THE DISASSOCIATED MAN IN BUCHNER'S WOYZECK

AND TOLLER'S HINKEMANN

by

EUGENE EGERT

B. Sc., University of British Columbia, 1958

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THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF

MASTER OF ARTS

in the Department

of

German

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October, 1961 In presenting this thesis in partial fulfilment of

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Department of

The University of British Columbia, Vancouver 8, Canada. - ii -

Abstract

G.eorg Buchner, an anomaly in his own century, is frequently viewed as a percursor of Expressionism. With this fact in

mind it is the purpose of this thesis to investigate and

compare Buchner's Woyzeck and the expressionistic drama

Hinkemann by Ernst Toller, noting the same basic theme which,

however, gives rise to dissimular solutions.

The method of investigating these analogous dramas was

essentially one of research into and interpretation of the primary sources. Secondary sources (which were numerous for

Buchner but scarce for Toller) were consulted as an aid in

the exposition of Woyzeck and Hinkemann as separate plays.

There was, however, practically no secondary material available relating directly to the problem under discussion in this work. The conclusions reached were based on private exami• nation of the two dramas.

Woyzeck is a poor soldier of the 19^ century. Out of

love for his "wife" he allows himself to be used as subject for a doctor's scientific experiments. Despite Woyzeck's

care and passionate love for her, Marie succumbs to the

desires of the.sensual drum major. Thus Woyzeck not only

experiences physical abuse, but also mental anguish as a result

of Marie's infidelity. Through this lonely, senseless

suffering his values are put into question. Woyzeck despairs

of life and expresses his total rejection of the world by murdering Marie and then by drowning himself.

Hinkemann, also a common soldier, returns home from the

First World War emasculated by a bullet. Fearing the loss - iii -

of his wife's love and respect, he too stoops to the level

of an animal to compensate for his sexual incapacity.

Desiring to provide her a few pleasures, Hinkemann hires himself out to a showman who utilises him in a repulsive

circus act. However, his sensual wife, like Marie, also proves unfaithful. Her seducer, Grosshahn, causes Hinkemann's prime suffering by causing him to believe that Grete laughed

at him in his debased condition. Although finally convinced

that she did not laugh, Hinkemann, like his counterpart

Woyzeck, fails to see any good purpose in the world and gives up. He no longer has the strength to struggle and asks his wife to leave him. But Grete, afraid to live alone, commits

suicide. Hinkemann goes on existing.

Thus the basic pattern is the same in both: Woyzeck and

Hinkemann, two soldiers in the prime of life, allow themselves to be misused for the sake of a woman's love. Both lose this love which alone gives, their life meaning. Forced into

total isolation by an evil and loveless world, both Woyzeck

and Hinkemann no longer see any purpose in life, but the reaction of each is different. Woyzeck reacts violently

to this discovery of the lack of good purpose in the universe.

Out of vengeance he wants to hurt the world that has hurt him. He ends in complete, active nihilism. Hinkemann, a man weakened by fate, reacts less violently: he comes to

a passive acceptance of meaninglessness in the world. For him, struggle is in vain.

Thus there is a difference in solution, resulting from

an important distinction which lies at the core of these iv -

plays. Buchner here deals with one basic theme: isolation ultimately leading to nihilism. Toller, in addition, deals with the problem of the complete man. The loss of either the animal or the spiritual aspect of man's nature renders him ridiculous. And for Toller, it is this ridicule which isolates man. Thus his play is more complex, it has ramifi• cations of the problem which Buchner does not explore. Also contributing to the dissimilar solutions are the authors' different views of life. Woyzeck's nihilistic end is entirely in consonance with Buchner*s fatalistic and utterly hopeless view of life. Similarly, Hinkemann's pessimistic resignation corresponds to Toller's poignant disillusionment (but not complete despair) with mankind. - V -

Contents

page

Introduction 1

Chapter I Background of the suffering in Woyzeck 6

Chapter II "Unedles Ungluck" in Woyzeck 18•

Chapter III "Edles Ungluck' in Woyzeck 32

Chapter IV

Background of the suffering in Hinkemann .... 44-

Chapter V "Unedles Ungluck" in Hinkemann 53 Chapter VI "Edles Ungluck" in Hinkemann 62

Conclusions 74

Footnotes • SO

Bibliography 88 - 1 -

Introduction

Georg Buchner is frequently viewed as an important precursor of expressionistic drama. It will be the purpose of this thesis, to investigate and compare the treatment of a similar theme in his Woyzeck and in an expressionistic play: Ernst Toller's Hinkemann.

Buchner was an anomaly in his own time. As an indi• vidualist he did not subscribe to the tenets of any recognised movement in literature. Nor did he have any close ties with the poets of his day, with the exception of Gutzkow to; whom he sent his Dantons Tod for publication. Like his hero,

Woyzeck, Buchner stood alone. He found it increasingly impossible to endorse the political nature of Young German literature, whose members used art as propaganda to attain social and political changes. Literature became the mere tool for expressing their revolutionary views. In his letters

Buchner clearly states his attitude and relation, to this journalistic group, the most Important literary movement of his time. On January 1, 1856, he wrote his family from

Strassburg: "tTbrigens gehore ich fur meine Person keines- wegs zu dem sogenannten Jungen Deutschland, der literari- schen Partei Gutzkows und Heines. Nur ein volliges Miss- kennen unserer gesellschaftlichen Verhaltnisse konnte die

Leute glauben machen, dass durch die Tagesliteratur eine vollige Umgestaltung unserer religiosen und gesellschaft- lichen Ideen moglich sei."'L

Neither is Buchner an admirer of the Romanticism which still persisted in his time. Being a forward-looking person, - 2 -

he could not tolerate nostalgic flight into medieval times and away from the realities of life as he saw them. Clari• fying his relation to the Romantics, Buchner succinctly writes to his friend Gutzkow (Strassburg, 1835): "Sie erhalten hierbei ein Bandcheri Gedichte von meinen Freunden

Stober. Die Sagen sind schon, aber ich bin kein Verehrer der Manier a la Schwab und Uhland und der Partei, die immer ruckwarts ins Mittelalter greift, well sie in der Gegenwart keinen Platz ausfiillen kann." (p. 4-06)

Since Buchner was ahead of his age in his preoccupation with essential humanity, it is small wonder that the Expression' ists found in him a congenial companion. In Buchner they saw a man of kindred spirit, a man who like themselves was sympathetic to the poor underdog and who yearned for a new humanity. Buchner's works, largely undiscovered until the

century, attained the reputation they now enjoy through the efforts of the Expressionist generation. His Woyzeck, although written in 1835 or 1836, was not seen on the stage until 1913. It is also noteworthy that Alban Berg composed his dramatic masterpiece, the opera Wozzeck, in the era of

Expressionism (1920), eighty-five years after the original work was written. Buchner is often seen as the connecting link between Expressionism and the similar, revolutionary and iconoclastic Storm and Stress movement of the 18 century. In his book on Expressionism, Walter H. Sokel writes: "The Expressionists greatly esteemed Storm and

Stress authors like Lenz and Klinger. Georg Buchner forms an interesting nineteenth-century link between the Storm - 3 -

and Stress and the drama of Wedekind, Johst, and Bert Brecht."'

Buchner is not only a forerunner of the Expressionists in thought, but is also one of the prophets of expressionistic

style. The looseness of construction, the episodic nature of scene succession, and the grotesque and aphoristic nature of the language are all indicative of what is to come in

Expressionism. Indeed, the very atmosphere of Buchner*s

Woyzeck has been an influence on the explosive expressionistic dramatic style. Albert Soergel goes so far as to claim:

"Ohne Woyzeckstimmung oder Woyzeckzeichnung, ohne Woyzeck- blut kaum ein expressionistisches DramaI"^ Later he declares, specifically regarding Hinkemann and Woyzeck, the plays we shall be considering: "Grauen liegt uber ihr fHinkemannj, wie uber Biichners. Woyzeck, dessen Friihexpressionismus sie naher verwandt ist, als zeitgenossische expressionistische 4- Werke." Buchner*s themes of humanity, of love for mankind, of sympathy to the poor, and of revolt against a decadent society recur in Expressionism. . Also, the theme of compassion for the underdog, isolated from his fellows by suffering and

existential awareness, as seen in Woyzeck is frequently taken up in expressionistic literature, and perhaps nowhere in such striking similarity as in Hinkemann. Kurt Pinthus, an Expressionist associated with Toller, writes: "While

still in jail, he [Toller] had written the grotesque tragedy of a victim of war, entitled Hinkemann. This play is influenced by Georg Buchner's Woyzeck, the first realistic proletarian drama, written almost one hundred years ago.

Hinkemann, like Woyzeck, is a mistreated humble soldier, - 4 -

who returns from the war seemingly sound, hut whose sexual 5 potency has been destroyed by shrapnel."^ We shall treat the suffering of these two soldiers, Woyzeck and Hinkemann, in the frame of reference as given by Max Brod in his book Heidentum, Christentum, Judentum, one of the great source books of Expressionist thought. Brod makes a definite distinction between what he calls "edles und unedles Ungluck." Noble suffering, he says, stems from the very nature of human existence. Man, endowed with reason, yearns for an answer to the puzzle of this universe, but he receives none. No amount of social reform can eradicate such suffering: it will be present as long as man exists. Even in the activistic Utopia this metaphysical evil will exist, for it results from the discrepancy between man's finite, frail nature and his recognition of the infinite. The consciousness of this discrepancy causes man pain. At the same time it lies at the basis of the attempts at ennoblement to be found in mankind's religions. Brod defines noble suffering: Der Mensch steht als ein korperliches, also durchaus endliches, und seelisches, also meist endliches, nur in ekstatischen Ausnahmeminuten unendliches Wesen dem Unendlichen gegenuber. Dies ist sein tiefster Schmerz, sein durchaus unabwendbares Ungluck. Immer wieder seine Grenze fiihlen, die Wandelbarkeit des Herzens, den Verfall des Leibes, die Abhangigkeit der hochsten Eunktionen von den niedrigsten, das Ermatten im Aufschwung, die Luge im aufrichtig- sten Versuch der Ehrlichkeit—das ist der Orgelpunkt aller menschlichen Melodie. Quite different from this unavoidable noble suffering is the ignoble suffering which results directly from evil - 5 -

social conditions or the stupidity and callousness of man.

War and poverty are illustrations of ignoble suffering.

This type of suffering can, and must, be eradicated because it is debasing to the dignity of man. Whereas noble suffering can bring man a sense of humility, ignoble suffering brings frustration and useless indignation. Brod writes:

Es gibt also (und in diesem grauenhaften Dasein ist dies eine Erkenntnis, die aufrecht erhalten zu werden verdient) neben dem unabwendbaren Un• gluck auch abwendbares, es gibt ein Elend, das in die Macht des Menschen, in seinen Willen gestellt ist, dem er abhelfen kann und dem ab- zuhelfen (aus dem Konnen ergibt sich sofort das Sollen) ein Teil seiner Bestimmung ist .... Das Erlebnis unedlen Unglucks bringt in jedem gesunden Menschen, sei er Betroffener oder Be- trachter, das Gefuh.1 der Entriistung, der Em- porung, der Auflehnung hervor. - Edles Ungluck mahnt zur Demut .... Es ist Arichtig,' es hat nichts Aufreizendes an sich.

With Brod's distinction in mind we shall begin our discussion of Woyzeck in the next chapter by investigating the back• ground of Woyzeck's suffering. - 6 -

Chapter One

Buchner portrays the fate of Woyzeck in a series of

episodic scenes, which often are, strictly speaking, not

logically connected. However, by showing his protagonist at

various, intimate moments of life, the author is able to

depict vividly the unfortunate lot of the ordinary man.

Buchner's play opens with Woyzeck, the poor, unsophisticated

soldier hurriedly shaving his captain. Then Woyzeck is

seen cutting sticks, which he sells to the captain in order

to secure a little money for the support of his common-law

wife and his child. Out of loving concern for his family,

Woyzeck even stoops to the level of selling his body to the

doctor as an object for medical experiments. For three months

Woyzeck has been eating only peas, and to test the effect

of this abnormal diet the doctor insists that his subject

retain his urine for investigation. The doctor, showing no human sympathy or understanding, treats Woyzeck like an

animal. Woyzeck can endure this degrading treatment, he can

allow himself to be enslaved by the captain and the doctor,

only as long as he can be sure of Marie, who alone gives purpose to his existence. When he finally learns that she

was unfaithful to him by giving herself to the more virile

drum major, Woyzeck no longer sees any sense in life. The

menial life he has led has been in vain. He expresses his utter despair by killing his beloved. Woyzeck completes his Q

rejection of all values in life by committing suicide.

The material facts which underlie Woyzeck's tragedy, in

themselves not the entire cause of his.actions, are delineated in some detail, However, of Woyzeck's family we learn very little. In the barracks-scene where he is disposing of his meager belongings, he divulges that his sister ("Das Kreuz ist meiner Schwester und das Ringlein." (p. 170)) and mother

("Mein Mutter flibit nur noch, wenn ihr die Sonn auf die

Hand scheint—das tut nix." (p. 171)) are still alive.

Although the above quotation gives an indication of the mother's slight influence upon his life at present, a previous maternal influence in religion is shown in the fact that he still has his mother's Bible. Paternal influence, however, is totally missing, for his father is never mentioned.

Usual family connections have no place in Woyzeck's life.

He is alone. The identification papers which he reads to his friend Andres seem indeed to contain all the details of his uneventful career: "Priedrich Johann Franz Woyzeck,

Wehrmann, Fusilier im 2. Regiment, 2. Bataillon, 4. Kom- pagnie, geboren Maria Verkundigung, den 20. Juli. - Ich bin heut alt 30 Jahr, 7 Monat und 12 Tage." (p. 171)

Quite in keeping with his humble origin, Woyzeck's language betrays a primitive or non-existent formal education.

Lacking tutored intelligence, he is not a logical, articulate person. For example, Woyzeck has great difficulty expressing himself regarding the perplexing visions he has seen:

Woyzeck. Sehn Sie, Herr Doktor, manchmal hat einen so 'en Charakter, so 'ne Struktur. - Aber mit der Natur ist's was anders, sehn Sie; mit der Natur (er kracht mit den Fingern), das is so was, wie soil ich doch sagen, zum Beispiel ... Doktor. Woyzeck, Er philosophiert wieder. Woyzeck. (vertraulich) Herr Doktor, haben Sie schon was von der doppelten Natur ge- sehen? Wenn die Sonn in Mittag steht und - 8 -

es ist, als ging die Welt in Feuer auf, hat schon eine fiirchterliche Stimme zu mir geredt! Doktor. Woyzeck, Er hat eine Aberratio. Woyzeck. (legt den Finger an die Nase) Die Schwamme, Herr Doktor, da, da steckt's. Hahen Sie schon gesehn, in. was fur Figuren die Schwamme auf dem Boden wachsen? Wer das lesen konntl (p. 159)

In reading Woyzeck, one gains the impression that this unpretentious, coarse and clumsy soldier has latent potenti•

ality, hut that this mental ability has never really been developed by formal training. He is an original thinker.

In his own way Woyzeck reveals his concern about the sense• lessness of life. Whether one decides to live or die in this cruel world depends on whether one affirms or negates life Woyzeck tells the captain in naively poetic form:

"Wir haben schon Wetter, Herr Hauptmann. Sehn Sie, so ein schoner, fester, grauer Himmel; man konnte Lust bekommen, ein* Kloben hineinzuschlagen und sich daran zu hangen, nur wegen des Gedankenstrichels zwischen Ja und wieder Ja—und

Nein. Herr Hauptmann, Ja und Nein? Ist das Nein am Ja oder das Ja am Nein schuld?" (p. 163) The inane captain, on the other hand, can only think within the bounds of a circum• scribed system. To him original thought is an absolutely strange and dangerous phenomenon: "Aber du denkst zuviel, das zehrt; du siehst immer so verhetzt aus." (p. 153)

Unable to understand his insight into life, the captain and his fellows believe Woyzeck is on the verge of insanity.

At first the doctor does not apprehend Woyzeck's puzzling remarks and dismisses them with: "Woyzeck, Er philosophiert wieder." (p. 159) but, finally, he reaches the conclusion - 9 -

that Woyzeck is mentally disturbed: "Woyzeck, Er hat eine

Aberratio." (p. 159) It indeed appears as if Woyzeck is going insane, as if he is breaking down. Marie displays strong fears that his mind may completely snap: "Was hast du, Franz? Du siehst so verstort . . . Der Mann! So ver- geistert ... Er schnappt noch uber mit den Gedanken!"

(pp. 154, 155) Significantly, Marie seizes upon Woyzeck's proclivity toward thought rather than her own guilt to explain his distraught condition. Woyzeck himself admits to confusion and turmoil in his mind: "Wenn ich die Aug zumach, dreht sich's immer, und ich hor die Geigen, immer zu, immer zu. Und dann spricht's aus der Wand." (p. 167)

In many instances his strange remarks leave us asking whether these are the utterances of a madman or of ah other-worldly visionary. On one occasion he tells Marie, revealing his dangerous mental condition: "Es ist hinter mir hergangen bis vor die Stadt. Etwas, was wir nicht fassen, begreifen, was uns von Sinnen bringt. Was soli das werden?" (p. 155)

Such doubts concerning reality, as contrasted with the dogmatic systems of thought personified, in the doctor and the captain, show us that Woyzeck alone has an independent insight into the essence of things—in fact it is this insight which unsettles him. He is constantly haunted by the inexpli• cable in nature; he realizes there are mysterious, uncon• trollable forces at work, which he is at a loss to explain.

Woyzeck also realizes that there is a mysterious, unfathomable element in man: "Jeder Mensch is ein Abgrund; es schwindelt einem, wenn man hinabsieht." (p. 164) Through such utterances - 10 -

Buchner exposes Woyzeck1s innate faculty for reflective thought, as contrasted with mere ability to retain information, for in these seemingly lunatic remarks there is often a profound truth which the learned doctor and the supercilious captain cannot even grasp.

Woyzeck is naturally intelligent. He gives one of the most startling evidences of his native intelligence in the encounter with the captain over the question of morality.

He demonstrates here that he is capable of cogent and penetrating remarks which refute the superficial arguments of the captain.

In his "naturalness" Woyzeck does not comply with the con• ventional standards of morality. He looks on bourgeois morality as based upon material prosperity: "... wenn ich ein Herr war und hatt ein' Hut und eine Uhr und eine

Anglaise und konnt vornehm reden, ich wollt schon tugendhaft sein. Es muss was Schones sein um die Tugend, Herr Haupt• mann. Aber ich bin ein armer Kerll" (p. 152) Morality needs an economic base: man needs food and clothing before he can have morals. In words reminiscent of Brecht ("Erst kommt das Pressen, dann kommt die Moral."), Buchner argues that the poor people who have no money can have no morality in the conventional, bourgeois sense. According to Woyzeck, poverty creates its own "natural" morality which he follows.

When the captain accuses him of having a child without the blessing of the church, Woyzeck responds with his astute answer:

"Herr Hauptmann, der liebe Gott wird den armen Wurm nicht drum ansehen, ob das Amen driiber gesagt ist, eh er gemacht wurde. Der Herr sprach: Lasset die Kleinen zu mir kommen." - 11 -

(p. 152) Woyzeck knows no artificial moral laws but only

the laws of the natural morality, the law of love, which he finds in Christ's words.

As such a "Naturmenseh," Woyzeck frequently refers to

the involuntary drives of nature, pointing out that a man io

cannot help himself in the face of nature's demands.

In the opening scene Woyzeck is talking with the captain

about the sexual drive: "Man hat auch sein Fleisch und

Blut . . . wir gemeine Leut, das hat keine Tugend, es kommt

einem nur so die Natur ..." (p. 152)"^ Somewhat later,

Woyzeck uses essentially the same phrase, "wenn einem die

Natur kommt" (p. 158), but this time he is referring to the urinating episode, for which the doctor reproaches him. The doctor, in the tone of the Enlightenment, piously defends the freedom of the will over nature: "Woyzeck, der Mensch ist frei, in dem Mensehen verklart sich die Individualitat

zur Freiheit." (pp. 158, 159) But Woyzeck knows of no such freedom. He is "natural" just like the indecent horse at the fair, which obediently carries out the drives of nature 12 when necessary. Woyzeck lives according to the showman's instructions, "Mensch, sei naturlichl" (p. 157)» and for

Woyzeck, this is the core of human morality.

Although he does not understand Woyzeck's poignant remarks, the monied and moral captain finds him to be a good man. "Du bist ein, guter Mensch, ein guter Mensch.:!

(p. 153), he says in a concessive recognition of Woyzeck's inherent virtue. Indeed, in his "natural" behaviour, Woyzeck demonstrates a big heart and a trusting, almost canine - 12 -

affection. His absolute and natural devotion to Marie is the cause for his letting himself be mistreated and exploited.

Even though not obliged to do so (they are not married), he feels he must support her and his child. He informs the doctor: "Das Geld fur die Menage kriegt meine Frau." (p. 160)

In the naive goodness of his heart Woyzeck wants to believe the best in all people. His Implicit trust in Marie, and in humanity, is part of his "natural" being. Woyzeck*s suspicions are not easily aroused: it takes a great deal of evidence to convince him of Marie's infidelity. One day he completely surprises Marie in her room while she is lovingly admiring a set of ear-rings, which she undoubtedly received from the drum major. Although everything does not seem to be in order, Woyzeck is willing to forget the incident.

However, he is not permitted to do so, for the knowledge of Marie's relations with the drum major has come to the ears of the captain, and the latter, thinking to have some amuse• ment, taunts Woyzeck with crude hints about Marie's unfaith• fulness. Woyzeck is so shocked by this sudden disclosure as to be thrown into utter confusion: "Herr Hauptmann, die

Erd is hollenheiss—mir eiskalt, eiskalt—Die Holle ist kalt, wollen wir wetten. - - Unmoglich! Menschi MenschI unmoglichl"

(p. 162) Even then he is not entirely convinced. Marie looks so sweet and innocent that he can hardly believe the captain's revelation. Such a crass sin should be clearly visible.

Woyzeck simply does not want to believe. But, the evidence mounts: at a dance he himself sees her in the arms of the drum major. Then Andres supplies the final convincing piece - 13 -

of information by revealing to Woyzeck that he had seen the drum major and a friend visit Marie. Not until then is the naive and magnanimous Woyzeck aroused to his drastic act of sado-masochistic destruction. ©

Buchner's concern with the social and economic distress of the common people, which is the basis for most of his early writing, is still clearly seen in Woyzeck. The fact that Woyzeck must debase himself to the level of an animal and perform menial tasks in order to provide meager means for his family is abundant evidence of the misery of the poor people—to whom he belongs. The poor know only work and privation, in this life and in the next. For them death it• self would provide no rest: "Ich glaub, wenn wir in Himmel kamen, so mussten wir donnern helfen." (p. 152) When he disposes of his scanty belongings, Woyzeck reveals his utter poverty. All that he finds worth mentioning is "das Kami- solchen . . . das Kreuz ... das Ringlein ... ein Heili- gen . . . zwei Herze und schon Gold . . . ." (p. 170)

Marie reveals similar penury in the jewel scene which seems to be closely modelled after the jewel scene in Faust I.

She shows great delight with such a simple gift as a pair of ear-rings. It is pathetic to observe her pride and pleasure with this simple luxury. She like Woyzeck could say: "Ich bin ein armer Teufel—und hab sonst nichts auf der Welt."

(p. 162)

On January 1, 1836, Buchner wrote his parents from

Strassburg: "Ich komme vom Christkindelsmarkt: uberall

Haufen zerlumpter, frierender Kinder, die mit aufgerissenen - 14 -

Augen und traurigen Gesichtern vor den Herrlichkeiten aus

Wasser und Mehl, Dreck und Goldpapier standen. Der Gedanke, dass fiir die meisten Menschen auch die armseligsten Geniisse und Ireuden unerreichbare Kostbarkeiten sind, machte mich sehr bitter." (p. 408) Such bitterness against abject poverty and social injustice is especially reflected here 13 in the pungent caricatures, the captain and the doctor.

It seems congruous to conclude that the Strassburg market experience (and others like it) left its mark on Woyzeck, for the idea of this play must have been germinating in

Buchner's mind at about this time.

Although it contains considerable criticism directed at the ruling class of society, it is a fallacy to maintain that Buchner wrote his Woyzeck purely as propaganda for social reform. Nowhere in the play does Buchner advocate revolution of the lower class against its rulers, nor is there the slightest hope given for a change in society.

Kurt May writes: "Im 'Woyzeck'-Drama selbst ist nicht mit einem einzigen Wort die Hoffnung auf eine mogliche Anderung der gesellschaftlichen Ordnung der Zeit verktindet. Darum gelingt es nicht, dem 'Woyzeck' den Charakter eines sozial- revolutionaren Kampf- und Tendenzstuckes mit progressives

Bedeutung aufzuzwingen, obwohl doch das Leiden der armen

Leute an der unertraglichen Verderbtheit der herrschenden 14

Sozialordnung hier auf die Szene gebracht ist." Thus, in dealing with the socio-economic basis for Woyzeck's suffering, one must be careful to put it in the proper perspective.

Certainly, Woyzeck's suffering is due in part to his social - 15 -

and economic circumstances, but this one aspect of the drama must not be unduly stressed to the exclusion of other important factors such as Woyzeck's problematic nature and the universal need for love. Some critics see only the realistic and revolutionary Buchner, the author of the Bessische Landbote, and base their entire interpretation of Woyzeck upon its purported social criticism. Woyzeck is seen only as an outcry against the injustice and cruelty of 19 century society. The protagonist's suffering and the resulting murder of Marie are caused solely, in their opinion, by the 15 economic and social conditions. One cannot, however, go to the opposite extreme and ignore the social and revolution• ary aspect of Buchner's work. To obtain the proper per• spective in this respect it is helpful to examine Buchner's private change of view as a result of his political experi• ences.

Buchner first became concerned about politics while attending the university at Strassburg. He came to the conclusion that only mass revolution can bring about any changes in society. Consequently, he had no intentions of becoming involved in petty German politics.However, when Buchner, in compliance with state regulations, trans• ferred to the University of Giessen he soon became involved in the radical movement which had arisen after the abortive peasants' revolt of 1830. One of the agencies for Buchner's revolutionary activities was the 11 Gesellschaft der Menschen- rechte," which he founded in conjunction with several friends.

This society was intended as a propaganda center where pamphlets - 16 -

were to be printed for distribution among the peasants.

Being an outspoken advocate of action, Buchner—together with

Pastor Weidig—published in 18J4- Der Hessische Landbote, which bore the motto from the French Revolution: "Priede den Huttenl Krieg den Palasten." In this inflamatory tract he denounced the exploitation of the peasants and called on them to revolt. The appearance of this pamphlet led the authorities to take drastic action: Buchner was questioned and several of his friends imprisoned. Being held suspect,

Buchner returned home to Darmstadt, where he in a few weeks wrote Dantons Tod. In this play Buchner exposes his view on the French Revolution which had become tainted with less idealistic motives. He comes to a fatalistic view of history.

Even revolutions, he feels, are subject to all powerful fate.

Shortly thereafter he had to flee across the border to

Strassburg. Disillusioned with the turn of events, Buchner now totally withdrew from political activity. He was dis• illusioned with the weakness, the division of the revolutionary party itself and recognized that in such a condition it could 17 accomplish nothing. ' From a youthful enthusiasm for revo• lution Buchner's views changed to despair: he no longer believed in the efficacy of revolution in bringing about 18 social and economic equality, but rather saw in political movements the blind workings of cruel destiny. F. W. Kaufmann sums up the radical change of view in Buchner: "Buchner, the revolutionary who had hoped to lead man to a higher level and who had seen his endeavours fail because of the pettiness and stupidity of revolutionary comrades and his - 17 - opponents, despairs of historical progress and of any possible 19 upward evolution of mankind." Although disillusioned with open revolution, Buchner, 20 in consonance with his compassionate philosophy of life,

still depicts the misery of the poor people in his Woyzeck.

Here are mirrored the actual social and economic conditions of the 19 century state of Hesse-Darmstadt. Buchner, in portraying the indigent condition of the lower classes, demonstrates his continued sympathy for the underdog. Buchner here reveals his sympathy for "das arme Volk" by depicting the lot of one of its mistreated members, Woyzeck, but, as we shall see in the next two chapters, by this time his vision has expanded to the point where he sees every indi• vidual suffering from a more "noble" misfortune—the condition of being alive in an inexplicable and evil universe. - 18 -

Chapter Two

The material background of Woyzeck's suffering is

provided by the economic situation in which he finds himself,

but the deeper cause of his suffering is his need for love.

Here we must clearly differentiate between Woyzeck's tender,

homely affection for his "family" and his passionate love

for Marie. It has already been indicated that Woyzeck is

a kind individual aware of his moral responsibilities to

"wife" and child. One example will suffice to illustrate

his affection for his "family." In the jewel scene he reveals

his tender love for his son. The little fellow has fallen

asleep on a chair, but in an awkward position: "Was der

Bub schlaftl Greif inn unters Jfrmchen, der Stuhl druckt

ihn." (p. 158) Woyzeck submits to the basest of mistreat•

ment at the hands of the doctor and captain only because

of such gentle love and care for his "family." Of greater

importance, however, since the tragedy centers in it, is

his personal love for Marie. He needs some one whom he can

love, but more than that he needs some one to love him:

he needs that love to be returned. This belief in a recipro•

cated love provides his existence with meaning, which other•

wise is totally lacking. Hence he is prepared to-make any

sacrifice to retain Marie's love. No suffering is too

degrading if it is the means of keeping this reciprocal love

intact. When she breaks the relationship he has no further

cause for living.

Ultimately, because of his need for Marie's love,

Woyzeck is pressured into the supreme degradation: that - 19 -

of selling his very person to the doctor to he used as subject in the latter's scientific experiments. For three months

Woyzeck has been on a ridiculous diet of nothing but peas.

The doctor and his students make close observations on the subject to test the effect that this diet has on the pulse and eyes: "Sehen Sie: der Mensch, seit einem Vierteljahr isst er nichts als Erbsen; bemerken Sie die Wirkung, fxihlen

Sie einmal: was ein ungleicher Puis! der und die Augenl"

(p. 168) Every emotional disturbance-resulting from such treatment is utilised as an occasion for further observation.

Even when Woyzeck is completely disconcerted by the captain's crass hints about Marie, the doctor can think only of his experiment and quickly exclaims: "Den Puis, Woyzeck, den

Puis! - Klein, hart, hupfend, unregelmassig .... Ge- sichtsmuskeln starr, gespannt, zuweilen hupfend. Haltung aufgeregt, gespannt .... Phanomen! Woyzeck, Zulage!"

(pp. 162, 163) M. Heimann briefly sums up the Woyzeck- doctor relation: "Ein Arzt halt ihn sich, wie sie sich heute

Hunde und Meerschweinchen und Ratten halten, zum Experimen- 21 tieren . . . ."

In actual fact, Mr. Heimann is too kind in his esti• mation of the doctor, for to the latter Woyzeck is, if any• thing, worth less than an animal. The doctor stoically refuses to become concerned about a mere human being:

"Behute, wer wird sich uber einen Menschen argern, ein'

Menschen! Wenn es noch ein Proteus ware, der einem kre- piert!" (p. 159) The doctor ignores Woyzeck the human being, choosing rather to look upon him as a mechanism reacting to - 20 -

stimuli. In his preoccupation with abstract science the doctor fails to recognize the worth and dignity of man; he is, in fact, a heartless, total product of rationality who observes the world as an ultimately explicable cause and effect series. He refuses to recognize the irrational, incalculable core of the human being which loves and suffers.

In his experimenting, the doctor has lost all sense of human values—his only concern is the egoistic drive for scientific experimentation. Typical of the doctor's reaction to Woyzeck*s behaviour is the scene where Woyzeck makes seemingly incoherent observations on the duality of nature to him. The doctor's immediate answer is: "Woyzeck, Er philosophiert wieder . . . .

Woyzeck, Er hat eine Aberratio." (p. 159) The first ex• pression is one of condemnation, "philosophieren" being a nebulous unscientific attitude for which the doctor cannot be held accountable. But to his joy, he finds a scientific term which accounts for Woyzeck's behaviour. He rhapsodizes upon the word "Aberratio," classifying Woyzeck's disturbance according to the diagnostic handbook: "Woyzeck, Er hat die schonste Aberratio mentalis partialis, die zweite Spezies, sehr schon ausgepragt. Woyzeck, Er kriegt Zulagei Zweite

Spezies: fixe Idee mit allgemein vernunftigem Zustand."

(pp. 159, 160) Of course, Buchner's portrayal reveals to us a man for whom terminology covers a lack of real under• standing and who uses Latin mumbo jumbo to terrify the uneducated. In a subsequent similar scene the doctor throws a cat out of the window to demonstrate the law of gravity to his students. Woyzeck captures the cat, but it bites - 21 -

him. Showing obvious signs of weakness from the experimental

ordeal, he begins to tremble. The doctor displays absolutely no sympathy for human agony and sees yet another opportunity

for investigation. Joyously rubbing his hands, he exclaims:

"Ei, ei! schon, Woyzeck!" (p. 167), and heartlessly goes

on to. use his weakened subject in a class-room demonstration 22

of muscular control by forcing Woyzeck to wiggle his ears.

The doctor's insensitivity to suffering is rendered

even more loathsome by his personal ambitions. He is motivated

by a strong desire for renown. The doctor is maniacally

convinced that his findings will revolutionize science:

"Es gibt eine Revolution in der Wissenschaft, ich sprenge

sie in die Luft. Harnstoff 0, 10, salzsaures Ammonium,

Hyperoxydul - " (p. 159)

In this caricature of the doctor, Buchner mocks and

attacks the soulless intellectual with expressionistic

vigour and in consonance with the feelings he expresses in

a letter of February 1834, to his family. Here Buchner

expounds his intense hatred of such superficiality in

education—education which is concerned only with the

training of the mind and neglects the heart. Shallow

intellectuals, he declares, feel superior to ordinary

people and scorn them, whereas the truly educated man

feels a bond of sympathy with all humanity. Intellectu-

alism is seen here as a reprehensible outgrowth of egoism

and is put on a plane with the political tyranny which

Buchner, as a revolutionary, of necessity opposed: Ich habe freilich noch eine Art von Spott, es ist aber nicht der der Verachtung, sondern der - 22 -

des Hasses. Der Hass ist so gut erlaubt als die Liebe, und ich hege inn. im vollsten Masse gegen die, welche verachten. Es ist deren eine grosse Zahl, die, im Besitz einer lacherlichen Ausser- lichkeit, die man Bildung, oder eines toten Krams, den man Gelehrsamkeit heisst, die grosse Masse ihrer Briider ihrem verachtenden Egoismus opfern. Der Aristokratismus ist die schandlich- ste Verachtung des Heiligen Geistes im Menschen; gegen inn kehre ich seine eigenen Waffen: Hochn* mut gegen Hochmut, Spott gegen Spott. (p. 378) p

In the professor-horse scene of Woyzeck Buchner attacks

the superficial intellectual even more naturalistically.

The trained horse is brought on stage to display a satiric

anomaly termed "animal reasonableness." By various twists

the author equates animal and man, the animal man and the human animal with the purpose of showing reason as a 24

corrupting influence on ideal nature. With thxs horse, which is a professor and a member of intellectual society,

Buchner renews his attack against empty egoistic scholar•

ship: "Welchen Sinn hatte jener Entwurf der Marktschreier-

szene, die Prasentierung des gelehrten Pferdes . . . wenn nicht den, Professorenphilosophie und Gelehrsamkeitsdunkel 25

mit erneuter Bitterkeit zu verspotten."

Wilbrand, the Professor of Anatomy at Giessen, is known

to have served as model for certain aspects of the doctor in

Woyzeck. Por example, the demonstration of ear muscles was

apparently one of Wilbrand's favourite amusements. Very

frequently he would bring his lectures to a climax with a

demonstration of ear muscle movement by his son, who was 27

evidently quite adept in this.

Buchner was well-qualified to attack so bitterly the

shallow scientist, for he was the son of a medical doctor - 23 -

and himself spent considerable time studying the natural

sciences and medicine. During his first stay in Strassburg he concentrated on zoology and comparative anatomy, and at

Giessen he continued these studies. Evidently in accordance with his father's wishes he also began the study of practical medicine there. After his return to Strassburg as a political refugee, Buchner delivered a paper entitled "Memoire sur le systeme nerveux du barbeau" to the "Societe d'histoire naturelle de Strasbourg." With this same thesis he later took his doctorate at the University of Zurich. His trial lecture delivered at Zurich was also on a scientific subject,

"uber Schadelnerven."

Beside the doctor, there is still another major figure who contributes not only to Woyzeck's physical abuse and mistreatment, but also to his complete estrangement from the world. The drum major, looking for a victim on whom he can give vent to his excess energy, challenges the help• less Woyzeck to a fight: "Du Kerl, saufl Ich wollt, die

Welt war Schnaps, Schnaps—der Mann muss saufeni (Woyzeck pfeift.) Kerl, soli ich dir die Zunge aus dem Hals Ziehen und sie urn den Leib herumwickeln? (Sie ringen, Woyzeck verliert.)" (p. 169)

More important than the' physical pain the drum major inflicts on Woyzeck is the mental anguish he causes him by

seducing Marie. This humiliation is much more severe than the physical beating he receives, for out of the seduction of Marie arises Woyzeck's intense psychic agony. Out of love for Marie he has doomed himself to physical degeneration - 24 -

through a diet of peas. But ironically, he thereby has lost

her respect and love—the very thing against which he was

desperately trying to guard—and has driven her into the arms

of the robust drum major. For Woyzeck there is no way out

of this frustration brought upon him by the drum major who

represents the whole overpowering lovelessness of the world.

The drum major (like the rest of the world) does not know what love is; he equates love with the sex act: "Was ein

Weibsbildl . . . Und zur Zucht von TambourmajorsI ...

Das ist ein Weibsbild!" (pp. 156, 157) To Marie he exclaims:

"Sapperment, wir wollen eine Zucht von Tambourmajors anlegen.

He? (Er umfasst sie.) . . . Wild Tier!" (p. 160) Later,

Andres repeats some of the drum major's comments: "Ein

kostlich WeibsbildJ die hat Schenkel, und alles so heiss!"

(p. 168) While watching Marie dance with the drum major,

Woyzeck bursts out: "Der Kerl, wie er an ihr herumgreift,

an ihrem LeibI Er, er hat sie—wie ich zu Anfang." (p. 166)

A loveless world, represented by a man preoccupied with sex,

robs Woyzeck of his beloved, and leads to his ultimate

despair.

Woyzeck's simple friend Andres is a different character

from the cruel, egoistic doctor, or from the belligerent

drum major. Andres does not reveal malevolence; he is an

average self-centered human who is too apathetic to be

genuinely concerned about the suffering of others. Buchner

implies that that is the way humans are. Andres is not

maliciously cruel as the doctor and the drum major are. He

knows there is something wrong with Woyzeck, but he cannot - 25 -

comprehend the nature of his agony. Being an ordinary, care• free man, he does not try to fathom Woyzeck*s suffering.

Andres mistakes his friend's mental and spiritual anguish for physical pain. This lack of understanding leads him to ridicule Woyzeck slightly: on two occasions he calls Woyzeck a fool. After Woyzeck's suspicions regarding Marie have been aroused he confides in Andres, telling him that he is upset and restless, but all his friend answers is "Narr." (p. 164-)

Andres feels that Woyzeck need not be so concerned about a faithless woman. He cannot comprehend the complete love which Woyzeck feels for Marie and the resultant frustrations which are impelling him into total rejection of the world.

One night Woyzeck is kept from sleeping by the haunting visions, and to receive consolation he wakes up Andres.

The latter becomes annoyed on hearing more of the visions and sharply tells Woyzeck, "Schlaf, Narr!" (p. 167), before turning over on the other side and going back to sleep.

In a subsequent scene, however, the effect of this ridicule is modulated, for Andres shows a little genuine charity.

However, still not recognizing the nature of Woyzeck's suffering, he believes Woyzeck has a high fever which can be cured by drinking brandy with quinine: "Franz, du kommst ins Lazarett. Armer, du musst Schnaps trinken und Pulver drin, das tot das Fieber." (p. 171) That Woyzeck suffers from a malady which no panacea can sooth is beyond the understanding of this common man.

The critical attitude which Buchner displays toward

Andres is intensified in the maudlin captain who is anything - 26 -

but a military figure: be is fat, over-sentimental and too talkative. He does not consciously intend to hurt Woyzeck, but merely enjoys using him as a butt and whipping boy.

Principally, Woyzeck is an assurance to him of his own superiority and serves to bolster his own egoism:

Hauptmann. Was ist heut fur Wetter? . . . Ich glaub, wir haben so was aus Sud-Nbrd? Woyzeck. Jawohl, Herr Hauptmann. Hauptmann. Hal ha! ha! Sud-Nord! Ha! ha! na! Oh, Er ist dumm, ganz abscheulich dummi

(pp. 151, 152)

The entire beginning dialogue indicates the captain's self- centered unconcern. He wants Woyzeck to slow down in shaving him, because otherwise he will be through too soon. The melancholy captain does not know what to do with the extra ten minutes. He is only concerned about filling out his time, even though he does so by ridiculing the already unsettled 28

Woyzeck. While the captain is not blatantly cruel as are the doctor and drum major, with his insidious use of ridicule he can be more subtly vicious. In his crude disclosure regarding Marie, the captain hurts Woyzeck more than the doctor, for the stupid captain finds it highly amusing that

Marie has been untrue to Woyzeck. Por Woyzeck this is the most terrible revelation in the entire play. Just for a moment the captain is perplexed and almost feels sorry for the poor creature he ridicules, but at the end he summons up enough objectivity to laugh at Woyzeck's grotesque, animal-like gait—the hurried gait of one who is being pursued.

The captain, significantly, can laugh at Woyzeck and see him as a grotesque figure, but he is unable to laugh - 27 -

at himself. For example, in the scene where the doctor confronts him with imminent death, the captain becomes

extremely alarmed: "Herr Doktor, erschrecken Sie mich nicht! Es sind schon Leute am Schreck gestorben, am blos- sen hellen Schreck. - Ich sehe schon die Leute mit den

Zitronen in den Handen; ... (p. 161)

Woyzeck is powerless to retaliate against the ridicule of society. Hence, Buchner must take up the cudgels for him., and through the captain he judges (and condemns) an age which has lost the true sense of values, an age which has lost all contact with essential humanity. This society has no justification for living on. In a letter of 1836 Buchner writes: "Ich glaube, man muss in sozialen Dingen von einem absoluten Reehtsgrundsatz ausgehen, die Bildung eines neuen geistigen Lebens im Volke suchen und die abgelebte moderne

Gesellschaft zum Teufel gehen lassen. Zu was soil ein Ding wie diese zwischen Himmel und Erde herumlaufen? Das ganze

Leben derselben besteht nur in Versuchen, sich die entsetz- lichste Langeweile zu vertreiben. Sie mag aussterben, das ist das einzig Neue, was sie noch erleben kann." (p. 412)

Marie, like the rest of this society, cannot comprehend

Woyzeck's anguish. She has found life with him becoming more and more difficult: his visits have been infrequent because he lives in the barracks and is continuously occupied in

earning money for her. When he does come she is unable to understand his mystifying comments. She begins to fear him.

Ignoring her guilt, she feels that perhaps he is becoming

insane: "Er schnappt hoch uber mit den Gedankeni . . . - 28 -

Ich halt's nit aus; es schauert michi" (p. 155) But, like most human beings, she does not exert herself to understand other people or the world, and thus she finds life beautiful.

Her philosophy of life is summed up in four of her own words: "Komische Welt! schone Welti" (p. 155) Marie affirms life; as a whole it is beautiful. The vexations which occur from time to time cannot cause her to repudiate it, rather they make it unaccountably interesting ("Komische

Welt").

Marie wants to enjoy life (witness her pleasure at the fair and her excitement at the dance). In her way she has been faithful to Woyzeck, but now the drum major comes upon the scene representing everything lacking in her relation• ship with Woyzeck and she cannot resist the temptation. The drum major, following his sensual nature, takes advantage of

Marie's natural hedonism and is easily able to seduce her.

In this "Mann, wie ein Baum" who stands "auf seinen Pussen wie ein Low" (p. 154) she sees sex personified. Marie, finding the drum major irresistibly appealing to her momen• tarily dominant animal nature, submits to his desires.

For the instant the appeal of nature is so strong in

Marie that she can ignore the effect the action will have on Woyzeck. To be sure she repudiates Woyzeck's love, a love which we recognize to be far worthier than the drum major's.

However, Buchner cannot condemn her because she is unfaith• ful. This is nature at work. She is at fault rather because she hurts the deeply sensitive Woyzeck. In the "Mariens

Kammer" scene where Woyzeck confronts Marie with his knowledge - 29 -

of her unfaithfulness she adopts a defiance to which she is

tecnnically justified. They are not married. He cannot

command her: "Ruhr mich an, Franz! Ich hatt lieber ein

Messer in den Leib als deine Hand auf meiner." (p. 164)

But the defiance has a ring to it which tells of indignation

concealing guilt. She has violated the trust of a man with

a soul.

From externals one might judge that Marie shares the

same indifference and egoism as the captain or Andres. But, in contrast to the others who have caused Woyzeck mental torment, she is capable of self-reproach and remorse: after her affair with the drum major she is privately aware of her

sin against Woyzeck. She reproaches herself: "Ich bin doch

ein schlecht Mensch! Ich konnt mich erstechen." (p. 158)

On this occasion her confession of guilt sounds rather super• ficial and unconvincing because she concludes with a ration•

alization of her act: "Ach! was Welt! Geht doch alles zum

Teufel, Mann und Weib!" (p. 158) Nevertheless, this scene is important for it foreshadows the genuine remorse which

she later feels.

Marie is a religious person, but her faith does not deter her from sin. She has no compunctions about living with a man and having a child by him out of wedlock. In fact, she speaks with a certain proletarian pride of her

"arm Hurenkind." However, the strong feelings of remorse which we ultimately witness are associated with her religious upbringing. Filled with contrition, she is driven to her

Bible for comfort. She reads of the woman who was caught -30-

in adultery and was brought to Jesus, and of the sinful woman who anointed Christ's feet. Marie recognizes that she too is sinful. In this recognition of sin there is more than self-pity: she indicates a genuine feeling for Woyzeck, whom she knows she has wronged. Now her child only reminds her of her sin against Woyzeck: "Das Kind gibt mir einen

Stich ins Herz." (p. 170) She is concerned about Woyzeck's unusually long absence. In her distress she can find no comfort in the Bible. She cannot pray and she cannot.even weep, indicating an honest frustration in her soul. She knows her own nature is sinful, and at the same time she feels the worth of her man Woyzeck and her treachery to him.

She is caught between the sensual and the ideal aspects of her nature, a conflict which gives rise to her frustration.

Every effort to find the needed assurance of forgiveness of her sin is to no avail. Her religious faith is unable to alleviate the spiritual suffering resulting from her dilemma.

Finally, beating her breast, although she knows she cannot contact her saviour, she cries out in despair: "Alles tot!

Heiland! Heiland! ich mochte dir die Eusse salbeni" (p. 170)

That Marie is genuinely downcast about her act against

Woyzeck is also revealed in later scenes. When the children on the street ask her to sing for them, she, still taken up with remorse, cannot comply with their wishes. Also, her actions in the death scene show a change of attitude. She answers Woyzeck tenderly, whereas before she was caustic and sarcastic. One gains the impression that Marie is trying to make up for her wrong, although she can never ask for forgiveness. - 31 -

Woyzeck is totally estranged from this world which has no heart. The egoistic doctor contributes to his iso• lation by degrading his humanity, the supercilious captain by crude jesting, the simple Andres by normal indifference to his suffering, and the belligerent drum major by the seduc• tion of his only girl. Marie completes Woyzeck's estrange• ment from the rest of humanity by severing the reciprocal love relationship which alone gave him reason for living.

Woyzeck, a man with heart, has no more purpose in life except perhaps in the destruction of this evil world. - 32 -

Chapter Three

Woyzeck, a man given to inarticulate brooding, is obsessed with the evil in the world, which Buchner represents in the somewhat Romantic symbol of voices and visions. Coincidentally with them Woyzeck has come to feel the senselessness of life. For a brief moment he finds purpose in life in his love for Marie, but upon discovering the loss of her love he returns to a deeper conviction of senselessness, which he expresses in his act of vengeance. By killing what he loved best, he rejects the world that through Marie has rejected him. His suicide completes his repudiation of any purpose in existence.

The voices and visions reflect the essential evil in an incomprehensible universe, both the macrocosm and the microcosm. These forces constantly haunt him, in the city, in the fields, and in the barracks. He can feel them pressing in around him and almost driving him out of his mind: "Es ist hinter mir hergangen bis vor die Stadt. Etwas, was wir nicht fassen, begreifen, was uns von Sinnen bringt. Was soil das werden?" (p. 155) These destructive forces, symbolized by the voices, also command the murder: "Ha! was, was sagtiihr? Lauter! lauter! Stich, stich die

Zickwolfin tot?—stich, stich die—Zickwolfin tot!—Soil ich? muss ich?" (p. 166)

Furthermore, Woyzeck, with the dullness of an elemental soul, perceives the chaotic nature of the whole universe, which is not only senseless but also dangerous to man.

Man seems to be living on a thin crust which could break - 33 -

at any moment, devouring him like a wild "beast. When Woyzeck cries out, "Hohl, horst du? alles hohl da unteni" (p. 153), he echoes the words of a character in Dantons Tod: "Ja, die

Erde ist eine dunne Kruste; ich meine immer, ich konnte durchfalien, wo so ein Loch ist. - Man muss mit Vorsicht auf- treten, man konnte durchbrechen." (p. 39) The fact that the world is headed for destruction (according to Woyzeck1s visions) is also indicative of its essential evil. His visions, which are frequently based on Biblical accounts of destruction, predict utter ruin. Quoting from the

Apocalypse (9:2), Woyzeck sees a scene of devastation by fire: "Und sieh, da ging ein Rauch vom Land, wie der Rauch vom Ofen?" (p. 155)

Not only is the universe outside evil and senseless, but man is also empty of good purpose. It is unnerving even to try to understand man: "Jeder Mensch is [sic] ein Ab- grund; es schwindelt einem, wenn man hinabsieht." (p. 164)

Through his personal experience of loneliness—culmi• nating in his rejection by Marie—Woyzeck has come to a recognition of the world as senseless and hence evil. In addition he sees that the individual is lost and helpless in its dark confines. The individual must grope through life, constantly fearing that the very world will disinte• grate in his fingers: "Wenn die Natur aus ist, das ist, wenn die Natur—aus ist. Wenn die Welt so finster wird, dass man mit den Handen an ihr herumtappen muss, dass man meint, sie verrinnt wie Spinneweb. Das ist so, wenn etwas ist und doch nicht ist, wenn alles dunkel ist und nur noch - 34 -

ein roter Schein im Westen, wie von einer Esse." (p. 502)

Woyzeck realizes that there is no real communication with other people: for example, he and the captain do not communicate, but merely talk past each other. Woyzeck knows that every one lives and suffers alone. He experiences what

Danton had expressed: "Wir wissen wenig voneinander. Wir .

sind Dickhauter, wir strecken die Hande nacheinander aus, aber es ist vergebliche Muhe, wir reiben nur das grobe Leder aneinander ab,—wir sind sehr einsam." (p. 9) We know that

Buchner in his own life also experienced this loneliness:

"Ich bin all ein, wie im Grabe; warm erweckt mich Deine Hand?

Meine Freunde verlassen mich, wir sehreien uns wie Taube einander in die Ohren; ich wollte, wir waren stumm, dann konn- ten wir uns doch nur ansehen . . . ." (Brief an die Braut,

Giessen, Pebruar, p. 378)

Despite his ultimate recognition of the essential evil of man and of the universe, Woyzeck as long as he maintains faith in Marie's love still sees life as ambivalent—both good and evil. When he sees the paradoxical situation at the fair where an old man sings in a baroque vein about the inconstancy of life, and to this music a young child joyfully dances, Woyzeck cries: "Hei, Hopsa's! - Armer

Mann, alter Manni Armes Kind, junges Kind! Sorgen und

Eeste!" (p. 155) However, as events show finally Woyzeck also rejects this notion that life can bring happiness as well as suffering.

In his preoccupation with the loneliness and senseless• ness in the world, Buchner arrives at an extreme fatalism. - 35 -

All of his characters are determined by and are the victims

of an all-powerful outside force—fate. As we have noted,

even in the outstanding event of his time, the Revolution,

Buchner comes to see a catastrophe of history which could not have been avoided, rather than an expression of a politi•

cal will. In the famous letter to his fiancee, he expresses his extremely pessimistic views on the fatalism of history:

Ich studierte die Geschichte der Revolution. Ich fuhlte mich wie zernichtet, unter dem grasslichen Fatalismus der Geschichte. Ich f inde. in der Men- schennatur eine entsetzliche Gleichheit, in den menschlichen Vernaltnissen eine unabwendbare Gewalt, alien und keinem verliehen. Ber einzelne nur Schaum auf der Welle, die Grosse ein blosser Zufall, die Herrschaft des Genies ein Puppenspiel, ein lacherliches Ringen gegen ein ehernes Gesetz, es zu erkennen das Hochste, es zu beherrschen unmog- lich. Es fallt mir nicht mehr ein, vor den Parade- gaulen und Eckstehern der Geschichte mich zu bucken. Ich gewohnte mein.Auge ans Blut. Aber ich bin kein Guillotinemesser. Das Muss ist eins von den Verdammungsworten, womit der Mensch • get auf t worden. Der Ausspruch: es muss ja JSrger- nis kommen, aber wehe dem, durch den es kommt—ist schauderhaft. Was ist das, was in uns lugt, mor- det, stiehlt? Ich mag dem Gedanken nicht weiter nachgehen. Konnte ich aber dies kalte und gemar- terte Herz an Deine Brust legeni (p. 374)

Here Buchner is specifically referring to his studies prior to writing Pantons Tod, the play in which he depicts the fatalism of history through an important historical

event. Danton is aware that man (and even revolutions) are powerless before the mysterious It. This impersonal power of fate controls people like puppets: "Puppen sind wir, von unbekannten Gewalten am Draht gezogen; nichts, nichts wir

selbstl die Schwerter, mit denen Geister kampfen—man sieht nur die Hande nicht, wie im Marchen." (p. 45) The gods manipulate man as a play thing to provide themselves - 36 -

enjoyment in their boredom. They utilise man for their own pleasure regardless of the pain they inflict on him. In bitter pessimism, Buchner again picks up this theme of fate ruling man:

Danton. Aber wir sind die armen Musikanten und unsere Korper-die Instrumente. Sind denn die hasslichen Tone, welche auf ihnen herausge- pfuscht werden, nur da, urn hSher und hoher dringend und endlich leise verhallend wie ein wolliistiger Hauch in himmlischen Ohren zu sterben? Herault. Sind wir wie Ferkel, die man fur fiirst- liche Tafeln mit Ruten totpeitscht, damit ihr Fleisch schmackhafter werde? Danton. Sind wir Kinder, die in den gluhenden Molochsarmen dieser Welt gebraten und mit Lichtstrahlen gekitzelt werden, damit die pq Gotter sich iiber ihr Lachen freuen? (p. 78)

Danton, recognizing the futility of struggling against the power of fate, sums up Buchner's view in one clause: "Das

Schicksal fuhrt uns den Arm, . . .M (p. 58)

There is no indication that Buchner's views on fate changed by the time he wrote Woyzeck. Here he reveals that fate also controls the unimportant individual as well as great historical events. In Woyzeck Buchner gives a concrete 30 illustration of fate directing a man. The poor devil

Woyzeck is exposed to the relentless forces of destiny, not knowing any reason for the resulting suffering. Buchner is here displaying his own view of life. Vietor writes concerning Buchner's conception of his protagonist: "Woyzecks

Mord, fur den unwissenden Psychologen eine Tat, ist fiir

Buchner ein unentwirrbares Verhangnis, in dem ein armer

Teufel aufgeopfert wird. Aus dem, was dem Mediziner ein psychologisches Problem war, ist dem Dichter ein Sinnbild der furchtbaren Beschaffenheit des Lebens geworden und - 37 - des Schicksals, das die sich auswirkende Unerbittlichkeit 31 dieses Lebens ist.n>

To be sure, for Buchner life and fate are pitiless.

But this "fate" may only be terminology to obscure the fact that he can see no guiding moral principle in the universe.

He cannot believe in the existence of a moral, personal God.

Hence, he ascribes everything to an incomprehensible force which for lack of anything better he terms "fate." Fate is neither good nor evil. Consequently, both the macrocosm and the microcosm are amoral, for fatalism excludes all possibility of guilt. Buchner's characters, who have no religious morality, follow the blind dictates of nature, frequently referring to their "Natur . . . Charakter . . . Struktur" to justify their actions. They do not hold themselves responsible for 32 their actions (and nor does Buchner). The characters appear to be free, but they themselves recognize an underlying determinism. Acknowledging a compelling urge to evil, Danton asks as Buchner does in his letter: "Wer will der Hand fluchen, auf die der Fluch des Muss gefalien? Wer hat das

Muss gesprochen, wer? Was ist das, was in uns lugt, hurt, stiehlt und mordet?" (p. 4-5) It is Buchner's conviction that there is an impersonal force of events and circumstances beyond the control of the individual which causes him to lie, fornicate, steal, and murder. Hence, Woyzeck is not personally responsible for the murder, because the powerful "It" compels him to carry it out. The incomprehensible forces—typified 33 by the voices—spur him on to his last desperate act.

Neither can Marie be held guilty for her unfaithfullnes to - 38 -

Woyzeck, for she merely acts according to the compelling

dictates of her passionate nature. In distinction to Danton,

whose convictions are fairly well formed at the beginning of

the play, Woyzeck is brought to a forceful, indeed violent

recognition of the basic amorality of the universe during

the course of the play. As long as purpose exists in his

life, he can withstand the encroachments of amoral fate, the

visions and voices. With the loss of purpose he succumbs.

He confirms his recognition of an amoral universe through

violent rejection of morality in the destruction of the

person who has heretofore embodied this morality for him.

Woyzeck and the captain are the only persons in the

play who are able to reflect and who recognize the senseless• ness and suffering in the world. Woyzeck is keenly aware 34

of the existential suffering of man: life means suffering.

This noble suffering, he recognizes, is caused by life itself

and not by any sinful material circumstances. Everyone

is caught in the snare of existence and no one can extricate

himself. Struggle is in vain. In Woyzeck Buchner gives a poignant picture of the tragedy of the world where existence

itself is toil and effort, even in the next life: "Ich glaub,

wenn wir in Himmel kamen, so mussten wir donnern helfen."

(p. 152) As Woyzeck sees his son sleeping uncomfortably on

a chair, he exclaims: "Die hellen Tropfen stehen ihm auf der

Stirn; alles Arbeit unter der Sonn, sogar Schweiss im Schlaf.

Wir arme Leut!" (p. 158) This again is a recognition of the

tragedy of life. Even the child while asleep seems to struggle

under the burden of existence: "... alles Arbeit unter - 39 -

der Sonn, sogar Schweiss im Schlaf." Woyzeck's last outcry,

"Wir arme Leuti" is ambiguous: be might be referring to his social group, but he is equally well bemoaning the fate of humanity as such.

The captain also looks upon a senseless world. He too has some recognition of the tragedy of existence (although it remains superficial). Being a ridiculously sentimental person, the captain reveals a maudlin melancholy when reflecting on the nature of life. He is often frightened, nervous and restless, revealing a fundamental fear of life and death.

Whenever he meditates on the eternal problem of time and boredom (one of Buchner's favourite themes) and on the problem of existence, the captain, talking in the maudlin tone of

King Peter in Leonee und Lena, becomes very depressed:

"Es wird mir ganz angst urn die Welt, wenn ich an die Ewig- keit denke. Beschaftigung, Woyzeck, Beschaftigung! Ewig: das ist ewig, das ist ewig—das siehst du ein; nun ist es aber wieder nicht ewig, und das ist ein Augenblick, ja ein

Augenblick—Woyzeck, es schaudert mich, wenn ich denke, dass sich die Welt in einem Tag herumdreht! Was 'n Zeitverschwen- dung! Wo soil das hinaus? Woyzeck, ich kann kein Muhlrad mehr sehn, oder ich werd melancholisch." (p. 151)

Both Woyzeck and the captain encounter the same problem of a meaningless world, but in Woyzeck the result is tragic and in the captain comic. There must be a reason for the difference. Woyzeck is an ordinary man who has a heart that feels—he is susceptible to strong emotions such as love.

He needs love and purpose in life. In response to this need - 40 -

Woyzeck gives himself completely to Marie. The captain, on the other hand, talks rather than feels. His lamentations about life and eternity remain on the surface, because he never really becomes involved with life. He never personally

experiences the tragedy of life, for he is unwilling to and incapable of committing himself to another in love. For him, as for the drum major, love is sex, but his spurious morality keeps him from experiencing even this animal love: "Wenn ich am Fenster lieg, wenn's geregnet hat, und den weissen

Strumpfen so nachseh, wie sie uber die Gassen springen—ver- dammt, Woyzeck, da kommt mir die Liebe! . Ich hab auch Fleisch und Blut. Aber, Woyzeck, die Tugendi die Tugendi" (p. 152)

The captain sees the lack of purpose in life; he makes super• ficial maudlin observations on the fact and goes on living.

But Woyzeck, deeply involved with life, notes and experiences the lack of sense in the world. To find purpose he gives himself in love, but Marie, repudiates this love, causing his violent reaction: the total rejection of value in the world.

This nihilism in Woyzeck is already prefigured in Dantons

Tod. Danton, completely sick of life, feels that there is only a degree of happiness in intoxication ("das sind gliick- liche Leute, die sich noch besaufen konnen." (p. 72)), and in madness ("Der glucklichste Mensch war der, welcher sich einbilden konnte, dass er Gott Vater, Sohn und Heiliger

Geist sei." (p. 76)). He despairs even of death, because he finds it impossible to believe in extinction:

Danton. . . .Der verfluchte Satz: Etwas kann nicht zu nichts werden! Und ich bin etwas, das ist der Jammer! . . . - 41 -

Camille. Die Welt ist der ewige Jude, das Nichts ist der Ted, aber er ist unmoglich. . . . Danton. Wir sind alle lebendig begraben .... Wir kratzen funfzig Jahre lang am Sargdeckel. Ja, wer an Vernichtung glauben konntel dem ware geholfen. - Da ist keine Hoffnung im Tod; er ist nur eine einfachere, das Leben eine verwickeltere Faulnis, das ist der ganze Unterschiedl (pp. 66, 67)

For Danton, life is a courtesan who carries on prostitution with the whole world, and death is no better. The apex of

Danton*s nihilism is seen in his caustic rejection of value in this world: "Die Welt ist das Chaos. Das Nichts ist der zu gebarende Weltgott." (p. 79)

In bitter disillusionment with an evil and incompre• hensible world, Buchner's nihilism becomes; even more pro• nounced in Woyzeck. Robbed of Marie, Woyzeck sees absolutely no sense in life. There is nothing worth living for in a meaningless world where humans are mere robots in the control of fate. All values are rejected; everything is rotten and worthless—even the earth itself is thin-crusted, so that it might disintegrate at any moment. Buchner gives two separate formulations of his negation of the world, one the deadly serious fairy tale concerning the deserted child, and the other—its ironic counterpart—a comical "sermon" on "Warum ist der Mensch?"

The grim fairy tale told by the grandmother depicts the

"desperate loneliness of man in a world of dissipation and cruel boredom."^ This "Marchen" is nihilism in its blackest form. Here, Buchner, completely disillusioned with the universe, puts his nihilism into grotesque poetry, lending the essential tone to Woyzeck. All Woyzeck's efforts to - 42 -

find meaning.in the world have been abortive, just as the orphan's efforts to find a home have been abortive. .The bitter isolation of man in a cruel universe puts him on a level with the child. And in a departure from the traditional happy end of the fairy tale there is no salvation here, there is no way out, and no sign of any hope for the future. There is only helplessness and despair:

Es war einmal ein arm Kind und hatt kein Vater und keine Mutter, war alles tot, und war niemand mehr auf der Welt. Alles tot, und es is hingangen und hat gesucht Tag und Nacht. Und weil auf der Erde niemand mehr war., wollt's in Himmel gehn, und der Mond guckt es so freundlich an; und wie es endlich zum Mond kam, war's ein Stuck faul Holz. Und da is es zur Sonne gangen, und wie es zur Sonne kam, war's ein verwelkt Sonnenblum. Und wie's zu den Sternen kam, waren's kleine goldne Mucken, die waren ange- steckt, wie der Neuntoter sie auf die Schlehen steckt. Und wie's wieder auf die Erde wollt, war die Erde ein umgestiirzter Hafen. Und es war ganz allein. Und da hat sich's hingesetzt und geweint, und da sitzt es noch und is ganz allein. (p. 172)

Just as the grandmother's evil tale is a mockery of human optimism in the form of a fairy tale travesty, the comic "sermon" satirizes the consolation of superficial religion. In an inn a drunken working lad jumps on the table and gives his extemporaneous "sermon." His preaching is ludicrous and yet with the peculiar faculty of the insane or the drunk, he preaches the truth; Buchner argues that truth or reality is found only in innocence and in intoxi• cation. Lacroix, in Cantons Tod, states the author's view:

"Narren, Kinder und—nun? - Betrunkene sagen die Wahrheit."

(p. 21) Through the drunken lad Buchner attacks and ridicules those people who provide pat answers for every problem, regardless of its nature. In the final analysis, Buchner - 43 -

argues, there is no answer to the question of existence.

All ends, in complete negation of the world, for "alles Irdische ist ubel." The "sermon" is worth quoting in full:

Warum ist der Mensch? Warum ist der Mensch? - Aber wahrlich, ich sage euch: Von was hatte der Landmann, der Weissbinder, der Schuster, der Arzt leben sollen, wenn Gott den Menschen nicht geschaffen hatte? Von was hatte der Schneider leben sollen, wenn er dem Menschen nicht die Empfindung der Scham eingepflanzt hatte, von was der Soldat, wenn er ihn nicht mit dem Be- durfnis sich totzuschlagen ausgerustet hatte? Darum zweifelt nicht—ja, ja, es ist lieblich und fein, aber alles Irdische ist libel, selbst das Geld geht in Verwesung uber. (p. 166)

Woyzeck1s isolation, accentuated by ridicule, leads him to a profound questioning of the meaning of life. The question "Warum ist der Mensch?" resounds throughout the drama. What is man's position in this amoral world? If

God is all powerful and all good, how can he tolerate the

existence of evil? Woyzeck's very life becomes involved in these questions, but he can find no satisfactory answer. - 44 -

Chapter Four

Hinkemann, one of the plays that Toller wrote while in prison, portrays the suffering of a soldier emasculated by an enemy bullet in'the First World War. Eugen Hinkemann, fearing that he will lose the love and respect of his wife because of his sexual impotence, takes on a most degrading job to be able to provide her with a few, simple pleasures of life. In a circus act he bites into the necks of living rats and mice to entertain the blood thirsty spectators.

Despite his concern for his wife, she, a passionate woman like Marie in Woyzeck, falls prey to the seduction of the virile Paul Grosshahn, a friend of the Hinkemanns. Gross- hahn adds to Hinkemann's mental torment by lying to him and causing him to believe that Grete has laughed at him when viewing his circus act. The truth of the matter is that she had revealed her reawakening sympathy for her mistreated husband as soon as she saw him performing his repulsive act on the circus stage. Grete tries to bring about a recon• ciliation by asking his forgiveness for her unfaithfulness, but Hinkemann, believing a permanent reconciliation impossible, requests her to leave him and begin a new life alone. Grete, afraid to live alone in a heartless world, sees no other solution but suicide: she takes her own life by throwing herself out the window. Hinkemann apparently goes on living because he is too weak to break the snare of existence.

Toller gives more information about his protagonist's family background than Buchner. As in the case of Woyzeck, - 45 -

the paternal influence has been missing in Hinkemann*s life.

During the course of the play Hinkemann learns the shocking truth that his father had not died when he (Eugen) was six months old, as he had believed heretofore. One night, he learns, his father returned home slightly drunk on the arm of another woman whom he had picked up on the street. His mother tells Eugen of that experience: "'Weib,* schrie er mich an, 'geh heute zu deinen Eltern und schlafe dort. Ich brauche junges Blut ins Bett. Mich friert bei dir, seit du 36

ein Junges geworfen hast* . . . . "^ His mother suddenly saw in her husband only the beast which casts away its mutilated prey. She threatened him with a knife, he laughed in her face, took his beloved, left the house and did not return 37 for 29 years. But now the old Hinkemann comes back home, sick and in rags. "Ich bin zuruckgekommen urn bei dir zu sterben" (p. 49) he tells his wife.

In the absence of a husband, Eugen Hinkemann's mother has had to support the family; she has done so by going out onto the streets: "Ich ging auf die Strasse . • • urn Brot

zu verdienen fur dich. Ich war nicht hasslich in meiner

Jugend." (p. 49) She became a prostitute out of necessity, in consonance with the general expressidnis'.tLc trend to ex• plain feminine misbehaviour through recourse to material demands.^ Woman, here as in much expressionistic literature, is forced into prostitution, but she nevertheless retains 39 her essential goodness and innocence.

In Hinkemann*s own married life the tragedy of a faithless partner is repeated in what seems to be an endless chain of - 46 -

misery. His mother had been grievously wronged by her bestial husband, for not only had he come home with another woman, but worse than that, Toller declares, he had laughed at her 40 in her agony. In Eugen's life the situation is reversed: it is the woman who proves unfaithful, wronging her mistreated husband. In addition, there is another important difference in the tragedies of the mother and the son: Eugen's wife did not ridicule him in his degrading position—he erroneously believes that she laughed.

With respect to education Hinkemann has no advantage over Woyzeck. A comprehensive formal education seems im• probable, for when he marries at twenty he has already been employed for some time in the factory as an ordinary worker.

Furthermore,, lacking a father, it is quite likely that at an early age he had to help his mother support the family.

Hinkemann, in his lack of tutored intelligence, reveals what seems at first a sluggish, unawakened mind. Toller characterizes him in the first stage direction: "Hinkemann spricht weder 'fliessend' noch 'pathetisch.' Immer hat seine Sprache das Ausdrucksschwere, Dumpfe der elementarischen

Seele." (p..1) Since his injury he is confused in his thinking, finding it hard to give meaning to a chaotic and cruel world. In his dullness he cannot quickly understand the intricacies of life: "Ja, seit meiner Verwundung im

Kriege meine ich selbst, ich bin ein bisschen verworren im

Denken . . . Jeden Tag, wenn ich aufstehe, kostet es mich ungeheure Anstrengung, urn in all das, was in mir ist, was mich anfallt, was auf mich einbricht, mich betastet, mich - 47 -

beftihlt, durch ein paar Worte, ein paar Gedanken Ordnung hineinzubringen . . . man fragt sich, ob man das Leben uber- haupt erfassen kann . . . Morgens, wenn man aufstent, ist

Chaos in einem da und wenn man sich abends zu Bett legt, ist wieder Chaos da . . ." (pp. 26, 27) But soon we see in Hinkemann's "dullness" the same naivete as in Woyzeck, expressed in a mystifying concern with ultimate truth to the exclusion of smaller everyday matters.

Hinkemann—like Woyzeck—reveals his surprising insights in sudden cogent remarks and questions. For example, in the inn scene he.shows his great perception concerning the nature of existential suffering. By the penetrating questions regarding the position of the man who is sick in his soul in the Utopia envisioned by his comrades, Hinkemann confounds and puts them to shame:

Hinkemann. Und wenn einer krank ist an seiner Seele? Michel Unbeschwert. (robust, unsentimental) Der kommt in eine Heilanstalt. ... Hinkemann. Ich denke nicht an solche, die krank sind im Kopf oder im Gehirn . . . Ich meine solche, die gesund sind und doch krank in ihrer Seele. Michel Unbeschwert. Das gibt es nichti Wer einen gesunden Korper hat, hat auch eine gesunde Seele. (pp. 27, 28)

Hinkemann is not a "Naturmensch" to the same degree as Woyzeck: he does not attribute his actions to the instincts of nature, nor does he subscribe to the same unsophisticated,

"natural" code of morality. However, like Woyzeck, he demonstrates a "natural" goodness of heart. Man, Toller seems to be arguing, is born good. Hinkemann is affectionate and displays deep devotion to his young wife, of whom he - 48 -

constantly dreams and thinks while in the war. And when he returns home sexually incapacitated he loves her even more, with a more profound and spiritualised love. During the separation of the war years he began to appreciate the true worth of his wife: "Als er noch zu Hause war, hatte er sein

Weib lieb, das versteht sich. Aber erst da draussen im Felde glaubte er sie zu sehen wie sie war." (p. 29) Until the war they had merely existed: they had lived a mechanical life with no real appreciation for the mystery of life. Now since the ability to create life has been taken from him he has come to see the worth of all life. Consequently, he is singularly sensitive and kind-hearted. To be sure, his kindness does not stem from his injury, but his personal suffering has confirmed him in his kindness. His own suffering causes him to extend human compassion to all the world.

Now more than ever he realizes the dignity of all life, since he, in his own suffering, has been made .aware of the suffering of other creatures. He cannot bear to see even the smallest animal suffer (witness his indignation at the blinding of the bird). At the circus his wife reveals his increased sensitivity and kindness: "Der Mann konnt keiner Fliege was zuleide tun! Der Mann hat sich einmal an meiner Mutter vergriffen, weil sie ihrem Finken die Augen geblendet hat.

Der Mann hat mir nicht erlaubt, eine Schlagfalle in der

Kiiche aufzustellen, weil das eine sundhafte Qualerei fur

Mause sei ..." (p. 19)

However, in bitterest irony, Hinkemann, the hypersensitive cripple, is forced to earn his money by biting into the - 4-9 -

living bodies'of rats and mice, revealing both the poverty of the German proletariat and the cruel demands mankind makes upon the gentle human being.

The dire economic straits of the Hinkemanns is Grete's prime concern at the outset of the work. The setting (their humble living quarters where- the kitchen also serves as living room) bears out this concern. Eugen has been at his mother-in-law's to fetch some coal, but he has returned empty-handed. In a few words Grete depicts their plight:

"Eugen! . .. ich fragte dich nur, ob Mutter dir Kohlen gab . .

Gib doch Antwort . . . Als ob er nicht im Zimmer ware! . . .

Eugen, sprich doch! . . . Am Verzweifeln bin ich! Kein

Stuckchen Holz! Keine Kohlei . . . Eugen, soli ich mit unserm Bett den Ofen anschuren?" (p. 1)^ Later, Eugen further reveals their financial need: "Die Rente lasst uns nicht genug zum Leben und zu viel zum Sterben." (p. 4-)

The Hinkemanns do not have sufficient money for their daily needs and it is impossible for him to obtain respectable employment. All the factory gates are closed. The showman callously informs him: "Versuchen Sie doch ne andere Arbeit zu bekommen, Mann. Alles besetzt! Hahahai Entweder—oderi"

(P. i4)42

However, as Toller depicts it, even for the man who has work life is a perpetual struggle. The wage is not sufficient to supply the bare essentials, and to make matters worse, the worker is not even recognized as a person who has individual worth. In the factories the worker sells his energy as a service station attendant sells a gallon of gasoline; the worker is a mere machine: - 50 -

Was hat derm son Prolet von seinem Lehen? Wenn er auf die Welt kommt, flucht der Alte, dass wieder ein Esser mehr da ist. Hungrig geht er morgens in die Schule, und wenn er abends ins Bett geht, zwiebelt der Hunger das Gedarm. Na, und dann kommt er in die Prohn. Er verkauft seine Arbeitskraft, wie man einen Liter Petroleum verkauft und gehort dem Unternehmer, dem Prinzipal. Er wird . . . sozusagen . . . ein Hammer oder ein Stuhl oder ein Dampfhebel oder ein Pederhalter, oder er wird ein Bugel- eisen. Es ist doch soi (p. 7)^3

In contrast to the misery of the proletariat there is

44 the extravagance of the rich. Unbeschwert, an adherent to moderate socialism, describes the sumptuousness of the wealthy: "Ja, das Gluck wohnt heute in den Palasten, in den Villen. Wo sie zwanzig Zimmer haben und ihnen die Woh- nung zu eng ist." (p. 23) The enormous discrepancy between the richV and the poor makes the lot of the proletariat even more intolerable. The poor people are forever occupied with making a bare living; all they know is work: "Wie kann armes Volk sundigen? . . . es (hat) keine Zeit zu sundigen vor lauter Schuften und Schinakeln." (pp. 5» 6) The rich, on the other hand, do not know what to do with themselves in their boredom: "'What can I do to kill time?' was the dominating question of the age; an age when the few who were well fed were hard put to it to find interests for their leisure, and when the many who were hungry were still more 45 hard put to it to find a moment of leisure for themselves.11

But Toller sees beyond any Utopian solution to the evils of his time. In Hinkemann he reveals the serious limitations of a purely materialistic socialism: it is unable to deal with spiritual problems, such as the suffering of a soul. - 51 -

In a passage from his autobiography Toller reveals more explicitly than in this drama the recognition that socialism is very circumscribed in its ability to cope with suffering:

"Auch der Sozialismus wird nur jenes Leid losen, das her- riihrt aus der Unzulanglichkeit sozialer Systeme, immer bleibt ein Rest. Aber soziales Leid ist sinnlos, nicht notwendig, 46 ist tilgbar." In a letter to Stefan Zweig he expresses a similar recognition: "Ich habe das Werk ^Hinkemannj in einer

Zeit geschrieben, in der ich, schmerzhaft, die tragische

Grenze aller Gliicksmoglichkeiten sozialer Revolution erkannte.

Die Grenze, jenseits der die Natur machtiger ist als mensch- 47 liches Einzelwollen und gesellschaftliches Wollen." In

Hinkemann Toller rejects the Activists' belief that a new society—the Utopia—can be brought about by revolution.

He sees no hope for a Paradise on earth when even the socialists disagree among themselves. Unbeschwert, the social democrat of Hinkemann, firmly believes in the gradual evolution of the socialist state: "Aus dem Schosse der historischen Ent- wicklung der Verhaltnisse wird die neue Gesellschaftsordnung herausgeboren. So wie die Ostsee und die Nordsee immer mehr und mehr sich ins Land hineinfressen, ohne dass wir es im

Inland merken, so werden wir in den sozialistischen Staat hineinwachsen, auch ohne dass wir es merken." (p. 24)

Max Knatsch, on the other hand, is a loudmouthed anarchist— as his name aptly indicates. He believes that the masses can have revolution (and the new ideal state) any time; there is no need to wait for special circumstances.

Knatsch confidently affirms: "... und wenn die Menschen 52 -

revolutionaren Willi ens sind, konnen sie in alien Verhalt-

nissen ein neues Leben beginnen. Gleicb. Noch heute." (p. 25)

In contrast to these Activist views, Toller, through

Hinkemann, defends the purely expressionistic view: only

through a personal regeneration of each individual can there

be a change in society. In effect Toller makes an impassioned plea for a return to the teachings of primitive Christianity:

love of mankind, tolerance, faith in man, and genuine humility.

Hinkemann reproves his friends for their party spirit, their pride and intolerance: "Wie musst ihr anders werden, urn eine neue Gesellschaft zu bauen! Bekampft den Bourgeois und seid

aufgeblaht von seinem Dunkel, seiner Selbstgerechtigkeit,

seiner HerzenstragheitI Einer hasst den andern, weil er

in ner anderen Parteisekte ist, weil er aufn andres Programm

schwort! Keiner hat Vertrauen zum andern. Keiner hat Ver- trauen zu sich. Keine Tat, die nicht erstickt in Hader und

Verrat." (p. 35) Hinkemann denounces unregenerate society for unceasing cruelty to its members. But his principal

concern, as indicated in his silence at Grete*s lamentations

about their poverty, is not material distress, but rather the incursions against the human soul for which our society is responsible. In the next chapter we shall deal with the chief illustration of the inhumanity of the age: Hinkemann's personal mistreatment. - 53 -

Chapter Five

As in Woyzeck's case, the essential cause of Hinkemann*s suffering is the universal desire for love. On his return from the war as a sexual cripple, Hinkemann tries desperately to maintain his wife's love. However, his love now is and must he entirely spiritual. It is completely free of any

erotic element: sex can no longer play a part in their relationship to one another. Since he is by no means recon• ciled to his loss he seeks to compensate through kindness and consideration. He is determined to obtain work, for he knows that material well-being is an aid in retaining Grete's love and respect: "... Ich schaff Arbeit!. . . Und wenn ich gleich mich ducken musst wie ein Tier! ..." (p. 5)

In pitiful eagerness to please, Eugen desires work not for his own betterment but to give his wife a' few modest pleasures:

"Ich schaff Arbeit, Grete, da kannst du dich drauf verlassen . ich will dir doch was schenken konnen zu Weihnachten! ..."

(p. 8) He distinctly tells the circus showman that it is the fear of losing his wife's love which compels him to take on such humiliating work: "Es ... ist ... nur . . . urn . . . meine. . . Frau . . . (Herausstossend) Wenn man von einem

Menschen geliebt wird! Wenn man Angst hat, man konnte das bisschen Liebe verlierenl Unsereiner hat nicht viel Liebel . . .

Konnen Sie mich nicht sonstwo beschaftigen, Herr? . . .

(Stammelnd, fast wimmernd) Och . . . och . . . och . . • och . . . achtzig Mark . . . och . . . Unsereiner . . . unser•

einer! . . . Ich tus, Herr." (p. 14) - 54 -

As in Woyzeck, Hinkemann*s problem is not simply the natural need for love, but rather is concerned with the removal of the possibility for love. Like Woyzeck he is a tragic figure because he suffers through no fault of his own but from the malevolence of fate. Hinkemann, the unfortunate war veteran, has been ill-treated by fate in that he was emasculated in the war. Not everyone who went to war was hurt as he was—by a fate which strikes blindly, hitting this one and that one. As a sexually incapacitated man, he elicits the ridicule of society. In addition, Eugen's suffering for the sake of his wife is the direct result of his emasculation, for if he had returned home a virile man he would not have been in jeopardy of losing her love. Further, he would not have been forced to .debase himself in the hands of the showman.

The showman is the only major figure who mistreats

Hinkemann physically. Fully realizing Eugen's desperate plight, he exploits him in a device whose irony is all too apparent. Hinkemann is to pose as, "Der deutsche Held."

Fearlessly he is to bite into the necks of living rats and mice, drawing blood: "Hier ein Kafig mit Ratten! Hier ein

Kafig mit Mausen! Kleines Vermogen drin! Ihre Nummer:

Beissen in jeder Vorstellung einer Ratte und einer Maus die

Kehle durch. Lutschen ein paar Ziige Blut. Geste! Weg!

Volk rast vor Lust!" (pp. 13, 14) It is impossible to ignore Toller's caustic characterization of humanity in the circus showman's rationalization of this vulgar act: "Volk will Blut seheni!! Blut!!! Trotz zweitausend Jahren - 55 -

christlicher MoralJ Mein Unternehmen tragt dem Rechnung.

So harmoniert Volksinteresse mit Privatinteresse." (p. 13)

The German nation also.receives a denunciation in the ironic announcement of the showman: "Der deutsche Heidi

Die deutsche Kultur! Die deutsche Mannerfaustl Die deutsche

KraftI . . . die . . . fleischgewordene deutsche Kraft!"

(pp. 16, 17) But most importantly, the scene provides pro• found tragic irony in showing Hinkemann brought to the point of contravening his own kindly nature through love for his wife. And precisely this act, as Hinkemann is led to believe, elicits only ridicule from Grete.

But in consonance with the commercial spirit, the materialistic showman is only concerned that his circus act 4-8 be a financial success. People want to see the sensational and even the terrifying. Hence the spectators come streaming in to see the cruel show, the showman pockets the handsome profits, but the helpless Hinkemann is the victim of this vicious exploitation. And it is impossible for Hinkemann to escape, from his plight. When he informs the showman that he is quitting his job, the showman, thinking only of his finances, immediately reminds Hinkemann of the signed contract which he cannot terminate prematurely without paying the legal consequences: "Wer hat Kontrakt unterschrieben filr die ganze

Saison? Sie oder ich? (Brutal) Mann, ich lasse Sie durch

Polizeigewalt zur Arbeit, zwingen ..... Entweder Sie sind morgen punktlich zur Stelle oder Sie kommen per Polizeischub."

(p. 39) As a soulless, brutal individual, we can easily see the - 56 -

showman to he a representative of society. But strangely enough, Hinkemann, recognizing the inhumanity of the age, also sees in his own injury a symbol of the time: "Ich bin lacherlich wie diese Zeit. Diese Zeit hat keine Seele. Ich hab kein Geschlecht. 1st.da ein Unterschied?" (p. 58)

Both Hinkemann and the age are ridiculous because they are abnormal, they are incomplete. The complete man has both a spiritual nature ("Seele") and an animal nature ("Geschlecht").

Without either man is ridiculous, Toller argues. Man in contemporary society is so entrenched in his heartlessness and callousness that it required a bullet to make even

Hinkemann truly aware of his spiritual nature and of the suffering of another creature. The world is bloodthirsty, and the showman, being an astute business man, knows how to make use of society's cruelty, even though his plan means suffering and shame for a fellow human being. Similarly society makes a good business out of everything. The press capitalizes on man's love for the sensational. Greedy men draw profit from the love instinct of young girls. In Hinke• mann 's case a soulless society draws both gain and pleasure from his suffering, just as Grete's mother wants to draw pleasure from a harmless bird by putting out its eyes to make it sing better. Eugen notices the similarity between his suffering and that of the bird, for he draws a parallel:

"Wollt ihr mich singen horen? (Mit Fistelstimme singend):

'Warum denn weinen, wenn man auseinandergeht' . . . Sing ich nicht so gut wie ein geblendeter Distelfink? ..." (p. 35)

In part Toller is castigating society here for the - 57 -

"unedles Ungluck" (suffering which can he remedied) which it imposes upon its members. In a conversation with Howard

DeForest, Toller expresses his sentiments regarding such unnecessary suffering in these terms: "Love, or charity is the only law of living. let charitable organizations, even those with the purest motives, are only correcting the result of the harshness of someone or something else. There should 49 not be even opportunity to show such charity."

The mental anguish Hinkemann has to endure is worse than the physical mistreatment he receives at the hands of the showman. Grosshahn, who is a direct parallel to the drum major in Woyzeck, is responsible for most of the suffering by ridicule imposed on Hinkemann. The sensual Paul Grosshahn is already characterized by his symbolical name.^ To be sure he seduces Grete, but this is not his blackest crime.

It is the ridicule which hurts Hinkemann most. Grosshahn is not merely unsympathetic and unfeeling as the showman: he is expressly malevolent in ridiculing the loss of Hinke• mann' s manhood. When Grete, who can contain her grief no longer, tells him about her husband's condition, he cannot help but laugh: "Paul Grosshahn prustet einen kurzen, rohen

Lachlaut." (p. 10) Showing little sympathy he again mocks the emasculated ex-soldier in his role at the circus: "So

sieht der deutsche Held aus! Einer ohne . . . Ein Eunuch . . .

Hahahaha!" (p. 11) In the inn he ridicules Hinkemann in front of his friends: "Soil man nicht tiber einen laehen, der . . . der . . . haha . . . der sich als starkster Mann

ausgibt und ist doch gar kein Mann!" (p. 33) These reactions - 58 -

of Grosshahn with their lack of sympathy for a fellow human being are all too human. However, he goes further to actually torment Hinkemann through a malicious lie. He fabricates the story that Grete laughed on seeing her husband in the

"Homunkulus" act: "Sie hat gelachti Erst hat sie sich ge- ekelt . . . dann hat sie gelacht . . . ." (p. 33) The extreme cruelty of Grosshahn's act lies in the fact that it destroys

Hinkemann's faith in his wife and in the world since she alone gives significance to his shattered existence. Eugen is able to endure ridicule from the others because they mean little to him, but Grete's supposed ridicule deprives him of his basis for life—her love.

Although not of crucial significance, the jibes of

Hinkemann's associates are interesting for what they reveal of Toller's satiric intent toward various human types.

Immergleich, a phlegmatic man who preserves composure in any situation, chuckles softly when Eugen poses the problem of how the socialistic state would deal with a man who had lost his sex in war or industry. And as Grosshahn informs them that Eugen is a eunuch, all his friends in the inn give a loud snort of laughter: "Alle, auch Singegott, auch

Michel Unbeschwert, lachen wiehernd auf." (p. 35) However, after Hinkemann has left the inn, Singegott ecstatically exclaims, thereby relating Hinkemann's suffering to the innocent suffering of Christ on the cross: "Ich habe das himmlische Licht ausgeloscht! Ich habe einen Menschen am

Kreuz verhohnti" (p. 36) In these circumstances such a comparison seems hyperbolic or even ironic, yet we must feel - 59 -

that Toller, like all Expressionists, sees Christ as an exemplar of all human suffering.

Toller feels that laughter in the face of suffering is the worst sin man can commit. In the scene with the old

Frau Hinkemann he explicitly states this opinion. Speaking of her husband's desertion 29 years ago, Eugen asks his mother:

"Was war das Bitterste, Mutter?" (pp. 49, 50) The worst suffering was not that her husband spent his wages on drink, she says, nor that he brought home another woman and wanted to sleep with her in his wife's bed. Being the object of laughter himself, Hinkemann perceives the answer: "So war es, weil er lachte, als deine Seele sich wehrte im grossen

Schmerz?" (p. 50) Mrs. Hinkemann admits: "Das war es,

Eugen." (p. 50) By laughing at his wife the old Hinkemann scorned and deprecated the ideal human being ("die Seele") in her. The laughter was the outward expression of contempt for "das Menschliche," yes more for "das Gottliche" in man,^ for Toller here employs religious terminology: "... als deine Seele sich wehrte im grossen Schmerz .... Das war das Bitterste, dass er uber sie gelacht hat, als ihre Seele wund sich wand in Not." (pp. 50, 51) In similar language

Hinkemann scornfully, and perhaps with a hidden desire to elicit a denial of her alleged ridicule, reproaches his wife:

"Du kannst lachen, wenn einer seine nackte, schwielige Seele in den Strassenkot legt!" (p. 53)

Hinkemann tried desperately to avoid ridicule. At the outset of the drama he implores his wife in a straightforward plea: "Gretchen, nicht wahr, du konntest nicht uber mich - 60 -

lachen, das konntest du mir nicht antun?" (p. 5) When

relating his story (which he pretends is the narrative of

a friend) to his associates in the inn, he takes pains to

report that his wife did not laugh at him: "Sein Weib ver-

achtete inn nicht, sein Weib hasste ihn nicht, sein Weib

verlachte ihn nicht . . . ." (p. 31) This is an evident

expression of his own desire to believe in the essential

goodness of the one he loves, to believe that he at least

will not be rejected by her through ridicule.

Laughter in the face of anguish is so terrible a sin

that Hinkemann, in agony himself, feels it is punishable

only by death or extreme torture. Eelieving his wife laughed

at him, Eugen informs her: "Und dafur musst du sterben,

Weib. Nicht dafur, dass du einen anderen nahmst—das war

dein Recht . . . nicht dafur dass du mich belogst—das nahmst du dir als Recht . . . sterben musst du, weil du mich verlacht hast vor der Jahrmarktsbudel Eine Mutter kann ihr

Kind erwurgen, und keiner braucht einen Stein auf sie zu

werfen. Wurde sie aber ihr Kind erwurgen und dann hohnisch

lachen, weil dem Kind die geschwollene Zunge aus dem Halse hangt .... Qualen sollten sie brennen bis ans Ende aller

Tage!" (p. 56) Ridicule is punishable by death, because by his wife's purported laughter Hinkemann has .been stripped

of all worth as an individual. That is, he as a person has

been murdered by ridicule.

But Grete did not laugh. In the midst of a ruthless

society she is the only positive element. Like Marie in

Woyzeck she—because of her normal sensual nature and her - 61 -

love for pleasure—falls prey to the seduction of the more virile man. However, when she discovers that her husband is being shamefully abused her sympathy for him is reawakened.

She recognizes the sinfulness of her act against Eugen:

"Und ich, was bin ich fiir ein Weibi Ich bin schlechter als eine arme Hure . . . Die verkauft ihren Korper, und ich ver- kaufe meinen Mann ..." (p. 19) She even relates her act to that of Judas, once again emphasizing the parallel with

Christ's sufferings: "Ich habe dich verraten fur ein paar

Silberlinge . . . Ich habe an dir gehandelt wie ein schlecht

Mensch!" (pp. 54,55) Grete regrets her infidelity and wants to ask his forgiveness, even though she may have to suffer for her misdeed. She tries desperately to bring about a reconciliation with the man she still loves. Although it entails a great sacrifice on her part, she wants to stay with him and help him. Out of compassion for her husband she promises him: "Ich will dich nie mehr verlassen." (p. 57)

However, her unselfish efforts are to no avail, for he no longer has the strength nor the will to live. Hinkemann, through his own bitter experience of suffering, has come to an existential awareness of the loneliness and futility of life. - 62 -

Chapter Six

Hinkemann's injury and the ridicule attendant upon it

doom him to loneliness and also to reflection upon the meaning

of life. Because of personal experience, Eugen has also had

his eyes opened to the isolation of every individual human

being. Forced into solitude himself, he recognizes the

loneliness of man in general. On returning from the war Eugen 52

xs ostracized from society by the nature of his injury.

The street scene where he is subject to delirious dream- visions is symbolic of Hinkemann's relation to the rest of humanity. While he is lying on the street many people (who

are interested only in the sensational) gather around him, but. as soon as they hear the more exciting military music

everyone abandons him. Hinkemann is left alone on the deserted street in-his weakened condition. Here we have the picture of Eugen's life: a sick, lonely man lying on a dark, deserted street. His only communion is with the infinite. His companions are the sky and the stars which continue to shine over a lonely world: "Und uber mir der

ewige Himmel . . . Und uber mir die ewigen Sterne ..."

(p. 45) Through personal suffering in solitude, he comes to realize the lack of real contact between all individuals.

On one occasion he exclaims (as Danton had exclaimed almost

100 years before): "Doch was sehen wir voneinander? Da sitzt du und da sitz ich. Ich sehe dich. Wie sehe ich dich?

Ein paar Handgriffe sehe ich und ein paar Worte hore ich.

Das ist alles . . . Nichts sehen wir voneinander . . . nichts - 63 -

wissen wir voneinander ..." (p. 31) In his letters

Toller expresses the same belief. Even before writing his Hinkemann, he declared (Niederschonfeld, Juni 1920):

"Einsamkeit ist. Keine Briicke fuhrt zum andern." ^

Despite the crowd man is basically alone. Toller writes to

Tessa: "Wir alle werden einsam sterben, wie Dein Freund ein- sam starb, umgeben von Freunden. Das ist das tragische 54

Schicksal der Menschen unserer Zeit . . . ." Hinkemann also realizes that man is doomed to bear his suffering alone, and society can do nothing about it. Where the panaceas of the socialists reach the limits of their effectiveness, there the suffering of the lonesome individual begins:

Da steht der Mensch allein Da tut sich ein Abgrund auf, der heisst: Ohne Trost Da wolbt sich ein Himmel, der heisst: Ohne Gluck Da wachst ein Wald, der heisst: Hohn und Spott Da brandet ein Meer, das heisst: Lacherlich Da wiirgt eine Finsternis, die heisst: Ohne Liebe Wer aber hilft da? (p. 36) Not only does Hinkemann feel the lonely suffering of mankind, but also he sees the evil and heartlessness of the world, which rob human life of meaning: "Die Menschen sehe ich! Die Zeit sehe ich! HerrDirektor, der Krieg ist wieder da! Die Menschen morden sich unter Gelachterl Die Menschen morden sich unter Gelachterl" (p. 38) Cruelty is possible since the age has no soul and men have no soul. Man is a mere physical skeleton; Hinkemann explains to Grete that the soullessness of man is one of the reasons for his despair:

"Ich bin durch die Strassen gegangen, ich sah keine Men• schen . . . Fratzen, lauter Fratzen. Ich bin nach Hause gekommen, ich sah Fratzen . . . und Not . . . sinnlose, unend- - 64 -

liche Not der blinden Kreatur . . . Ich habe die Kraft nicht mehr." (p. 58)

Prior to his injury Hinkemann evidently has led a mechani• cal, carefree existence without any real search for values.

However, since the chaotic turmoil of the war experience and his personal loss Eugen endeavours to understand both himself and the world. While the tragedy he has experienced opens up a world of speculation for him, it at the same time destroys the standard optimistic appraisal of the world and leaves him totally adrift: "Das Leben ist so merkwiirdig . . . soviel drangt auf einen ein, was man nicht versteht, nicht erfasst, wovor man sich geradezu bangt . . . man sieht gar keinen

Sinn . . . man fragt sich, ob man das Leben uberhaupt erfassen kann . . . ob das nicht so ist, als wollte man sich unter- stehen, ein Meer auszuschopfen . . . ." (pp. 26, 27)

Nevertheless, Hinkemann has come to grips with the realities of life. In a blind society he is one of the few who can see. Toller argues that the healthy individual is blind to the.suffering of other creatures. In speaking of the mother blinding the bird, Toller lets Hinkemann exclaim:

". . . Wie mit Blindheit geschlagen ist der gesunde Mensch!"

(p. 2) In Eine Jugend in Deutschland Toller gives expression to the same view: "An der Wand meiner Zelle flirren Sonnen- lichter. Zwei eirunde Plecke bilden sich, wie sahe der

Mensch das Leben, den der Krieg entmannt hat, ist der gesunde

Mensch nicht mit Blindheit geschlagen? Minuten spater 55 schreibe ich die Pabel zu meinem Drama 'Hinkemann'."

Because of his own suffering Hinkemann dimly perceives the - 65 -

nature of the world. For him the injury was the starting point for his knowledge of life: "Der Schuss, der war wie

eine Frucht vom Baume der Erkenntnis . . . Alles Sehen wird mir Wissen, alles Wissen Leid ..." (pp. 58, 59) However,

the immediate cause for this recognition is ridicule. It

is the laughter that really opens his eyes to the essence

of the world. Following the inn scene where he is ridiculed

for his injury and is "informed" ahout Grete's laughter,

Hinkemann proclaims that he really knows the world: "Ich bin namlich auch sehend geworden, Herr Direktor. Mir haben

sie den Star gestocheni Das grelle Lichti Nacht! Es werde

Nacht! Es werde Nacht! . . . Bis auf den Grund sehe ich!

. . . Die Menschen sehe ich! Die Zeit sehe ich!" (p. 38)

Hinkemann has come to perceive the existential suffering

("edles Ungluck") of man. In fact he himself has become a

symbol of this suffering. He represents that suffering which stems from the very nature of life and which as a result is unconquerable by human means: "Ich wollte in

Hinkemann nicht nur das unlosliche, also tragische Leid eines fiir viele gesetzten Typus darstellen, sondern auch die tragischen Grenzen der Gesellschaft zeigen, wo sie dem 56 Individuum nicht mehr helfen kann." Hinkemann portrays the tragedy of the human with whom no society can deal adequately because his suffering is spiritual more than material. He is one of those whom the best social order can never give happiness: ". . . es gibt Menschen denen kein

Staat und keine Gesellschaft, keine Familie und keine Gemein-

schaft Gliick bringen kann." (p. 35) Hinkemann realizes that - 66 -

there will always be individuals like himself who are sick in their very soul and whom nothing in this world can make happy. Recognizing the universality of this suffering at the basis of existence in every age, Toller accepts its inevitability: "There must always remain a residue of suffering, the lonely suffering imposed upon mankind by life and death. And only this residue is necessary and inevitable, 57 is the tragic element of life and life's symbolizer, art." '

The best example of Hinkemann's recognition of the "edles

Ungluck" suffered by other creatures is the scene where he is convinced that Grete did not laugh. Suddenly he sees in her a fellow-sufferer who is just as tormented as he:

"Wie blicken deine Augen drein? . . . Die Augen kenne ichi

. . . Die Augen der gehetzten, der geschlagenen, der gepei- nigten, der gemarterten Kreatur . . . Ja, Gretchen, ich dachte, du bist viel reicher als ich, und dabei bist du ebenso arm und ebenso hilflos . . . Ja, wenn das so ist, wenn das so ist . . . dann sind wir Bruder und Schwester." (p. 56)

Grete reveals her similar recognition in her fear of existential solitude: "Ich habe solche Angst vorm Lebeni

Denk doch! alleinl Im Leben allein! In einem Wald voll gehetzter Tiere alleinl . . . Keiner ist gut heute." (p. 59)

Although Grete cannot grasp any meaning in this world, she realizes, with clear vision, that it holds a fatal grip on all human beings, just as the spider enmeshes and eventually kills its captive: "Mein Gott, ich finde mich nicht mehr zurecht. Wir sind in einem Netz, Eugen, in einem Netz.

Eine Spinne sitzt da und lasst uns nicht los. Sie hat uns - 67 -

eingesponnen. Ich kann meinen Kopf kaum noch bewegen. Ich

versteh das Leben nicht mehr ..." (p. 60)

Although in Grete Hinkemann finds an understanding

companion in suffering, he asks her to leave him. He firmly

rejects her offer to remain with him, as if in a masochistic

desire to enforce upon himself the cruel loneliness he perceives so clearly: "Immer musst du mich allein lassen.

Und immer muss ich dich allein lassen." (p. 57) He wants her, a physically healthy woman, to live and fight for a new

and better world, a world where love and justice rule :. His

own physical injury marks him as lost. He has no future.

He can henceforth only be a hindrance to Grete. Furthermore,

Eugen realizes that a permanent reconciliation is impossible, CO

for he is aware of the frailty of the marriage bond,

especially if it is based on a Platonic love relationship

as theirs has to be. He knows the nature of the human being.

Men are both angels and animals. He has been forced into an

ascetic life of abstinence, but he cannot expect his wife to

surrender voluntarily part of her nature as a human being

for his sake. The sexless individual, like the soulless, is

abnormal or to use Toller's supreme epithet of revulsion—

"lacherlich." Hinkemann knows that the more powerful instincts

of nature will ultimately overcome Grete's present sacrificial

attitude. He realizes that Grete will in the course of time

again succumb to her sensual nature. In addition, Eugen -

fears that his sympathetic recognition of the suffering of

all creatures may not be durable. If Grete once again

proves unfaithful, he, despite his present rationalisations, - 68 -

may murder out of jealousy (a strong natural instinct), just as six years ago he almost murdered because of another drive of nature, hunger. Regarding this incident he relates to his wife:

Einmal, vor sechs Jahren, ging es mir arg schlecht. Der Hunger liess mir das Wasser im Munde zusammen- laufen, wenn ich einen Menschen essen sah! Was fur ein G-efuhl, Grete, wenn ich liber die Kinder- spielplatze in den Stadtbezirken der reichen Leute ging, und vor mir ein kleiner Junge mit zufriedenem Mund in sein grosses Butterbrot biss! Wie einem da die Gier kam! Wie dann der Hunger auf einmal gar nicht mehr so weh tat! Der Junge, der kaute, brachte mich zum Rasen! Ich ware fast ein Morder geworden, nur urn den Jungen nicht mehr kauen zu sehen! (p. 57)

Grete does not understand all this; she does not comprehend his resolution to stay alone, hence he explains to her that all this simply means: "Dass ich nicht weiss, wie lange das bei mir anhalt, was ich da erkannt habe. Die lebendige Natur vom Menschen ist starker als sein Verstand. Der Verstand, ein Mittel zum Selbstbetrug." (p. 58) Hence, he continues to insist that she leave him. However, his rational arguments fail to convince Grete. She is afraid to live alone in a heartless world. She too is aware of her passionate nature.

Undoubtedly she fears that by herself she might again fall prey to seduction and be destroyed by bestial forces such as

Grosshahn symbolizes. Most significantly, she recognizes that kindness and understanding are rare quantities which she may never find again: "Lass mich nicht allein . . .

Ich gehe irre im Dunkeln . . . Ich tue mir weh ... . Ich falle . . . Alles ist wund an mir . . . Wie es schmerzt!

. . .In einem Wald voll gehetzter Tiere allein! . . . - 69 -

Keiner ist gut heute. Jeder nagt an deinem Herzen . . .

Nicht allein lasseni!" (p. 59) Nevertheless, he still insists. But she, a tormented creature herself, cannot live alone and, as he suggests, fight for a new world:

"Wenn ich . . . wenn ich selhst wollte . . . ich kann es nicht mehr . . . Ich hah nicht den Mut, ich bin wie zer- brochen." (p. 60) With a Christian prayer for redemption on her lips, she goes out and commits suicide.

Grete's tragedy is more profound than Hinkemann's, for she, a physically sound woman, goes into a voluntary death rather than abandon her husband. She has the choice of life or death, whereas fate has so weakened him that he does not have the strength to end his life. Hinkemann equates Grete's decision for death with a strength which he does not possess:

"Sie war gesund und hat das Netz zerrissen. Und ich steh noch hier . . . ich steh hier, kolossal und lacherlich ..."

(p. 61) Eugen merely exists, because he does not have the strength to live a meaningful life. He no longer wants to struggle, for he is lacking an ideal to struggle for: "Ich habe die Kraft nicht mehr. Die Kraft nicht mehr zu kampfenj die Kraft nicht mehr zum Traum. Wer keine Kraft zum Traum hat, hat keine Kraft zum Leben." (p. 58) Grete, realizing she has nothing more to live for, draws the logical conclusion and acts accordingly. Hinkemann goes on living because he does not have the strength even to adopt a conviction.

As was previously intimated, Eugen has been reduced to this anemic condition by fate. However, in Hinkemann Toller expounds only a partial fatalism. He recognizes that fate - 70 - is playing with man, hut indirectly. Fate uses the instru• mentality of society. Early in the play Hinkemann reveals awareness that he is a plaything being pulled from all sides:

"Ich bin ja ein Hampelmann, an dem sie solange gezogen haben, bis er kaput war ..." (p. 4-) He recognizes as the cause of injury to man a transcendent power of fate, a social impetus, which often overrides the individual will: "Auf alien Strassen der Welt schreien sie nach Erlosung! Der

Franzos, der mich zum Kruppel schoss, der Neger, der mich zum Kruppel schoss, schreit vielleicht nach Erlosung . . .

Ob er noch leben mag? Und wie wird er leben? . . . Ist er blind, ohne Arm, ohne Bein? Er tat mir weh, und ein andrer tat ihm weh . . . Wer aber tat uns alien weh? ..." (p. 60)

In obedience to social impulse man subjects his individual will. He becomes part of a fateful whole: "Ein Geist sind wir, ein Leib." (p. 60)

But the social will exercises no control over the private attitude of the individual to existence. Here Toller sub• scribes to a rigorous typology. Eugen speaks of this to his comrades: "... ich bin zu dem Ergebnis gekommen, dass wir das Gluck auch nicht jedem bringen konnen . . . das wahre

Gluck meine ich . . . dass das Gliick etwas ist . . . was einer hat oder was einer nicht hat." (p. 24) Here Hinkemann posits a basic amorality behind the workings of the world which corresponds closely to that underlying the Woyzeck tragedy.

Eugen leaves the stage recognizing the indifference of fate, not recognizing any reason for his suffering: "Immer werden

Menschen stehen in ihrer Zeit wie ich. Warum aber trifft - 71 -

es mich, gerade mich? . . . Wahllos trifft es. Den trifft es und den trifft es. Den trifft es nicht und den trifft es nicht . . . Was wissen wir? . . . Woher? . . . Wohin? . .

(p. 61)

Apart from this basic attitude toward life, Hinkemann admits of.no determinism other than the nature of man.

Man's goodness is not determined by environmental factors.

Men could be different if they wanted to learn from past experiences, but instead of honouring human life men in their indifference desecrate it. Men are cruel to each other as though they had to be. Toller still does not attribute this cruelty to inherent evil in man, but rather to sheer lethargy

Man has the source of redemption within himself, but he is too blind (as Toller phrases the state of being oblivious to suffering) to recognize the fact: "So sind die Menschen .

Und konnten anders sein, wenn sie wollten. Aber sie wollen nicht. Sie steinigen den Geist, sie hohnen ihn, sie schanden das Leben, sie kre]uzigen es . . . Machen sich arm und konnten reich sein und brauchten keine himmlische Erlosung . . . die

Verblendeten! Als ob sie so tun mussten im blinden Wirbel der Jahrtausende! Nicht anders konnten. Mussten. Gleich

Schiffen, die der Malstrom an sich reisst und zwingt ein- ander zu zermalmen ..." (p. 61)

Thus because man's evil actions are not individually preordained, Toller can insist on the moral responsibility, of the individual in society. Consequently, both Hinkemann and Grete, as members of society, feel guilty for the suffering resulting from the inhumanity of mankind. Although - 72 -

he has been struck by fate, Eugen sees himself as personally responsible for his injury: "Ich bin lacherlich geworden durch eigene Schuld. Als ich mich hatte wehren sollen, damals als die Mine entzundet wurde von den grossen Verbre- chern an der Welt, die Staatsmanner und Generale genannt werden, habe icli.es nicht ,.getan." (pp. 57, 58) Similarly,

Grete recognizes that she as a member of society is also responsible for her husband's suffering. She remonstrates against herself and the world in which she lives: "Wie habe ich an dem Mann gehandelt! Was konnte er fiir den Schussi

Schuld habe ich, dass ich ihn in den Krieg Ziehen liess!

Schuld hat seine MutterI Schuld hat eine Zeit, in der es sowas gibt!" (p. 19) After'discovering Hinkemann's terrible plight, Unbeschwert (quite ironically, considering his name), sums up society's guilt for not being different: "Die Schand- welt ist schuld, in der wir leben!" (p. 36)

Hence, Toller's view of life in Hinkemann is not fatalistic but merely pessimistic, for he holds men in general morally responsible for their evil deeds. W. A. Willibrand writes concerning Toller and fatalism: "He fought that th dominant 19 century fatalism according to which man was the helpless, will-less creature of environment."^ In

Hinkemann Toller argues that society acts as fate, that events sweep men to their destruction. Yet this is due only to the lethargy of the individual. If man were willing to act, he could control events. In the end, however, even good actions do not determine whether one is happy or not.

That seems to be born in the individual. - 73 -

Despite his disillusionment with the contemporary chaos in the world, Toller still believes in man. He never gives up his long-range hope for humanity, although in Hinkemann it reaches its lowest point. In a letter to Stefan Zweig in which he discusses Hinkemann, Toller writes of his ambi• valent attitude to the age: "Ich verfluche diese Zeit und segne sie doch."^1 Similarly, in Hinkemann he still reveals a slight hope for better things, even though he is bitterly disillusioned with man: "Jeder Tag kann das Paradies bringen, jede Nacht die Sintflut." (p. 61) Conclusion

From the preceding discussion it can be seen that the basic pattern of the problem in the two plays is the same.

In each case it is the tragedy of a young soldier (Woyzeck at the beginning of the 19, century and Hinkemann after the

First World War) whose values are put into question by the senseless suffering they undergo. Both men are kind indi- viduals willing to sacrifice everything for the women they love. Because of the necessity for love they are willing to let themselves be degraded to the level of an animal in the hands of unscrupulous men. However, both Woyzeck's and

Hinkemann's love is repudiated in favour of the less worthy sexual attraction of the drum major and Grosshahn. The unfaithfulness of Marie and Grete removes the very basis of these protagonists' existence—their love—and gives rise to intense anguish in Woyzeck and Hinkemann. By debasing them• selves they had hoped to retain respect and love, but ironi• cally this degradation leads to the loss of their love

(Hinkemann's suffering is just as severe as Woyzeck's because he believes that he has lost Grete's love and does not discover the truth until late in the play). Through the physical mistreatment of the doctor and of the showman, and, more significantly, through the mental anguish caused by ridicule,

Woyzeck and Hinkemann are estranged from the rest of society.

This isolation leads them to question all values and ultimately to recognize the senselessness of life. Both Woyzeck and

Hinkemann are about 30 years old; in other words they are - 75 -

in the prime of life. They are at an age when life should have its greatest meaning and purpose. However, it is part of the ironic structure of these works that instead of accepting life positively in their prime, these men at that moment realize the utter futility of life. Instead of being hopeful and optimistic they are extremely pessimistic. When put into question by suffering the values which they held disintegrate, leaving them nothing to live for.

The basic pattern is the same in both, but the reaction of the protagonists is different. Woyzeck reacts violently to the loss of value: he repudiates all values in the universe.

This rejection of every value is carried out in his murder of Marie and then his own suicide. When his only reason for living, Marie's love, is lost to him, he is driven to despair.

For him the murder is already completed when he exclaims to his friend: "Aber, Andres, sie war doch ein einzig Madel."

(p. 168) This pathetic outburst reveals the enormity of his loss when he is forced to reject the last value in his life.

Sick of existence, he logically has to put an end to his misery. Regarding Woyzeck's murder, Benno von Wiese writes:

"Es ist der Ausdruck eines letzten Lebenspessimismus, ja

Lebensekels, fiir den die Erde zur Holle geworden ist ....

Ausdruck dafiir, dass das Leben jede Basis, auf der es noch 32 auszuhalten ware, verloren hat."

Following his sado-masochistic act of destruction,

Woyzeck returns to the inn to take part again in the turmoil of sensual life. However, his strong guilt feeling (symbol• ized by the blood on his elbow) compels him to go back to - 76 -

the scene of the murder and an accounting with himself.

Buchner symbolizes this attempt by Woyzeck's frantic washing in the pond. However, he cannot get rid of his guilt. Like reprehensible objects in a fairy tale it seems to multiply with every attempt to eliminate it: "Bin ich noch blutig?

Ich muss mich waschen. Da ein Fleck, und da noch einer ..."

(p. 174) Finally, in total despair, Woyzeck, after this symbolic reappraisal of his deed, brings his miserable existence to an end. Although the conclusion of the play is much disputed— > because of the fragmentary natureuof Buchner's work—it seems to the present author that suicide is the most consistent ending for the play. Firstly, Woyzeck's suicide is entirely in consonance with his complete nihilism. There is no reason for living in a world hat has lost all meaning. Secondly, the atmosphere of the play gives a logical preparation for

Woyzeck's suicide. What would otherwise be the reason for the obituarylike scene where Woyzeck disposes of his few possessions? It is a summation, an objective and brief account of his life as it approaches its conclusion: "Friedrich

Johann Franz Woyzeck, Wehrmann, Fusilier im 2, Regiment,

2. Bataillon, 4. Kompagnie, geboren Maria Verkundigung, den 20. Juli. - Ich bin heut alt.30 Jahr, 7 Monat und 12

Tage." (p.. 171) Similarly, the final scene of the play by auditory means vividly conveys the gruesome atmosphere of suicide and culminates in the image of a broken bell, evidently representing the human being cracked apart through relentless subjugation to the cruelties of life. The fortissimo at the end is more than men can bear: - 77 -

Erste Person. Haiti Zweite Person. Horst du? Still! Dort! Erste. Uu! Da! Was ein Ton! Zweite. Es ist das Wasser, es ruft: schon lang ist niemand ertrunken. Fort! es ist nicht gut, es zu horen! Erste. Uu! jetzt wiederl - wie ein Mensch, der stirbtl Zweite. Es ist unheimlich! So dunstig, allenthalhen. Nebelgrau—und das Summen der Kafer wie gesprungene Glocken. Port! Erste. Nein, zu deutlich, zu laut! Da hinauf! Komm mit! (p. 175)

Hinkemann reacts less violently than Woyzeck when his values are put into question by suffering. He does not murder

(although indirectly he is responsible for Grete's death), nor does he commit suicide. His end is resignation and despair because he is too weak to die. All he can do is resign himself to an evidently unjust, senseless existence of suffering.

Although he finds an understanding companion in Grete, Hinke• mann cannot agree to remain with her and begin a new life, for he realizes that this solution based on fickle human sympathy will not be lasting. The demands of nature are stronger than those of momentary sentiment or of reason. He feels that reason is only a means of deceiving himself into believing that such a reconciliation will be permanent. His insistence that Grete leave him leads to her despair and suicide. Weakened by fate and completely disillusioned with life, Hinkemann no longer is able even to imagine a better world: "Wer keine Kraft zum Traum hat, hat keine Kraft zum

Leben." (Motto of the play.) But neither does he have sufficient strength to end his life. He can only continue to exist in his pessimism. - 78 -

Thus, despite the same basic pattern, the solutions are quite different: total active nihilism in the face of the loss of value in Woyzeck and passive pessimism (an acceptance of the meaninglessness of the world) in Hinkemann. Further• more, another distinction between the two dramas is of im• portance. Buchner is essentially dealing with one straight• forward theme: the mistreatment and resultant isolation of the individual which ultimately lead to the repudiation of values and total nihilism. Toller, in the 20^ century, has expanded this theme. He is concerned with the total man, with the sensual and the spiritual aspect of his nature.

The loss of either aspect renders man "lacherlich," the worst of epithets in Toller's vocabulary. For Toller it is this ridicule (and not merely.physical mistreatment) which leads to man's isolation and ultimate breakdown of values. Hinke• mann bears a measure of guilt himself. He did not exercise his duty to oppose the war, but allowed himself to be swept by fate into the maelstrom and has returned only a partial human. Woyzeck, on the contrary, feels no responsibility for his own tragedy. Thus, although Toller's play has at its core the same problem as Buchner's—the necessity of love to give significance to life—Hinkemann contains ramifications of the problem which Buchner does not explore in Woyzeck.

The dissimilar solutions in the two plays no doubt also result, from the different views of the authors. Buchner,

the fatalist, could see no hope for his contemporary society.

He had become disillusioned with the possibility of a social change imposed from without, and he nowhere indicates the

likelihood of a change brought about by the personal

regeneration of each individual—as the Expressionists be•

lieved. Buchner had a completely fatalistic view of life

when writing Woyzeck. For him, after a period of unavailing

revolutionary activity, the hope of a revolutionary change

in society had become illusory. According to Buchner, the

only solution was to let the contemporary decadent society

expire, awaiting the birth of a new one: "Ich glaube, man

muss in sozialen Dingen von einem absoluten Rechtsgrundsatz

ausgehen, die Bildung eines neuen geistigen Lebens im Volke

suchen und die abgelebte moderne Gesellschaft zum Teufel

gehen lassen." (p. 412)

For Toller the picture is not so dark. Although he relinquished his hope for an absolute Utopia, Toller tempers his pessimism and disillusionment somewhat with his long-range belief in a better order: "Das Absolut-Gute, das 'Paradies auf

Erden' wird kein Gesellschaftssystem schaffen, es handelt sich

einzig darum, fiir das relativ beste, das der Mensch finden und ' 63 verwirklichen kann, zu kampfen." The hope of a new order brought about by the regeneration of the individual lightens up the whole picture. Although highly disillusioned with mankind in Hinkemann, Toller can still visualize the possibility of a better social order if man only recognizes his potential

self-redeeming power. - 80 -

FOOTNOTES

Introduction

1. Georg Buchner, Werke und Briefe (Wiesbaden, 1958), p. 408. All subsequent references to Buchner's works will be taken from this edition. The page reference will be placed within parentheses immediately after each quotation.

2. The Writer in Extremis (Stanford, 1959), p. 19-

3. Im Banne des Expressionismus (Leipzig, 1927), p. 635.

4. Soergel, Expressionismus, p. 772.

5. "Life and Death of Ernst Toller," Books Abroad, XIV, 6.

6. (Munchen, 1922), I, 28.

7. Heidentum, I, 29, 32. '

Chapter I

8. The controversial ending of Woyzeck will be dealt with at greater length in the concluding chapter of this work.

9. Bertold Brecht, "Die Dreigroschenoper," Stucke fur das Theater am Schiffbauerdamm (1927-1933), I, (Berlin, 1955), 100, writes: Ihr lehrt uns, wann ein Weib die Rocke heben Und ihre Augen einwarts drehen kann Zuerst musst ihr uns zu fressen geben Dann k6*nnt ihr reden: damit fangt es an. Ihr, die auf unsrer Scham und eurer Lust besteht Das eine wisset ein fur allemal: Wie ihr es immer schiebt und wie ihr's immer dreht Erst kommt das Fressen, dann kommt die Moral. Erst muss es mo'glich sein auch armen Leuten Vom grossen Brotlaib sich ihr Teil zu schneiden.

10. Buchner, in Dantons Tod, had previously given his views regarding the human sex drive—man is helpless before its insistent urge. Marion tells Danton of her experience: "Ein junger Mensch kam zu der Zeit ins Haus . . . Endlich sahen wir nicht ein, warum wir nicht ebensogut zwischen zwei Bettuchern beieinander liegen, als auf zwei Stuhlen nebeneinander sitzen - 81 -

durften .... Wir taten's heimlich. Das ging so fort. Aber ich wurde wie ein Meer, was alles verschlang und sich tiefer und tiefer wuhlte. Es war fur mich nur ein Gegensatz da, alle Manner verschmolzen in einen Leib. Meine Natur war einmal so, wer kann da driiber hinaus?" (p. 25)

11. Marie and the drum major are living examples of this fact; they live according to this "natural" sex law. Both follow the urgent demands of their sensual nature and not the accepted code of morality.

12. V. Michael Hamburger, "Georg Buchner," Reason and v Energy (London, 1957), P« 202: "The parallel between Woyzeck's behaviour and that of the horse is obvious; . for previously the doctor had reprimanded Woyzeck for relieving himself in public and depriving him of material for his experiment."

13. These two caricatures will be discussed in considerable detail in the next chapter.

14-. "Buchner. Woyzeck," Das Deutsche Drama, ed., Benno von Wiese (Dusseldorf, 1958), II, 91.

15* For example, Hans Mayer, Georg Buchner und seine Zeit (Wiesbaden, I960), pp. 331, 332, writes: "... die Armut, die 'Umstande' seines materiellen Lebens treiben jenen Woyzeck in die Umdusterung, in die AuflSsung seiner Bindung zur Umwelt, ins Verbrechen."

16. June 1833, he informs his parents: "Ich . . . habe . . . gelernt, dass nur das notwendige Bedurfnis der grossen Masse Umanderungen herbeifuhren kann, dass alles Bewegen und Schreien der einzelnen vergebliches Torenwerk ist. Sie schreiben—man liest sie nicht; sie handeln-—man hilft ihnen nicht . . . Ihr konnt voraussehen, dass ich mich in die Giessener Winkelpolitik und revolutio- naren Kinderstreiche nicht einlassen werde." (p. 371)

17. From Strassburg Buchner writes his brother: " "Ich wiirde Dir das nicht sagen, wenn ich im entferntesten jetzt an die Moglichkeit einer politischen Umwalzung glauben konnte. Tch habe mich seit einem halben Jahre vollkommen uberzeugt, dass nichts zu tun ist ... ich weiss, wie schwach, wie unbedeutend, wie zerstiickelt die liberale Partei ist, ich weiss, dass ein zweckmassiges, uberein- stimmendes Handeln unmoglich ist und dass jeder Versuch auch nicht zum geringsten Resultate fuhrt . . . Eine genaue Bekanntschaft mit dem Treiben der deutschen Revolutionars im Auslande hat mich uberzeugt, dass auch von dieser Seite nicht das geringste zu hoffen ist. Es herrscht unter ihnen eine babylonische Verwirrung, die nie gelost werden wird. Hoffen wir auf die Zeit!" (p. 396) - 82 -

18. Disregarding completely the changes which Buchner*s views have undergone, Georg Lukacs, "Der faschistisch verfalschte und der wirkliche Georg Buchner," Deutsche Realisten des 19. Jahrhunderts (Berlin, 1952),~"p. 83, states: "Buchner hat die wenigen Jahre seines Lebens konsequent und ohne Schwankungen gewirkt: als plebejisch- demokratischer Revolutionar in seiner politischen Tatig- keit ..."

19. "Georg, Buchner," German Dramatists of the 19th Century (Los Angeles, 1940), p. 104.

20. In a letter he once remarks: "Ich hoffe noch immer, dass ich leidenden, gedruckten Gestalten mehr mitleidige Blicke zugeworferi als kalten, vornehmen Herzen hittere Worte gesagt habe." (p. 378}

Chapter II

21. "Georg Buchner," Neue Rundschau, 1910, p. 1460. 22. The figure of the unsympathetic doctor does not have its counterpart in Hinkemann, but it appears in Toller's Die Wandlung (Potsdam, 1924). Toller's doctor is strikingly similar to Buchner's: he too fails to recognize true humanity, although in scientific terms he is well-educated. He answers Friedrich's question, "Herr Doktor, glauben Sie an den Menschen?." on a medical basis which has no relevance to the question. He mis• understands the young soldier's inquiry completely: "Dumme Frage. Hochst einfaltige Frage. Ich glaube, dass die meisten Menschen eine gute Verdauung haben. Denjenigen, bei denen sie schlecht ist, muss man Rhizinus geben, einen grossen Loffel fur Erwachsene, einen kleinen Loffel fur Kinder. DummerFrage." (p. 84) As in Woyzeck the doctor is so shocked by such an unusual question, by this "Philosophieren," that he wants to examine his curious patient. His conclusion, "Psychose in hohem Stadium" is similar to Woyzeck's supposed, "Aberratio mentalis partialis." Both doctors endeavour to explain away remarks they do not understand by attributing them to mental derangement and seek to cover their own emptiness with the appearance of great knowledge imparted by Latin designations.

23. Karl Vietor, Georg Buchner, Politik, Dichtung, Wissen- schaft (Bern, 1949), p. 196, in examining the relation of this passage to the caricature scenes in Woyzeck, writes: "Das ist die Gesinnung, die sich im Stil dieser Szenen ausdriickt: Spott aus Hass, aus emporerischer Wut gegen eine Klasse, deren Herrschaft ihm als Anmassung erscheint, weil sie dunkelhaft und gefuhllos - 83 -

den Menschen im Proletarier nicht achten will."

24. Writing to his family Buchner had earlier expressed the view that reason is not the most important part of man's being, thus leaving the way open for this con• clusion in Woyzeck: "Der Verstand nun gar ist nur eine sehr geringe Seite unsers geistigen Wesens und die Bildung nur eine sehr zufallige Form desselben." (p. 377)

25. Mayer, Buchner, pp. 334, 335.

26. The doctor in Woyzeck receives great pleasure by dis• playing Woyzeck's extraordinary ability: "... Woyzeck, beweg den Herren doch einmal die OhrenI Ich hab es Ihnen schon zeigen wollen, zwei Muskeln sind bei ihm tatig .... So meine Herren! Das sind so Ubergange zum Esel, haufig auch die Folge weiblicher Erziehung und die Muttersprache." (p. 168)

27. A. H. J. Knight, Georg Buchner (Oxford, 1951), p. 29, records part of Karl Vogt's description of one of these lectures: "Der Glanzpunkt dieser Vorlesungen war die Demonstration der Ohrmuskeln. Der Sohn, der die Ohr- muskeln brillant bewegen konnte, musste dann erscheinen und man erzahlte, dass die Szene dann in folgender Weise sich abspielte. Nach der Beschreibung der Ohrmuskeln sagte der Professor: 'Diese Muskeln sind beim Mens-ken obsolet geworden. Der Mens-k kann die Ohren nicht bewegen, das konnen nur die Aeff-ken. Jolios, niach's mall' Der ungluckliche Jolios musste dann. aufstehen und mit den Ohren wedeln."

28. Regarding the captain, Heimann, Neue Rundschau, 1910, p. 1460, concisely writes: "... ein Hauptmann hetzt mit Spitzfindigkeiten den hintersinnigen, armen Teiifel umher in seiner Angst und seiner Ohnmacht."

Chapter III

29. Compare a very similar outcry in one of Buchner's letters: "... ach, wir armen, schreienden Musikanten! das Stohnen auf unserer Polter, ware es nur da, damit es durch die Wolkenritzen dringend und weiter, weiter klingend wie ein melodischer Hauch in himmlischen Ohren stirbt? War en wir das Opfer im gliihenden Bauch des Perillusstiers, dessen Todesschrei wie das Aufjauchzen des in den Flammen sich aufzehrenden Gottstiers klingt?" (p. 379)

30. Ernst Johann, Georg Buchner (Hamburg, 1958), p. 123, makes this point: "Buchner hatte kein besseres Sinnbild - 84 -

fur seine Uberzeugung vom 'Fatalismus' erfinden konnen als die FIgur dieses Morders wider Willen, die aus der Wirklichkeit genommen war."

31. Georg Buchner, p. 210.

32. By his view of determinism Buchner is forced to remove all personal responsibility from the individual. In February 1834, he wrote his parents: "Ich verachte niemanden, am wenigsten wegen seines Verstandes oder seiner Bildung, weil es in niemands Gewalt liegt, kein Dummkopf oder kein Verbrecher zu werden—weil wir durch gleiche Umstande wohl alle gleich wiirden und weil die Umstande ausser uns liegen." (p. 377)

33. With respect to the significance of the voices and visions, K. Vietor, Buchner, p. 211, writes: "Seine fixen Ideen und Gesichte sind Zeichen dafur, dass die Hand des Schicksals sich urn ihn schliesst, dass er unter ihrem Druck erzittert."

34. Through Lena, in Leonce und Lena, Buchner gives pithy expression to the central theme of his works, the problem of existential suffering: "Es kommt mir ein entsetz- licher Gedanke: ich glaube,- es gibt Menschen, die ungiucklich sind, unheilbar, bloss weil sie sind." (p. 136)

35. August Class, "Nihilism and Modern German Drama," Medusa's Mirror (London, 1957), P. 161.

Chapter IV

36. Ernst Toller, Hinkemann (Potsdam, 1924), p. 48. All subsequent references to this play will be taken from this edition; the page number will be placed within parentheses immediately following the quotation.

37. Thus Hinkemann, like Woyzeck, is also about 30 years old. The significance of the age of the two protagonists will be discussed in the conclusion.

38. This theme of prostitution out of material necessity appears already in Buchner's work. In Dantons Tod Simeon, slightly drunk, makes a scene on the street when he learns that his daughter is a common street• walker. However, his wife defends the girl's actions on economic grounds: "Und meine Tochter war da hiriunter- gegangen um die Ecke—sie ist ein braves Madchen und ernahrt ihre Eltern." (p. 14) To her husband she elaborates, giving moral justification for her daughter's conduct: "Du Judas! hattest du nur ein paar Hosen hinaufzuZiehen, wenn die jungen Herren die Hosen nicht - 85 -

bei ihr hinunterliessen? . . . Wir arbeiten mit alien Gliedern, warum denn nicht auch damit; ihre Mutter hat damit geschafft, wie sie zur Welt kam, und es hat ihr weh getan; kann sie fur ihre Mutter nicht auch damit schaffen, he? und tut's ihr auch weh dabei, he? Du Dummkopf!" (p. 14) As the drunk father calls for a knife to stab his daughter, a citizen says, pointing out her real motives: "Ja, ein Messer, aber nicht fiir die arme Hure! Was tat sie? Nichts! Ihr Hunger hurt und bettelt." (p. 14)

39. The motif of an innocent woman being forced into prostitution by economic necessity also recurs in Toller's Die Maschinenstiirmer (Leipzig, 1922). Here Mary Wible sells herself to Henry Cobbett in order to earn a few pence for their living. On entering the house from a visit to Cobbett, she is asked by her husband: John Wible: Hat dich der Cobbett gut entlohnt? Mary (wirft Geld auf den Tisch): Piinf Pence. John Wible: Der Schuftl Der Schuft! Mary: Lass mir die Halfte. Nicht ein Brot im Haus. Ich gab dir letzte Woche all das Siindengeld. (pp. 35> 36) Later in the play Mary is attacked by other women as she stealthily tries to leave Cobbett's garden, and is only rescued by the appearance of Ned Lud, who recog• nizes that her motives were economic rather than promiscuous. With keen perception he asks the women: "Peitscht ihr ein Kind, das gierig sich auf Brocken Brotes stiirzt?" (p. 65) Then of Mary he inquires: "Sag', Mary, warum warst du dort?" to which she quietly replies: "Ich bin ... so arm . . . wie diese da . . . Ich tu's oa • • • nicht fiir mich ..." (p. 65)

40. The theme of ridicule at suffering will be treated in the next chapter.

41. Compare a similar situation in Die Maschinenstiirmer where Margret has had to sell the bed, one of the basic necessities in life because it represents the natural human need for rest: "Ich musste mein letztes Stuck Mobel verkaufen, ein Bett. Wie ein Blutegel sass mir der Kramer auf. In diesem Bett schliefen der Sohn, die Tochter, der Schlafbursche, der Vater, der Mann und ich. Bei Gott, ich weiss nicht, wer mich manche Nacht umarmte! Ich habe dieses eine Bett versetzen miissen." (p. 60) 42. The Hinkemanns are only one of many families which are in dire straits. A working woman in Hinkemann tells of similar poverty; she has to relinquish essential articles of clothing to be able to keep alive: "Wenn ich diese Hemden auch ins Leihhaus trage, so brauchen Sie nicht - 86 -

zu glauben, dass ich keine Hemden mehr im Schrank habe . . . ich besitze sogar eine teure, pikfeine, seidene Mantilje . . . von meiner Grossmutter her . . . Aber es ist nichts mehr von Wert im Haus ... da miissen eben die Hemden herhalten . . .'' (p. 20)

45. The problem of the machine-man relation occurs frequently in Expressionism. Georg Kaiser, "Gas I," Das Deutsche Drama 1880-1953, ed., H. Steinhauer (New York, 1958), II, 72, gives a fine picture of a factory worker who is little more than a robot. The girl says of her brother: "Ich wusste nicht, dass ich einen Bruder hatte. Ein Mensch ging morgens aus dem Hause und kam abends—und schlief .... Eine Hand war gross—die andere klein. Die grosse Hand schlief nicht. Die stiess in einer Bewegung hin und" her—Tag und Nacht .... Diese Hand war der Mensch! - Wo blieb mein Bruder? ... In Arbeit stiirzte er. Die brauchte nur die eine Hand von ihm—die den Hebel driickte und hob— . . . Keinen Hub liess er aus—punktlich schlug sein Hebel an, vor dem er stand wie tot und bediente."

44. The rich': are frequently war profiteers whom the woman in Die Wandlung, p. 53, aptly describes as "die paar Reichen, die prassen und prassen und uns aussagen, die mit dem Ertrag unserer Arbeit galantes Spiel treiben."

45. Ernst Toller, "Author's Introduction," Seven Plays (London, 1955), P« ix.

46* Ernst Toller, Eine Jugend in Deutschland (Amsterdam, 1955), PP. 275, 276.

47. Ernst Toller, Briefe aus dem Gefangnis (Amsterdam, 1955), P. 204.

Chapter V

48. The showman cynically sums up the spirit of the time: "Mit Kriegsgreuel—Panoptikum verdienen Sie heute keine zehn Pfennig mehr. Aus! Jetzt ist Kultur Trumpf in Europa! . . . Man muss was leistenl Leistung! Das ist Schlussel zu unserer Zeit! Gleichgiiltig was!" (p. 58)

49. Howard De Forest, "Pacifist in Exile," (Interview), Living Age, CCCLI (Sept. 1956-Feb. 1957), 509.

50. Toller's names all contain rather apparent references to the characters of their bearers: Hinkemann is a cripple, Singegott a religious ecstatic, and Immer- gleich a phlegmatic socialist. Grosshahn is the - 87 -

strident embodiment of sex and easily associated with "Hahnrei" and other terms denoting infidelity.

51. W. A. Willibrand, "Ernst Toller's Ideological Skepticism," GQ, XIX (1946), 181, points out concerning Toller: "Mensch was to him a spiritual concept which the materi• alistic social ideology did not seem to recognize."

- Chapter VI

52. William Rose, Men, Myths, and Movements in German Literature (London, 1931), p. 217, writes regarding Toller's drama: "It is the tragedy, intensified to the extreme limit, of the man returned from the War to find himself estranged from the rest of humanity."

53. Toller, Briefe, p. 31.

54. Briefe, p. 151.

55. P. 275.

56. Toller, Briefe, p. 239.

57« Seven Plays, p. x.

58. In speaking to Max Knatsch Hinkemann reveals the weakness of marriage bonds in general: Hinkemann. . . . Wie lange bist du verheiratet? > Max Knatsch. Dreiundzwanzig Jahre. Hinkemann. Du wolltest dich einmal scheiden lassen? Max Knatsch. Den Gedanken hatte ich wohl. Aber man hat sich aneinander gewohnt. Die Kinder sind der Kitt. Hinkemann. Der Kitt—die Kinder . . . Scheidung, das ist Trennung von Bett und Tisch ..." (p. 47)

59. W. A. Willibrand, Ernst Toller, Product of two Revolutions (Norman, 1941), p. 40.

60. Ernst Toller, Product, p. 18.

61. Briefe, p. 206.

Conclusion

62. Die deutsche Tragodie von Lessing bis Hebbel (Hamburg, 1948), II, 330, 331.

63. Briefe, p. 205. - 88 -

BIBLIOGRAPHY

I. Primary Sources

Brecht, Bertold. "Die Dreigroschenoper, " Stucke fiir das Theater am Schiffbauerdamm (1927-1933)* Vol. I, Berlin, 1955, 5-165".

Brod, Max. Heidentum, Christentum, Judentum. Vol. I, Miinchen, 1922.

Buchner, Georg. Werke und Briefe. Ed. by Fritz Bergemann. Wiesbaden, 1958.

Kaiser, Georg. "Gas I," Das Deutsche Drama - 1880-1935. Ed. by H. Steinhauer. Vol. II, New York, 1938, 33-95.

Toller, Ernst. Briefe aus dem Gefangnis. Amsterdam, 1935«

. Die Maschinensturmer. Leipzig, 1922.

. Die Wandlung. Potsdam, 1924.

. Eine Jugend in Deutschland. Amsterdam, 1933.

. Hinkemann. Potsdam, 1924.

. Seven Plays. London, 1935*

II. Secondary Sources

A. General

[Closs, A.J "Nihilism and Modern German Drama," Medusa1 s Mirror. London, 1957, 147-163.

Dosenheimer, Elise. Das deutsche soziale Drama von Lessing bis Sternheim. Konstanz, 1949.

Garten, H. F. Modern German Drama. London, 1959.

Grenzmann, W. Deutsche Dichtung der Gegenwart. Frankfurt/M., 1953.

Kayser, Wolfgang. Das Groteske in Malerei und Dichtung. Hamburg, I960.

Rose, William. Men, Myths, and Movements in German Literature. London, 1931. "" - 89 -

Samuel R. & R. Hinton Thomas. Expressionism in German Life, Literature and the Theater (1910-1924). Cambridge, 1939.

Soergel, Albert. Dichtung und Dichter der Zeit (Im Banne des Expressionismus). Leipzig, 1927.

Sokel, ¥. H. The Writer in Extremis. Stanford, 1959.

Wiese, Benno von. Die Deutsche Tragodie von Lessing bis Hebbel. Vol. II, Hamburg, 1948.

B. Buchner

[Bergemann, E.J "Georg Buchner Schrifttum seit 1937," Deutsche Viertel.jahrschrift, XXV (1951), 112-121.

Brinkmann, Donald. Georg Buchner als Philosoph. Zurich, 1958.

Brinkmann, Karl. Erlauterungen zu Georg Buchners "Dantons Tod" und "Woyzeck". Hallfeld (no date).

Buttner, Ludwig. Georg Buchner, Revolutionar und Pessimist. Nurnberg, 1948.

[Dam, Hermann van.] "Zu Georg Buchners 'Woyzeck'," Akzente, I (1954), 82-99.

(Gundolf, P.l "Georg Buchner," Romantiker. Berlin, 1930, 375-395. [Hamburger, M.J "Georg Buchner," Reason and Energy. London, 1957, 179-208.

[Hauch, E. P.] "The Reviviscence of Georg Buchner," PMLA, XLIV (September 1929), 892-900.

[Heimann, M.jf "Georg Buchner," Neue Rundschau, 1910, 1458-1462.

[Jancke, R.J "Grabbe und Buchner," Germanisch Romanische Monatschrift, XV (1927), 274-286.

Johann, Ernst. Georg Buchner in Selbstzeugnissen und Bild- dokumenten. Hamburg, 1958. fKaufmann, P. W.J "Georg Buchner," German Dramatists of the 19th Century. Los Angeles, 1940.

Knight, A. H. J. Georg Buchner. Oxford, 1951.

Krapp, Helmut. Per Dialog bei Georg Buchner. Darmstadt, 1958. - 90 -

[Kresch, J. G.J "Georg Buchner's reputation as an economic radical," GR, VIII (1933), 44-51.

[Lukacs, GeorgJ "Der faschistisch verfalschte und der wirkliche Georg Buchner," Deutsche Realisten des 19* Jahrhunderts. Berlin, 1952, 66-88. [Majut, R.J "Aufriss und Probleme der modernen Buchner- forschung," Germanisch Romanische Monatschrift, XVII (1929), 356-372. Marcuse, Ludwig. Georg Buchner und seine besten Buhnenwerke. Berlin, 1921.

[Martens, W.~] "Zur Earikatur in der Dichtung Buchners (Woyzecks Hauptmann)," Germanisch Romanische Monatschrift, NF VIII (1958), 64-71. [Mautz, K.J "Georg Buchner," Deutsche Viertel.jahrschrift, XV (1937), 115-123. [May, Kurt."] "Buchners 'Woyzeck'," Form und Bedeutung. Stuttgart, 1957, 263-272. £ .1 "Buchner. Woyzeck," Das Deutsche Drama. • Ed. by Benno von Wiese. Vol. II, Diisseldorf, 1958, 89-100. Mayer, Hans. Georg Buchner und seine Zeit. Wiesbaden, I960. [Oppel, H.J "Buchner Forschung," Euphorion, XLIX (1955), 91-109. [Peacock, R.l "A note on Georg Buchner's plays," German Life and Letters, X (1957), 189-197. fPohl, G.J "Ein Vorbild des Charakters, Georg Buchner," Deutsche Rundschau, CCXLIX (1936), 247-250. Schmid, Peter. Georg Buchner, Versuch tiber die tragische Existenz. Bern, 1940.

fschwarz, Egon.J "Tod und Witz im Werke Georg Buchners," Monatshefte fiir deutschen Unterricht, XLVI (1954), 123-136. Vi'etor, Karl. Georg Buchner. Politik, Dichtung, Wissenschaft. Bern, 1949. Winkler, Hans. Georg Buchners "Woyzeck". Greifswald, 1925.

C. Toller

[De Forest, H.] "Pacifist in Exile," Living Age, CCGLI (September 1936-February 1937), 506-509. - 91 -

(jentzsch, R.] "Ernst Toller in seinen Dramen," Zeitschrift fur Deutschkunde, XL (1926), 813-822.

[Loving, Pierre^ "A note on Ernst Toller," Dial, LXXXVI (March 1929), 205-210.

[Pinthus, Kurt.] "Life and death of Ernst Toller," Books Abroad, XIV (Winter, 1940), 3-8. '

Willibrand, W. A." Ernst Toller and his ideology. Iowa City, 1945. f • "Ernst Toller's ideological skepticism," L GO., XIX (1946), 181-186.

. Ernst Toller, Product of two Revolutions. Norman, Oklahoma, 1941.

[ .] "The timely dramas of Ernst Toller," Monatshefte fur deutschen Unterricht, XXXIX (March 1947), 157-169. [wirth, Otto.J "Ernst Toller, Der Mensch in seinem Werk," Monatshefte fiir deutschen Unterricht, XXXI (1939), 339-348.