characteristics Ratings Factor Highest to Range Range as % Based on the ANOVA tests, gender is the Lowest Values of lowest only characteristic of respondents which value has a statistically significant influence on Age 5.63 to 6.06 0.43 7.63% Gender 5.75 to 6.04 0.29 5.04% preferences. Preferences decrease with Education 5.79 to 5.91 0.12 2.07% increasing age and income but other Income 5.73 to 6.06 0.33 5.76% factors also influence the relationship. In contrast, increasing education does appear Table 10.28 indicates that generally the to increase preferences slightly. differences in the various factors amount to very small proportions of the ratings, the The actual influence of these factors on largest being 7.6% for age. preferences is small, e.g. across the age groups it is less than half a rating unit, while The >60 age group appears to have a far even for the strongest link, age, the greater variability of opinion in its difference is only 0.43 of a rating unit. 299 10. Analysis of Preferences preferences than younger age groups. Table 10.29 Familiarity with South Australian Neither country of birth or childhood Regions residence in city or country had any significant influence on preferences. Famil- Agric. Coast Mt River Flinders Far iar Lofty Murray Ranges north The results give confidence that various Very Mean 5.96 5.98 5.94 5.97 5.83 6.16 groups that are used in surveys as samples SD 0.97 0.87 1.00 0.92 0.91 0.92 of the community are likely to be Fairly reasonably representative of community Mean 5.91 5.83 5.90 5.88 5.94 5.96 values. SD 0.86 0.95 0.85 0.89 0.89 0.90 Not (9) Familiarity Mean 5.67 5.51 5.68 5.74 5.80 5.65 SD 1.03 0.99 0.91 1.04 1.01 0.91 Respondents were asked to indicate their familiarity with various regions of South Australia on a three class basis: very 6.2 familiar, fairly familiar, and not familiar. The 6.1 results [Chapter 9] indicated that the 6 regions ranked in the following order of familiarity [from most to least familiar]: 5.9 5.8 1. Coast 5.7

2. Mt Lofty Ranges tings a 5.6 3. Flinders Ranges R Agricultural areas 4. Agricultural region 5.5 Coastal areas 5. River Murray 5.4 Mt Lofty Ranges 6. Far North region River Murray 5.3 Flinders Ranges Familiarity is the degree to which 5.2 Pastoral/outback areas Mean respondents profess that they are familiar 5.1 with a region and this might be gained Not Fairly Very through direct experience such as by familiar familiar familiar visiting it or even living in it, or through access to surrogates such as film, Figure 10.28 Effect on Ratings of Familiarity television, videos, books, magazines and with Regions media coverage. Tourist regions such as the Flinders Ranges, parts of the coast and In the Flinders Ranges, preferences the River Murray, may gain through decline for the very familiar group that may surrogates. suggest that the familiarity derives in part from non-personal experience such as The analysis assumes that respondents media. However for the outback area, rated familiarity in a consistent way across which is not dissimilar to the Flinders all regions. Given that some regions are Ranges, the trendline increases strongly very extensive while others are small, this with familiarity, indeed unlike the other is an ambitious assumption but for the regions, it does not drop off appreciably. purposes of the study is considered adequate. Table 10.29 summarises the The overall trendline for all regions [Figure means and standard deviations for the 10.28] is: y = 0.15x + 5.55, r2 = 0.91. The three classes of familiarity for the six relationship is not strong; about a 5% regions. increase from not familiar to very familiar.

Table 10.29 and Figure 10.28 shows that For several of the regions, the standard there is a clear influence of familiarity on deviation dips slightly in the fairly familiar preferences, with the preferences in most class but the difference is very slight. regions increasing with greater familiarity. The fall-off in the trendlines of most regions Given that there is a relationship between suggests that fairly familiar is optimal in familiarity and preferences, it might be terms of preferences and that greater expected that the rating of regions would familiarity results in only a marginal correspond with their level of familiarity. increase in preferences. However the arrangement of the regions in order of the very familiar class does not 300 10. Analysis of Preferences correspond with their means with the three ANOVA were undertaken for all regions to less familiar regions [agriculture, R Murray assess the significance of familiarity on and far north] having higher means than ratings. The following summarises the highly familiar regions [coast, Mt Lofty findings: Ranges, Flinders Ranges] [Table 10.30]. Agriculture F= 1.70, df = 2, 316, p = 0.18 Table 10.30 Ratings of Regions in Order of Coast F= 2.40, df = 2, 316, p = 0.09 Familiarity Mt Lofty Ranges F= 1.43, df = 2, 316, p = 0.24 River Murray F= 0.78, df = 2, 316, p = 0.46 Region in order of familiarity Mean* Flinders Ranges F= 0.72, df = 2, 316, p = 0.49 1. Coast 5.98 Far North F= 6.53, df = 2,316, p = 0.002 2. Mt Lofty Ranges 5.94 3. Flinders Ranges 5.83 The results indicate that the differences in 4. Agricultural region 5.96 familiarity are significant only in the Far 5. River Murray 5.97 North Region. The means of preferences 6. Far North 6.16 for this region range from 6.16 for very * Mean of very familiar familiar to 5.65 for not familiar and is the Note: Ratings of regions are explained in largest of all regions; a difference of 0.51 Section 10.5, Regional Analysis

Table 10.31 Average Ratings by Landscape Region

Region Area [sq km] Nos. Scenes Mean SD 1. Salt lakes 30380 1 6.43 - 2. Arid dunefields 438660 8 5.82 0.81 3. Arid ranges & uplands 88720 9 6.36 1.14 4. Gibber plains 40230 4 3.90 1.30 5. Arid plains 208735 4 5.43 1.26 6. Flinders Ranges 28150 17 7.01 0.96 7. Mt Lofty Ranges 5170 31 5.57 0.81 8. Agricultural region 140885 41 4.66 0.83 9. Murray valley region 4030 19 5.98 0.83 10. Coastal region 2860* 20 7.67 1.14 Interstate - 5 7.89 1.32 * Includes only units within the coastal region; most of this region is contained within the agricultural, Mt Lofty Ranges and Murray Valley [i.e. Coorong] regions.

10 9 8 7 6 SD 5 4 Mean & 3 2 1 0 l a te fty o ural ields rsta oast anges anges region Arid te C R Flinders R Mt L region In Salt lakes region dunef Arid plains uplands Agricult Gibber plains Murray valley Arid ranges &

Note: Means - light columns, SDs - dark columns. Salt lakes are represented by only one scene.

Figure 10.30 Mean Ratings and Standard Deviations of Landscape Regions 301 10. Analysis of Preferences of a rating unit. The Bonferroni test found province. Table 10.31 and Figure 10.30 the two differences to be significant as summarise the average ratings for each illustrated in Figure 10.28. region, and Table 10.32 shows the regions in rank order. Very familiar

Table 10.32 Ranking of Landscape Regions 0.525 0.004 in Descending Order

Region Mean Rating

Fairly familiar Not familiar Coast 7.67 0.017 Flinders Ranges 7.01 Arid ranges 6.36 Figure 10.29 Significance of Differences Murray Valley 5.98 between Familiarity Classes Arid dunefields 5.82 Mt Lofty Ranges 5.57 Bonferroni tests applied to all other regions Arid plains 5.43 Agricultural region 4.66 found no significant differences. Gibber plains 3.90

In summary, preferences in most regions The order of these suggests a strong decrease with their lesser familiarity but influence of naturalism and elevation in the rating of regions did not correspond the ratings. The low rating of agricultural with their level of familiarity. The regions suggests the converse of differences in familiarity are only significant naturalism and the influence of generally in the Far North region. flat land in depressing preferences. Similarly the low rating of gibber plains 10.5 REGIONAL ANALYSIS suggest a lack of diversity of land form and land cover. In mapping landscape character, South Australia was divided into two broad The interstate scenes were of high quality provinces, the Far North Arid Province and landscapes and can not be regarded as the Southern Agricultural Province [see representative of interstate landscapes. Chapter 9]. Within each of these Thus the fact that their average rating was provinces, six landscape regions were higher than any South Australian region defined in the Far North province and four does not imply that the landscapes of regions in the Southern Agricultural

10

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1 N = 1 8 9 4 4 17 31 41 19 21 5 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Regions

1 Salt lakes 4 Gibber plains 7 Mt Lofty Ranges 10 Coast 2 Arid dunefields 5 Arid plains 8 Agriculture Region 11 Interstate 3 Arid ranges 6 Flinders Ranges 9 Murray valley

Figure 10.31 Boxplot of Landscape Regions 302 10. Analysis of Preferences

South Australia are necessarily inferior to Attached to this section are histograms those interstate. A more representative set and QQ plots for nine regions and of interstate scenes would be necessary to interstate scenes [Figure 10.33]. Region 1 compare one state against another. is not included. Regions 2 - 5 covering the arid regions had fewer scenes per region Figure 10.31 provides a boxplot for all 10 than the other regions and so the regions plus the interstate scenes. The histograms show few columns. The QQ boxplot provides a visual representation of plots for these show only a few points and the regional distributions and their relation- clearly are insufficient to indicate a normal ship. Region 1 [salt lakes] which distribution. However the Flinders Ranges comprised only one scene is represented and southern regions have sufficient by a single line. The gibber region [4] is scenes and indicate normality of the clearly the lowest rated region but has distributions. also one of the largest boxes indicative of a wide range of opinion. The Flinders The one-way ANOVA of the regional Ranges [6] and coastal region [10] are the distributions indicates as would be highest rated regions in South Australia. expected significant differences between The interstate scenes [11] however are the groups [F = 19.36, df 10,149, p < rated higher. 0.000].

Table 10.33 Average Ratings of Landscape Units

Landscape Region & Unit Area [sq km] Nos. Scenes Mean SD Far North Arid Province 1. Salt Lakes region 30380 1 6.43 - 2. Arid Dunefields region 2.2 Central dunefields 46290 3 5.79 0.76 2.3 North east dunefields 146870 5 5.84 0.93 3. Arid ranges & uplands region 3.1 North west ranges 6560 3 7.11 0.10 3.2 Central tablelands 50720 4 6.31 1.47 3.3 Gawler Ranges 13780 1 5.11 - 3,4 Olary Spur 15600 1 5.58 - 4. Gibber plains region 40230 4 3.90 1.30 5. Arid Plains region 5.3 Northern plains 23890 1 3.98 - 5.4 Central plains 104265 2 6.48 0.25 5.5 Eastern plains 21570 1 4.80 - 6. Flinders Ranges region 6.1 Main high ranges 5365 11 7.54 0.61 6.2 Lower ranges & outliers 16945 6 6.03 0.66 Southern Agricultural Province 7. Mt Lofty Ranges region 7.1 Main ranges & deep valleys 600 11 6.23 0.64 7.2 Lower ranges & escarpments 2080 12 5.13 0.73 7.3 Undulating, wide valleys & plains 2490 8 5.39 0.54 8. Agricultural region 8.1 Hills & low ranges 8585 5 5.11 0.82 8.2 Parallel ridges or dunes 26665 19 4.83 0.42 8.3 Plains with random dunes 74395 10 4.17 0.98 8.4 Plains 30210 7 4.55* 1.71 9. Murray Valley region 9.1 Riverland 1650 5 5.72 0.91 9.2 Trench 220 10 6.30 0.64 9.3 Lakes 1860 1 4.93 - 9.4 Coorong 300 3 5.68 0.67 10. Coastal region 10.1 Rugged/cliffs 10 8.03 0.58 10.2 Beach with dunes 9 7.45 0.66 10.3 Beach, flat inland 2 5.04 1.57 * Mean & SD include scene of Blue Lake [7.95]. Exclusion of this changes mean of the plains unit to 3.98, SD 0.90

303 10. Analysis of Preferences

The differences between groups are display narrow range of ratings. However slightly greater than the differences within because of the small number of scenes in the groups [Table 10.34]. some units, these percentiles are not a good indicator of the range of ratings. The Table 10.34 ANOVA of Regional standard deviations [Table 10.33] provide Distributions a better indicator of the spread of ratings. The representation is a function of the SS df MS F Sig. number of scenes in the landscape region, Between 179.90 10 179.90 19.36 .000 the area of the region and, importantly, the groups level of variety present in the region. Within 138.49 149 0.93 groups Total 378.39 159 How can adequacy of representation be determined? Armed with the information of (2) Landscape Units the means of landscape regions and units in Tables 10.31 and 10.33, one is better Each of the landscape regions were placed to determine the number of scenes divided into landscape units [Chapter 9]. of each area needed. Not having this Table 10.33 indicates the total area of information at the outset however when each landscape unit and the number of selecting the scenes for the rating scenes used in the survey. sessions, judgement was required in making the selection of scenes. It is to be Figure 10.32 indicates the boxplots for the expected, however that with studies of this individual landscape units. A horizontal; kind in which the rating of differing line indicates where the unit was landscape regions and units can be represented by only one scene. The boxes determined, that a more representative set which show the interquartile range vary of scenes could be selected. It is evident, widely with the central tablelands [3.2], for example that salt lakes should have gibber plains [4] and coastal beaches been better represented and that the [10.3] displaying the widest range of representation of the vast northern arid ratings. By contrast, the central arid plains region could have been improved. Fewer [5.4], the hills and plains in the agricultural scenes of the agricultural region are region [8.1] and beaches with dunes [10.2] required.

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Landscape Regions and Units

Note: Region 11 comprises interstate scenes Figure 10.32 Boxplot for Landscape Regions and Units 304 10. Analysis of Preferences

The largest landscape region, arid can be represented fairly adequately by dunefields which covers 44% of the state, relatively few scenes. The southern is represented by eight scenes whereas agricultural province however has much the Mt Lofty Ranges, one of the smallest greater variety within a far smaller area regions, is represented by 31 scenes. and accordingly needs more scenes to represent it. As in statistical sampling of Apart from the arid mountainous regions, populations, the key determinant of the the arid plains, gibbers and salt lakes of sample size is the heterogeneity of the the northern areas are generally of lower population, so it is with landscapes - the landscape quality. Across vast areas the more diverse they are the more scenes variation in landscape quality is not large are needed to provide sufficient for much of the far northern province and representation.

Figure 10.33 Distributions and QQ Plots of Landscape Regions & Interstate Scenes

2. Arid Dunefields QQ Plot of Arid Dunefields 3.5 1.5

3.0 1.0

2.5 .5

2.0 0.0 ted Normal 1.5 pec Frequency -.5 Ex 1.0

-1.0 .5

-1.5 0.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 1. 1. 2 2 3 3 3 4 4. 5. 5 6 6 7 7 8 8. 8. 9 9. 2 7 .1 .6 .0 .5 .9 .4 8 3 .7 .2 .6 .1 .5 .0 4 9 .3 8 Observed Value Ratings 3. Arid Ranges & Uplands QQ Plot of Arid Ranges & Uplands 1.5 5

1.0 4

.5

3 0.0 ted Normal pec

Frequency 2 -.5 Ex

1 -1.0

-1.5 0 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 1 1 2 2. 3 3. 3 4. 4 5 5 6 6 7. 7 8. 8 8 9 9 .2 .7 .1 6 .0 5 .9 4 .8 .3 .7 .2 .6 1 .5 0 .4 .9 .3 .8 Observed Value Ratings 4. Gibber Plains QQ Plot of Gibber Plains 1.0 2.5

2.0 .5

1.5 0.0 ed Normal t pec

Frequency 1.0 Ex -.5

.5

-1.0 0.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 1. 1. 2 2 3 3 3 4 4. 5. 5 6 6 7 7 8 8. 8. 9 9. 2 7 .1 .6 .0 .5 .9 .4 8 3 .7 .2 .6 .1 .5 .0 4 9 .3 8 Observed Value Ratings

5. Arid Plains

1.2 QQ Plot of Arid Plains 1.0

1.0

.5 .8 y

.6 0.0 ed Normal t Frequenc pec .4 Ex -.5

.2

-1.0 0.0 1 1. 2. 2 3 3. 3 4 4 5. 5. 6 6. 7. 7 8 8 8. 9. 9. 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 .2 7 1 .6 .0 5 .9 .4 .8 3 7 .2 6 1 .5 .0 .4 9 3 8 Observed Value Ratings 305 10. Analysis of Preferences

6. Flinders Ranges QQ Plot of Flinders Ranges 3.5 2.0

1.5 3.0

1.0 2.5 .5

2.0 0.0 ted Normal

1.5 pec -.5 Frequency Ex

1.0 -1.0

-1.5 .5 -2.0 0.0 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5 9.0 1.2 1.7 2.1 2.6 3.0 3.5 3.9 4.4 4.8 5.3 5.7 6.2 6 7.1 7.5 8.0 8.4 8.9 9.3 9.8 .6 Observed Value Ratings 7. Mt Lofty Ranges QQ Plot of Mt Lofty Ranges 10 2

8 1 al

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Frequency 4 x E -1

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-2 0 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 1.2 1.7 2.1 2.6 3.0 3.5 3.9 4.4 4.8 5.3 5.7 6.2 6 7.1 7.5 8.0 8.4 8.9 9.3 9.8 .6 Observed Value Ratings 8. Agricultural Region QQ Plot of Agricultural Region 10 3

2 8

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-3 0 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1.2 1.7 2.1 2.6 3.0 3.5 3.9 4.4 4.8 5.3 5.7 6.2 6 7.1 7.5 8.0 8.4 8.9 9.3 9.8 .6 Observed Value Ratings 9. Murray valley region QQ Plot of Murray Valley 6 2.0

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-2.0 0 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 1.2 1.7 2 2.6 3.0 3.5 3.9 4.4 4.8 5.3 5.7 6.2 6.6 7.1 7.5 8.0 8.4 8.9 9.3 9.8 .1 Observed Value Ratings

10. Coastal region

10 QQ Plot of Coastal Region 2.0

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0 -2.0 1.2 1.7 2.1 2.6 3.0 3.5 3.9 4.4 4.8 5.3 5.7 6.2 6 7.1 7.5 8.0 8.4 8.9 9.3 9.8 .6 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Observed Value Ratings

306 10. Analysis of Preferences

Interstate QQ Plot of Interstate 2.5 1.0

2.0 .5 al

y 1.5

d Norm 0.0 e pect x E Frequenc 1.0 -.5

.5 -1.0 5 6 7 8 9 10 0.0 1 1. 2. 2 3 3. 3 4 4 5. 5. 6 6. 7. 7 8 8 8. 9. 9. . .6 .0 .9 . . .2 .5 . . Observed Value 2 7 1 5 4 8 3 7 6 1 0 4 9 3 8 Ratings

ANALYSIS OF PREFERENCES PART B Based on this and through familiarity with the 10.6 ANALYSIS BY LANDSCAPE TYPES scenes in the analysis, the analysis covers the following factors: (1) Approach to Analysis • Land form Existing studies were examined to identify the • Land cover components of scenes that were subject to • Land use analysis. Appendix 9.6 summarises these • Water components which were used in subsequent • Diversity analysis of their influence on preferences. The • Naturalism characteristics which were identified in these • Cloud cover studies as contributing positively to landscape The analysis of landscape types cover only the preferences are summarised in Table 10.35. South Australian scenes and excludes the five This Table indicates the importance of interstate scenes. As these were highly rated landform, land use, land cover and water as the scenes it was considered that they could distort key attributes and also identifies several other the findings which are intended to relate solely attributes. to the South Australian landscape.

Table 10.35 Positive Characteristics Identified in Studies

Landscape Type Positive Characteristics Landform Relative relief, slope, ruggedness number, spatial definition index, contrasts of height, unique physical features, steepness of terrain, linear length of ridge line, rolling plateau, angle [tangent] of line of sight to highest visible point, elevation of most prominent point in scene above photo, height of valley walls, height of valley divided by width, visible distant landforms, hills Land use Land use compatibility, land use diversity & type, arable land, land use complexity, wide elevated views of mixed natural & agricultural & scattered buildings Land Cover Percentage tree cover, deciduous broadleafed woodland, % hedgerows, vegetation diversity & type, area in tree trunks, total area of vegetation, average dbh [diameter breast height], wood-lawn, % native forest, % alpine land cover, foreground vegetation, undisturbed forest, perimeter of immediate vegetation/intermediate vegetation & distant vegetation, area of intermediate vegetation, area of water, area of non-vegetation. Water Water edge density, water area density, lakes & reservoirs, stream, waterfall, lake, water depth, river channel stability, water colour, calmness of water, moving water, % water, confinement of river by overhanging vegetation, natural debris, bottom material, height of streambank vegetation, distance between streambank vegetation Artistic Prominence of focal point, variety in colour, variety in line, variety in form, variety in texture, overall variety, contrast, vividness Naturalism Naturalism index Rocks Rocks & ledges View Area of view, length of view Atmosphere Cloud cover index, atmosphere clarity index Psychological Awe, arousal Perception Smoothness Colours Blue colours

307 10. Analysis of Preferences

Moreover the overall aim is to report on the trees or very significant trees. Other examples South Australian landscape and on this basis were the area of water in a scene or the degree the interstate scenes needed to excluded. The of movement of water in scenes of the sea. South Australian scenes total 155 with an overall mean of 5.83 and standard deviation of Assessment of each of the attributes was on 0.93. the basis of their score relative to the scene that provided the context. For example, in In conducting the analysis it was necessary to scoring the height of trees in scenes, their classify the various attributes being considered relative height within the scene was scored, not so that the effect of these attributes on the their absolute height as it would be in actuality. scenic preferences could be assessed. This Thus a small tree positioned in the foreground involved classifying the attributes in a variety of may be scored high whereas larger trees ways, for example, land form was classified into further away in the scene may attract a lower flats, hills and mountains. While in some cases score. these simple classifications were adequate, in other situations, a more complex scoring of the It was considered desirable that the scores be attribute was necessary, for example classifying derived from a small group of respondents the height or density of vegetative cover, or the rather than a sole scoring by the author. A degree of diversity present in the scene. These group of between six and ten adult persons was classifications were undertaken by scoring the involved in viewing the relevant scenes to particular attribute on a 1 to 5 scale. provide the scores. A balance of genders was achieved in all classifications. The author undertook the first type of simple classification as they entailed objective Sessions with respondents to classify the appraisal of attributes and did not involve scenes involved firstly selecting the relevant evaluating gradations of attributes. Thirteen scenes and then briefing the respondents on such classifications were undertaken: the nature of scoring required. An assessment sheet was provided for each respondent. The Land form • Flats, hills, mountains respondents were initially shown a few scenes • Elevation to familiarise them with the particular attributes • Coastal landforms to be scored and instructions given. They then • Murray Valley landforms viewed the slides at their own pace. A small Land cover • Types of vegetation electric back lit hand viewer was used for this Land use • Classification of land uses purpose [Agfascope 200] with a screen • Crops & pastures - presence of measuring 6.5 cm by 4 cm. For the diversity, ridges vs flat land naturalism and colour factors, the slides were - crop height screened and the entire group rated them - crop colour concurrently. A series of sessions were held to

• Hills & pastures - colour score the various groups of scenes. Water • Size of dams • Colour of inland water The following lists the attributes that were Clouds • Cloudiness of scenes scored.

The second type of classification involved Land form - exposed rock face differentiating attributes across a range of Land cover - presence of trees possible values, from lesser to more, small to height of vegetation large, low to high etc. The factors were scored85 out of five [from 1 being low through to 5 being - density of vegetation high], to distinguish from the 1 - 10 used in Land use - significance of ridges rating of landscape quality and also because a - trees in crops & pastures five class scoring was considered likely to - trees in hills & pastures, mixed provide sufficient discrimination of the particular uses, vines attribute. For example in scenes of crops and - terrain in Mt Lofty Ranges pastures the significance of the presence of Water trees was scored, with 1 representing very few or insignificant trees and 5 representing many - Coast - area of water - length of edge of water - movement of water 85. Throughout this chapter, “ratings” refer to the overall preference ratings for scenes on a 1 - 10 - psychological rating scale while “scores” refer to the assessment of - Murray Valley area of water attributes on a 1 - 5 scale. 308 10. Analysis of Preferences

- length of edge of water some agricultural scenes with prominent ridges - psychological rating were classified hills, and the remainder were - Inland water - area of water classified as flats. The classification excluded - length of edge of water coastal scenes along with scenes of the River Murray, Lakes and Coorong and inland waters. - psychological rating There were 46 scenes of flats, 48 of hills and Diversity 17 of mountains, a total of 111 scenes. Naturalism Colour Table 10.36 summarises the key statistics for the three classes. The process of analysis was iterative and was not necessarily performed in the order shown Table 10.36 Key Statistics for Flats, Hills and here. Mountain Scenes

Statistic Flats Hills Mountains 10.7 LAND FORM Mean 4.69 5.34 7.05 SE of mean 5.989E-02 5.922E-02 6.041E-02 Although South Australia largely comprises flat SD 1.07 1.06 1.08 terrain, there are upland and mountainous Range 1.78 – 8.26 2.27 – 8.13 2.88 – 9.29 IQ range 1.35 1.46 1.47 areas including the Flinders Ranges and the Skew 0.28 -0.16 -0.39 Musgraves and Mann Ranges of the far north west. Other significant ranges, albeit lower in elevation, are the Gawler Ranges west of Port The means clearly indicate increasing Augusta and the Olary Spur extending towards preferences across the three classes; the Broken Hill. The central uplands comprise preferences for hills are 13.9% higher than for series of breakaways, i.e. escarpments and flats while preferences for mountains are 50.3% mesa-like structures around the edge of the higher than flats. The standard deviations and Lake Eyre drainage basin. the interquartile ranges across the classes are surprisingly consistent. The negative skew Unlike interstate ranges that are much higher, increases across the classes as would be the South Australian ranges are of relatively expected, the mountain scenes being strongly small elevation. The highest mountain in the skewed to the higher ratings. Figure 10.34 State, Mt Woodroofe in the Musgraves, is 1435 provides a boxplot of the ratings. m while the highest peaks in the Flinders Ranges are about 900 m. The Gawler Ranges 10 and Olary Spur are in the 300 - 500 m range, while Mount Lofty, east of Adelaide, is about 9

600 m. 8

Added to these, the coast has many dunes, 7 bays and rock platforms and, together with the 6

River Murray, has extensive cliff formations. ngs ti a

R 5 This section examines firstly, landforms using a coarse classification of flats, hills and 4 mountains. It then assesses various landforms 3 in the landscape regions including for example, coastal landforms and rockfaces in mountain 2 ranges. The influence that elevation has on 1 preferences is then examined, using measures Flats Hills Mountains of heights, distances and angles of view.

Figure 10.34 Boxplot of Flats, Hills and (1) Flats, hills and mountains Mountains

The influence of terrain on preferences was The ANOVA for the classes of terrain indicates assessed by classifying the scenes on the significant differences across these classes basis of whether they comprised essentially [Table 10.37] with the differences between flats, hills or mountains. Most of the Flinders groups being far more important than the Ranges and arid ranges scenes were classified differences within the groups. Figures 10.35, mountains, scenes in the Mt Lofty Ranges and 10.36 and 10.37 indicate the distribution of 309 10. Analysis of Preferences

ratings for the three classes and clearly shows 50 the increasing skew across the three groups. Table 10.37 ANOVA – Flats, Hills and Mountains 40 SS df MS F Sig. Between 889.53 1 889.53 1811.33 0.000 30 groups Within 156.17 318 0.49 equency

groups Fr 20 Total 1045.70 319

10

50

0 1.1 1.8 2.4 3.0 3.6 4.2 4.8 5.4 6.0 6.6 7.2 7 8.4 9.0 9.6 40 .8

Ratings

y 30

Figure 10.37 Distribution of ratings – Mountains

Frequenc 20 (2) Coastal landforms 10 The South Australian coast has a variety of 0 landforms and an assessment was undertaken 1 1 2 3 3 4.2 4.8 5.4 6.0 6.6 7.2 7.8 8.4 9.0 9.6 .1 .8 .4 .0 .6 of their influence on preferences. Classification Ratings of the landforms was undertaken by dividing the coast into two sections, the interface with the Figure 10.35 Distribution of ratings - Flats water, and the inland section [Table 10.38]. Six different combinations of the two sections were identified [Table 10.39]. Cliffs either rise directly 40 from the water [e.g. Nullarbor cliffs] or are separated from the sea by a beach or by rocks.

30 The description of scenes is in Appendix 10.2.

y Table 10.38 Coastal landform classification 20

Frequenc Sea/land interface Immediate hinterland sandy beaches flat hinterland 10 rocks dunes cliffs cliffs

0 1 1 2 3 3 4.2 4.8 5.4 6.0 6.6 7.2 7.8 8.4 9.0 9.6 .1 .8 .4 .0 .6 Table 10.39 Coastal Landform Scenes

Ratings Landform Slides 1. Cliffs 80, 120 Figure 10.36 Distribution of ratings - Hills 2. Beaches and dunes 5, 106, 124, 137, 141, 152 3. Beaches and cliffs 18, 91, 113 4. Beaches and flat hinterland 49

5. Rocks and cliff 47, 157 6. Beach, rocks and cliffs 35, 97, 108, 128 [including headlands]

The key statistics for the landform scenes reinforce the high rating that coastal scenes elicit, the lowest mean rating was 6.66 [Table 10.40 and Figure 10.38]. Cliffs are present in the three highest rated landforms. The fourth group with cliffs [mean = 7.52] included one scene with low cliffs and the other with low headlands. Interestingly landform 4 of a beach 310 10. Analysis of Preferences

Cliffs #120 Rocks & cliff #157

Beaches & dunes #5 Beach, rocks & cliffs #128

such a familiar holiday locality, well known to most South Australians, did not rate higher.

Table 10.40 Key Statistics for Coastal Landform Scenes in Descending Order

Landform Mean SD Cliffs 8.56 1.50 Beach, rocks and cliffs 8.04 1.11 Beaches and cliffs 8.03 1.29 Beaches and dunes 7.68 1.36 Rocks and cliff 7.52 1.45 Beaches & cliffs #113 Beaches and flat hinterland 6.66 1.64

The ratings shown in Table 10.41 indicates that the top rated scenes were 28.5% higher than the lowest rated.

Table 10.41 Comparison of Ratings of Categories of Coastal Scenes

Category Ratings % difference Beach, flat hinterland 6.66 0 Rocks, cliffs 7.52 12.9 Beaches, dunes 7.68 15.3 Beaches, cliffs 8.03 20.6 Beaches & flat hinterland #49 Beaches, rocks, cliffs 8.04 20.7 Cliffs 8.56 28.5 and flat hinterland [#49] was in the Victor Harbour area, a popular holiday destination The nature of the cliffs present in the scenes is near Adelaide, and included the beach and the summarised in Table 10.42. The height and Bluff, a prominent land form. It is surprising that steepness of the cliffs appears to yield high preferences but the distance the cliffs are away 311 10. Analysis of Preferences

from the viewer is also important - those nearby the major differences are within the groups [e.g. scenes 80, 120] being rated higher than [Table 10.43]. distant cliffs [e.g. 35]. In summary [Figure 10.38], scenes with cliffs or Table 10.42 Description of Highly Rated Scenes steep land near the sea tended to be rated higher than flatter or lower hinterland. Steep Scene Description Mean high cliffs near the viewer are rated particularly Cliffs [mean 8.56] high. 80 High cliffs [Nullarbor] 8.71 120 From cliff top, tall sheer indented 8.41 (3) River Murray landforms cliffs [Cape Spencer] Beaches and cliffs [8.04] Cliffs are a key landform of the River Murray 18 Low cliffs, islands, sea with foam on 8.52 that line the trench section of the river’s length. reef [Pondalowie Bay] These link the river flats to the surrounding flat 91 Sandy beach backed by steep 8.16 mallee land through which the river meanders. slope, distant cliff headland The cliffs are of two types, sloping or sheer. 113 From headland, beach backed by 7.41 These landforms are examined in six scenes steep vegetated slopes [Table 10.44]. Beach, rocks and cliffs [8.03] 35 Low bare headlands and cliffs 7.51 Table 10.44 River Murray Landform Scenes [Petrel Cove] 97 From cliff across beach & sea to 8.23 Scene Description Mean steep cliffs & headland Sloping Cliffs 108 Bare steep rocky escarpment 7.55 51 From sloping clifftop along river 7.04 dropping to coast [Rapid Bay] length [Chowilla] 128 Wide bay, low rocky cliff shoreline & 8.88 53 Low cliffs, lower Murray dairy flats, 5.64 sandy bays, to steep high cliffs wide river across bay [Pennington Bay] 62 Down grassy slopes to bare flats, 5.42 backwater Table 10.43 ANOVA of Coastal Landforms Steep Cliffs 4 From clifftop along cliffs & across 6.49 SS df MS F Sig. river, back lagoon [Wongulla] Between 90.25 1 90.25 182.02 0.000 44 Across river to steep cliffs [Overland 6.98 groups Corner] Within 157.46 318 0.50 58 From clifftop along cliffs, across 6.95 groups river and back lagoon [Big Bend] Total 247.71 319 It is clear from the statistics of these two

10 landforms that the scenes with steep cliffs are rated much higher than those with sloping cliffs 9 [Table 10.45]. The scenes with steep cliffs were 8

7

6

5 Ratings

4

3

2

1 C B B Be Ro Be li e e ffs ac a ac cks/ a h ch h ch / e /fl /r du s/cliffs cl o atl if cks/cli ne a fs s nd ffs Sloping cliffs #62

Figure 10.38 Boxplot of Coastal Landform Ratings

The ANOVA test indicates that the differences between these classes are significant although 312 10. Analysis of Preferences

because of extensive rock faces or slopes. Some of the peaks in the Flinders Ranges have high, near vertical cliffs while in the granitic Musgraves the mountains comprise exposed rock sheets with little vegetation [eg scene #43].

Steep cliffs #58

10

9

8

7 6 Rock faces #104 ngs i

Rat 5

4

3

2

1 Sloping cliffs Steep cliffs

Figure 10.39 Boxplot of River Murray Landforms

Table 10.45 Comparative statistics of River Murray Landforms

Landform Mean SD Rock faces #43 Sloping cliffs 6.04 1.48 Steep cliffs 6.81 1.31 Scenes in the Flinders Ranges, Gawler Ranges, Olary Ridge, the Musgraves and Mann rated 12.7% higher than those with sloping Ranges were assessed. There were 16 scenes cliffs, again reinforcing the importance of steep in the Flinders Ranges and a further seven cliffs. The difference is illustrated by the boxplot scenes in the other arid uplands and ranges, in Figure 10.38. It is noteworthy that the cliffs making 23 scenes in all. along the River Murray rated lower than coastal cliff scenes: coastal cliffs 8.15, River Murray The significance of the rock faces in the scenes cliffs 6.42. The difference may be due to the was assessed based on the extent of the rock brown colour and lack of movement in the River faces and the steepness of the slope. The Murray water. significance of the rock faces was rated out of five, 1 being absent or not present, through to 5 The difference between the two landforms was that were rock faces of considerable extent and shown by a t test to be significant: t = -13.327, steepness. df = 318, p < 0.000. Table 10.46 summarises the scenes, their In summary, preferences are 12.7% higher for rating statistics and the average scoring by six river scenes with steep cliffs than with sloping respondents of the significance of rock faces. cliffs and the difference is statistically significant. Table 10.47 summarises the statistics for the scoring of the significance of rock faces and (4) Exposed rock faces indicates clearly that the ratings increase with the scores. Although relatively low in elevation, the appearance of some of the ranges in inland South Australia, is the more impressive 313 10. Analysis of Preferences

Table 10.46 Flinders Ranges and Arid Ranges Scenes - Rock face Scores

Description Slide Rating SD Score Flinders Ranges Aroona Valley & Heysen Range; high ranges and treed valley 6 7.42 1.78 3.00 Edeowie Gorge, rugged vertical rock faces, 2 waterfalls 23 8.16 1.85 4.83 Moralana valley, Wilpena Pound ramparts 32 8.27 1.54 2.33 Mt Freeling station, stony hill, spinifex and low spindly trees 39 5.41 1.77 1.00 Steep rounded mesa 60 5.40 1.97 2.50 Mt Freeling Station, spinifex, treed slope, vegetated valley, hills 72 6.84 1.80 1.00 Across native pines & eucalypts to high steep vegetated hill 74 5.55 1.72 1.00 Beltana Station, shrubby plain, series of steep peaky hills 88 6.38 1.93 2.17 Edeowie Gorge, through eucalypt to sheer cliff faces 104 8.38 1.55 4.67 Mambray Ck, vegetated valley to high vegetated ridgeline 107 8.05 1.49 1.33 Mt Barbara, steep rocky mountain, native pines 109 6.96 1.72 2.83 Mt Painter, steep rocky mountain, native pines 126 6.68 1.89 3.33 Armchair; thickly vegetated valley to three steep rocky mtns, 136 7.62 1.70 3.00 McKinley Bluff, tree studded slope to high rock face mountain 147 7.01 1.83 4.67 Dutchmans Stern; bare conical hill, steep ranges, shrubs 151 6.87 1.80 2.00 Old Warrawena, native pine valley, bare steep peak & hills 160 6.62 1.76 2.17 Arid Ranges Musgraves; boulders, shrubby plain, high round mountains 9 7.03 1.76 2.67 Mann Ranges; Euc. studded plain, high spur, distant ranges 43 7.07 1.98 2.17 Musgraves; boulder-strewn valley, smooth rounded mountain 140 7.22 1.85 2.50 Arckaringa Hill; shrubs, steep bare mesa, dark capping 78 6.97 1.71 3.17 Breakaways; bare ground, steep sloped flat mesas 103 6.11 2.26 2.67 Olary Ridge; chenopod plain, low rounded bare range of hills 21 5.58 1.66 1.17 Gawler Ranges; stony, chenopod plain, low rounded bare hills 38 5.11 1.82 1.00

10 10

9 9

8 8

7 7

6 6 ngs i 5 5 Rat Ratings 4 4 3 3 2 2 1 1 1 2 3 4 1234 Factor Scores Scores

Figure 10.40 Boxplot of Scores of Rock Face Figure 10.41 Scoring vs Rating of Rock Face Significance Significance

Table 10.47 Rating of Rock Face Scores This is illustrated by the boxplot [Figure 10.40] and the trendline [Figure 10.41]. The high Scoring of Rock Faces scores may also be a function of the striking 1 2 3 4 orange colours of the rockfaces. There is an almost perfect linear relationship between the Mean 6.09 6.79 7.02 7.79 2 SD 1.28 1.32 1.40 1.38 factor scores and ratings: y = 0.53x + 5.59; r = 0.96. This indicates that there is a 26.0% 86. increase in rating over the four scores

86. The increase across the scoring range was calculated based on the equation where x is the score, e.g. for y = 0.53x + 5.59, for a score of 1, 314 10. Analysis of Preferences

The ANOVA indicates that the differences are 10 metres while that in 1:250,000 maps was a significant [Table 10.48] with approximately 50 metre interval. two-thirds of the differences being between groups. The following attributes were derived for each scene: Table 10.48 ANOVA - Significance of Rock Faces • Height of the position from where the photograph SS df MS F Sig. was taken. Between 455.46 1 455.46 692.01 0.000 groups • Height of the lowest point in the scene, for Within 209.30 318 .66 example where the sea was included this would groups be height zero. Total 664.76 319 • Height of the highest point in the scene. Where there were several high points, for example, a In summary, the preferences for mountain range of hills, an average was derived. In a few scenes increase by up to 26% depending on cases where there were several distinctive high the extent and steepness of rock faces present. points at varying distances, for example a close mountain peak and a distant one, heights of both (5) Elevation points were derived.

The classification of terrain into the various • The distance to the highest point was derived, classes of landforms is a relatively crude measured in kilometres or parts thereof. Where there were several high points, the distances differentiation and a more accurate measure were derived for each of these [Figure 10.42]. was developed. Measures of the height differences and distances between the viewer The angle of view to the highest point was and the top of the prevailing terrain, along with calculated thus: measures of the angles of view provide a more objective measure. tangent α° = height/distance

Elevation was a common characteristic where α° is the angle measured above the measured in many studies and was measured horizontal. In many instances the viewpoint was using appropriate maps. Anderson et al, 1976 across a lower point before rising to the highest used measures of relative relief, absolute point, for example across a valley to a distant relative relief, and mean elevation. Gobster & ridgeline. In these cases, as well as calculating Chenoweth, 1989 measured the steepness of the terrain and distance of view. In New α°, the angle from the lowest point to the Zealand, Mosley, 1989 assessed the angle highest point was also calculated. This is angle [tangent] of line of sight to highest visible point, β°. In summary: the angle of line of sight to the most prominent point, and the angle of line of sight to the most Angle α° is the angle from the horizontal to the remote visible point; of these only the first factor highest point was significant. He also found the elevation of Angle β° is the angle from the lowest point to the highest point the most prominent point above the photograph was significant. While the majority of scenes viewed upwards towards a high point, in 26 scenes the view was Measurement of Elevation down across the landscape [Figure 10.43]. The

angle of view, α°, was measured in the same Measurement of elevation in the scenes was way as in Figure 10.42, the only difference undertaken. Maps of a scale of 1:50,000 were being that was it measured downwards to the used for scenes located in the Mt Lofty Ranges, high point. Again, β° measured the angle the mid north, Murray Valley, Kangaroo Island between the high point and the low point. and the main ranges of the Flinders Ranges.

Elsewhere maps of 1:250,000 scale were used. In the majority of cases, estimates were derived The contour interval of the 1:50,000 maps was based on the maps, however for 10 slides, all in the far north region, either the maps lacked y = 6.12, for a score of 4, y = 7.71; the percentage change between the two scores is (100 * 7.71/6.12) 125.98; i.e. score 4 is 26% above score 1.

315 10. Analysis of Preferences

Highest point

Viewpoint α° β°

Lowest point

Distance

Figure 10.42 Derivation of Angles of Elevation

α°

β°

Figure 10.43 Derivation of Angles for Lower Landscapes

height data or the exact location of the scene was uncertain. In these cases, an estimate was made from the slide of the heights and distance. The results of the analysis of angles of elevation are summarised by Table 10.49.

Table 10.49 Number of Angles of Elevation Measured from Scenes

Angle All scenes1 All scenes1 α° β° 0 38

Example of view up (Gawler Ranges, #38) < 0.5° 10 3 0.5° - 1° 15 6 1° - 2° 27 11 2° - 3° 12 3 3° - 4° 8 2 4° - 5° 6 3 5° - 6° 3 2 6° - 7° 1 7° - 8° 8° - 9° 2 1 9° - 10° 3 2 10° - 11° 11° - 12° 2 12° - 13° 1 Example of view down and then up (Marble Hill, #14) 13° - 14° 1 > 14° 2 Total 131 33 Note: 1 = all scenes excludes interstate scenes [5] and scenes with negative heights - i.e. downward 316 10. Analysis of Preferences

views. Some scenes included two α° to cover a near Table 10.52 All Scenes - Ratings of Attributes ridge and a distant range. The scenes with 0° means that the high point was at the same level as the Attribute Classes viewpoint. The > 14°category were 15°, 24° and 37°. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Distance The detailed data on elevations and angles for Mean 6.59 5.84 6.00 6.26 5.84 5.66 all slides are summarised in Appendix 10.3. SD 1.02 1.01 1.00 1.04 1.02 0.98 Height Difference It is apparent from Table 10.49 that a Mean 5.92 5.61 5.93 5.55 6.00 7.19 characteristic of the South Australian landscape SD 0.97 1.00 1.05 1.09 1.17 1.20 is its flatness. Over a quarter [29%] were zero Angles degrees, and further 49% were between zero Mean 5.74 5.68 7.02 7.03 6.72 and 3°. A one degree angle is the equivalent of SD 0.97 1.03 1.47 1.38 1.21 a rise of 18 metres over one kilometre [i.e. 1000 m]. The high angles occurred where the high Each of these were aggregated into classes feature was close to the viewpoint - e.g. within [Table 10.50]. Table 10.51 summarises number Edeowie Gorge, scene #104 [37°], or in front of of scenes per attribute class, Table 10.52 McKinley Bluff in the Gammon Ranges, scene indicates the statistics of each of the classes for #147 [24°]. the three attributes and Figures 10.44, 10.45 and 10.46 of boxplots indicates the relationship between attribute scores and ratings. All Scenes

[excluding interstate scenes and downward viewing scenes] 10 9

The elevations of all scenes were assessed 8 based on the following attributes. 7 • The distance to the furthest point. 6 ngs i • The height difference, generally the difference 5 between the horizon and the highest point. For Rat downward views it is the difference between the 4

lowest and highest point. This factor is called 3 ‘height’. • The angle of view, as for height difference, the 2 largest angle was selected. 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 Table 10.50 Elevation Classes Classes

Class Distance Height Angle Figure 10.44 Boxplot of Height vs Ratings Difference

1 0 - 99 km 0 - 99 m 0 - 2.99º 2 1 - 1.99 100 - 199 3 - 5.99º 10 º 3 2 - 2.99 200 - 299 6 - 8.99 9 4 3 - 3.99 300 - 399 9 - 11.99º 8 5 4 - 4.99 400 - 499 >12º 6 > 5 > 500 7 6 ngs Table 10.51 All Scenes* – Number of Scenes i 5 Rat Class Distance Height Angle 4

Difference 3 1 15 44 63 2 17 21 17 2 3 12 9 3 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 4 10 7 5 Classes 5 9 4 4 6 28 5 Total 91 90 92 Figure 10.45 Boxplot of Distance vs Ratings * Excluding interstate scenes and scenes with negative heights

317 10. Analysis of Preferences

10 height difference F = 432.15, df 1, 318, p < 0.000 angles F = 481.80, df 1, 318, p < 0.000 9 8 Downward Viewing Scenes

7 Table 10.53 Downward Viewing Scenes – 6 Number of Scenes ngs i 5 Rat Class Distance Height Angle 4 Difference 3 1 16 7 15

2 2 4 3

1 3 3 6 4 1 2 3 4 5 4 1 2 5 1 Classes 6 3 Total 21 21 21 Figure 10.46 Boxplot of Angles vs Ratings The scenes which view downwards across a Figure 10.47 shows the influence of the scene were analysed separately. Table 10.53 elevation parameters and preferences from summarises the number of scenes per attribute which the following equations were derived: class. Table 10.54 indicates the statistics for each of the classes of the three attributes and Distance y = -0.13x + 6.47; r2 =0.48 2 Figure 10.48 indicates the relationship between Height difference y = 0.20x + 5.32; r = 0.41 attribute scores and ratings. Angles y = 0.33x + 5.44; r2 = 0.60

Table 10.54 Downward Viewing Scenes – 10 Ratings of Attributes 9 Attribute Classes 8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Distance 6 Mean 7.05 7.55 6.22 5.01 5.98 6.57 SD 1.15 1.20 1.26 1.52 1.57 1.18 5 Height Difference Ratings 4 Mean 6.79 6.49 6.14 Height 3 SD 0.96 1.44 1.42 Distance Angles 2 Angle Mean 6.67 6.80 4.78 1 SD 1.04 1.19 1.79 123456 Classes

9 Figure 10.47 Influence of Elevation on 7 Preferences - All Scenes

5 These indicate that preferences increase with Ratings the difference in heights between the viewpoint 3 Height and the top of the landform and also increase Distance with the angle of view. Preferences decrease 1 with the distance of the view. Based on these 1234An56gle algorithms, the increases in ratings over the score classes are: Classes

• distance - 10.25% • height difference 14.60% Figure 10.48 Influence of Downward Views on • angles 22.88% Preferences The small number of scenes in many of the ANOVAs indicate that in each case the classes and their lack of continuity make it relationships are significant: difficult to derive trend lines for these data. For distance F = 239.77, df 1, 318, p < 0.000 the one factor for which data were available 318 10. Analysis of Preferences

covering the entire range, the influence of Table 10.56 Flinders Ranges and NW Ranges – distance, the equation: y = - 0.24x + 7.23; r2 = Ratings of Attributes 0.25 indicates that preferences decreased with distance, a finding identical with that for the Attribute Classes scenes which viewed upwards. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Distance Preferences decreased by 17.17% over the six Mean 5.55 6.50 7.56 7.11 7.21 7.18 classes. The indication given by the data in SD 1.72 1.62 1.48 1.45 1.50 1.17 Table 10.54 and by Figure 10.48 is that Height Difference preferences are reduced by both the height Mean 6.85 6.86 7.56 6.72 7.22 6.83 difference and the angle of view for downward SD 1.41 1.51 1.49 1.73 1.47 1.21 viewed scenes. However it is not possible to be Angles definitive on this point on the available data. Mean 6.38 6.61 7.02 7.44 7.38 SD 1.93 1.11 1.47 1.45 1.45 ANOVAs indicate that in each case the relationships are significant: Based on these the following equations were derived: distance F = 297.02, df 1, 318, p < 0.000 height difference F = 364.10, df 1, 318, p < 0.000 Distance y = 0.004x + 6.99; r2 = 0.0005 angles F = 99.27, df 1, 318, p < 0.000 Height difference y = 0.28x +5.87; r2 = 0.53 Angles y = 0.28x + 6.12; r2 = 0.92 Flinders Ranges and North West Ranges It is evident on the basis of these that distance The regions with the greatest elevation in South had a negligible effect on preferences, the Australia are the Flinders Ranges and the rating of a distant view will be almost identical ranges in the north west - the Musgraves and to a nearby view. However this is a change Mann Ranges. The data on elevation were from the negative influence that distance had analysed for scenes in these regions, omitting on preferences in the ‘all scenes’ and again the scenes with negative heights. ‘downward scenes’ cases.

Table 10.55 Flinders Ranges and NW Ranges – Number of Scenes 10 9 Class Distance Height Angle 8 Difference 7 1 2 1 1 6 2 3 2 5 5 Ratings 4 3 3 2 2 3 Distance 4 2 3 3 2 Height 5 2 2 4 1 6 3 5 Angle Total 15 15 15 123456 Classes The number of scenes for each of the attribute classes is summarised by Table 10.55. Table 10.56 and Figure 10.49 indicates the influence Figure 10.49 Influence of Elevation on of height, distance and angle of view on Preferences - Flinders Ranges & NW ranges preferences. The relatively small number of scenes in each class is reflected by the large standard deviations.

Table 10.57 Summary of Findings of Influence of Elevation on Preferences Attribute All Scenes Downward View Scenes Flinders/NW Ranges Distance y = -0.13x + 6.47; r2 =0.48 y = - 0.24x + 7.23; y = 0.004x + 6.99; -10.25% r2 = 0.25; -17.17% r2 = 0.0005; 0.29% Height y = 0.20x + 5.32; r2 = 0.41 y = 0.28x +5.87; r2 = 0.53 difference 14.60% 22.76% Angle of y = 0.33x + 5.44; r2 = 0.60 y = 0.28x + 6.12; r2 = 0.92 view 22.88% 17.50%

319 10. Analysis of Preferences

Based on these algorithms, the increase in Along the trench section of the River Murray, ratings over the score classes is: the cliffs either slope from the surrounding plains or are sheer. Again the scenes with • distance 0.29% steep cliffs were rated higher [6.81] than those • height difference 22.76% with sloping cliffs [6.04], a difference of 12.7%. • angles 17.50% The Flinders Ranges and the arid ranges of the Compared with the ‘all scenes’ case, in scenes outback have impressive rock faces or slopes. of the Flinders Ranges and NW ranges, The extent and steepness of rock faces were distance has a stronger influence, nearly 23% assessed into four classes and the ratings over the six classes compared with 14.6%, increased linearly by 26.1% over these classes. while the angle of view has a lesser influence, 17.5% compared with nearly 23%. The elevation of scenes was assessed by measuring three attributes: the distance to the ANOVAs indicate that the relationship is not farthest point in the scene, the difference in significant for the distance factor but the other height between the viewer and the highest point relationships are significant: in the scene; and the angle of view to the highest point. This was assessed for all scenes distance F = 0.031, df 1, 318, p = 0.86 except interstate and downward viewing height difference F = 329.79, df 1, 318, p < 0.000 scenes, for downward viewing scenes angles F = 211.16, df 1, 318, p < 0.000 separately, and for scenes in the Flinders Ranges and north west ranges. In summary, Table 10.57 shows the equations and influence on ratings for the three attributes Distance was found to have a negative or at for the various cases. best neutral influence on preferences, i.e. the preferences of distant scenes was either Distance to the farthest point has a negative identical or lower than for nearby scenes, influence on preferences for ‘all scenes’ and suggesting a general preference for nearby ‘downward view scenes’ and is neutral for the scenes. Both height difference and the angle of scenes of the Flinders and NW Ranges. The view had a positive influence on preferences, difference in height between the viewer and the increasing preferences by up to 23% depending highest point in the scene has a positive on the difference in height between the viewer influence, particularly in the Flinders and NW and the highest point, and by a similar amount Ranges. Similarly the angle of view to the depending on the angle of view of these highest point in the scene also has a positive components. influence.

These results complement and reinforce the 10.8 LAND COVER earlier findings regarding coastal and River

Murray scenes and rockfaces in the Flinders Land cover essentially means vegetative cover. and NW Ranges. It focuses on the presence of differing forms of

vegetation. The land cover attribute was (6) Summary of land forms examined through assessing the influence on

preferences of the: South Australia is predominantly of flat terrain though there are relatively small hilly and • presence of trees mountainous areas. Preferences for hilly areas are 13.9% above the average for flat areas, and • height of vegetation preferences for mountainous areas are 50.3% • density of vegetation above flat areas. • types of vegetation • origin of vegetation (i.e. introduced vs In coastal areas six landform groupings were indigenous) defined and the highest rated were cliffs [8.56], followed by beaches/rocks/cliffs [8.04], beaches/cliffs [8.03], beaches/ dunes [7.68], rocks/cliffs [7.52] and beaches/flat hinterland [6.66]. Clearly the steeper the terrain the higher the rating. The presence of cliffs lifts ratings as do dunes in a scene.

320 10. Analysis of Preferences

(1) Presence of trees These scores were grouped into four classes [Table 10.58]. An assessment was undertaken of the extent to which the presence of trees in scenes ratings. Table 10.59 summarises the mean and This identified scenes that contained trees, standard deviation of average ratings for the being vegetation with a tree form, and included four scores of significance of trees in scenes. low sparse trees in arid areas through to tall, These are illustrated by the Figure 10.50 and thick eucalypts in moister areas. There was a 10.51. The ratings increase with the scoring of total of 116 scenes with trees. the significance of trees as described by the following algorithm: y = 0.40x + 4.70; r2 = 0.81.

Table 10.59 Significance of Trees in Scenes

Score Mean SD 1 - 1.99 4.89 1.07 2 - 2.99 5.71 0.98 3 - 3.99 6.15 0.99 4 - 4.99 6.09 1.10

10 9 8 Significance of trees - score 2 [#43] 7 6 5 Ratings 4 3 2 1 1234 Scores

Significance of trees - score 4 [#143] Figure 10.50 Significance of Trees - Scores vs Ratings The significance of the trees in the scenes was assessed on a 1 - 5 scale, 1 being insignificant 10 and 5 being very significant. This was assessed 9 by viewing the scene as a whole and assessing the dominance or prominence of the trees, for 8 example a few nearby trees in an otherwise 7 barren landscape may be as significant as 6 ngs i t many more distant trees. A judgement is thus a 5 involved and six respondents undertook the R assessment. Their scores are summarised in 4 Appendix 10.4. 3

2

Table 10.58 Distribution of Scores of Tree 1 Significance 1 2 3 4

Scores Score Number 1 - 1.99 42 2 - 2.99 36 Figure 10.51 Boxplot of Scoring of Significance 3 - 3.99 28 of Trees 4 - 4.99 10 Total 116

321 10. Analysis of Preferences

The results indicate clearly that the presence of scale, with 1 being low height/very scattered trees influences preferences. On the basis of vegetation through to 5 being very high/dense the scoring of the significance of trees in vegetation. scenes, the increase over the four classes is 23.5% above the lowest score. The ANOVA As many scenes contained a variety of [Table 10.60] indicates that the differences vegetation, such as scattered tall trees and between the groups are significant with two dense low bushes, it would be pointless thirds of the differences being between groups. deriving averages as the vegetation is often bipolar in its form and distribution. Therefore Table 10.60 ANOVA - Significance of Trees in the height and density were assessed Scenes independently of each other. The vegetation with, respectively, the highest height and the SS df MS F Sig. greatest density, was used as the basis of the Between 260.45 1 260.45 626.87 .000 scoring. This approach was based on the groups assumption that it would be highest and Within 132.12 318 0.42 densest forms of vegetation that would have the groups greater influence on preferences than the Total 392.57 319 lowest and least dense forms of vegetation. The previous results indicate that the The foregoing covers all scenes and therefore assumption is likely to be correct in relation to mixes scenes from differing regions and of very the height of vegetation. different contents. To gain a more accurate assessment of the effect of trees on preferences it is desirable to examine it for a particular type of scene, e.g. cropping scenes, thus holding constant factors such as land use and, to some extent land form. The significance of tree cover covering crops and pasture scenes and scenes of hills & pastures, mixed uses, and vines are examined in Sections 5.4.2 and 5.4.3. The significance of trees in influencing preferences is shown by the following algorithms [including all scenes for comparison]: Scene #12, height 2, density 2 Trees in all scenes y = 0.40x + 4.70; r2 = 0.81 The scoring ignored grass cover and crop 23.5% increase in means cover. In landscapes these have an Trees in crops & pasture scenes 2 appearance as carpets - they are largely y = 0.27x + 3.93; r = 0.99 unnoticed and unremarkable. The low 12.9% increase in means preference ratings found for crops suggest that Trees in hills & pastures, mixed uses and vines y = 0.405x + 4.41; r2 = 0.99 crop cover has minimal influence on 16.8% increase in means preferences and the same was assumed for grass. All of these indicate that trees have a positive influence on preferences and, particularly in scenes containing a variety of land forms and land uses, the effect of the trees is quite substantial.

(2) Height and density of vegetation

To seek further explanation of the role that vegetation plays in influencing preferences, all scenes were analysed regarding the height and density of vegetation. This covered all forms of vegetation, not just trees, so included low coastal and chenopod vegetation along with tall eucalypts and pines. The height and density of Scene #14, height 4, density 4 vegetation were assessed separately on a 1 - 5 322 10. Analysis of Preferences

The ANOVAs indicate that the differences between classes for both vegetation height and density are significant [Tables 10.63, 10.64], and in both cases the differences within the groups are greater than between the groups.

Table 10.63 ANOVA - Vegetation Height, All Scenes

SS df MS F Sig. Between 60.44 1 60.44 193.33 .000 groups Scene #85, height 4, density 2 Within 99.42 318 0.31 groups Total 159.86 319

Table 10.64 ANOVA - Vegetation Density, All Scenes

SS df MS F Sig. Between 107.88 1 107.88 202.76 .000 groups Within 169.20 318 0.53 groups Total 277.08 319

Coastal vegetation #157, height 1, density 3 10 The scores for the scenes of vegetation are shown in Appendix 10.5. Table 10.61 9 summarises the distribution of the height and 8 density classes. It indicates that while much of 7 the vegetation is low, it is of moderate to high density. 6 5 Table 10.61 Distribution of Vegetation Height and Ratings Density Scores 4

3 height Score Height Density 1 - 1.99 52 28 2 density 2 - 2.99 57 71 1 3 - 3.99 26 47 1234 4 - 4.99 20 9 Scores Total 155 155

Figure 10.52 Relationship of Ratings with Scores Table 10.62 summarises the average ratings of Vegetation Height and Density across the four classes for vegetation height and density. The means shown in Table 10.62 and illustrated in Figure 10.52 and the boxplots in Table 10.62 Ratings of all Scenes by Scores of Figures 10.53 and 10.54 indicate that a clear Vegetation Height and Density trend is evident between the scores and ratings

for either vegetation height or density. The Scores relevant algorithms are: 1 - 1.99 2 - 2.99 3 - 3.99 4 - 4.99

Height 2 Vegetation height: y = 0.195x + 5.45; r = 0.50 Mean 5.88 5.50 6.01 6.36 Vegetation density: y = 0.26x + 5.21; r2 = 0.97 SD 1.01 0.97 1.00 1.04

Density These algorithms indicate that preferences Height 5.42 5.81 5.98 6.23 increase by up to 10.36% over the four score SD 1.05 0.98 0.96 1.14 classes of vegetation height and by up to

14.26% for vegetation density. 323 10. Analysis of Preferences

The analysis was therefore undertaken for all

10 South Australian scenes without the coastal scenes. 9

8 Table 10.65 Distribution of Vegetation Height &

7 Density Scores Excluding Coastal Scenes 6 ngs i

t a 5 R Score Height Density 4 1 - 1.99 37 24

3 2 - 2.99 53 58 3 - 3.99 26 45 2 4 - 4.99 20 8 1 Total 135 135 1 2 3 4

Scores Table 10.65 indicates the distribution of scores for these scenes. Compared with the previous Figure 10.53 Boxplot of Vegetation Height analysis, this has many fewer ‘1’ height scores Ratings [37 compared with 52 previously] and slightly fewer ‘2’ scores [53 cf 57]. Of the density 10 scores the ‘2’ scores reduced substantially [58

9 cf 71]. The effect of these on the ratings is apparent in Table 10.66. 8 7 Table 10.66 Ratings of all Scenes by Scores of

6 Vegetation Height and Density - ngs i t without coastal scenes a 5 R Scores 4 1 - 1.99 2 - 2.99 3 - 3.99 4 - 4.99

3 Height

2 Mean 4.98 5.35 6.01 6.38 SD 1.10 0.99 1.01 1.02 1 1 2 3 4 Density

Scores Height 5.01 5.37 5.91 6.09 SD 1.11 0.99 0.96 1.13

Figure 10.54 Boxplot of Vegetation Density Table 10.67 ANOVA - Vegetation Height, All Ratings Scenes - less coastal scenes

These results are based on all the scenes [excluding interstate scenes] and includes SS df MS F Sig. Between 380.62 1 380.62 929.87 .000 coastal scenes which are generally highly rated groups but in which the vegetation is often very low Within 130.16 318 0.41 though dense. There were a total of 20 coastal groups scenes but two contained no vegetation Total 510.78 319 whatsoever. Of the remaining 18 coastal scenes, most were rated as 1 in terms of height Table 10.68 ANOVA - Vegetation Density, while 11 of the scenes rated 4 or 5 in terms of All Scenes - less coastal scenes density. Removal of these scenes provides a more consistent set of scenes by which the SS df MS F Sig. influence of vegetation height and density may Between 228.02 1 228.02 393.37 .000 be assessed. Consideration was given to also groups excluding scenes of inland water with Within 184.34 318 0.58 vegetation. While the vegetation near the coast groups tends to be low but dense, vegetation near Total 412.36 319 inland freshwater is often tall and also quite dense. Although associated with water, there The ANOVAs indicate that the differences appears to be no good reason for excluding this between classes for both vegetation height and vegetation. density are significant [Tables 10.67, 10.68] and the F values are considerably greater than for the previous analyses with coastal scenes. 324 10. Analysis of Preferences

In contrast to the previous ANOVA, the 10 differences between groups now exceed the within-group differences. 8

Compared with the earlier rating of all scenes [Table 10.62], the score 1 height has changed 6 from 6 to 5.05 and the score 1 density from 5.05 to 4.57. These together with other 4 changes in the scores produce clearer relationships between scores and ratings and 2 steeper trend [Figure 10.55].

0 1 2 3 4

10 Scores

9 Figure 10.56 Boxplot of Vegetation Height 8 Ratings without coast 7

10 6 9 5

Ratings 8 4 7 height 3 6 ngs i t

density a 5 2 R

4 1 1234 3 Scores 2 1 Figure 10.55 Relationship of Ratings with Scores 1 2 3 4 of Vegetation Height & Density Scores

without coastal scenes Figure 10.57 Boxplot of Vegetation Density The relationships are: Ratings without coast

2 Height y = 0.49x + 4.47; r = 0.99 Table 10.69 Summary of Algorithms for Scenes 2 Density y = 0.38x + 4.65; r = 0.97 with Vegetation

Compared with the previous algorithms, these All scenes All scenes without have steeper slopes and the r2 of vegetation coast height is much stronger. Based on these Height y = 0.19x + 5.45 y = 0.49x + 4.47 2 2 algorithms, preferences increased by 29.6% r = 0.50 r = 0.99 over the four score classes of vegetation height 10.4% increase 29.6% increase Density y = 0.26x + 5.21 y = 0.38x + 4.65 and by 22.7% for vegetation density. The 2 2 increases are considerably higher than r = 0.97 r = 0.97 14.3% increase 22.7% increase previously [10.4% and 14.3% respectively].

These indicate that height and density of The two sets of algorithms are summarised in vegetation, other than in coastal areas, Table 10.69. Adopting the second set as more influences preference ratings. The relationship representative of terrestrial vegetation, the is further illustrated by Figures 10.56 and 10.57. preferences increased by up to 30% according

to the height and up to 23% according to the density of the vegetation.

(3) Types of Vegetation

The search for explanatory factors in the influence of land cover on preferences lead to 325 10. Analysis of Preferences

Table 10.70 Structure of South Australian Vegetation [after Carnahan]

Foliage cover Growth form > 70% 30 - 70% 10 - 30% < 10% Tall trees > 30 m Medium trees lower high Mt Lofty R. sth Flinders R. Mt Lofty R. 10 - 30 m South East Low trees < 10 m Naracoorte area Flinders R. sth & west Kangaroo lower South East Island east Burra Gawler Ranges west Victoria Desert Tall shrubs > 2 m Yellabinna - Yumbarra nw. Ranges Simpson black oak n. R. Murray Desert Victoria Desert central Eyre Pen Ngarkat mallee Low shrubs < 2 m nw. Olary central/southern south Lake Torrens Breakaways Coongie lakes El Alamein Olary spur e. & w. Flinders R. Hummock grasses Musgraves Ranges Tussock grasses east Jamestown Warburton Ck south Birdsville east Elliston east Lyndhurst se. Loxton Other herbaceous agricultural grasses areas an examination the types of vegetation. The vegetation shown in the scenes included It is important to appreciate that the ratings spinifex [Triodia irritans], saltbush derive from the entire set of attributes contained [Chenopodiacae], native pines [Callitris spp], in the scenes, not just the vegetation. For samphires [i.e. salt marsh] and mangroves example coastal scenes are the highest rated [Avicennia marina var resinifera], willows [Salix of all scenes in South Australia but the previous spp], gums [Eucalyptus] of various species and section’s finding of the influence of vegetation forms, and introduced pines [Pinus radiata]. height on preferences suggests that this is unlikely to be due to the low ground-hugging Australia’s present vegetation has been vegetation which characterise the coast. The classified by the botanist, J.A. Carnahan (1989) average ratings for each vegetation type are on the basis of its growth form and the density summarised in Table 10.71 and Figure 10.58. of foliage cover for the tallest stratum and lower stratum. Table 10.70 summarises the Pastoral scenes of isolated large trees and distribution of vegetation types in South grass, beloved of landscape theorists as similar Australia on the basis of Carnahan’s map. to the savanna landscape in which humans are theorised to have evolved, were only of middle It is apparent from Table 10.70 that South ranking scores [5.38]. The eight scenes Australia’s vegetation comprises medium to low provided a range of pastoral elements and their trees and shrubs of low density, it has no relatively modest ranking does not provide extensive areas of tall trees and the medium convincing support for the savanna theories. In size trees are confined to the wetter areas. contrast, however to many pastoral scenes in However Carnahan’s map does not cover temperate countries with well shaped, medium size trees such as Eucalypts in micro deciduous trees or African acacia trees [Orians, areas such as occur along creeks and the River 1986, Heerwagen & Orians, 1993], Australian Murray. The classification is too coarse to eucalypts are decidedly non-symmetrical and provide a basis for examining the vegetation this may detract from their pastoral-like types used in the survey. appearance.

Appendix 10.6 lists 101 scenes that contain vegetation. It groups the indigenous vegetation into 16 categories ranging from arid grasses through various forms of shrubs and trees to tall dense vegetation. It also includes three forms of introduced and cultural vegetation.

326 10. Analysis of Preferences

Table 10.71 Ratings of Vegetation Types

Vegetation Type Scenes Mean SD Indigenous Vegetation Arid grass & spinifex 3 4.82 1.52 Arid trees & shrubs 2 5.18 1.68 Arid mountains & vegetation 6 7.30 1.39 Chenopods 8 5.56 1.47 Creek-side trees 3 6.09 1.38 Native pines 5 6.96 1.18 Arid dunes 2 6.83 1.67 Coastal vegetation 9 7.60 1.32 Littoral vegetation 3 5.55 1.45 Dead trees 2 5.04 1.92 River Murray vegetation - eucalypts, lignum 10 6.45 1.19 Mallee 4 5.94 1.55 Pastoral 10 5.33 1.19 Hills, fields & trees (scattered eucalypts) in Mt Lofty R. 16 5.09 1.23 Dense eucalyptus woodlands 8 6.59 1.12 Vegetation adjacent to other inland waters 4 7.19 1.23 Introduced and Cultural Vegetation Pines 2 4.62 1.75 Willows 2 5.48 1.52 Orchards 2 5.76 1.40 Notes: 1. Mainly in Mt Lofty Ranges 2. i.e. inland waters

An interesting finding is the reasonably high The type of vegetation appears however to rating of stands of mallee [5.94] sometimes have some influence on preferences, e.g. the regarded as monotonous and boring. However discrimination of pines, which indicates that the several of the scenes were relatively close-up content of the scene is important and that in which the diversity of colour and form of respondents do not treat all vegetation equally individual mallee trees were evident. The types and judge them simply in terms of say height or of vegetation in the lower part of Figure 10.58 - density. creek-side trees and below - are generally situated with water present or amidst The pines, willows and orchard trees are mountainous terrain and it is difficult to introduced types of vegetation in contrast to the separate the positive influence that these remainder which are indigenous to Australia. attributes have on preferences from the vegetation itself. As stated earlier, the highest Table 10.72 Rating of Indigenous and Introduced ranked vegetation type, coastal vegetation Vegetation Types occurs with the highest ranked landscape region and as the vegetation is generally low Mean SD and nondescript visually, the high ratings are Indigenous 6.11 0.95 unlikely to be attributable to the vegetation. Vegetation Introduced 5.29 1.25 Vegetation Similarly the native pines are found in scenes of the Flinders Ranges, another highly rated The average ratings for these two groups are region. summarised in Table 10.72 which indicates that

overall, the indigenous vegetation types are Thus the context of the vegetation often has a rated 15.5% higher than the introduced major influence on its ranking. In some vegetation types [Figure 10.59]. The ANOVA situations, the vegetation is more important indicates that the difference between the than the land form or land use while in other groups is significant [Table 10.73]. cases it is less important than the terrain or presence of water. 327 10. Analysis of Preferences

Pines

A rid g ra s s & s pinif e x

Dead trees

Hills, fields & trees

Arid trees & shrubs

Pas toral

Willow s

Littoral vegetation

Chenopods

Orchards

Ma lle e

Creek-side trees

River Murray vegetation

Dense eucalyptus w oodlands

Arid dunes

Native pines

Vegetation adjacent to other w ater bodies

Arid mountains & vegetation

Coas tal v egetation

12345678910 Ratings

Figure 10.58 Ratings of Vegetation Types - in order of ratings

328 10. Analysis of Preferences

Table 10.73 ANOVA - Indigenous & Introduced preferences and vegetation height and Vegetation vegetation density. Ratings increased by up to 30% depending on the vegetation height and SS df MS F Sig. up to 23% depending on the vegetation density. Between 106.97 1 106.97 235.75 .000 groups It is difficult to be definitive about the influence Within 144.29 318 0.45 of vegetation types on preferences as the groups context of the vegetation, particularly Total 251.26 319 mountainous terrain or the presence of water, has a stronger influence on preferences in 10 some cases than the vegetation itself. It is evident however that indigenous vegetation is 9 preferred over introduced vegetation, the 8 difference being 15.5%.

7 Pastoral scenes of large scattered trees with 6 grass were middle ranking, thus not providing tings a strong support for the landscape theorists of

R 5 savanna type landscapes. However the 4 asymmetrical shape of Australian eucalypts

3 may be an important detraction from their savanna quality. 2 1 The type of vegetation appears however to Indigenous Veg. Introduced Veg. have some influence on preferences, e.g. the discrimination of introduced pines, which Figure 10.59 Boxplot of Indigenous and indicates that the type of vegetation is important Introduced Vegetation and that respondents do not treat all vegetation equally, nor judge them simply in terms of say (4) Summary of land cover height or density.

In summary, the presence of trees in a scene enhances preferences, increasing by 23.5% 10.9 LAND USE over four classes of tree significance. This finding is reinforced by the presence of trees in The human influence of land use can have a scenes of crops and pastures which increased significant influence on landscape preferences, ratings by 12.9%, and by the presence of trees for example, areas planted to introduced pines in scenes of hills & pastures, mixed uses and can cloak a barren scene and the clearance of vines where a 16.8% increase was found. native vegetation for cropping also changes the original landscape. The height and density of vegetation present in scenes enhanced ratings, height moreso than (1) Preferences for Categories of Land density. Two analyses were undertaken, firstly Use of all scenes, and secondly of all non-coastal scenes. The algorithms derived are shown in The major land uses in landscape terms are Table 10.74. generally either agricultural or natural. Agricultural land uses include cropping and Table 10.74 Algorithms of Influence of Height pasture, mixed uses of orchards and and Density of Vegetation on Preferences vegetables, and vineyards and pine plantations.

Natural uses include most of the far north Analyses Height of Density of landscape province which, though subject to vegetation vegetation extensive grazing, in landscape terms may be All scenes y = 0.195x + 5.45 y = 0.26x + 5.21 r2 = 0.50 r2 = 0.97 regarded as essentially natural in appearance. 10.4% increase 14.3% increase Within the southern landscape province, the Non coastal y = 0.49x + 4.47 y = 0.38x + 4.65 coast, River Murray and other inland water scenes r2 = 0.99 r2 = 0.97 scenes, together with stands of native 29.6% increase 22.7% increase vegetation, are natural scenes. The scenes were classified into ten land use categories. Excluding the coast from the set of scenes Appendix 10.7 lists the allocation of scenes in yields a stronger relationship between each of these. 329 10. Analysis of Preferences

natural uses score higher than the agricultural Table 10.75 Key Statistics of Land Use land uses. The mean of the natural land uses is Categories 6.55, which is 31.8% higher than the agricultural land uses of 4.97. Land use Mean SD No. of Scenes Table 10.76 ANOVA - Preferences for Land Uses Agricultural Cropping 4.28 1.27 29 SS df MS F Sig. Pasture 5.38 1.14 21 Between 2034.6 1 2034.6 939.61 .000 Mixed 5.67 1.42 3 groups Vines 4.92 1.45 8 Within 688.60 318 2.16 Pines 4.62 1.75 2 groups Average 4.97 1.41 63 Total 2723.2 319 Natural Far north 6.17 1.20 39 The ANOVA indicates that the differences Natural - 5.92 1.15 11 between the land uses are significant with the southern major differences being between the two R. Murray, Lakes 6.16 1.15 17 groups [Table 10.76]. & Coorong Coast 7.67 1.14 20 (2) Agriculture Inland waters 6.81 1.21 5 Average 6.55 1.17 92 Agriculture is the key land use throughout the Total [excluding interstate scenes] 155 southern agricultural province. It includes cropping and pasture land, vineyards, and agricultural uses. In the Mt Lofty Ranges, it Table 10.75 and Figure 10.60 clearly indicate includes mixed horticultural uses and hilly that there are substantial differences in pasture land. preferences for differing land uses. Overall, the

10

9

8

7

6

5 Ratings

4

3

2

1 Cr Pa M V P Far Nat M Coast I i i nl o s ixed nes nes u and ppin t no ur rray u a re r l- water g th sout valley hern s

Agricultural Uses Natural Environment

Note: Columns 1 - 5 are agricultural, columns 6 - 10 are natural

Figure 10.60 Boxplot of Land Use Categories

Over 70 scenes were of agricultural land uses and included scenes in the Mount Lofty This section examines firstly the scenes of Ranges, the Murray Valley as well as in the cereals and pasture followed by scenes of agricultural region. vines scenes in the Mount Lofty Ranges are 330 10. Analysis of Preferences

examined in the next section. The agricultural scenes included several sets of twin scenes showing essentially the same scene in different seasons to discriminate the influence of seasonal colour and lushness on preferences.

Crops and Pastures

A total of 29 scenes of cereal growing and pasture were included among the scenes. The large number was adopted to examine the use of generic scenes which could be used to assess the extent by which single scenes could Crops and pastures Scene #133 be representative of a landscape type.

Crops and pastures Scene #70 Table 10.77 Scenes of Crops and Pastures - in descending order of means

Description Scene Mean SD Number Across tall crop, flat, bare, low ridgeline capped with vegetation 12 5.39 1.91 Flat pasture plains to low bare ridge 70 5.19 1.94 Mature crop, tree-lined creek, rising to high Marble Range 71 5.13 1.71 Mature crop, flat treeless field, high hills with scattered trees 155 4.99 1.79 Across reaped crops on plain to vegetated high sth Flinders Ranges 66 4.99 1.76 Tall crop, flat, low tree-capped ridge in distance = scene 96 20 4.93 1.88 Across flat reaped fields, large straw stacks, some distant trees 17 4.79 1.86 Reaped dry crop, few large trees, flat, low treed ridge behind 1 4.76 1.68 Low crop, sloping up to low rounded hills with scattered trees 118 4.75 1.64 Mature crop, tree studded, rising to low tree capped ridge 28 4.74 1.60 Low pasture, few tall trees, flat hillslope, scattered trees on ridge 112 4.73 1.62 Reaped dry crop, scattered trees mid distance, high bare ridge 22 4.67 1.75 Tall crop, scattered trees mid distance, to high bare hills 99 4.50 1.64 Pasture fields through gully to wide valley/fields & low bare ridge 75 4.47 1.80 Low crop, flat, strip of trees, to low bare ridge 73 4.43 1.67 Mature crop, scattered trees, rising to low tree-capped hills 86 4.43 1.59 Low crop, flat, bare ridge in distance 26 4.35 1.67 Tall crop, flat, low sandy rise capped with trees 129 4.20 1.67 Bare pasture, gently undulating, scattered trees, low distant hills 102 4.13 1.66 Low crop, flat plain, lines of trees across ~=144 101 4.12 1.65 Low crop, flat, line of trees in distance 79 4.11 1.87 Tall crop, flat, low ridge with scattered trees 133 4.11 1.72 Low crop, flat plain, clump of scattered trees in mid distance 87 4.01 1.73 Mature crop, flat, line of trees, low bare hills in distance 92 3.71 1.72 Reaped crop, flat plain, lines of trees across, overcast ~=101 144 3.62 1.57 Reaped dry crop, flat, vegetation in distance 54 3.57 1.62 Reaped crop to scattered low trees, flat 131 3.28 1.64 Mature crop, flat treeless field 150 3.28 1.96 Reaped crop, flat, distant low tree-capped ridge, overcast, =20 96 3.11 1.69 Note: Tall or low crop = green; mature or reaped crop = yellow & ready for harvest; =numbers are twins 331 10. Analysis of Preferences

The 29 scenes of cereals and pastures are 10 described in Table 10.77 in descending order of ratings. 8

Crops and pastures were chosen to test the concept of generic scenes because they 6 represent landscapes with minimal variation of equency land use, land cover, land form and other Fr 4 attributes compared with other landscapes examined. While scenes of arid plains or gibber 2 plains could have provided an alternative basis for evaluation, insufficient scenes of these were 0 1. 1. 2. 2. 3. 3. 3. 4 4 5 5 6 6. 7. 7. 8. 8. 8. 9. 9. available. Also there was considered to be 2 7 1 6 0 5 9 .4 .8 .3 .7 .2 6 1 5 0 4 9 3 8 merit in using scenes with which many Mean Ratings respondents would have at least some familiarity, i.e. farming areas, rather than Figure 10.61 Distribution of Means of 29 Scenes outback areas with which they generally have of Crops & Pastures lower familiarity and which could contain a greater novelty factor. Each of these were analysed in turn and their key statistics are summarised by Table 10.79. Figure 10.61 displays the means of the 29 These figures suggest that elevation has some scenes of crops and pastures by the effect on preferences as the rating of scenes respondents as summarised by Table 10.77. with ridges is higher than for flat terrain. Relevant statistics are shown by Table 10.78. Similarly tall crops appear favoured slightly over Based on the means, the 29 scenes have a low crops. Interestingly green growing crops very narrow range of 2.28 rating units, lending are slightly preferred over mature golden-yellow credence to the concept of generic scenes. The crops. adoption of, say a 4.4 rating for scenes, +/- 1.2, for crops covers 95% of scenes [i.e. 2 SDs]. Ridges increase ratings by 14.1% compared with flat land, the rating of tall crops are 5.4% Table 10.78 Key Statistics of Distributions of higher than low crops, and the ratings of green Crops and Pastures crops are 1.6% higher than yellow crops. The

standard errors throughout are very small Statistic Means of Scenes indicating that the sample provides a Mean 4.36 reasonable representation of the population. SE of mean 0.11 The interquartile ranges are also similar. The Standard deviation 0.61 Range 3.11 - 5.39 standard deviations for all of these categories Interquartile range 0.72 are similar. Skew - 0.46 Table 10.80 ANOVA - Presence of Ridges vs Flat Land in Cropping & Pasture Scenes Common factors among these scenes that may affect the preference ratings are: SS df MS F Sig. Between 50.01 1 50.01 412.74 .000 • presence of distant ridges vs flat terrain groups • nature of the crop: tall or low Within 38.53 318 .12 • colour of crops groups • presence of trees Total 88.54 319

Table 10.79 Key Statistics of Scenes of Crops & Pastures

Statistic Terrain Crop height Crop colour Ridges Flat Tall Low Yellow Green Mean 4.53 3.97 4.49 4.26 4.43 4.50 SE of mean 7.027E-02 7.704 E-02 7.434E-02 7.086E-02 6.746 E-02 7.801 E-02 SD 1.26 1.38 1.33 1.27 1.20 1.39 Range 1.55 - 8.10 1.22 - 7.78 1.36 - 8.27 1.47 - 7.82 1.43 - 7.93 1.20 - 8.13 IQ range 1.75 2.00 1.73 1.82 1.64 1.80 Skew 0.07 0.36 0.12 0.23 0.13 0.12 332 10. Analysis of Preferences

10

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8

7

6

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4

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2

1 Flat Ridges Tall crop Low crop All scenes Green crop Yellow crop

Figure 10.62 Boxplot of Factors in Crop & Pasture Scenes

Table 10.81 ANOVA - Tall Crops vs Low Crops groups greatly exceed the between group differences. SS df MS F Sig. Between 8.32 1 8.32 90.46 .000 The strong result for the presence of ridges led groups to a more detailed analysis of this attribute. The Within 29.23 318 9191E-02 significance of the ridges in the scenes was groups assessed and rated on a 1 - 5 scale, 1 being Total 37.54 319 insignificant and 5 being very significant. The height of the ridge and its prominence in the Table 10.82 ANOVA - Crop Colour, Yellow vs Green scene was considered in making this SS df MS F Sig. assessment. The height was relative in terms of Between 0.83 1 0.83 3.11 .000 groups the scene so that a distant ridge that may be Within 84.91 318 0.27 high in absolute terms but is insignificant in the groups scene would be ranked relatively low. By Total 85.74 319 contrast, a low ridge nearby may be judged 87. quite significant. Three scenes that included Figure 10.62 provides a boxplot for each of the high ranges in the background were omitted as factors among the scenes of crops and these were non-representative of the typical pastures analysed. The boxplot for all 29 ridges in agricultural land. scenes is shown at the far right. The similarity of factors is apparent with the sole exception of flat terrain that is noticeably lower. However the interquartile ranges and the location of the medians in each are similar. The ANOVAs for each of these factors are summarised by Tables 10.80, 10.81 and 10.82.

These results indicate that the presence of ridges in a cropping scene and also the height of crops are both significant influences on preferences but the colour of crops is just outside the 0.05 level of significance. While the between-group differences are greater than the Ridges Scene #20 score 1 within-group differences in the first ANOVA [Table 10.80] for both of the others, the within- 87.Slide 66 with the southern Flinders Ranges, slide 71 with the Marble Range, and slide 155 with the Barossa Ranges in the background. 333 10. Analysis of Preferences

The algorithm for this relationship is y = 0.35x + 3.69; r2 = 0.77 The ratings increase by 17.3% over three classes. The ANOVA indicates that the differences between the classes are significant.

Table 10.85 ANOVA - Ridges in Cropping and Pasture Scenes

SS df MS F Sig. Between 75.75 1 75.75 286.38 .000 groups

Ridges Scene #22, score 3 Within 84.11 318 .26 groups Table 10.83 summarises the scores given each Total 159.86 319 scene and Table 10.84 indicates the mean scores for each unit score. Figure 10.63 The influence of the presence of trees in indicates the trend. scenes was also assessed. The significance of their presence in the scenes was rated out of 5, Table 10.83 Average Scores of Ridges 1 being low or absent and 5 being a very Crop and Pasture Scenes significant presence [Table10.86].

Slide Score Slide Score Slide Score Table 10.86 Average Rating of Presence of Trees 1 1.33 73 2.17 102 2.00 - Crop & Pasture Scenes 12 2.00 75 2.00 112 3.17 17 1.17 79 1.67 118 3.67 Slide Score Slide Score Slide Score 20 1.33 86 2.50 129 2.50 1 3.33 73 1.83 102 1.33 22 3.00 87 1.17 131 1.33 12 1.17 75 1.17 112 3.67 26 3.00 92 1.83 133 1.50 17 1.00 79 1.17 118 2.83 28 2.67 96 1.83 144 1.33 20 1.00 86 2.50 129 1.75 54 1.00 99 2.50 150 1.33 22 1.17 87 1.00 131 1.67 70 2.17 101 1.67 26 1.00 92 1.67 133 1.50 28 2.33 96 1.00 144 1.88 54 1.33 99 1.67 150 1.00 Table 10.84 Classification of Ratings 70 1.13 101 2.50 Ridges in Scenes of Crops & Pastures Table 10.87 summarises the average ratings of Scoring of Ridges the presence of trees in the cropping and 1 - 1.99 2 - 2.99 3 - 3.99 pasture scenes and the ratings are illustrated Mean 3.93 4.61 4.63 by Figure 10.65. SD 1.34 1.34 1.30 Table 10.87 Classification of Ratings - Presence of Trees 10 Attribute Scores 9 1 - 1.99 2 - 2.99 3 - 3.99 8 Mean 4.19 4.51 4.74 7 SD 1.34 1.35 1.47 6 5 Table 10.88 ANOVA - Presence of Trees in Ratings 4 Scenes of Crops and Pastures 3 SS df MS F Sig. 2 Between 47.95 1 47.95 63.72 .000 1 groups 123Within 239.29 318 0.75 Scores groups Total 287.24 319

Figure 10.63 Influence of Ridges on Crops & Pasture Scenes 334 10. Analysis of Preferences

10 are rated about 13% higher than scenes with nil or few trees 9

8 Although these factors, presence of low ridges, 7 height and colour of crops, and presence of

6 trees influences preferences, their influence is ngs ti

a not sufficient to increase the ratings of cropping 5 R and pasture land above the 4 to 4.99 rating. 4 3 Vines

2

1 Table 10.89 summarises the eight scenes with 1 2 3 vines. The scenes include a set of twins Scores [scenes 145 and 158], essentially the same

scene taken in different seasons. The Figure 10.64 Boxplot of Ratings of Tree Presence difference in ratings for these is slight - bare Classes vines 4.27, vines in leaf 4.64, a difference of 8.7%. The t test indicates however that the The means increase across the three classes difference is significant: t = -5.148, df 318, p < as indicated by Table 10.87 and Figure 10.65. 0.000. The algorithm for this relationship is y = 0.27x + 3.93; r2 = 0.99. There is a 12.9% increase in ratings between the first and third scores, i.e. cropping scenes with fairly abundant trees are rated about 13% higher than barren scenes. The ANOVA indicates that the differences between the groups are significant [Table10.88], however the within-group differences are much greater than between groups.

In summary, cropping and pasture scenes score relatively low ratings. Their mean ratings are tightly distributed, lending credence to the Vines Scene #82 concept of generic scenes. Among the factors analysed to explain the differences in ratings: The test was extended to the full set - three of the scenes have bare vines and five have vines • the presence of ridges in the scenes in leaf. Table 10.90 summarises their key increases ratings by 14% compared with flat statistics. The difference in means between land; it was also shown that ratings vines with and without leaf is 7.7%. The t test increased by 18% over four classes of indicates that the difference is significant: t = - ridges in scenes 8.138, df 318, p < 0.000. • the height of crops - a tall crop increases Table 10.90 Key Statistics of Scenes with Vines ratings by 5.4% over low crops

• the colour of crops - green crops are 1.6% Statistic Vines with Bare vines All vines higher than yellow crops leaf • the presence of trees in cropping scenes - Mean 5.06 4.70 4.92 cropping scenes with fairly abundant trees SD 1.49 1.50 1.45

Table 10.89 Summary of Preferences for Vines - in descending order of means Description of scenes with vines Scene Mean SD Young vine canes & vines in leaf in valley with tree capped hills [Mt 95 5.48 1.89 Lofty Ranges] Across vines in leaf, tree-capped ridge [Clare] 82 5.33 1.82 Across bare vines to fields and vegetated ridge [Clare] 52 5.29 1.79 Vines in leaf, Barossa Ranges background [Barossa Valley] 68 5.16 1.84 Vines in leaf, line of trees on horizon [Langhorne Ck] 56 4.69 1.75 Across vine in leaf, low tree-studded hills [Clare] =145 158 4.64 1.72 Across bare vine canes, low tree-studded hills [Clare] 37 4.54 1.85 Across bare vine canes, low tree-studded hills [Clare] =158 145 4.27 1.68 335 10. Analysis of Preferences

The range of ratings across the eight scenes of are combined with the hills and pastures for vines extends over more than one rating unit analysis. [1.21]. However it is more meaningful to differentiate scenes of vines in leaf from bare vines: the range for vines in leaf was 0.84 and for bare vines was 1.02. This means that a generic mean could be used of 5.00 +/- 0.4 for vines in leaf and 4.70 +/- 0.5 for bare vines.

(3) Mt Lofty Ranges

Scenes in the Mt Lofty Ranges were divided into scenes of mixed uses, and scenes of hills and pasture, which are termed mixed uses.

Mixed Uses Mixed uses Scene #46

In the Mount Lofty Ranges, three scenes were Hills and pastures of orchards and market gardens [Table 10.91].

Table 10.91 Mixed Use Scenes, Mt Lofty Ranges

Description Slide Mean SD No Market gardens on hill 30 6.16 1.71 slopes, tree-capped Across Piccadilly valley 46 5.48 1.84 market gardens towards Mt Lofty Across dense orchards, 138 5.37 1.73 wide valley, tree-capped Average 5.67 1.76 Hills and pastures Scene #85 There is an insufficient number of scenes and variation between them to assess any A total of 15 scenes were analysed showing contributing factors to the preferences and they hills and pastures, many with scattered trees, typical of the Mt Lofty Ranges [Table 10.92].

Table 10.92 Summary of Scenes of Hills & Pastures, Mt Lofty Ranges - in descending order

Description Slide No Mean SD Across valley, dry grass & dam, clumps trees, to vegetated ridge 2 6.37 1.61 Down across tall dry grass, dam, scattered trees, to bare round hills & sea 115 6.15 1.83 [Second Valley] Tree studded gentle slopes, small dam, trees along creek 85* 5.98 1.58 Down gully & dam across wide valley to tree studded ridge 45 5.92 1.49 Large dam in shallow valley, lush pasture, large trees behind 55 5.83 1.72 Down into lush green long valley with clump of trees, long slopes rising the 156 5.41 1.90 vegetated ridgeline [Bull Creek] Across green grass, low tree capped hill, distant vegetated hills =11 40 5.41 1.55 Into wide tree-studded valley to bare round spurs 135 5.16 1.83 Across pasture, clumps low trees & yackas to bare ridge partly capped by 119 5.15 1.59 pines Down across large bare fields, clumps of trees in valleys, vegetated 90 5.13 1.66 escarpment slopes [Inman Valley] Down through tree studded pasture to distant rolling hills 149 5.01 1.52 Across bare rounded spurs to distant ridges, partly vegetated 16 4.94 1.93 Across dry grass, low tree capped hill, distant vegetated hills =40 11 4.89 1.66 Down bare rounded spurs [Palmer] to Murray plains 27 4.78 1.79 Across bare spurs with clumps of trees to distant vegetated ridge 139 4.64 1.58 * Also in vegetation scenes 336 10. Analysis of Preferences

Table 10.93 summarises the key statistics for Table 10.94 Key Statistics of Colour of Scenes mixed use scenes, the hills and pastures Hills & Pastures, and Mixed Uses scenes, and a total for all of these scenes. Statistic Straw colour Green colour Table 10.93 Key Statistics for Hills & Pastures, Mean 5.28 5.72 and Mixed Use Scenes, Mt Lofty Ranges SD 1.18 1.24

Statistic Mixed use Hills & Total As found in the twin scenes, the green coloured Pasture scenes rated higher [8.3%] than the straw Mean 5.67 5.39 5.43 coloured scenes [Figure 10.66]. This is higher SD 1.42 1.16 1.14 than that found in the scenes of cropping and pastures [1.6%]. The ANOVA of the influence of The total mean of 5.43 is 7% lower than the colour on preferences found that the difference mean [5.83] for all the scenes of South in colour was significant [Table 10.95]. Australia and this is surprisingly low given the popularity of the Mt Lofty Ranges for Sunday driving. The quality of the area’s landscapes is 10 generally acknowledged to be attractive in 9 tourism literature and it has been subject to 8 several landscape studies in the past [see Lothian, 1984]. An advantage of a State-wide 7

assessment is that it enables the relative s 6 g significance of particular landscape areas to be tin set in their State-wide context. Ra 5 4

50 3

2 40 1 Yellow Green

30 ngs

ti Figure 10.66 Boxplot of Scene Colours a

R 20 Hills & Pastures & Mixed Uses

Table 10.95 ANOVA - Colour of Scenes of Hills 10 and Pastures & Mixed Uses, Mt Lofty Ranges

0 1.1 2.4 3.6 4.8 6.0 7.2 8.4 9.6 SS df MS F Sig. 1.8 3.0 4.2 5.4 6.6 7.8 9.0 Between 30.92 1 30.92 105.45 .000 Ratings groups Within 93.23 318 0.293 groups Figure 10.65 Distribution of Ratings, Hills & Total 124.15 319 Pastures, Mt Lofty Ranges

The distribution of ratings has a negative skew Table 10.96 Scores of Significance of Trees - towards the higher ratings [Figure 10.65]. Vines, Mixed uses, Hills & Pastures

The scenes included a set of twin scenes [11 Slide Score Slide Score Slide Score and 40] taken in different seasons as indicated Vines Mixed Uses 45 3.67 by the different colours. Their means differed by 37 1.88 30 2.88 55 3.83 10.6%: 52 2.00 46 3.00 85 3.88 56 1.67 138 3.33 90 3.00 • Summer [yellow] 4.89 68 1.88 Hills & Pasture 115 2.17 • Winter [green] 5.41 82 2.50 2 3.83 119 3.17 95 3.17 11 2.83 135 2.50 A paired samples t test indicates that the 145 2.50 16 1.83 139 2.75 difference of half a rating unit is significant: t = - 158 2.17 27 1.17 149 3.25 5.928, df 1, 318, p < 0.000. The difference may 40 2.75 156 1.83 be explainable by the condition and colour of the grass and led to the analysis being The influence of the presence of trees was extended to all 14 scenes [Table 10.94]. analysed in the scenes of hills and pastures, together also with the scenes of mixed uses 337 10. Analysis of Preferences

and vineyards. Table 10.96 summarises the 10 average scoring of the significance of trees. 9

Table 10.97 indicates the ratings for the range 8 of scores and Figures 10.67 and 10.68 indicate 7 the relationship between the scoring of the 6 ngs significance of trees and the rating of the i 5 scenes. Table 10.97 indicate that preferences Rat increase with the significance of trees. The 4 2 algorithm for this is y = 0.37x + 4.46; r = 1.00. 3 The means increase across the three classes 2 by 15.3%. The ANOVA indicates that the 1 differences between the classes are significant 1 2 3 [Table10.98]. Scores

Table 10.97 Rating of Trees, Hills & Pastures, Mixed Uses, & Vines Figure 10.68 Boxplot of Scoring of Tree Presence in Hills & Pastures, Mixed Uses, & Attribute Scores Vines 1 - 1.99 2 - 2.99 3 - 3.99 Mean 4.83 5.20 5.57 The influence of the presence of trees in SD 1.42 1.22 1.22 scenes only with vines was assessed. Table 10.99 summarises the preference ratings for each score. The algorithm is y = 0.34x + 4.37; 10 r2 = 0.84 and ratings increase by 7.2% over the 9 three classes of trees. The differences between 8 groups are significant: F = 64.68, df 1, 318, p < 7 0.000. 6 ngs

i Table 10.99 Rating of Scenes Vines with Trees t a 5 R 4 Attribute Scores 3 1 - 1.99 2 - 2.99 3 - 3.99 2 Mean 4.80 4.88 5.48 SD 1.57 1.48 1.89 1 123 The influence of terrain in scenes of the hills & Scores pastures, mixed uses and vines88. was assessed by rating the significance of the terrain on a 1 - 5 scale, 1 being flat or low Figure 10.67 Significance of Trees, Rating vs through to 5 being high or steep [Table 10.100]. Scores - Hills & Pastures, Mixed Uses, & Vines Table 10.100 Frequency of Scores for Scenes Table 10.98 ANOVA - Presence of Trees in Hills With and Without Vines & Pastures, Mixed Uses, & Vines Score All scenes All scenes less vines SS df MS F Sig. Number Number Between 87.74 1 87.74 180.27 .000 1 - 1.99 6 4 groups 2 - 2.99 14 4 Within 154.78 318 0.49 3 - 3.99 5 0 groups Total 242.52 319

88.Only one of the scenes of vines was located in the Mt Lofty Ranges, although five were located in hilly terrain at Clare, and two on flat land in the Barossa Valley and at Langhorne Creek.

338 10. Analysis of Preferences

Table 10.101 indicates the scoring for all (4) Summary of land use scenes and Table 10.102 indicates the scoring for all scenes without the scenes of vines. Consistent with the earlier finding regarding the preferences for naturalism, the scenes of Table 10.101 Scoring of Terrain, Hills & Pastures, natural land uses such as rangelands in the far Mixed Uses & Vines Scenes north and native vegetation in the southern areas rate higher than agricultural land uses. Attribute Scores The difference in preference ratings, 31.8%, is 1 - 1.99 2 - 2.99 3 - 3.99 marked. Mean 5.07 5.41 5.21 SD 1.35 1.23 1.23 Agriculture is the main land use examined and comprises cropping and pasture scenes, vines Table 10.102 Scoring of Terrain, Hills & Pastures and in the Mt Lofty Ranges, scenes of hills and & Mixed Uses Scenes pastures, and mixed uses of orchards and market gardens. Attribute Scores 1 - 1.99 2 - 2.99 3 - 3.99 Cropping and pastures are rated relatively low, Mean 5.62 5.55 5.21 an average of 4.36. Their mean ratings are SD 1.44 1.18 1.25 tightly distributed, lending credence to the concept of generic scenes. Tall crops rated As indicated in Figure 10.69, terrain has only a 5.4% higher than low crops suggesting a slight influence of 2.7% in the “all scenes” positive influence of apparent rural abundance. group [y = 0.07x + 5.09; r2 = 0.17] but a Growing crops are green in colour but as they negative influence of -7.42% in the scenes mature they turn straw-yellow. The ratings of without the vines [y = -0.205x + 5.87; r2 = 0.87]. the green are 1.6% higher than the yellow but the difference is not significant. The presence of ridges in scenes increases the ratings up to 10 17% compared with scenes with no ridges. 9 Although many of the cropping and pasture 8 scenes were relatively bare of trees, those with 7 trees rated higher than the barren scenes. The 6 increase is up to 13%. tings

a 5 R Scenes of vines rated slightly higher than 4 all scenes cropping scenes, vines 4.92 cf crops 4.36. This 3 all except is lower than expected, given the prominence 2 vines that scenes of vines play in tourist promotional 1 material for the wine producing regions. Vines 123in leaf were slightly higher [5.06] than bare Scores vines [4.70], a difference of 7.7%. Figure 10.69 Influence of Terrain on Ratings of The Mt Lofty Ranges which lie near Adelaide Hills & Pastures, Mixed Uses & Vines. are a popular destination for Sunday driving

and sightseeing, picnicking and walking and it To analyse this further, the influence of terrain is therefore surprising that scenes of mixed in scenes of vines only was examined [Table uses [i.e. market gardens, orchards] averaged 10.103]. Although only two classes were used, only 5.67. This is below the overall average of the algorithm is y = 0.27x + 4.52; r2 = 1.00 and 5.83 for all State-wide scenes. Scenes of hills the differences are significant [t = -6.05, df 1, and pastures with clumps of trees, typical 318, p < 0.000]. The scores increased by 5.6%. scenery in the region, scored lower at 5.41.

Table 10.103 Scoring of Terrain on Vines Although the visitation behaviour appears to be Attribute Scores contrary to the relatively mediocre landscape 1 - 1.99 2 - 2.99 quality of the region, this illustrates the Mean 4.79 5.06 advantage of a State-wide appraisal. The area SD 1.48 1.52 has the advantage of proximity to a large population and one would need to travel far

339 10. Analysis of Preferences

greater distances in order to experience the (1) Overall Influence of Water on higher quality landscapes. Preferences

Taking the mixed use scenes and the scenes of The ratings of all 155 scenes in the survey was hills and pastures together, the effect of colour 5.83 [SD 0.93]. However this includes scenes of pasture was found to have a slight effect on with water as well as scenes without water. ratings with the green pastures rated 5.9% Water includes coastal scenes with the sea higher than the straw coloured pasture. The visible, scenes of the River Murray, Lakes and difference was higher than for cropping scenes Coorong, scenes of dams in the Mt Lofty [1.6%]. Ranges, and inland water scenes of outback The presence of trees in scenes of vines, mixed mound springs, creeks, and the Blue Lake in uses, and hills and pastures was found to the South East of the State. Table 10.104 increase ratings by up to 16.8%. Amongst compares the scenes with water with those scenes of vines, trees increased ratings by up without water. to 7.2%. Table 10.104 Statistics of Scenes with and Increasing height and steepness of terrain in without water these scenes was found to increase ratings by only 2.7% among the scenes of vines, mixed Scenes with Scenes All scenes uses, and hills and pastures. Amongst the water without water scenes of mixed uses and hills and pastures Mean 6.82 5.31 5.83 SD 1.01 0.97 0.93 terrain had a negative influence of -7.4%.

However the influence of terrain on scenes of It is apparent from the comparison that the vines was positive, up to 5.6%. scenes with water are rated considerably higher than the scenes without water. The difference is 28.4%. The paired samples t test indicates that 10.10 WATER the difference is significant: t = -39.195, df =

318, p < 0.000. As discussed in Chapter 8, Findings of Studies, water generally has a positive influence on The average rating for the water scenes in preferences. It was found that scenic value South Australia, excluding the coastal scenes, increased with: was 6.23 [SD 1.06] which is 14.3% above the

average. • water edge

• water area Figures 10.70 and 10.71 show the distribution • channel stability • a derived sense of serenity and tranquillity for all scenes with and without water and clearly contrasting with awe and arousal indicate the skew to the higher ratings of the scenes with water. Attributes that decreased scenic value of water included pollution and water-logging, water 60 colour, litter, erosion, water quality and structures. 50

There are five types of water bodies present 40 y among the slides: 30

Frequenc • 20 views of the ocean as a backdrop or incidental 20 to the coastal view

• 17 scenes of the River Murray, lakes and the 10 Coorong • 4 scenes of mound springs and waterholes in the 0 1 1 2 3 4 4.8 5.5 6.2 6.9 7.7 8.4 9.1 9.8 far north .2 .9 .6 .3 .1 • 7 scenes of dams and a reservoir in the Mt Lofty Ratings

Ranges 1 scene of the Blue Lake • Figure 10.70 Scenes without water features

These total 49 scenes with water features. 340 10. Analysis of Preferences

60 Figure 10.73 of the distribution of ratings for the coast indicates that they are strongly 50 skewed towards the higher ratings. Figure 10.74 indicates an inverse relationship 40 between means and SDs, that as quality y increases, the standard distributions reduce [y 30 = -4.13 + 14.22, r2 = 0.70], suggesting again Frequenc greater consistency of opinion regarding the 20 higher rated scenes.

10

50 0 1 1 2 3 4 4.8 5.5 6.2 6.9 7.7 8.4 9.1 9.8 .2 .9 .6 .3 .1

40 Ratings

y 30 Figure 10.71 Scenes with water features

The boxplot [Figure10.72] illustrates the ratings Frequenc 20 of scenes with and without water. 10

10 0 1 1 2 3 3 4.6 5.3 6.0 6.7 7.4 8.1 8.8 9.5 9 .2 .9 .6 .3 .9

Ratings 8

7 Figure 10.73 Distribution of Ratings, Coast 6

ngs ti a R 5 9

4 8

3 7 2 6 1 Scenes without water Scenes with water 5 Mean 4 Figure 10.72 Boxplot Comparison of Scenes with and without water features 3 2 (2) Coastal Scenes 1 There were 20 coastal scenes that included 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2 SD views of the sea. These are summarised by Appendix 10.8. Key statistics are shown in Table 10.105. Figure 10.74 Coastal Scenes - Means vs SDs

Table 10.105 Key Statistics for Coastal Scenes Each of the scenes was scored on a 5 grade scale on the basis of the following attributes: Statistic Coast Mean 7.67 • Significance of the area of the water SE of mean 6.371E-02 • Colour of the water: blue and brown SD 1.14 • Length of the water edge: short to long Range 3.50 – 9.85 • Movement of water: still to considerable IQ range 1.50 movement Skew -0.493 • Rating of the psychological impact of the scene: serene/placid to high level of arousing/awe

The coastal scenes are the highest rated of all South Australian regions, 31.6% above the mean for all scenes [5.83] or 23.1% above the mean [6.23] for all non-coastal scenes. 341 10. Analysis of Preferences

Water area, score 2, scene #106 Water movement, score 3, scene #141

Water area, score 4, scene #18 Serene/arousal, score 3, scene #35

The significance of the area of water assessed of the water. The presence of breakers was the the prominence of the sea within the scene. main attribute considered in scoring the water This was based largely on the extent of the sea movement. as a proportion of the non-sky portion of the scene. The length of water edge was assessed The rating of psychological attributes was on the basis of the length of the interface of based on the entire scene - the land component land and water in bays and beaches, cliffs and and thus covered the perceived relationship rocks - scenes with several shorelines [e.g. with between sea and land. High cliffs with rough islands] or a heavily indented coast have longer sea and breakers for example may invoke a edges than say a uniform curving beach. sense of high arousal and awe compared with a gently sloping beach and calm bay without any waves that may be rated as serene or placid. The selection of this scale was based on Gobster & Chenoweth, 1989; Herzog & Bosely, 1992; and Schroeder, 1991.

Table 10.106 Scoring of Coastal Scenes by Attributes Attributes Factor Classes 1 - 1.99 2 - 2.99 3 - 3.99 4 - 4.99 Water area Mean 7.04 7.25 7.79 8.07 SD 1.32 1.23 1.25 1.09 Edge Mean 6.57 7.47 7.95 - Water edge, score 3, scene #113 SD 1.28 1.25 1.17 - Movement Mean 7.30 8.38 8.02 - The colour of the sea in all the scenes was SD 1.18 1.20 1.18 - blue, in some cases a deep blue and Serene- Mean 7.23 7.34 8.21 - occasionally aqua blue [e.g. slide 137]. Arousing Because the sea was blue in all slides, colour SD 1.44 1.20 1.11 - was dropped from further analysis. White foam from breakers and cliffs was present in many scenes but this was not identified separately. However it influenced the scoring of movement 342 10. Analysis of Preferences

10 Overall the mean rating of the Murray Valley 9 scenes was 6.15 which is 5.5% above the 8 average for all 155 scenes or 15.8% above the 7 average for scenes which did not contain water. 6 The distribution of ratings is illustrated by

tings Area a 5 Figure 10.76. R 4 Edge 3 Movement 50 2 Serene-Arousing 40 1 1234

Scores y 30

Figure 10.75 Coastal Scenes - Relationship of Frequenc 20 Attributes and Ratings 10 Table 10.106 groups these into a maximum of five classes for each attributes and indicates 0 1 1 2 3 3 4.2 4.8 5.4 6.0 6.6 7.2 7.8 8.4 9.0 9.6 the mean and standard deviation for each. .1 .8 .4 .0 .6 Ratings

Figure 10.75 indicates the relationship between the four attributes assessed and the average Figure 10.76 Distribution of ratings, Murray ratings for the coastal scenes. This is Valley Scenes summarised in the following equations of the relationships. 10

9 • Significance of water: y = 0.38x + 6.69; r2 = 0.91 2 • Edge of water: y = 0.46x + 6.31; r = 0.96 8 2 • Movement of water: y = 0.21x + 7.42; r = 0.35 7 • Serene/arousing scale: y = 0.49x + 6.61; r2 = 0.83 6 ngs i t a

Ratings generally increase with the attribute R 5 class: 4

3 • significance of water increase of 15.3% over 4 classes 2 • edge of water increase of 15.5% over 3 classes 1 River Murray Lakes Coorong • movement of water increase of 8.3% over 3 classes • serene/arousing increase of 13.8% over 3 Figure 10.77 Boxplot of Murray Valley Ratings classes

ANOVAs were carried out on each of the attributes and all were significant:

Water Area F = 906.23, df = 1, 318, p < .000 Water Edge F = 393.92, df = 1, 318, p < .000 Sea Movement F = 227.32, df = 1, 318, p < .000 Serene/Arousing F = 419.01, df = 1, 318, p < .000

(3) Murray Valley

Seventeen scenes covered the Murray Valley and include the River Murray proper, the Lakes and the Coorong. Twelve were of the River Murray, three of lakes [i.e. Lake Bonney, Lake Alexandrina and Ramco Lagoon] and two scenes were of the Coorong. These are summarised by Table 10.107.

413 12. Discussion and Conclusions

CHAPTER TWELVE

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

12.1 VALUING THE LANDSCAPE in a particular area or who visit it often come to love and appreciate. It is not the nutrient Landscape quality is an important cycling systems, the geological setting, the environmental quality. Like wilderness, it biomes present, or the watersheds that they derives from the physical characteristics feel an affinity for; rather it is the qualitative such as rivers, mountains and trees, but is flavour, the visual quality of the landscape. of the mind. Kant described beauty as purposiveness without purpose - a In a materialistic world, where the worth of utilitarian-free zone, yet a quality that gives most things is based on their utility value, pleasure. and where something which lacks a market is often considered worthless, landscape Unlike many other artefacts of human quality is an artefact without an assigned creation in which considerable effort is value. Should landscape quality be valued? applied to enhance their beauty - e.g. Does this represent a case of knowing the human faces and forms, houses and cost of everything and the value of nothing? gardens, unlike these, landscape quality is, Does quantifying landscape aesthetics as Kant discerned, a public rather than destroy the ambiguous pleasure which can private quality. As such it is rarely subject to be derived from landscapes? Is it not efforts to beautify it, or such efforts as are analogous to rating the worth of paintings by applied tend to be spasmodic and of limited the Old Masters? application, e.g. President’s Johnson’s Beautify America campaign of the mid The worth of Old Masters is, however, rated; 1960s. There are all too few initiatives taken the prices paid for them at auction and the to manage landscape quality at larger than a rates of visitation to the galleries in which property scale. they hang are two indicators of the ‘value’ which the community puts on them. A With society’s emphasis on objectivity and similar indirect indicator of the value of on tangible resources, the recognition and landscapes is the cost of the vacations measurement of subjective values may taken to visit them and the added value that seem surprising. Yet values, about which views give to house prices. Part of the cost one can become passionate, is a critical yet of these reflects the perceived often neglected aspect of environmental attractiveness of these landscapes. management. Values help to differentiate us Surrogates, including photographs, as individuals. Ignoring them is like a doctor paintings, books, postcards and souvenirs, treating a patient simply as a set of organs, can provide a measure of the worth of of systems, of inputs and outputs and landscapes. These indirect and surrogate forgetting that these merely provide the means are indicators of the ‘value’ the means by which a person has life. The community ascribe to landscapes. individual gain significance and worth through who they are and who they become, The perceived value of the landscape, as not by their sets of organs and systems. reflected in their ratings, is the aggregate of all the components of the landscape. So it is with landscape quality. This is a However this is no mere addition of these value that contributes to the community’s components – land form, land cover, land sense of identity and well being. This value use, water, etc, rather, as described in derives from, but is distinct from, the Gestalt terms, the overall sum is different collective set of resources and systems than the sum of its parts. No conventional which comprise the environment, just as a addition of these components, however person is distinguished from their bodily rated, would yield the landscape quality systems and parts. Landscape quality helps rating derived here. When a rating of to differentiate the environment and give it diversity was attempted based on an an identity, not as anthropomorphism but as analysis of its components [section 10.11], a quality that distinguishes one area from this method was found to be spurious and of another. It is the value that people who live no benefit. 414 12. Discussion and Conclusions

Rating of landscape quality enhances, not answer the ‘why’ question, its findings of diminishes, one’s appreciation of landscape. what shapes, forms and patterns are Learning about painting techniques and favoured complement the findings of artists can enhance the appreciation of their landscape preference studies reviewed in art. In the same manner, gaining an Chapter 8. Although Chapter 8 [Section 8.4] understanding of how the landscape triggers examined landscape preferences by preferences can enhance one’s appreciation reference to specific landscape elements of those landscapes. [e.g. water, mountains, trees] rather than the abstract patterns and forms they represent, nevertheless underlying many of these, the 12.2 FULFILLMENT OF HYPOTHESIS Gestalt principles can be seen to operate. This influence was evaluated in Chapter 11 The hypothesis defined in Chapter 1 was: [Section 11.4] and found that the Gestalt components were among the strongest To provide, through a thorough analysis of influences on preferences. human perception and interaction with aesthetics and landscape quality, a Chapter 4 reviewed theories of perception comprehensive basis on which to develop a including the Kaplans’ information credible methodology for the large-scale processing model, and Berlyne’s collative assessment of perceived landscape quality. stimulus model. Berlyne found that as the The hypothesis thus involved a logical and complexity of a scene increases, so too integrated approach to comprehending fully does human preferences up to a point the dimensions of aesthetics and landscape beyond which increased complexity results quality so as to provide the intellectual basis in a lowering of preferences [inverted U]. for development of the methodology to Beyond a threshold point, saturation seems assess landscape quality. to occur. In Chapter 11, traces of this characteristic were detected in the analysis The analysis of human perception and of diversity where preference ratings interaction with aesthetics and landscape increased up to score 3 and then diminished quality was achieved through inquiring in [Fig. 10.84]. The same pattern was evident depth into a range of theoretical constructs also in the ratings of the significance of trees of aesthetics, through the eyes of [Fig. 10.50], and in the area of water in the philosophers, psychologists, Murray valley [Fig 10.78]. psychoanalysts, and, at a cultural level, of society in general. The studies that have The Kaplans’ theory, described initially in been undertaken of landscape quality, and the context of perception theories [Chapter the theoretical models that have been 4] was further discussed as a leading theory formulated, further developed this of landscape perception [Sec. 8.2]. Its understanding. This was foundational to the efficacy was evaluated in Chapter 11 where development of a methodology to measure its components were found, along with the perception of landscape quality at a Gestalt components, to be the strongest large scale. influences on preferences. The influence of colour on preferences is not Based on the analysis of the philosophy of often examined in landscape studies other aesthetics in Chapter 2, the subjectivist than as an adjunct to a landscape feature paradigm, rather than the objectivist [e.g. brown ground, green trees]. However, paradigm, was identified as the appropriate just as Gestalt forms and the maternal and basis for understanding aesthetics. The sexual forms of psychoanalytic theory distinction emerged over subsequent influence preferences in their own right, so chapters as well. Kant’s profound insights too does colour. into the nature of beauty contrasts with the relatively shallow understanding of the Chapter 4 found that the highest subject evident in many of the landscape preferences were for red, blue and green studies surveyed in Chapters 7 and 8. hues. However this thesis found [Sec. 11.13] that the preferences for hues were, in Chapter 3 on Gestalt psychology described descending order; blue, orange, the principles of holism [unity with variety], indigo/violet, red, green, grey, yellow and, Prägnanz [good Gestalt], and visual lastly, brown. The strength of the orange segregation [figure and ground]. While and violet colours reflects the unique colour Gestalt psychology does not attempt to qualities of the Australian landscape which 415 12. Discussion and Conclusions are not common in the temperate landscape It also found that culture has a quite of north America or Europe where most of significant influence and that nothing is the colour preferences studies have been constant; attitudes to mountains, the conducted. portrayal of landscapes in art, or the design of parks and gardens were the product of Psychoanalysis reinforces the subjectivist the society of the time and appear inherently paradigm as the appropriate model for the changeable. analysis of aesthetics [Chapter 5]. It provides profound insights into the influence But this is at odds with the subsequent of the underlying motivations on the human finding in Chapter 8 [Section 8.3] which psyche and aesthetic preferences. The role found from landscape quality studies of the unconscious in the recognition of covering a range of cultures that perceptions objects from childhood or before, and their are relatively constant, that the projection onto external objects as commonalities across cultures were greater representative of these, are powerful than the differences, a finding borne out also concepts. The evaluation of theories in the findings in Chapter 10 [Sec. 10.4]. [Chapter 11] found the scenes with sexual How can this apparent discrepancy be symbolism influenced preferences [Fig. resolved? 11.12]. The constancy of preferences is explainable The psychoanalytic construct indicates that by the evolutionary perspective. This there are elements in landscapes which, provides the basic theoretical construct that though are not readily apparent, influence what humans find attractive in landscapes is preferences nonetheless. While these survival-enhancing. The various theories of factors are readily identifiable by those who landscape quality [Sec. 8.2] operationalise are aware of them, the community is this through identifying specific attributes generally oblivious of their presence in the that contribute to preferences. landscape and of their influence on their perceptions. An illustration is the Supporting evidence in this context was commonality of phallic-like war memorials found by this study which showed that the without conscious recognition of their higher the rating of landscape quality, the symbolism. narrower the range of opinion of respondents [Figures 10.2, 10.74]. In other The further significance of the psycho- words, there is strong commonality of views analytical model is that it offers an regarding what is preferred, but as alternative explanation of landscape landscape quality diminishes, the range of preferences to the evolutionary model. opinion widens. This close congruence However, this may also be because it offers between preferences and quality is an explanation of how the mind internalises supportive of the evolutionary perspective, and expresses the evolutionary influence on but with scenes of lesser quality, other attitudes and behaviour. factors influence preferences.

The literature has scarcely touched on the The contrary findings of the influence of relevance and influence of the psycho- culture on preferences in Chapter 6 were analytical model with respect of landscape based on a longitudinal view tracing the preferences. Indeed, the assessment changing cultural attitudes and preferences carried out here is the only such evaluation over time. It is true that the attitudes towards known to the author. Yet it offers mountains changed radically in the early considerable potential in landscape 18th century but this change reflected the preference research and should be the shift from the objectivist to the subjectivist subject of further assessment. position, it is not a change that contradicted the survival-enhancing basis of landscape The inquiry into the influence of culture on theories. landscape perceptions [Chapter 6] found that in respect of Western attitudes to In Chapters 7 and 8, further understanding mountain scenery, the inclusion of was derived from a review of contemporary landscape in Western art, and even in the landscape studies. The characteristics of the design of parks and gardens, that the studies including their research techniques objectivist paradigm had been replaced by and their findings were summarised. The the subjectivist [see Table 6.6]. knowledge gained of the research 416 12. Discussion and Conclusions techniques and methodologies was considered important, the emphasis in the essential for the development of the survey should be on “first order” analysis. empirical study in this thesis. This would be on the basis of landscape components such as land form, land use, presence of water, etc. Analysis based on These chapters may provide the basis for these will relate the findings directly to further papers [e.g. Lothian, 1999] that landscape features and better ensure their explore the issues raised. The distinction relevance for landscape management. between the objectivist and subjectivist Gestalt forms and psycho-analytical views of landscape, discussed in the constructs were considered in the evaluation chapters on philosophy of aesthetics in Section 11.4. [Chapter 2], culture and landscape [Chapter 6], and findings of landscape studies Based on the methodology that was [Chapter 7] is an area for further research. developed for the large-scale assessment of The psychoanalytical explanation of human landscape quality, a map of landscape preferences for water, outlined in Chapter 8, quality of South Australia, an area of nearly may also be a fruitful area for further work. one million square kilometres, has been produced. In addition, the results have been The analysis of human perception of, and used for predictive purposes, to assess the interaction with, aesthetics and landscape effect of change on landscape values. The quality through these chapters was results have also been used to evaluate the foundational to development of a credible efficacy of landscape theories. A detailed methodology for the large-scale assessment protocol for the application of the of landscape quality. methodology for large-scale landscape quality assessment has been described. Key elements that derived from these chapters which were important in the The hypothesis specified six criteria that the formulation of the empirical survey were the methodology should fulfil: following: 1) be replicable, statistically rigorous and • The survey needed to be subjectivist-based; it defensible needed to reflect the perception of the 2) reflect the preferences of the community community to landscape quality. It should not 3) identify the relative importance of take the objectivist approach and attempt to components of landscapes for preferences measure the attributes of the physical 4) enable mapping of landscape quality at a landscape and then assume that these State level determined landscape quality independent of 5) provide the basis for a methodology which human perception. could be applied nationally 6) be practicable • The survey needed to be large-scale in dimension to provide an overview of It is considered that each of these has been landscape quality within which more specific fulfilled. The methodology has been studies could be based. A small-scale survey explicitly documented and described, without the perspective provided by the large- allowing its repetition. Care has been taken scale make it difficult to relate the findings to to ensure the statistical validity of the survey other areas. A large-scale assessment sets and the analysis. The results are defensible; the findings within an adequate context and the example given in Section 11.3 of the enables them to be compared with other comparable surveys. impact of clearance of trees for development purposes illustrates this. • The survey needed to reflect the preferences of the community rather than any special The results reflect the preferences of the group or “expert” respondents whose results community; Section 9.3 compared the may differ from that of the community [see characteristics of the sample of participants Section 8.3]. Although it was also shown that with that of the South Australian community preferences do not differ very much between and indicated that on most respects it groups, nevertheless it was considered compared reasonably well. It would be important to the perceived credibility and acceptance of the results that it aim to be difficult to gain a sample that matches the community-based. community exactly but as noted there, preferences do not differ markedly across • Although the Gestalt forms and patterns, different participants so flexibility in the along with the theoretical constructs of selection of the sample is acceptable. perception and psychoanalysis were 417 12. Discussion and Conclusions

The analysis of preferences in Chapter 10 at a State level as some efficiency and fulfilled the third criterion of identifying the economies of scale should be possible. relative importance of components of landscapes for preferences. This chapter The method requires not-insignificant provided a comprehensive analysis of the resources; an assessment of a State of influence of land form, land cover, land use, nearly one million square kilometres may water, diversity, naturalism, colour and cloud take nearly a year and cost $130,000. This cover on preferences. is around thirteen cents per square kilometre. Yet the potential benefits of this The fourth criterion, the mapping of are considered to be substantial and to landscape quality at a State level, has been justify this level of expenditure. The fulfilled. importance of landscape quality in supporting tourism alone, a multi-billion Being State-wide in coverage, the map dollar industry, suggests that assessment of cannot be expected to provide a detailed landscape quality should be regarded as an assessment of landscape quality at the sub investment. It is an investment in achieving regional or local level. For example, the Mt. an explicit understanding of the quality of a Lofty Ranges is a small area with regional landscape and of identifying the considerable variation in its landscape. attributes that are important in landscape Mapping at a State-wide level has not fully quality. This investment may then provide a captured this. However more detailed maps return through the management and could be developed for this area and other protection of landscape quality so that it regions based on the survey and the continues to provide benefits to the detailed analysis of attributes undertaken. community. The coast, Murray Valley, and particular regions such as the Clare valley could be The final criterion, that the methodology be mapped in greater detail based on the data practicable, is considered to be fulfilled. acquired. Practical considerations have influenced the development of the methodology Section 11.5 defined a protocol for the throughout, For example, participants in application of the methodology. While it has rating sessions were selected on the basis been applied at a State level, there is no of suitability and availability, slides of the apparent reason why it should not be landscapes were supplemented by existing applicable at a national level. The results collections, and scoring of the attributes of would probably not be as detailed as a State scenes was employed rather than the level as the survey would need to cover the physical measurement of components of full range of major landscape character scenes from photographs. Practical regions of the nation. It would therefore be considerations have not, however, been unlikely to separate these into sub-regions allowed to compromise the rigour and [as in Section 10.5]. defensibility of the methodology.

Some changes would, however, be It is recognised that there are parts of the necessary in undertaking a national survey. methodology that could be improved. One For example, it may be too expensive in area would be to use geographical time and travel to obtain photographs information systems in the mapping of directly, necessitating use of existing landscape character and the resulting map collections. This would be required in of landscape quality. Establishment of a roadless parts, for example, the Australian panel of community representatives, Alps, south-western Tasmania, and parts of reflective of the community’s profile, could the arid inland. The sample of respondents assist in the rating and scoring of scenes, could reflect the subtle variations in both time consuming tasks. The statistical perceptions across the country, analysis could focus on the broad picture necessitating rating sessions in different rather than on the minutiae of landscape parts of the nation. Use of Internet-based types. Greater reliance could be placed on rating systems should be examined as an using existing photographic collections, alternative, providing safeguards can be thereby reducing the considerable time included to limit multiple entries and the age needed to obtain these through field work, of participants [i.e. exclude children]. The including waiting for the right seasonal and overall cost of applying the methodology lighting conditions. nationally is not simply a multiple of the cost 418 12. Discussion and Conclusions

12.3 ACHIEVEMENT OF THESIS significant achievement. The resulting recognition of the ability to treat landscape The progress achieved in this thesis in quality as part of the environment capable of measuring landscape quality across a large being measured, managed and protected region is believed to be without in marks a paradigm shift. Australia and elsewhere in the world. It has provided an assessment of perceived landscape quality, based on community 12.4 EXTREME SCENES preferences, of an area of nearly one million square kilometres. Most previous studies, at Although the study did not find any least in Australia, are characterised as being landscapes that could be rated at the confined in their areal extent, narrow and extremes of the rating scale, 1 or 10, it is imprecise in their methodology, and lacking interesting to speculate what these might a product that can be applied predictively. comprise. This is on the assumption that the Williamson and Chalmer’s [1982] study in findings from South Australian landscapes north-east Victoria is a notable exception in have a universality that is applicable to other the Australian context. The method areas. established and trialed here has application in other large regions and at a national level. The gibber scenes averaged 3.90 but one scene [#116] scored 2.81. Although lacking The very process of establishing a any variation in land form [i.e. they were quantitative measure for an attribute flat], land cover [i.e. barren] or land use, immediately advances the standing and without any water and lacking any recognition of the attribute; prior to this it is diversifying features, these scenes were an intangible and fuzzy quality, lacking clear generally red or orange in colour. Orange is definition. Defining and measuring the second highest scored colour after blue, landscape quality for a region transforms it and red is middle ranking. If the colour had into an attribute worthy of recognition, been yellow or brown, which are the lowest protection and management. scored colours, then the ratings of these gibber scenes would probably have been The understanding developed here of lower. However their naturalness is also a landscape quality does not go far in redeeming feature as this elevates ratings answering the question of why the [Section 11.12]. Scarring of the scene such preferences are as they are?; e.g. why does as by mining, excavations or wheel tracks of water enhance preferences?, why are high off-road vehicles would mar this naturalness rock faces and cliffs favoured?, why are and could depress the rating. Thus a brown, natural scenes favoured over those with flat and featureless scene as gibber plain, or evidence of human influence? The a scene with evidence of human activities theoretical constructs that were reviewed could produce a scene that rates as 1. It is appear to go only a slight way towards noteworthy that a flat barren brown assisting in one’s understanding. ploughed field [#64] scored the lowest rating of all scenes of 2.40. The evaluation of the landscape theories based on the results indicated that the A 10-rated scene is likely to be one that information processing, Gestalt and exhibits to a high degree, each of the prospect-refuge theories appear to provide components found to enhance preferences. at least some explanation of landscape It is likely to be mountainous, with steep preferences. A challenge remains to rock faces, tall dense trees, water bodies, integrate the common elements of these largely natural in appearance, contain an and produce a single theory of landscape extraordinary diversity of features, and have quality that can provide a sound basis for its extensive blue and orange colouration. understanding. Scenes in the Swiss Alps such as the valley overlooked by the Eiger and Jungfrau may The study demonstrates that it is possible to fulfil these criteria. The Italian Lakes, measure landscape quality. The shift from Canadian Rockies, New Zealand near treating landscape quality as an attribute Queenstown and other localities may also that is not amenable to objective have scenes that achieve a 10 rating. measurement, to providing a practical and effective methodology by which this In areas such as Switzerland, the proportion subjective quality can be measured, marks a of highly rated landscape, say 7 or 8, is 419 12. Discussion and Conclusions likely to be very large, and thus the overall 12.6 LANDSCAPE QUALITY MANAGEMENT mean rating for the region will be high. Although the extent that regional landscape enhancement can be modified is limited, 12.5 FURTHER APPLICATION nevertheless there is a place for landscape quality to be considered in programs such With further applications of the as Landcare and revegetation. methodology, knowledge of landscape While biophysical features have long been preferences will grow. Over time, it is subject to measurement and management, expected that detailed understanding of this has not been possible with landscape preferences will develop. For example, the quality. The methodology for measuring preferences of the Flinders Ranges, arid landscape quality established here can ranges and of the Mt. Lofty Ranges may be provide the basis for its management. This complemented by studies of other can enable the impact of change on the mountainous areas in Australia thus landscape to be assessed in advance, of enabling a fuller picture to emerge of measures to be taken to enhance the quality preferences for such features. The other of landscape, at least in the micro scale, and dimension that may improve is in the detail of guarding against measures which would as landscape preferences for smaller areas diminish landscape quality. are derived. These may enable landscape preference mapping at the micro level, A consequence of failing to measure enabling for example, ratings to be derived landscape quality is that there is no gauge valley by valley, mountain by mountain. of its loss. South Australia has relatively small areas of landscape that are perceived There are significant advantages in the as of high quality. Identifying these can help adoption of a standard methodology. This ensure that these are managed and would facilitate transfer of findings between protected; not identifying them means that studies and the development of the significance of actions which may affect understanding of preferences for similar these areas will not be appreciated. landscapes. Over time a body of knowledge of landscapes may develop which would For example, mineral exploration in the better enable their characteristics to be northern Flinders Ranges in the late 1960s appreciated. resulted in the construction of access tracks across the mountainsides, with scarring and There are several areas of the methodology rock slides which are still visible today - this that should be identical: in an area rated 7 by this survey. In forested areas, such as Tasmania and south-eastern • use of 1 – 10 scale Australia where clear cutting occurs, the • use of representative scenes for the region landscape quality can be significantly • use of colour photographs impacted. Assessing landscape quality of • use of participants who are representative of such areas could assist in minimising the the community in rating the scenes impact through changes to management regimes and practices. There is however scope for considerable flexibility in how the studies are conducted, Understanding the contribution of various their scale of inquiry, their use of the Internet components to landscape quality provides in gaining preferences, and in the analyses the knowledge base for the management of undertaken. landscape quality.

The undertaking of further studies using Management of landscape quality could comparable methodology would also enable include the requirement to assess the likely feature-specific analyses to be undertaken, impact of activities and proposed changes, For example, mountains, rockfaces, coastal say, of land use on landscape quality. It features, waterfalls [Hudson, 2000], could establish as a planning principle that vegetation types [e.g. mallee, brigalow, landscape quality should be maintained, alpine], rivers and lakes. enhanced and protected. It could also define and describe specific measures that could be applied to guide activities so that adverse impacts on landscape quality could be minimised. 420 12. Discussion and Conclusions

Decisions about the declaration of protected The management of landscape quality areas such as national parks have should not focus exclusively on high quality conventionally been made mainly on the landscapes. It was noted earlier that basis of the quality of their biodiversity, although the Mt Lofty Ranges is only middle landforms, and wilderness and the suitability ranking in landscape quality terms when for outdoor recreation. Scenic qualities are viewed on a State-wide context, often referred to but only in general terms. nevertheless the area is of cultural The results of this survey will provide the significance due to its proximity to a large basis, at a broad-scale, to evaluate proportion of the population. The extreme proposals for protected areas on landscape example of gibber plains, which were rated quality grounds. Areas may be dedicated on the lowest of all scenes, nevertheless the basis of the high quality landscapes that attracted several scores of 10 due to their they contain. It could also influence the starkness and unique qualities. Thus choice of boundaries of the areas. landscape quality management should be applied to landscapes quality of all calibres. The landscape quality present in an area may also influence decisions about The development of the management developments and uses which may affect measures is beyond the scope of this thesis. adversely the area. For example, a decision It should be noted however that landscape was taken by the South Australian quality is never entirely lost, only changed, Government in August 2000, to prohibit the and that management should aim to ensure establishment of a major magnesite mine in that the changes are for the better. the Gammon Ranges in the northern Flinders Ranges. The decision was taken on Through management, the contribution of biodiversity grounds, but given that it is an landscape quality to human well-being may area of high landscape quality [7], use of the be better acknowledged and recognised. results of the landscape assessment would have provided added justification for the decision.

421 References

REFERENCES

PhD Thesis: Andrew Lothian, Landscape Quality Assessment of South Australia, University of Adelaide, 2000.

Note: These references are in alphabetical order. The enclosed CD shows the references arranged by thesis chapter.

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