Quantum Mind and Science

PAUL DENNISON

Published under the auspices of Rama IX Temple, Bangkok, July 2013, to mark the 2600-year anniversary of the Buddha’s enlightenment

Quantum Mind Meditation and Brain Science

Quantum Mind: Meditation and Brain Science

© Paul Dennison

Published 2013 under the auspices of Phra Rama 9 Paendin Dhamma Foundation 999/9 Soi 19 Rama IX Road, Bang Kabi, Huai Khwang, Bangkok Thailand 10320 Tel: 0-2719-7676 Fax: 0-2719-7675 E-mail: [email protected]

Printed and bound in Thailand by Sangsilp Press Ltd Part. 116/38-47 Rangnam Road, Thanon Phaya Thai, Ratchathewi, Bangkok Thailand 10400 Tel: 0-2642-4633-4 Fax:: 0-2245-9785 E-mail: [email protected]

The front cover illustration is a combined of the Antennae Galaxies, taken in 2011 by the ALMA Radio Telescope Array and the Hubble Space Telescope. Superposed is an EEG recording of the brain wave activity of a meditator recorded in 2010.

Credit: ALMA (ESO/NAOJ/NRAO). Visible light image: the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope. http://www.eso.org/public/images/eso1137a/ (Reproduced under the Creative Commons Attribution License)

Contents

Beginnings … Fast forward … comes West Samatha and Vipassanā meditation Jhāna An EEG study of Samatha meditation Quantum mind To be continued … Links and references

Beginnings …

Considering the precision and detail of Buddhist meditation traditions handed down, person to person, to this day, it is easy to not fully appreciate the very long time period involved, or the great achievement of Buddhist worldwide in preserving the teachings. It is over two-and-a-half millennia ago that a remarkable man set out on a search to understand the origin and causes of suffering, and a way out of the endless cycle of repetitive suffering humanity experiences. This culminated in his enlightenment as a Buddha, the 2600th anniversary of which falls this year. While variously described as a religion, a way of life, or a philosophy – all of these in different degrees for different people – the practice of Buddhist meditation allows unique insights into the processes of the mind and .

These insights to date have been described in the language of rather than the language of modern science. They are found in precise detail in the key meditation texts such as the Visuddhimagga1, the Vimuttimagga2, and the Patisambhidamagga3, as well as the larger body of Buddhist found in the Abhidhamma. The detail and precision, as well as a highly creative use of simile as examples, rivals anything produced in modern day psychology. How differently, many have wondered, might the Buddha have formulated his experiences and teachings if he had been born 2600 years later, in our age?

We might think our age is the Age of Science, but science is timeless. “Science”, as a word, is derived from the Latin “scientia” = knowledge, with links to other roots, “to separate” or to cut or distinguish. It implies “discrimination” as much as

“knowledge”, and it is interesting that the important Buddhist text, the , is normally translated as the Path of Discrimination. Science is timeless in the same way that the instinctive human urge to understand, to overcome ignorance, and the implicit suffering in ignorance, is also timeless.

Fast Forward …

July 2010

Below is an historic picture – the first EEG recording of the electrical brain activity of an experienced Samatha meditator demonstrating the deliberate arousing of pīti, a highly energised state familiar in Samatha traditions. It shows intriguing similarity to EEG recordings of some epileptic seizures, but in this case the meditator arouses the state and then calms it down at will, and with no discomfort.

I will return to this in more detail in the EEG section, where more results will be described from a pilot study of Samatha meditators started in 2010. I only make the obvious comment here that, if an experienced Samatha meditator is able to control his or her brain’s electrical activity to this degree, what lessons might be transferred to help sufferers better manage their symptoms?

In contrast to this dramatic example of willed energisation in Samatha meditation, the same pilot study also highlights the relatively easy development by Samatha meditators of slow- wave electrical brain activity more normally seen on the thresholds of , or in deep sleep, as opposed to the meditational state where the meditator is actually in a highly “awake” state. In general, the study is showing the central role of attention in this form of focused meditation, and how through conscious willed acts of attention, or absence of attention, the brain’s functioning can be powerfully affected.

Buddhist Meditation Comes West

In the 1960s there was an explosion of interest, worldwide, in Buddhist meditation. Thailand and established temples in the West; some Tibetan meditation teachers who had been forced into exile sought in the West; experiments with the hallucinogenic drugs LSD and mescalin in the United States stimulated an interest in altered states of mind; C.J. Jung, the former pupil of Freud, developed an interest in Eastern symbolism and ; and of course the Beatles were drawn to transcendental meditation.

Cambridge, UK, and its University Buddhist Society was fortunate at that time to have input from several different meditation traditions. Thailand had recently established its first temple in the UK in East Sheen, London, and its then Abbott, Phra Maha Vichitr, started a Vipassanā meditation class in Cambridge. Around the same time, Nai Boonman, a former Buddhist monk from Thailand, came to England taking a job at the Thai Embassy in London, and was asked to teach a second meditation class in Cambridge, this time in the Samatha tradition based on Ānāpānasati.

A third strand to Buddhist interest in Cambridge was a strong influence from a few highly experienced Tibetan meditation teachers: Trungpa and Akong Rinpoche established a Centre in Scotland now well-known as Ling, while Chime Rinpoche started a Centre at Saffron Walden near Cambridge, taking a day job at the British Library, London. A few years later, Ato Rinpoche settled in Cambridge, where he remains a stable background influence to the present day.

Since then, many Buddhist meditation groups have developed in the UK, carrying forward the South East Asian Vipassanā

and Samatha traditions, Japanese , and Tibetan meditation, in particular.

Scientific studies of meditation

Up until relatively recently, scientific studies have focused on the relaxing effects of meditation, reductions in levels and stress, and generally increased well-being. Many of these studies have been of Vipassanā meditators, or meditation techniques geared to develop and open awareness. Studies of more focused forms of meditation, particularly Samatha meditation or forms of meditation that develop the Jhānas – focused states of mind sometimes referred to as states, or as “the absorptions” – are very few. Exceptions are an early study of Zen meditators in 1966, a number of studies of experienced Tibetan meditators since the early 2000s, a study of monks following Achaan Cha’s tradition in Italy in 2010, and the study of Samatha meditators described in this booklet.

There is no doubt that Buddhist meditation is effective in reducing stress, and that it enhances well-being. In fact, since 2009, basic techniques of mindfulness derived from Buddhist meditation have been recognised as an approved treatment for recurrent depression in the British National Health Service, approved by the UK’s National Institute for Clinical Excellence (NICE). These techniques are usually taught in group workshops, to increase the general level of mindfulness of bodily sensations, thoughts and feelings. The rationale is that a higher level of overall mindfulness helps people become more aware of possible triggers or the beginnings of depression, and develop more resilience towards it. And it works.

Samatha and Vipassanā Meditation

All the central , whether found in South East Asia, Tibet, China or Japan, have core meditation practices in common. These date back to the earliest days of Buddhism, before the distinctions between “Theravāda” or “Mahāyāna” came into being.

Meditation practices are typically described under the headings of Samatha meditation or Vipassanā meditation, where Samatha is usually translated as Calm or Tranquility meditation, and Vipassanā as Insight meditation. In the 1960s, confusion was sown when the Burmese Vipassanā school of Mahasi taught that only a limited level of concentration – access concentration, rather than fully developed jhāna – was necessary for the full development of insight and, ultimately, enlightenment. As a result, Samatha and Vipassanā for a while came to be mistakenly regarded as separate traditions. In fact they are closely interrelated and interdependent.

In the core meditation practice of Ānāpānasati, mindfulness of breathing, found in all the main Buddhist traditions, Samatha is developed progressively in stages well beyond access concentration, to the four rūpa (form) jhānas, and to the four arūpa (formless) jhānas, while Insight develops in a completely natural way alongside.

In the West, generally, Samatha meditation is only relatively recently becoming better understood. Even in some Buddhist countries, a degree of wariness is often apparent around the “magical” side of Buddhist practice associated with the Jhānas, which can lead to these practices being played down, or even restricted in being taught. In Thailand, for example, the national promotion of the Burmese Vipassanā school from the 1960s

onwards, led to the dissolution of many previously Samatha- oriented meditation centres. However, Samatha meditation of course has survived, as it has since the time of the Buddha, as the central heart of Buddhist meditation.

The main form of Samatha meditation taught by the Buddha was Ānāpānasati, or mindfulness of breathing. Other forms, often used for specific character types, take different objects than the breath as the focus to develop attention. These include the kasinas, such as a disk of earth, a colour, water, or fire, or an opening onto space, among others. Visualisation of the Buddha is also a popular practice, with several variations, particularly in the Tibetan tradition, as is metta, or loving- kindness practice.

While the full development of Ānāpānasati is sometimes seen as daunting, a simplified Samatha practice known as Bu-ddho is popular in South East Asia. Bu-ddho is a very faith-based practice where the two syllables Bu and ddho are mentally linked to the in and out breath. Concentration and jhāna develop relatively easily for some meditators using this practice, but often with only limited discrimination between the different jhāna stages.

Ānāpānasati is said to be the favoured practice of all the Buddhas, and the full development of the jhānas in Ānāpānasati is described in great detail in texts such as the and the , and parallel Tibetan texts. However, the detail is sometimes off-putting, and in fact many in the past have believed that jhāna can only properly be developed in seclusion, ideally in a monastic setting.

This booklet is concerned with Samatha meditation using the Ānāpānasati method, and aims to clarify some of features of

jhāna, with insights from science and the study of electrical brain wave activity during meditation.

Samatha in Cambridge and the Samatha Trust

The early classes taught by Nai Boonman in Cambridge from 1963 onwards, led to the formation of the Samatha Trust in 1974. This was established as a Charity, to promote the teaching and understanding of Samatha meditation. In 1987 the Trust purchased a Welsh hill farm that has been developed into the Trust’s national meditation centre. This is supported now by over 50 local meditation classes in various cities across the UK.

From the founder Trustees onwards, to the present day, members are conscious that they are developing a lay Samatha meditation tradition, although a few individuals have spent periods as ordained monks at various times. Members cover the widest range of occupations one could think of.

Alongside the Samatha Trust’s activities as a lay tradition, excellent relations are enjoyed with the various Sanghas of Thailand, Sri Lanka and Burma, who, while supportive, are respectful that this is a unique development of a lay tradition that is finding its own way, and at its own pace. Bangkok’s Wat Phra Rama 9 in particular has been a Good Friend, commissioning and donating the main Buddha image, Phra Buddha Dhammacakra4, that was installed in the Trust’s national centre in 2001.

Uniquely among lay organisations, the Trust has received gifts of Relics of the Buddha on two separate occasions, from Thailand and from Wat Phra Rama 9.

It is rare, even in a monastic setting, to find the full and detailed teaching of the jhānas, and members are aware of their unique fortune in being part of this developing tradition.

Phra Buddha Dhammacakra Samatha Trust Meditation Centre, Powys, Wales (picture courtesy of Anne Schilizzi)

Jhāna

Many people when they first take up meditation are discouraged to find how little control they have over their minds. Intrusive thoughts, distracting thoughts, sensory distractions, mental “chatter”, over-excitement, dullness, sleepiness etc. This is of course “normal”, and is the first stage in developing attention, by giving attention to a meditation object such as the breath. The achievement of jhāna may seem a long way away, but these first steps are the most important, and with patience and encouragement the meditation practice will steadily deepen towards more peaceful and concentrated states, leading to the jhānas.

Attention

The entire development of Samatha may be described as the development of attention, with an increasingly subtle awareness of feeling and perception. The obstacles to developing attention, such as those mentioned above, are described in the as the “hindrances”. The language is Buddhist, but the principles behind the hindrances could equally be described in psychological terms, and related to everyday difficulties in maintaining attention, and “interest” in whatever tasks we may be doing. Extreme examples of problems with attention include, for example, Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) in children, characterised by a mix of overstimulation, a need for continued stimulation, and boredom.

The breath as an object of attention is unique, in being always with us. From the first breath when we come out of our mother’s womb, to the last, when we die. Mostly it goes on in the background, unconsciously, never ceasing, but it can be made the focus of conscious attention whenever we choose. It is also

intimately linked to our emotional mental state, as is well known to anyone working in mental health. The inhibited breathing of someone deeply depressed is completely different to someone overcome by rage, or in a manic phase of bipolar disorder, or to someone in a delusional psychotic state, or to someone struggling with obsessive compulsive disorder.

Yet despite its central role in our Life, it is at first not a very exciting or interesting object to pay attention to in meditation. In fact it may seem dull and boring. Hence the ease with which our attention wanders, seeking something more interesting, that has more feeling; it is feeling that gives us a sense of continuity, a sense of self. Hence also the reason why other meditation objects such as a colour Kasina, or an image of the Buddha, are initially easier to grasp and to have interest in.

However, it is just this simplicity and neutrality of the breath that gives to Ānāpānasati its potential to develop attention fully, through understanding and mastering the hindrances, and developing willpower. Those who persist with Ānāpānasati also find the breath becomes increasingly interesting, increasingly subtle, and even magical in bridging life and death, and intricately linked to consciousness itself.

The nimitta

To help the meditator link his/her attention to the breath, the preparatory stages typically progress from mentally counting during the in and out breaths, to following the breath continuously in and out without the need for numbers, to finally fixing the attention on the sensation of touch of the air at the nostril or upper lip. By this stage the meditator is better able to resist distraction, the meditation practice becomes more settled, and becomes more of an internal process of being with oneself.

As the meditator continues to attend ever more peacefully to the sensation of touch of the air, the breath becomes more subtle, and the meditator’s attention becomes in turn more sensitive and subtle. At this stage the meditator will “sense” his attention deepening by certain “signs”, which is the usual translation of the pāli word nimitta. The nimitta is the mark or sign, for that particular meditator, that characterises his or her awareness and its intensity or concentration. For example, in everyday life joy and may be accompanied by a sense of lightness of body and mind, sometimes tears, and sometimes a prickling of the fine hairs on the arms or head. These are the signs of joy and happiness.

In breathing mindfulness, the nimitta is the sign of a deepening attention to the breath, and of a turning away from dependence on outer sense objects. The sign may be tactile – such as a sense of touch across the face, or, even more subtly, simply a sense of the mind touching the experience itself. But it may also for some meditators be visual – like a diffuse light, a colour, sometimes a tiny point of light, or clear and bright like the full moon.

The arising of a nimitta is a significant stage for a meditator. Without giving attention to the details of the nimitta – i.e. resisting the urge to label or “re-cognise” it – the meditator settles his or her attention onto the nimitta in order to further deepen their meditation towards more complete absorption, i.e. jhāna. The nimitta acts as a guide.

The nimitta and

There is a remarkable parallel between the role of the nimitta in Samatha meditation, and the modern scientific technique of neuro-feedback5. An example is the use of neurofeedback to

help a child suffering from ADHD (Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder) to re-train their brain into a more healthy functioning. First a full brain EEG is recorded measuring the electrical activity at typically 19 or 32 positions on the child’s head. The results are then compared to a “normative database” of many thousands of “normal” subjects to identify any abnormalities. Typically, an overexcited region is found, as well as an underactive region, compared to the norm.

Neurofeedback consists in then placing just two electrodes at the two key sites on the child’s head, to monitor the electrical activity. These electrical signals are fed to a computer and a neurofeedback software program. The child is invited to bring in a favourite video, that is played on the computer. The EEG software adds noise to the picture to make it blurred, and the child is asked to “will” the picture to become clearer, and therefore more enjoyable to see.

The software will only allow this if the overactive region is slightly quietened, and at the same time the underactive region is made just a little more active. Remarkably, usually within a few sessions of maybe 30 mins each, the child “learns” how to do this, and gradually over many repeated sessions the

symptoms of ADHD may be reduced as the child, in effect, reprograms their own brain, and becomes familiar with the “feel” of a more balanced and enjoyable attention.

The parallel in meditation, is that the nimitta acts as a feedback link similar to the child’s film, allowing the meditator to “tune in” to a progressively more peaceful and absorbed mental state.

The nimitta arises when the meditator has withdrawn attention from external sensory stimulation, towards a more internal “mind-door” process. It is as though the mind seeks to be aware of itself (its mirror image in the sketch), with the nimitta the sign of that awareness.

There has long been a controversy in as to whether the mind can be aware of itself, and attempts to conceptualise whether it can, usually lead to multiple splits in consciousness, or nāma-rūpa (subject-object) pairs, as an infinite regress. What the nimitta appears to be, is our ability to sense the mind’s awareness itself, rather than being drawn into an attempt to be aware of the mind as an “object”, which is in any case refuted in Buddhism.

What is particularly remarkable in this view, is that developing and using the nimitta as a “guide” in Samatha meditation, appears to be a completely natural form of neurofeedback, that

predates any modern “scientific” experiments in neurofeedback by over two and a half millennia. There are also other implications for the mind-brain interface that I will return to in the section on Quantum Mind.

It should also be added that, the use of words like “mind” and “consciousness” in Buddhism, or in any other context for that matter, is not unlike concepts in Physics such as “gravitation”, or “the electromagnetic field”, which tend to be taken as givens. Such words or concepts can easily be assumed to be fundamental properties of nature, whereas in fact we do not really know what they are. The words themselves act as “signs”, pointing towards something, a property or a reality, that we are attempting to grasp.

Rūpa jhāna

Attending to the nimitta, the mind settles into progressively more calm mental states, as though guided by the nimitta as part of an instinctive process of becoming increasingly peaceful and absorbed.

In the 1st rūpa jhāna, the meditator refines two (of the 5) jhāna factors, vitakka and vicāra. Vitakka (application of attention) is the meditator’s awareness of placing attention onto the nimitta, and vicāra (sustained attention) is the awareness of the attention as continuous and sustained. A simile in the Visuddhimagga is a Bell. The clear strike of the bell is vitakka, and the ongoing reverberation is vicāra.

When the meditator masters vitakka and vicāra, it is as though the reverberation of the bell never completely ceases; even though inaudible, the meditator is able to rest in the now balanced feeling state with confidence, with no urge to disturb

that balance by seeking another object, or to reassure him/herself of contact with the nimitta by another act of vitakka.

The meditator’s practice has now moved naturally to the 2nd rūpa jhāna, characterised by the 3 remaining jhāna factors, pīti (joy experienced in the body and mind), (mental bliss), and ekagatta (one-pointedness of mind). A simile here is a clear and still Pool of Water, nothing needs to be added, and nothing leaks away. This is now predominantly a feeling state, with an increasing sense of absorption, satisfaction and joy. Joy (pīti) experienced in the body is felt as an energisation, sometimes at first quite coarse causing trembling or vibration or even jumping of the body, masking the more subtle mental satisfaction or bliss (sukha).

As the meditator’s confidence grows, and as piti and sukha permeate body and mind, pīti becomes increasingly subtle. Contentment and stillness deepen, like the still pool of water, and the desire for excitement and stimulation fades as the meditation develops into the 3rd rūpa jhāna, characterised by just the two remaining factors, sukha and ekagatta. Any disturbance in the body has now faded, pīti has quietened, and any risk of falling back into cognitive processes of vitakka and vicāra is now remote. The simile here is a Lotus Flower, pure and unsullied, risen clear above the still pool of water. The experience is of deep satisfaction and bliss, and of feeling for the first time fully conscious.

While the breath/nimitta and any sense of nāma-rūpa (subject- object) has become very subtle in the 3rd jhāna, the meditation can deepen still further into the perfectly balanced 4th rūpa jhāna. Pain has been let go in the first three jhānas, and now in the 4th jhāna any dependence on sukha or any need for satisfaction is also let go. The experience is of a pure, perfectly

balanced, fully absorbed “middle position”, characterised by (upekkhā). The simile is of being completely covered by a fine White Cloth, perfectly protected from any disturbance of pleasure or pain, experiencing the bliss of upekkhā. In the Vimuttimagga it is said that “the experiencing of the mind is the state of the fourth meditation jhāna”.

Simile of the white cloth

The simile of being enveloped by a White Cloth in the 4th rūpa jhāna is intriguing. Another instance of the use of a white cloth is in the now rarely seen, and very beautiful, Pansukūl ceremony, a form of blessing ritual to heal or extend the life of, usually, an elderly recipient. The recipient lies down and is covered entirely by a fine white cloth, and remains in a twilight, transitional realm while monks chant sections of the Matika, normally chanted for the dead. When the chanting ends, the senior monk “plucks” away the white cloth, and the recipient is symbolically reborn.

Originally, at the time of the Buddha (and a practice still followed today by some monks), pamsukūla referred to rags discarded in a graveyard, usually from the shroud of a dead body. Such rags may be taken freely by a monk, cleaned thoroughly and dyed, and sewn into monks’ robes. In fact, pamsukūla robes were originally, at the very beginnings of establishing a Buddhist , one of the four “marks” or supports that defined being a Bhikkhu. Thus, the states, “pamsukūlacivaram nissāya pabbajjā”6 – “this Going Forth has as its support rag robes”.

The simile of the White Cloth suggests that the 4th rūpa jhāna is a kind of transitional state, neither of the old world, nor yet quite entirely cut off from it. In the same way, taking ordination and

wearing monks’ robes is a major life transition for a new monk. The quality of balance of the 4th rūpa jhāna, already has some similarities to the “in-between” and “neither-nor” qualities of the 3rd and 4th arūpa jhānas, discussed below.

Arūpa jhāna

Despite the perfection of the 4th rūpa jhāna experience, it is still limited. There is still dependence on the nimitta as object, i.e. as a rūpa , even though the depth of absorption is such that the nāma-rūpa split is extremely subtle.

If a meditator’s practice continues to develop, a stage will come when the meditator may wish to transcend this limitation, to become free of dependence on the realm of form. This is because, despite the subtlety of the 4th rūpa jhāna, it is still part of the realm of form with a thread running directly back to the beginnings of developing the rūpa jhānas.

The wish to be free or to transcend this dependence on form is also intricately connected to the meditator’s sense of self, and so the wish to proceed further to develop the formless jhānas is increasingly a process of developing insight into the “Self”, and wisdom.

Letting go of attachment to the nimitta, the meditator arouses the idea of limitless space, and develops the 1st arūpa jhāna, the Sphere of the Infinity of Space. Perception becomes more subtle than in the previous form jhānas, and does not depend on comparison of detail or difference. Space is infinite, and so there is nothing to “recognise” through differences. A visual simile, such as those used in the rūpa jhānas, is therefore not helpful since it would simply become an object, and part of the realm of form.

How then to approach this meditation? The meditator may find it helpful to set a direction to his will by gazing at a cloudless sky for some moments outside of meditation, linking the experience to mentally sounding the word “Space… Space”. Then, briefly recollecting “Space… Space” at the point of wishing to develop the 1st arūpa jhāna may serve as an impulse or “wish” that allows the meditator to let go of limits, to enter the experience of the sphere of limitless space. Through not depending on form, the meditator experiences freedom from dependence on form, and from the sense spheres, in the 1st arūpa jhāna.

While dwelling on infinite space, the meditator’s perception necessarily implies consciousness of infinite space, although since the meditator is “within” that consciousness, the consciousness itself is not attended to. By the mental act of “adverting” to the consciousness of perceiving infinite space, the meditator enters the still more subtle 2nd arūpa jhāna, the Sphere of Infinite Consciousness. Describing the 2nd arūpa jhāna, the Vimuttimagga enigmatically states, “He attends to that consciousness as infinite with which space is filled”.

The first two arūpa jhānas may be considered an interdependent pair, in that the meditator moves between the opposite poles of the process of perception. Even having moved to the pole of infinite consciousness, the other pole, Space, is there in potential, since the 2nd arūpa jhāna arose from that base.

Awareness of this interdependence, allows the meditator to move to a central position, identified with neither pole, although both are there in potential. The meditator holds a position of concentration where he/she is “in-between”, resisting any urge to identify with a self-consciousness as observer, nor of any

awareness of something to perceive, until the in-between position itself becomes fixed and secure. This is the Sphere of Nothingness, the 3rd arūpa jhāna.

At this stage one might wonder, what stage could be more subtle, what else is there to let go? Here we approach the question, “Who Perceives”? Even in the fine balance of the 3rd arūpa jhāna, any movement from that balance can result in a moment of consciousness, of the type we are familiar with where there is still a sense of ourselves, no matter how subtle. Is there any alternative? Is there any other kind of perception that does not depend on seeking an object, again no matter how subtle. This question goes to the heart of Buddhist practice, the idea that mundane states of consciousness are driven by a drive to sustain an ongoing sense of self, or in Buddhist terms, are rooted in ignorance or not-knowing.

The Vimuttimagga, in describing the 4th arūpa jhāna, the Sphere of Neither Perception nor Non-Perception, refers to a mental position without coarse perception (i.e. “Neither Perception”), but also without an absence of any perception at all (i.e. “Nor Non-Perception”). Here, coarse perception is that perception associated with the “near enemy” of mundane consciousness that serves to support our conventional ongoing sense of self. The 4th arūpa jhāna is “different” to the preceding jhānas, in being characterised by a different kind of “fine perception”, in the description of the Vimuttimagga. The 4th arūpa jhāna therefore seems intricately linked to the Insight or Wisdom stages of Buddhist practice, namely the three “signs” of (anicca), suffering (dukkha), and non-self (), and particularly the last of these.

(Note: see Addendum at end of this booklet for further thoughts on this)

An EEG Study of Samatha meditation

An electroencephalogram or EEG is a recording of the brain’s electrical activity (brainwaves) using sensors placed across the head (see Wikepedia7 for an introduction). For many years it has been widely used to study epilepsy and other neurological disorders, but more recently it is increasingly used to study the mind-brain interface, and consciousness itself.

In this section, some early results from a pilot study of Samatha meditators that began in July 2010 are described.

A typical recording using 19 electrodes is shown opposite. Each horizontal trace is the electrical signal from a single position on the head, compared to a reference point, either A1 or A2 (usually the earlobes, or the mastoid bone below each ear). The labels identify the position on the head, where F, P, C, O and T denote the frontal, parietal, central, occipital and temporal lobes of the brain.

The electrical signals are then analysed to find the intensities of different frequency bands across the head. This particular recording is of a meditator practicing rūpa jhāna, and the 2-dimensional plots below the raw electrical traces show the intensity maps looking down on the head, and from the side, for the two slow-wave bands Delta (1.0–4.0 Hz) and Theta (4.0–8.0 Hz).

Meditator A, rūpa jhāna

One of the most striking observations from this study is to find very enhanced low-frequency EEG activity during Samatha meditation. Compared to a typical waking state, the higher frequency Alpha and Beta bands (8–30Hz) that are normally dominant, are effectively suppressed compared to the lower

frequencies in deep meditation. Alpha and Beta plots are therefore not shown here.

For this meditator, activity is focused in the left-of-centre frontal cortex, in the Theta band (4.0–8.0 Hz). Such slow waves are known to be associated with deep relaxation, and Theta activity normally tends to develop at the borders of sleep. However, in Samatha meditation these slow waves develop as part of a highly alert state. In this case, the meditator was giving attention to a strong visual nimitta.

When this same meditator then developed arūpa jhāna, the recordings changed dramatically. As the meditator lets go of

Meditator A, arūpa jhāna attending to the nimitta, electrical brain activity shifted to the right posterior temporal lobe (particularly around the site T6), which, among other functions, is known to be involved in integrating spatial representations.

The corresponding 2-dimensional plots show that the intense energisation has now spread into the low-frequency (0–4 Hz) Delta band, as well as the Theta band. Delta activity is normally mostly found in deep dreamless sleep, but, again, in Samatha meditation it occurs as part of the highly aware meditative state.

Meditator A, arūpa jhāna

Interestingly, this meditator acknowledged being at a fairly early stage in developing arūpa jhāna, and was highly encouraged to see the dramatic change in moving from rūpa jhāna to arūpa jhāna practice, i.e., that the subjective willed experience actually reflects profound changes in the brain’s activity..

This highlights another important finding, which is that there is a process of development of jhāna, and the degree of absorption. At an early stage the jhāna may only be momentary, and the meditator may not be fully aware of what has been experienced. For this reason, “recollection” of what has been

experienced immediately after practice is very important if a meditator wishes to develop a degree of mastery.

From the limited sample of meditators so far (~12), it also appears that individual meditators may have their own “signature” to their brain activity in jhāna. Thus, rūpa jhāna for one meditator may look slightly different in terms of brainwaves to the experience of another meditator. There may also be a gender difference in meditators’ brain activity, although it is too early to be sure.

The next example below shows the arūpa jhāna practice of a very experienced meditator. The raw electrical signals show highly synchronised activity (top to bottom traces) across large areas of the brain.

Meditator B, arūpa jhāna

The 2-dimensional plots on the right confirm this, and show very large areas of the brain across frontal, parietal and rear occipital areas to be highly energised.

Meditator B, arūpa jhāna

The frequency range is strongest in the Theta band, but the lower frequency Delta band is also strongly energised. These two arūpa jhāna examples suggest Delta-band very deep “relaxation” – or in our terminology “absorption” – develops in arūpa jhāna, in an active form, unlike its more normal “unconscious” occurrence in deep sleep.

Pīti and seizures Earlier, in the section “Fast Forward”, a dramatic example of a controlled “seizure” was given as a Samatha meditator deliberately aroused an energised state of pīti. A big problem in analysing a recording such as that, where the experience is accompanied by seizure-like vibration or shaking of the body, is to separate movement or muscle artifacts from the actual brain EEG activity.

A second example follows which shows more clearly the aftermath of pīti energisation and its significance for Samatha

meditation. This recording shows a milder arousing of pīti where the separation of physical and muscle artifacts is easier, though

Meditator C, arousing pīti still not straightforward. This meditator had been practising this form of energisation practice for only a relatively short time, but had previous experience of developing pīti in other ways.

Notice how the meditation practice is intensified (particularly at site T6) after the burst of pīti, compared to before arousing pīti. The first set of 2-dimensional plots opposite is from the four seconds “after” period, and shows intense focused activity in the left temporal lobe, in the Theta band. The second plot beneath is taken from about a minute later, after two further arousings of pīti, and shows that the meditator’s brainwaves have now slowed right down into the Delta band, still focused in the left temporal region, but much more extensive.

1

2

This sequence illustrates how consciously arousing pīti, then calming and tranquilising the energisation, sometimes over

several sequences, intensifies and deepens the meditation practice. In a sense, the technique is a “short-cut” to access deeper levels of aborption.

The process appears to correspond to the sequence of the final four stages of the Bojjangas, or the Buddhist Seven Factors of Enlightenment: pīti, pasaddhi, , upekkhā (joyful energisation, tranquillity, concentration, equanimity). Also, the study shows that the deeper stages of jhāna are characterised by very slow-wave electrical activity in the brain, normally only seen in unconscious deep sleep, but now experienced fully consciously.

Quantum Mind

The EEG study described above demonstrates the potential of relating a meditator’s subjective experience of different stages of focused meditation, to corresponding processes in brain activity. It vividly demonstrates how a meditator is able to powerfully affect the brain’s activity, and how the brain responds to the meditator’s willed acts of attention. In effect, the meditator is a researcher in the laboratory of his/her own brain.

There are intriguing parallels with the development of Science, and particularly Physics, and Quantum Physics. Up to the end of the 19th century, classical physics still held the view that interactions and states of matter were deterministic, i.e. could be accurately predicted and worked out by knowing the prior state of any system. In the early decades of the twentieth century, however, led by pioneers such as Max Planck, de Broglie, Heisenberg, Neils Bohr, Schroedinger, Pauli and Dirac, there came a revolution in physics.

What became known as quantum physics, now spoke in terms of probability, rather than certainty. Particles could sometimes behave like waves, and vice versa. And particularly relevant to our discussion here, it was realised that even the most subtle act of “measurement” profoundly affects what is being observed or measured. An act of measurement implies an observer, and this came to be known as the “observer effect”. For example, a “quantum” of light has the potential to behave like a particle, or as a wave. Until observed, both states exist in potential, as “superposed states”, one or other state being precipitated by an act of measurement or observation.

This recognition of the human observer as participant, fundamentally challenged assumptions about the nature of an

objective reality, independent of observers, and therefore independent of the human mind. Wolfgang Pauli, one of the key figures in developing quantum physics, stated:

“The only acceptable view appears to be the one that recognises both sides of reality – the quantitative and the qualitative, the physical and the psychical – as compatible with each other, and can embrace them simultaneously.”8

The meditator as observer

Even in the earliest stages of starting to practice meditation, a meditator will start to become aware of whether he/she is a passive observer of the breath, or whether attending to, i.e. observing the breath, affects what is being observed. This relates to an earlier comment in this booklet, that Samatha and Vipassanā meditation are intricately interrelated; the question “who or what am I?” is present at some level from very early in Samatha practice.

The progression through the stages of jhāna, described earlier, may be seen as a gradual refinement of the impact of the observer. By not attending to the details of the nimitta, by resisting the “normal” moment-to-moment urge to “re-cognise”, allows the nimitta to be used as a sign or guide towards the mind settling into absorption.

In the rūpa jhānas, this reaches its acme in the perfectly balanced 4th rūpa jhāna, separate from, and protected from, any impact from the sensory realm. As already noted, “the experiencing of the mind is the state of the fourth meditation jhāna” (Vimuttimagga). It is important to note that the 4th rūpa jhāna is a powerful and “held” state, even though the meditator

may not be “acting” in the usual sense. It is traditionally regarded as the base for developing psychic power, through acts of will.

In contrast, the 4th arūpa jhāna goes far beyond the subtle sense of self still present in the rūpa jhānas, approaching levels of freedom and insight related to the Buddhist concept of “not- self”, and the approach to the stages of enlightenment.

Similes, will and recollection

In the Meditator-Brain “system”, the question of interaction, and how to change the state of the “system”, such as from one jhāna to another, is a fascinating topic. Cognitive “thinking oneself” into a state of jhāna quickly becomes too coarse, hence the importance of the nimitta.

In the rūpa jhānas, similes such as those mentioned – a Bell, a Pool of Water, a Lotus Flower, and a White Cloth – are helpful, in evoking the quality being sought. The quality has a form, and a feeling. Once a meditator is familiar with the experience of a particular jhāna, through repeated practice and recollection, he/she will develop a degree of mastery of that jhāna which allows the meditator to simply “go there” by an act of will.

In the arūpa jhānas, visual similes are too coarse. To try to encapsulate the experience, meditators may find it helpful to use words, such as “Space…Space”, “Consciousness… Consciousness”, “Empty… Empty”, “Neither-Nor”, bringing the word to mind momentarily as an act of will, or as a transitional object, to set a direction into the jhāna. This is similar to the very old tradition of using syllables or signs to encapsulate a whole body of knowledge, as in and yantra. “Itipi so” is an evocative example.

Quantum features of meditation

A meditator’s interaction with their brain may be seen as a living experiment into the “observer effect”. As the meditator refines attention through the jhānas, at each stage the observer effect becomes ever more subtle.

And then, in the 3rd and 4th arūpa jhānas, we come to the meditator’s experience of “in-between” in the third, and the evocative description “Neither Perception Nor Non-Perception” for the fourth. How similar is this to the notion in quantum physics of superposed states, that can exist only so long as they are not disturbed by an act of measurement, or observation; i.e. ultimately by a mental act of will.

This is not to say that meditation is always, or ever, a quantum process, or that the brain is a quantum machine with which the meditator interacts. But it does suggest that there are some features of the meditator’s interaction with his or her own brain that have quantum-like characteristics. It also raises the intriguing possibility as to whether, under some circumstances, the brain might behave as a quantum computer.

Quantum computers, meditation and the brain

A normal computer is based on millions of simple on/off switches, each a bit, with a very basic two-state yes/no logic. Over recent years, enormous resources are starting to be directed into developing quantum computers, and in fact simple prototypes have been successfully demonstrated.9

A quantum computer depends on superposed states; for example, that an atom can be in both a spin-up and a spin- down state superposed both at the same time, until “observed”, which then forces it into one or other state. This presents a far

more powerful opportunity to computing than a simple 2-state “bit”. The superposed state represents a range of possibilities as to whether the atom will “choose” the spin-up or spin-down state once interacted with, and it has been given the name qubit.

A quantum computer does not operate in the same linear way, A to B to C etc, of a normal computer. It is as though all possible solutions to a problem are known in the complexity of the superposed states, and it then becomes a matter of how to “interrogate” the computer so that it “collapses” out of the enormous range of possibilities of the superposed states, to reveal the answer.

This interrogation is done through a software algorithm that in turn has to be conveyed to the quantum computer without disturbing the superposed state for long enough for the operation to be performed. In other words, a big problem with quantum computers is how to completely insulate the computer absolutely from outside influences for long enough for it to perform.10

There are, once again, intriguing parallels to the processes in Samatha meditation, and the characteristics of the jhānas. In Buddhist practice, the 4th rūpa jhāna is regarded as the highest achievement in the realm of form, in detaching from the world of the senses, and as a take off point for the so-called supernormal powers (see Vimuttimagga). It is as though the 4th rūpa jhāna holds a position of almost limitless possibilities, until

disturbed, or interrogated, by an act of will, at which point it immediately brings the willed-for state into being.

For the brain to act like a quantum computer, it would be necessary to hold it in a state pefectly isolated from any sensory impact. This would be no mean feat, since the brain is supremely sensitive. It has been demonstrated, for example, that even a single photon of light impacting on the retina has the potential and probability for the brain to perceive light. Could it be that the isolation of the 4th rūpa jhāna, where the mind turns inwards to be aware only of itself, may be the only way that this could be possible?

Quantum mind and creativity

There are other indicators of the possibility of quantum-like, instantaneous processing. Samatha meditators have long known that bringing to mind a question very briefly, before letting the question go and then entering meditation, often results in the “answer” spontaneously presenting itself on arising from the meditation.

A milder and more background process related to this may occur in the slow-wave Theta-enhanced states of Samatha meditation more generally. Theta waves are often present when emerging from sleep, and many people have remarked on having creative ideas at those times. Gruzelier10, for example, a researcher at Goldsmiths College, London, trained a group of professional musicians to enhance their activity by neurofeedback (not meditation), in studies during 2003-08. After 5 to 10 week periods of training, the musicians all improved very significantly in the three domains of performance: instrumental competence, musicality and communication.

It would be interesting to test how meditators’ measures of creativity might develop from novice to experienced stages of Samatha meditation where Theta activity is enhanced in a completely natural manner.

In the past ideas of parallel computing have been voiced to explain the brain’s enormous computing capacity, but the possibility of quantum features or that it might act as a quantum computer are relatively recent. A difficulty is to understand how, in the wet and messy biological environment of the brain, how neuronal brain regions could organically remain sufficiently isolated and immune from disturbing impulses for long enough for quantum processes to develop. Interesting possibilities have been suggested11, but it is very early in the development of this field.

To be continued …

The pilot EEG study of Samatha meditators described here, illustrates the potential of this kind of study to illuminate brain processes, and hopefully to help unpick the nature of attention, perception and consciousness itself.

The key findings so far are:

 The relatively easy development in this form of meditation of states of deep relaxation normally found in sleep, yet experienced when fully alert. This helps explain how some experienced meditators are able to refresh themselves through the practice of jhāna, requiring less sleep.

 Profound changes in the brain’s activity corresponding to willed changes in the meditator’s attention while developing jhāna. These include frequency of brainwaves, their location and intensity, and their degree of synchronization. This has implications for the understanding of brain plasticity.

 The ability of some experienced meditators to arouse highly energised states at will, with some similarities to epileptic seizures. This raises the intriguing question, that if a meditator is able to develop this skill, are there aspects of Samatha meditation practice that could usefully be applied to help epilepsy sufferers better manage their seizures, and ideally reduce their propensity to seizures. Over the years there have been conflicting views on whether meditation can benefit epilepsy sufferers, and there are very few useful studies so far. Some suggest meditation might actually provoke seizures, while others believe it might help reduce them. An email survey of all our current Samatha practitioners (over 300), including all our Samatha teachers

(who have taught many more individuals over the last 40 years), has not brought to light even a single occurrence of an epileptic seizure proper being triggered by Samatha practice.

A hypothesis might be that this tradition of Samatha is very effective in carefully developing attention (vitakka/vicāra), and the ability to choose whether or not to respond to sensory stimuli. This, together with the deep relaxation and integrative effects of Theta and activity is likely to be the basis for what we are seeing so far, and the capacity of meditators to sustain highly energised and synchronous brain electrical activity without loss of control.

It is intended to develop the EEG study further using more advanced equipment to record up to higher frequencies. The pilot study covers the range 0.5 – 30 Hz, but there is some evidence from studying advanced Tibetan meditators that higher frequency activity can also be important as a “signature” of linked consciousness over separated areas of the brain.

It is also intended to broaden the study to look at the progress of meditation from beginner to experienced stages, as well as to record meditators outside of meditation.

In all situations, perhaps the most important value of the study is the ability of meditators to give subjective feedback during the recollection phase after meditation, to compare to the corresponding brain activity.

Addendum (August 2014)

The following is a refinement of the earlier description (written in 2001/2) of the movement from the first to the second, third and fourth arūpa jhānas ….

While dwelling on infinite space, the meditator’s perception necessarily implies consciousness of infinite space, although since the meditator is “within” that consciousness, the consciousness itself is not attended to. It might be thought that by the mental act of “adverting” to the consciousness of perceiving infinite space, the meditator enters the 2nd arūpa jhāna, the Sphere of Infinite Consciousness. In fact, describing the 2nd arūpa jhāna, the Vimuttimagga enigmatically states, “He attends to that consciousness as infinite with which space is filled”. In this sense, the first two arūpa jhānas could be considered an interdependent pair, in that the meditator moves between the opposite poles of the process of perception. Even having moved to the pole of infinite consciousness, the other pole, infinite space, is there in potential, since the 2nd arūpa jhāna arose from that base.

However, more recent discussion and practice with Nai Boonman, suggest this is not quite the case. In a more refined view, the 2nd arūpa jhāna or Sphere of Infinite Consciousness moves beyond dependence even on infinite space, and is a far more subtle attainment than the above would suggest. The meditator “steps back”, guided at first by the mental intention towards infinite consciousness, and adopts a middle position not drawn to either object or subject poles. This “middle position” is characteristic of the 2nd arūpa jhāna and may be thought of as mind-door unbounded consciousness.

Even then, though already an extremely subtle achievement,

the poles of subject-object are still “nearby” in potential in the 2nd arūpa jhāna. To enter the 3rd arūpa jhāna requires another step back, guided at first by the mental intention towards nothingness, to be completely free from any potential move towards a subject-object split. This is the Sphere of Nothingness.

In the end, of course, it is for meditators to explore themselves, to find their own understanding.

(The remainder of the earlier discussion, on the 4th arūpa jhāna stands.)

Links and references

1 . “The Path of Purification: Visuddhimagga”. Buddhist Publication Society.

2 Upatissa. “The Path of Freedom: Vimuttimagga”. Buddhist Publication Society.

3 Nanamoli. “Path of Discrimination: Patisambhidamagga”. Text Society.

4 www.buddhanet.net/pdf_file/buddhadhammacakra.pdf

5 John Demos (2005) “Getting Started with Neurofeedback”. New York: W.W. Norton & Co.

6 “The Entrance to the Vinaya”, Vol. III, p. 306 “Anusāsana”. Bangkok: Mahamakut Press.

7 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electroencephalography

8 Wolfgang Pauli (1955) “The Influence of Archetypal Ideas on the Scientific Theories of Kepler”. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.

9 http://www.amd1.com/quantum_computers.html

10 John Gruzelier “A Theory of Alpha/Theta Neurofeedback, Creative Performance Enhancement, Long Distance Functional Integrity and Psychological Integration”. www.cs.ucl.ac.uk/research/vr/.../Gruzelier%20CogProc.pdf

11 Stuart Hameroff (2007) “The Brain is Both Neurocomputer and Quantum Computer”. www.quantumconsciousness.org/documents/cogscipub.pdf

Paul Dennison is a Consultant Psychotherapist in the South London & Maudsley NHS Trust, at St Thomas’ Hospital, London. Paul originally trained as a physicist, with a first degree in nuclear and quantum physics, followed by a PhD in Radio-astronomy at Cambridge University. After teaching Astrophysics and leading a research team in radio-astronomy at Adelaide University from 1967-73, he left academic work and developed a business career from 1974-90, as a goldsmith and jeweller.

In Cambridge in 1964 Paul came into contact with the Samatha meditation tradition taught by Nai Boonman to the University Buddhist Society. Subsequently he was a founder trustee of the Samatha Trust (www.samatha.org), and is a past Chairman of the Trust. In 1992 he ordained as Bhikkhu Thanissaro at Wat Sai Ngam, Thailand, for most of that year, before returning to the UK to eventually train as a psychotherapist and analyst. Since 2010 Paul has been developing an EEG research study of the meditational state in Samatha meditation. (www.samādhiEEG.org.uk)