Int. J. Sport Health Sci. Paper : Cultural Anthropology Thai Massage and Health Tourism in : Tourism Acculturation Process of ``Thai Massage'' Kohei Kogiso

Graduate School of Sport Sciences, Waseda University 2-7-5 Higashifushimi, Nishitokyo-shi, Tokyo, 202-0021 Japan kogisok＠ruri.waseda.jp [Received April 2, 2012; Accepted September 26, 2012; Published online October 11, 2012]

This paper discusses the historical process of tourism acculturation of Thai Massage in tourism particularly delineating how socio-cultural contexts have been formed that enabled tourism ac- culturation. In recent years, health tourism has been developing in Asian countries, where tourists often enjoy practicing a variety of traditional techniques of the body as ``healing arts,'' such as Tai Chi, Zen meditation, and Yoga. Thai Massage has also become one of these kinds of traditional techniques of the body, attracting many tourists as a ``spiritual'' practice based on Buddhist philosophy. However, has Thai Massage originally been practiced as it is done in health tourism now in Thailand? In other words, has Thai Massage been acculturated as a result of the tourism development in Thailand? This paper addresses this question by examining the transition of Thai tourism policy, the cultural structure of the spa, and the acculturation process of Thai Massage.

Keywords: health tourism, Thai Massage, spa, tourism acculturation

1. Introduction and Background including group visits to famous historical heritage or tourist sites has become obsolete—eco tourism, Tourism and ethnic sports in tourism have long sport tourism, and special interest tours have been alluring subjects for Sport Anthropological become popular instead. studies. By rendering ``ethnic sport'' a major subject Asian countries, especially Bali, India, , of study Sport Anthropology has been distinguished , and Thailand, are major destinations for from other ˆelds. According to Sogawa (2006), international health tourism*2 (Laing and Weiler, ethnic sport is ``a general concept for those sports 2008). Among health tourism in these countries, that are related more or less to traditional culture or medical tourism is generally well-known. This der- contribute to the forging of speciˆc countries, socie- ives mainly from the fact that their medical cost is ties, ethnic groups and areas who perform them.'' relatively low compared to developed countries, Many ethnic sports are performed in festivals in ad- medical technology is advanced, and treatment is dition to other traditional techniques of the body*1, speedy. In addition, these countries possess not only such as dances, martial arts, and plays. These fes- medical facilities but also a considerable number of tivals and ethnic sports are now an integral part of spas. Interestingly, in these spas a variety of tech- cultural resources in tourism. (LoSAWU, 2007). niques of the body, such as Chinese Tai Chi, Indian As Sogawa (2006) writes, new tourism trends such Yoga, Thai Massage, and Zen meditation, are prac- as alternative tourism and sustainable tourism have ticed as ``healing arts.'' Behind traditional healing emerged since the 1980s and have accelerated tourist arts is the so-called ethno science theory of the body, interest in ethnic sports as traditional culture. In this which has been attracting attention from tourists. context, ethnic sports are often acculturated or new- Yet there have only been a few cultural studies that ly invented by various agents in order to adjust to deal with the relationship between health tourism tourism resources. Research on such phenomena has and traditional techniques of the body. been gradually accumulated and been expanded on According to a questionnaire survey by the Minis- in recent years. Furthermore, forms of tourism have try of Commerce in 1998, visitors to Thailand rated become increasingly diverse. Simple mass tourism Thai Massage as their most memorable activity. This

International Journal of Sport and Health Science Vol.10, 65-70, 2012 65 http://taiiku-gakkai.or.jp/ Kohei Kogiso

result is remarkable considering the fact that Thai earn esteem for the Thai nation. This achievement Traditional Medicine*3 was previously excluded will indeed be more precious to us than banknotes from the o‹cial medical system and marginalized and coins'' (Tourism Organization of Thailand. since the beginning of the 20th century. Tourists to Magazine. Holiday Time In Thailand (Jun, 1960)). Thailand are attracted to Thai Massage as ``healing The ˆrst thing that should be noted is that Sarit em- of mind and body.'' How has Thai Massage as a phasized not only the economic but also the political ``healing art'' and a form of ``entertainment'' in aspect of tourism. tourism been realized? This paper elucidates the In examining Thai tourism, it is critical to look historical process and the socio-cultural contexts in- into the politics behind Thai tourism policy. In 1960, volved in tourism acculturation of Thai Massage. To the same year TOT was established, the ``Prostitu- support the analysis of this, I use the concept of tion Suppression Act'' was passed, followed by the ``tourist gaze'' suggested by English sociologist ``1966 Service Establishments Act''. In 1967 the John Urry (Urry, 1990). He examined the process ``Rest & Recreation Treaty'' was concluded with the that of unilateral tourist gazes reconstructing people United States. A series of such institutional frame- and culture regarded as tourism objects. On the works built a basis for Thai tourism. In the 1970s, other hand, it is diŠerent from the era of the 19th the promotion of tourism was clearly announced as century and ˆrst half of the 20th century. Urry dealt a national developing plan in the fourth National with the side considered as tourism objects attempt- Economic and Social Development Plan (NESDP, ing to reconstruct themselves and their culture*4. 1977-1980). Since then, tourism has been incorpo- This paper discusses the acculturation of Thai Mas- rated into all of the NESDPs (McDowall and Wang, sage in tourism as what has happened in the context 2009). As TOT was reorganized into TAT in 1979 of interrelation between the side of tourist and the and their commission regarding tourism policy was side of object in tourism. expanded upon, they began to launch advertising campaigns with articulate goals. Following the 2. ``1987 Visit Thailand Year'' campaign, various cam- paigns were organized, including ``Thai Culture I will begin by considering the transition of Promotion (1994)'', ``The Golden Jubilee (1995- tourism policy in Thailand. Tourism policy has 1996)'' and ``Amazing Thailand (1998-)'', From the relevance in the formulation of Thai images and 2000s onward, tourism promotion activities have those images have various in‰uences over accultura- become diversiˆed in conjunction with the changing tion of Thai Massage in tourism. The intention is to forms of tourism. Table 1 summarizes the transition elucidate what kinds of images gave been conveyed of Thai tourism policy as mentioned above. to tourists by the government in Thailand through the consideration of tourism policy. 2.2. Forming the Thai Tourism World: From ``Ex- otic'' to ``Erotic,'' and Then to ``Healthy'' 2.1. Tourism Policy in Thailand Table 1 indicates how tourist images of Thailand It was an economic and national strategy that have shifted in addition to the transition of Thai gavebirthtoThaitourism.In1960Primeminister tourism policies. Cohen (1996) states that Thailand Sarit Thanarat (1959-63) established the Tourism acquired the two provocative images of ``Exotic'' Organization of Thailand (TOT), the predecessor to and ``Erotic'' after the R & R Treaty, having the Tourism Authority of Thailand (TAT). TOT become one of the principle destinations and pro- became an o‹cial organization to promote Thai tected areas for GIs. In 1980 the image of ``Erotic'' tourism (McDowall and Wang, 2009) and produce became disguised (at least at surface level) and in the tourism resources in Thailand. In an opening 1990s Thai tourism's primary image evolved into ceremony of the TOT Sarit mentioned the impor- ``Healthy.'' This shift can be attributed to TAT's tance of tourism in the nation: ``The tourist industry eŠort and promotion of replacing this erotic image can play a signiˆcant role in making known to the and its associated that of a dangerous country with world our traditions, culture, and the virtues of the an image of a safe country. Alternative tourism and —which will invite consideration and sustainable tourism which have the background of

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Table 1 The transition of Thai tourism policies and Thai tourism images

Tourism Image Time Outline

Exotic ¿1960 Predawn of tourism: ``In 1930s, only about ˆve cruise ships a year, carrying around 500 passengers'' (Cohen 1996) Some independent government organizations dealt with travel and tourism

Exotic/Erotic 1960s Beginning of the tourism system: TOT launched public information activities (e.g. the publication of ``Holiday Time In Thailand'') The Prostitution Suppression Act was introduced The 1966 Service Establishments Act was introduced The Rest & Recreation treaty was concluded with the United States in 1967

Exotic/Erotic 1970s Beginning of tourism infrastructures: The promotion of tourism clearly emerged as a national developing plan in the fourth National Economic and Social Development Plan (NESDP, 1977-1980)

Exotic/Erotic 1980s Constructing of tourism infrastructures: The ˆfth National Economic and Social Development Plan (1981-1985) The founding of the Tourist Police Force ``Visit Thailand 1987'' campaign

Exotic/(Erotic) 1990s Maturation of tourism as industry: ``Thai Culture Promotion (1994)'' campaign ``Golden Jubilee (1994-1995)'' campaign Asian Economic crisis Succeeding of ``Amazing Thailand'' campaign

Exotic/(Erotic)/Healthy 2000s Diversiˆcation of tourism: Enforcing special interest tours ``Unseen Treasures (2004)'' ``Happiness on Earth (2005)'' ``Seven Amazing Wonders (2007)'' ``Su‹ciency Economy Tourism''

naturalistic movement and environmentalism 3.1. Spa Tourism within Health Tourism in promoted this shift and stimulated the development Thailand of health tourism. It can be argued that Thai Mas- sage has been acculturated and reached its present Spas are an integral part of healing arts and health form by the direct and indirect in‰uences of tourism tourism. The development of the spa industry in policies of the Thai government and tourism images Thailand has in‰uenced tourism acculturation of in each period. Particularly noteworthy is the spa Thai Massage. Since the ˆrst spa in Thailand opened that symbolizes the current status of Thai massage in in Samui Island in 1992, the spa industry has devel- health tourism in Thailand. oped smoothly and swiftly (Jacka, 2011), reaching an average annual growth rate of 25z between 2002 3. Spa and Thai Massage: Forming the Tourist and 2009. In 2004, the Thai government planned to Gaze make Thailand an international hub for the spa in- dustry, using the cooperation of the Ministry of For both the government and the tourists, positive Public Health and the TAT. The Post on progress has been seen in terms of constructing an 2nd October (2004) mentioned that: image of tourism in Thai around health and the To achieve this goal, the government has in- healing. Those kinds of images are often embodied troduced a ˆve-year plan from 2004-2008 to in the health tourism, especially the spa. Then, how turn Thailand into a medical services hub for is the Thai Massage integrated in the spa? Asia. The plan focuses on developing medical services, health promotion services—with an

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emphasis on spa and traditional massage serv- for such health tourism. How has ``Thai Massage'' ice, and health tourism. become a tourism cultural resource that represents The popularity of Thai massage can be seen in the Asiatic, Buddhist spirituality, and Thainess*5? comment by a Taiwanese travel agent in the Ban- gkok Post on September 13 in 1999. The agent said: 4. Raising ``Thai Massage'' ``There is a big demand for spas among Taiwanese,'' and ``many groups are going there 4.1. Acculturation Process of Thai Massage: From [Thailand] just for that. Thai traditional massage is ``Nuat'' to ``Thai Massage'' very popular. In fact, we even want Thai traditional masseurstocometoTaiwantoteachtheartthere.'' Thai Massage was simply ``massage in Thailand'' We can see from the above that Thai Massage or ``Nuat*6'' at least up until the 19th century. In the plays an important role in Thai spas. Why then has Siamese court from at least the 17th to the end of the the spa industry developed in Thailand? What do 19th century, there were physicians who gave mas- tourists seek from spas? In the next section, this sagestoroyalfamilies,andwhowerecalled``Moo paper examines the a‹nity of Thainess and the Thai Nuat.'' There were also people who utilized their tourist image of the spa. massage skills in their professions. The signiˆcant point is that Nuat was one of the traditional thera- 3.2. Thai Spa Style and Thai Massage pies in Thailand at that time. It was after the 1960s when signs of change The Western tourist gaze played an important role became visible with the progress of tourism and ur- in acculturating Thai massage. Laing and Weiler banization in Bangkok and other major cities. On (2008) consider four principle reasons why Asia is one hand, words Nuat or Moo Nuat became cor- well-positioned to be a global leader in health and related with sexual images due to the increase of wellness tourism. Asia has: (1) healing arts based on ``massage parlors'' (Aap Opp Nuat). They oŠered Eastern religions, (2) ``eco-friendly'' products and both therapeutic massages and sexual massages. On services, such as herbs, plants, and ‰owers, particu- the other hand, some foreigners—mainly wester- larlyusedinspas,(3)naturalandculturallan- ners—had become interested in Nuat and interpret- dscapes which seem exotic to Western consumers, ed it as a form of distinctive healing arts. They re- and (4) inexpensive and high quality service. These garded Nuat as ``a spiritual practice'' (James, 1984) reasons and perspectives are elicited by the Western and emphasized the importance of being in a tourist gaze. ``meditative mood'' when they practiced it. As On the other hand, the TAT is well aware of their James (1984) notes, ``The actual massage itself is advantages and utilizes them fully. The TAT considered to be a form of meditation, with beneˆt describes Thai Massage as a traditional healing art to the therapist as well as to the recipient.'' based on Buddhist philosophy. ``The most famous These two trends indicate that Thai Massage has and popular spa therapy is traditional Thai massage. not been acculturated spontaneously by Thai peo- Also known as `massage for healing', it is an age-old ple. Rather, Thai Massage has been gradually accul- healing art that originated as a spiritual practice turated by a kind of power structure (constructed by taken from the teachings of the Lord Buddha'' foreign tourists, the Thai government, and organiza- (Tourism Authority of Thailand, TAT e-magazine). tions), which is the phenomenon Urry (1990) de- The existence of Thai Massage diŠerentiates Thai scribed as the tourist gaze in his tourism study. This Spa from other spas. The bottom line is spas in organized and systematized gaze has been formed Thailand are satisfying tourist demands. through the contact of Thai people with cultural Based on these points, it can be noted that some others and vice versa, instilling tourists (or foreig- Asian techniques of the body available for healing ners) with the images of Thai culture as exotic, erot- arts are necessary for health tourism and spa ic, and healthy, which eventually led to the forma- tourism to succeed in Asia. For Thailand it has been tion of ``Thai Massage''. Thai Massage that has played this role. However, In other words, it can be said that ``Thai Mas- ``Thai Massage'' (``massage in Thailand'') may not sage'' has been invented as an eclectic culture necessarily have been essentially an adaptive culture through the con‰icts over the images desired by both

68 Tourism Acculturation Process of ``Thai Massage''

tourists and the Thai government. Thai medical system on the grounds that it was re- garded unscientiˆc, to regain its popularity? 4.2. Objectiˆcation of Culture: Reconstructing Through examining these institutions, it can be con- Nuat cluded that Thai massage has been reconstructed as an object of people's desires (especially as a form of This semantic and imaginative extension of Thai entertainment for healing purposes), which cannot massage provided the Thai government and tradi- be disguised and explained medically or rationally. tional masseurs with the opportunity to be objective Through this tourism the identity of Thai Massage about Nuat. In 1985, ``The Thai Massage Revival has shifted and acculturated from a traditional ther- Project'' was launched as an attempt to systematize apy to a traditional techniques of the body as heal- the knowledge of Nuat (Banpasirichote, 1989). The ing art, to a form of entertainment, and ˆnally to an Institute of Thai Traditional Medicine was estab- important tourism resource in Thailand. lished under the Ministry of Public Health in 1993 to develop various aspects of Thai Traditional Medi- Notes cine (Chokevivat and Chuthaputti, 2005). This *1 This term was suggested by French ethnologist Marcel Mauss governmental institute has mainly supported the in- (1872-1950). He includes from the simple body movements to the care of the body in it. Sports, dances, gymnastics and stitutionalization of Nuat and of Moo Nuat, massage can be the objects of study. See Allen (2007). promoting and spreading authentic ``Thai Nuat'' or *2 A number of countries have own traditions of health ``Thai Massage'' (Iida, 2006). tourism. Smith and Puczko (2009) introduce some examples These institutions systematized Nuat and created of these traditions. For instance, domestic hot spring trip has developed in Japan and Western Europe. What diŠerentiates an o‹cial ``Thai Massage'' image. Since this period, these Asian countries mentioned above from those countries it became apparent that Nuat started to be referred is that health tourism has developed as international tourism to as ``Nuat Thai'' or ``Thai Massage,'' this term resources. *3 has been used to distinguish therapeutic massages Thai Traditional Medicine is composed of Thai medicine, pharmacopeia, and Thai Massage. from sexual massages among relevant parties. This *4 See Ota (1998). indicatesthat``Nuat''wasreformedintoanaspect *5 ``Thainess'' is an ambiguous word. It is used synonymously of Thai culture that represents Thainess. This was a with Thai identities. However, it should be noted that it has been built on the relationship between Thailand and the determining factor that formed the institutional set- West. Harrison and Jackson (2010). ting and enabled ``Thai Massage'' to become a *6 The word means ``massage'' in Thai language. In this chap- tourism resource. ter, I discriminate ``Nuat'' from ``Thai Massage'': I use It is no exaggeration to state that Thai Massage ``Nuat'' as massage in Thailand before tourism accultura- tion and ``Thai Massage'' as ``Nuat'' after tourism accultu- has been acculturated because of the tourist gaze, ration. coming from the images of tourism and the reaction *7 When I use the concept of ``institution'', I assume it not only of the government in Thai. as a product of culture and human desire but also as a factor that generates culture and desire themselves. I draw this point from the following sentence by Deleuze (2010): ``All 5. Conclusion institutions impose on our body, even on their involuntary function, a series of models, and give our intelligence a In delineating the socio-cultural contexts sur- knowledge, a possibility of expectation as project.'' rounding Thai massage, I have attempted to show References the historical process of tourism acculturation of Allen, N. J. (2009). Manual of Ethnography. Oxford: Berghahn Thai Massage. I should mention the term ``institu- Books. tion*7''. In conclusion, tourism acculturation of Assavanonda, A. (2004). Govt plans to make country health, Thai massage can be summarized by two substantial spa hub. Bangkok Post, 2 Oct. p. 4 (Tourism). Banpasirichote, C. (1989). The Indigenization of Development and two insubstantial institutions that have led to its process in Thailand: A Case Study of the Traditional Medical realization. These are (1) development of tourism revivalist Movement (Thai Massage). Ontario, University of policy in Thailand, (2) the systematization and Waterloo. Ph.D. Thesis. regularization of Thai Massage, (3) the formation of Chokevivat, V. and Chuthaputti, A. (2005). The Role of Thai Traditional Medicine in Health Promotion. Conference paper the tourist gaze, and (4) the creation of ``Thainess.'' for 6GCHP Bangkok Thailand 2005. Why was it possible for Nuat (Thai traditional Cohen, E. (1996). Thai Toursim: Hill Tribes, Islands and Open- medicine), which had been marginalized from the Ended Prostitution. Bangkok: White Lotus.

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