Conservation Biology of Freshwater Turtles and Tortoises: A Compilation ProjectGeoemydidae of the IUCN/SSC — Tortoise Mauremys and Freshwater nigricans Turtle Specialist Group 068.1 A.G.J. Rhodin, P.C.H. Pritchard, P.P. van Dijk, R.A. Saumure, K.A. Buhlmann, J.B. Iverson, and R.A. Mittermeier, Eds. Chelonian Research Monographs (ISSN 1088-7105) No. 5, doi:10.3854/crm.5.068.nigricans.v1.2012 © 2012 by Chelonian Research Foundation • Published 29 December 2012
Mauremys nigricans (Gray 1834) – Red-Necked Pond Turtle, Chinese Red-Necked Turtle, Kwangtung River Turtle, Black-Necked Pond Turtle
Be n An d e r s 1 a n d Jo h n B. Iv e r s o n 2
1Biology Department, University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, Texas 76019 USA [[email protected]]; 2Department of Biology, Earlham, Richmond, Indiana 47374 USA [[email protected]]
Su m m a r y . – Mauremys nigricans, the Red-necked Pond Turtle (Family Geoemydidae), is known from montane streams in the Pearl River drainage of southern China, and may also occur in the Jinlong Jiang River drainage of southeastern China and the Red River drainage of Vietnam. All data on the natural history of M. nigricans are either highly dated or derived from captive specimens. The taxonomic status of M. nigricans was unclear for many years and, although now resolved at the species level, morphological variation within the species has not been investigated; hence, no subspecies are recognized. Mauremys nigricans is in urgent need of additional conservation measures because of its restricted range and escalating demand for the species by collectors. Management of captive stocks for future reintroductions may be crucial, as no surviving wild populations of M. nigricans are currently known, despite multiple recent field surveys for this species. Di s t r ib u t i o n . – China, Vietnam (?). Guangdong and Guangxi Provinces, southern China; pos- sibly Fujian and Hainan in China and/or northeastern Vietnam. Sy n o n y m y . – Emys nigricans Gray 1834, Clemmys nigricans, Damonia nigricans, Chinemys nigricans, Mauremys nigricans, Geoclemys kwangtungensis Pope 1934, Clemmys kwangtungensis, Chinemys kwangtungensis, Geoclemys palaeannamitica Bourret 1941, Chinemys palaeannamitica. Su b s p e c i e s . – None currently recognized. St a t u s . – IUCN 2012 Red List: Endangered (EN A1d+2d) (assessed 2000); TFTSG Draft Red List: Critically Endangered; CITES: Appendix III (China). Taxonomy. — Mauremys nigricans was first described Kwangtung [= Lofu Shan, Guangdong Province, China]”, as Emys nigricans by Gray (1834) based upon a specimen was the same as M. nigricans. Fang (1934) confirmed the from “China prope [= near] Canton”. In 1855 Gray errone- distinction between mutica and nigricans, placed nigricans ously synonymized this species with Emys (= Mauremys) in the genus Chinemys, and suggested that kwangtungensis mutica, which Cantor had described in 1842. Pope (1935) and nigricans were synonymous. confirmed that the two taxa were not synonymous, but failed However, for the next 50 years, all authors reverted to to realize that Geoclemys kwangtungensis, which he had Gray’s classification, consideringmutica and nigricans to be described in 1934 based on a specimen from “Lofaoshan, synonyms (and kwangtungensis a valid species). Zong and
Figure 1. Adult male Mauremys nigricans in captivity. Photo by Ben Anders. 068.2 Conservation Biology of Freshwater Turtles and Tortoises • Chelonian Research Monographs, No. 5
Figure 2. Adult male (left) and female (right) Mauremys nigricans in captivity. Photo by Ben Anders, courtesy of Dennis Uhrig.
Ma (1985) reaffirmed that nigricans and kwangtungensis subspecies have been described. Mauremys reevesii is the were synonymous, but recommended using the latter name. closest living relative of M. nigricans (Spinks et al. 2004; King and Burke (1989) reverted to Pope’s (1935) classifica- Feldman and Parham 2004). The two species are separated tion of mutica, nigricans, and kwangtungensis. Iverson and by morphological (Fang 1934; Pope 1934) and molecular McCord (1989) finally substantiated the validity of Fang’s (Barth et al. 2002) characteristics, and are largely allopatric (1934) earlier conclusion: Geoclemys kwangtungensis is a (Mell 1931). junior synonym of Chinemys (= Mauremys) nigricans, and Description. — Mauremys nigricans displays strong M. mutica is a separate, distinct species. They also clarified sexual size dimorphism, with females larger than males. misidentifications in the literature resulting from failure to The largest available male museum specimen measures 185 accept Fang’s conclusions. mm straight carapace length (SCL), and the largest female Morphological variation in color, pattern, and head 257 mm SCL. Artner (2009) measured a female at 280 mm width exists in this species, although no research has tested SCL, and T. Blanck (pers. comm.) measured a female at 298 whether this represents phylogeographic structure, and no mm SCL. The chestnut brown to black carapace is low-domed, has a single, obvious median keel with a pair of weak lateral keels (usually obliterated with age), an unserrated, unflared posterior margin, and moderately developed growth annuli in all but old specimens, which possess smooth scutes. Scute patterns are illustrated in Fang (1934). Maximum plastron length is 85 to 95% of maximum carapace length. The plastron is relatively flat, unhinged, Figure 3. Adult female Mauremys nigricans in captivity. Photo by slightly upturned anteriorly, and has a rounded anal notch. Ben Anders, courtesy of Paul Vander Schouw. The posterior plastral lobe is as broad as the anterior lobe
Figure 4. Adult male Mauremys nigricans in captivity. Photo by Figure 5. Hatchling Mauremys nigricans in captivity, showing John Iverson. plastral color variation. Photos by Ben Anders. Geoemydidae — Mauremys nigricans 068.3
Figure 6. Distribution of Mauremys nigricans in southern China and possibly northern Vietnam in eastern Asia. Red dots = museum and literature occurrence records of native populations based on Iverson (1992), plus more recent and authors’ data; brown dots = possible occurrence records representing unconfirmed localities, possibly of introduced market specimens; green shading = projected native distribution (now quite possibly largely extirpated) based on GIS-defined hydrologic unit compartments (HUCs) constructed around verified localities and then adding HUCs that connect known point localities in the same watershed or physiographic region, and similar habitats and elevations as verified HUCs (Buhlmann et al. 2009), and adjusted based on authors’ data. or nearly so, but distinctly narrower than the shell opening. black blotches, generally on the older portion of each scute The bridge is mostly brown to black and moderately long, (covering 10–100% of each scute, but least apparent in large averaging 32% of carapace length, each with a single, small females). The bridge and plastron may develop reticulate axillary and a much larger inguinal scute. The commonest melanism in old males. plastral formula is: abd>fem>pect>gul>
Figure 7. Mauremys nigricans plastra with various patterns. Photo by Ben Anders, courtesy of Paul Vander Schouw. 068.4 Conservation Biology of Freshwater Turtles and Tortoises • Chelonian Research Monographs, No. 5
adults by approximately 8 months of age; hatchling plastral about twelve pairs of regular, smooth, squarish scales on coloration is not a sex-specific trait (Anders 2010). its ventral side. Skeletal morphology of M. nigricans was described by Breeding males develop vivid red suffusion in the cream Bour (1980), who showed that the name Chinemys palaean- to yellow areas of the soft parts. The marked color varia- namitica Bourret (1941), based upon a single large skull from tions of M. nigricans were first described by Fang (1934) an archaeological site in northern Vietnam, is a synonym of as phases. De Bruin (1988) considered the dichromatism this species. Pritchard (1994) examined Bour’s description to represent different (unnamed) subspecies. Color and and compared skull morphology in M. nigricans to that of pattern differences in M. nigricans were first attributed to M. megalocephala – a macrocephalic morph of M. reevesii sexual dichromatism by Iverson and McCord (1989), and (Iverson et al. 1989). its development in young specimens was described by de The head of adult M. nigricans is typically large (mac- Bruin (1993). rocephalic in some old specimens), the broad jaws are not Males are smaller than females and have longer tails denticulate, the upper jaw is unhooked and lacks a medial that are proportionately wider at the base, with the vent at or notch, and the triturating surfaces are very wide and lack beyond the posterior carapace margin in males and anterior to longitudinal ridges. The anterior part of the head is cov- it in females. Hatchlings have long tapering tails as in other ered by a large, smooth shield on the crown and snout, and Mauremys species. Males mature by the time they reach 90 another shield covers the temporal area on each side. The mm SCL (de Bruin 1993), and a female approximately 128 skin of the posterior dorsal surface of the head is granular. mm SCL produced a fertile clutch of eggs (D. Uhrig, pers. The top of the head is uniform brown to dark gray or black. comm.). The odor of the musk produced by this turtle when Fine cream to yellow vermiculations and several irregular, disturbed is perhaps the most pungent of all geoemydid narrow, cream to yellow stripes adorn the tympanic region turtles and can be produced from the time of hatching (B. and extend laterally down the neck. The jaws and chin in Hughes, pers. comm.). males have varying amounts of cream to red over a black Adult M. nigricans can be distinguished from all other background, which is broken into largely vertical streaks; geoemydid turtles by the combination of body size, typically females have gray to black jaws, often with cream to yellow large head, relatively large inguinal scute, lack of a medial mottling on the proximal margins. The external tomia are notch in the upper jaw, usual presence of asymmetrical black horn or black. The throat generally sports irregular stripes of blotches on the plastral scutes, relatively short interhumeral brown to black pigment interrupted by streaks of cream to and interfemoral seams, relatively long interpectoral and red in males and cream to yellow (often a blotched pattern) interabdominal seams, mottled black to mostly black chin in females. Head patterns are underdeveloped in hatchlings, and neck, suffusion of red color on the head and soft parts starting as interrupted lateral stripes of cream to yellow, of males, and the pungent musk produced. Hatchling M. becoming more pronounced and complex with age in males nigricans can be distinguished from all other geoemydid and less so in females (in some females the cream to yellow hatchlings by the combination of black dorsal color, weakly pattern is obliterated with age). tricarinate, papillose carapace, vivid yellow to red plastral The eye of hatchlings has a silver iris interrupted by a color, irregular small to moderate black spot(s) on each horizontal black bar, and darker (greenish gray to charcoal) plastral scute, cream to yellow vermiculations and irregular sclera. The eye in females maintains this appearance (or stripes on the tympanic region and throat, and the pungent becomes uniformly darker) through life, whereas that in musk produced. males develops a pattern more homogenous with the intricate The common name Red-necked Pond Turtle was tympanal vermiculations – the sclera retain dark patches that implemented by Iverson (1985) and has been used in much become interspersed with cream to red mottling, although of the subsequent literature on M. nigricans. This species the iris remains silver with a black horizontal bar or darkens is generally referred to as the Kwangtung River Turtle by as in the female. turtle breeders and keepers in the United States, and the com- The anterior surface of the lower forearm is covered mon names of Black-necked Pond Turtle and Watermelon with many large, oblong scales. The exposed parts of the Turtle are used in China. Another common name used for forelimbs and hind limbs are mostly dark brown or black, macrocephalic M. nigricans specimens is Dumbhead Turtle, but may be mottled with cream or, in males, with red. The which may be confusing since this name was also used for recessed areas of the skin are cream to yellow in females, megacephalic Chinemys (= Mauremys) reevesii (i.e., C. and in males may be red. Hatchlings often have irregular megalocephala by Ernst and Barbour [1989]). red stripes or blotches on the soft parts around the plastron, Distribution. — This species is known definitively only which fade into cream or yellow in young female specimens from affluents of the Pearl River drainage in Guangdong and at a rate similar to the change in plastral pigmentation. Guangxi Provinces, People’s Republic of China (Iverson The tail is relatively long, dark brown to black, and has 1992). Additionally, Cheng and Ting (1965) reported six Geoemydidae — Mauremys nigricans 068.5
localities in the Jinlong Jiang River drainage in Fujian Prov- male’s red color intensifying. Upon recognizing a potential ince, China, which, however, remain unconfirmed, and could mate, the male pursues, overtakes and pivots to face the represent a different species or introduced specimens. female, then rapidly and repeatedly extends and retracts There are also several unsubstantiated reports of its its neck while faintly twitching its head. Artner (2009) occurrence in northern Vietnam (Klingelhöffer 1959; Felix reported that the female signals acceptance of the male’s 1965; Bonin et al. 2006), in addition to six specific locali- advances by withdrawing the forelimbs and extending the ties provided by Nguyen et al. (2009), all of which remain hind limbs such that the posterior of the shell and tail are unconfirmed. Five of these localities lie within the Red River elevated. The remainder of copulation can be aggressive, drainage. Furthermore, the skull record for the synonymized with the male repeatedly biting the back of the female’s species Chinemys palaeannamitica from northern Vietnam neck after mounting by gripping the rim of the female’s was found in a prehistoric human midden in the Red River anterior carapace, although Artner (2009) reported copu- drainage (Pritchard 1994), though it could have been trans- lating males behaving in a more benign fashion, in which ported to its point of discovery. Finally, a market specimen they released their grip of the female’s carapace and were has been reported from Hainan Island (Zhou 1998), and a subsequently dragged behind her; he did, however, note female specimen was recently collected from central Hainan aggressive behavior from the female at the conclusion of (T. Blanck, pers. comm.), possibly representing a released copulation via her use of the hind limbs to kick the male market animal. Mounting evidence suggests that the spe- away from the cloacal region. De Bruin (1993) found older cies may currently range beyond the Pearl River basin, but males (> 150 mm SCL) to be unsuccessful breeders, but whether those extralimital populations are natural or based this has not been reported elsewhere and is contrary to on human introductions remains unclear. observations by Artner (2009). Habitat and Ecology. —What little is known of the Nesting for captive specimens in the northern hemi- habitat occupied by this turtle has been drawn from reports by sphere generally occurs from April through July (P. Vander Mell (1922, 1929), who claimed it to be a highland species, Schouw, pers. comm.). Ewert (1979) recorded mean egg inhabiting pools in montane streams strewn with granite size as 51 x 27 mm. A large female (252 mm SCL) laid boulders and partially to largely shaded by overhanging 7 eggs that averaged 44.8 x 27.2 mm (Iverson, unpubl. evergreen vegetation at elevations between 300–400 m. data). Mean egg size reported by Grosse et al. (2010) for Water temperatures in August measured 16–17°C (Mell five clutches was 39.1 x 22.6 mm, and mean egg mass was 1922). Interviews conducted since 2000 in villages adjacent 11.9 g. This is the only species of turtle known to regu- to the described habitat of M. nigricans agree with these larly dig paired nest holes and deposit eggs in both; holes details, though it may inhabit streams up to 700 m elevation are spaced 60–110 mm apart (Artner 2009; Grosse et al. (T. Blanck, pers. comm.); it has not been reported from 2010). Reported clutch size ranges from 1 to 13, with up higher-order (larger) streams at low elevations. Bonin et to 4 clutches laid annually; mean clutch size and annual al. (2006) stated that it occurs at altitudes up to 1200 m in clutch rate for two females over 12 years was 5.4 and water ranging from calm and mud-bottomed to clear and 3.3, respectively (Artner 2009). Incubation temperatures torrential, but neither data nor sources for this claim were for successful development range from 25–31.5°C, with provided. constant temperatures over 31.5°C proving fatal (Ewert Mell (1922) reported reduced activity in M. nigricans et al. 2004; Artner 2009). Mean time to hatching reported following substrate burrowing during November–December, by Artner (2009) was 59.4 days (n = 60, range = 50–75). and that the turtles reappeared in spring. This agrees with Mauremys nigricans was tentatively shown to demonstrate observations on captive specimens maintained outdoors at temperature-dependent sex determination (TSD) type Ia, latitudes similar to those of their natural range (P. Vander with only males produced at 25 and 27°C (Ewert et al. Schouw, C. Hagen, and A. Luison, pers. comm.). Potentially 2004), although the sample size was small. sympatric turtle species based on range and habitat include Population Status. — Surveys conducted from 2007–09 Cuora trifasciata, Sacalia spp., and Platysternon megacepha- examined presumed M. nigricans habitat in Guangdong lum. Natural diet is unknown, although the enlarged head and Guangxi Provinces including the localities reported by and expanded jaws in M. nigricans suggest mollusks and/ Iverson (1992), and although sympatric Platysternon and or hard-shelled fruits may be an important component. illegal turtle traps were located, no M. nigricans specimens Reproductive behavior in Mauremys nigricans is only were found (M. Lau, pers. comm.). This suggests possible known from captive specimens, although Mell (1929) re- extirpation of wild populations of the species across its ported that a female laid two eggs—a fact that was general- known range. Additional recent surveys have turned up no ized as standard clutch size in this species for many years specimens in the wild (B. Horne and T. Blanck, pers. comm.). (Pope 1935; Moll 1979; Pritchard 1979; Ernst and Barbour The species is extirpated in the long-protected habitat of 1989). Courtship begins in the spring, coinciding with the Dinghushan Reserve (from where Mell [1922] based his 068.6 Conservation Biology of Freshwater Turtles and Tortoises • Chelonian Research Monographs, No. 5
description of the species), with the last known specimen The IUCN Red List status of M. nigricans was pro- reported during the 1960s (Li et al. 2009). No wild popula- visionally uplisted to Critically Endangered by the IUCN tions of M. nigricans are currently known to science. Tortoise and Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group in 2011 Threats to Survival. — Zhou and Zhou (1991) stated (Turtle Taxonomy Working Group 2011) and the species that M. nigricans was rare. This species is vulnerable to was included among the world’s top 40 most endangered extinction not only because of its restricted range, but also tortoises and freshwater turtles in 2011 (Turtle Conservation because it has become highly coveted by collectors. Accord- Coalition 2011). ing to the Chinese turtle dealer O. Shiu (pers. comm.), this Conservation Measures Proposed. — Additional field turtle was previously regularly offered for sale in Guangzhou surveys in southern China and northeastern Vietnam are (= Canton) markets. Recent surveys have shown M. nigricans needed to establish the current distribution of M. nigricans, to be rare in Guangzhou and Hong Kong markets and very such that active protection methods in the form of government high-priced when available, though a previous survey in patrolling or fencing habitat may be considered. Initiatives for 2000 suggested the turtle was easily collected in its habitat educational outreach should also be investigated, particularly by trappers (T. Blanck, pers. comm.). Heavy collection over where populations of M. nigricans were historically found, the past decade may have resulted in a rapid collapse of since this may be a more practical option for safeguarding populations of this geographically limited species. than government-mediated resources, although the market Current demand for M. nigricans appears high as sug- value of this species may nullify attempts to discourage local gested by a recent surge in internet prices commanded by communities from collecting turtles. captive bred hatchlings in Europe and the United States, Cooperative establishment of and exchange between although this trend could reflect demand from an international zoological institution and private assurance colonies in Eu- market. This species is not reported by locals to be valued rope and the United States should be developed to promote as food (T. Blanck, pers. comm.; but see Zhao 1998; Lau maintenance of genetic diversity among captive stock, and and Shi 2000; Li et al. 2009) and was considered bycatch in collaboration with farms successfully producing M. nigricans traps set for Cuora trifasciata when Mell (1922) observed in China should be explored. While present in some Chinese M. nigricans in the wild, although it is now a valued pet in turtle farms (Zhao and Wang 2009), M. nigricans does not China and Hong Kong (T. Blanck, pers. comm.). seem to be bred in particularly large numbers there or in An important concern is that M. nigricans is known to Europe and the United States. However, the scale of farm- hybridize with five related species—M. reevesii (Zhou and ing M. nigricans is likely increasing in China, as suggested Wang 2009), M. japonica, M. mutica, M. sinensis (P. Vander by recent research on watermold infections in the species in Schouw, pers. comm.), and M. annamensis (Ipser 2011b)— captivity (due to overcrowding of specimens in aquaculture; and purported to hybridize with at least one other, Cuora Fu et al. 2010; Chen et al. 2010). amboinensis (T. Blanck in Vetter and van Dijk 2006). All Potential assurance colonies exist and the species six of these naturally allopatric species have been traded in consistently reproduces in captivity. The lack of known Southeast Asia (Blanck et al. 2009), such that their spread wild populations emphasizes the importance of captive in the form of released pets into M. nigricans habitat could breeding programs for this species’ survival. To this end, a pose a genetic risk. M. nigricans Taxon Management Proposal (TMP) (Anders Not enough is known about the region in which M. nig- 2010) was drafted for the Turtle Survival Alliance (TSA) ricans occurs to assess the extent of habitat degradation and to facilitate preservation of genetic diversity in assurance destruction and consequent effects on this species, although colonies and to recharge institutional interest in the species, deforestation, hydroelectric plants, and stream liming are of since the American Zoo and Aquarium Association (AZA) concern (Lau and Shi 2000). If the species is indeed reliant and European Association of Zoos and Aquaria (EAZA) have on mollusks as an important dietary component, pollution discontinued their previous M. nigricans studbooks (D. Ferri could pose an indirect threat as it has done for other mol- and H. Zwartepoorte, pers. comm.). TSA should evaluate the luscivorous turtles (Vandewalle and Christiansen 1996). cost of developing holdings of this species, since hatchlings Conservation Measures Taken. — The IUCN Red produced by the private sector are generally sold and thus List of Threatened Species has listed the conservation unlikely to be donated for developing assurance colonies. status of M. nigricans as Endangered since 2000 (IUCN Genetic analyses of M. nigricans assurance colonies and 2012). China listed the species under CITES Appendix III the progenitors of these colonies, similar to those for Cuora as of 2005 (CITES 2004) and included it among National trifasciata (Praschag 2009), are warranted, considering the Protected Terrestrial Wild Animals that are Beneficial, or species’ within-sex morphological variability and the abil- with Important Economic and Scientific Research Values ity to hybridize. The TMP outlines options for restocking (ESIEMO 2002). Collection of M. nigricans from the wild programs in China, provided that habitat meeting essential is legally prohibited in China (Zhao 1998). criteria is available and scientific coordination is possible. Geoemydidae — Mauremys nigricans 068.7
The value placed on M. nigricans by humans suggests ner’s (2009) recommendation for maintaining the sexes of that conservation of wild populations will continue to pres- this species separately is justified. Colonies maintained in ent challenges (Courchamp et al. 2006) and may be possible large outdoor pools do not necessarily exhibit the aggres- only where there are resources to actively protect turtles sion found in colonies housed in smaller, closed quarters from collection. The species has also recently been proposed (P. Vander Schouw and D. Uhrig, pers. comm.). In contrast for uplisting to CITES Appendix II, along with most other to the bold attitude demonstrated among conspecifics, M. unlisted Geoemydidae (China and United States of America nigricans is a rather withdrawn captive when kept with 2012). other species (Artner 2009). Many M. nigricans specimens Captive Husbandry. — The general maintenance of M. do not develop a strong affinity to humans (demonstrated nigricans is similar to that of other semiaquatic geoemydids; by other species such as M. reevesii in the form of excited, personal experiences in its care and breeding are described anticipatory feeding behavior), and all specimens appear by de Bruin (1988, 1993), Luison and Redaelli (2008), Artner to prefer enclosure provisions in which they may conceal (2009), and Ipser (2011a, 2011b). themselves. Circadian rhythms in this species are confusing, as The natural diet of M. nigricans may be diverse (Zhou captives exhibit both diurnal (de Bruin 1988) and nocturnal and Zhou 1991), but the broad jaws of this species suggest (Artner 2009) behavior: juveniles will bask habitually, but it is adapted for a diet of mollusks and/or hard-shelled fruits adults often remain hidden by day and become active at night. (both low in fat content), and food items for captives should Basking does not appear to be necessary for healthy growth be predominantly low in fat (≤ 5%), since this species is in well-nourished specimens maintained in water > 20°C; prone to obesity. A wide array of items is consumed by M. growth is most rapid in water 27–30°C. If a basking site is nigricans, including prepared fish/turtle pellets, invertebrates, provided, it need not exceed 40°C (de Bruin 1993). Adults fishes, fruits, and some plants, including algae. Predomi- respond well to a period of cooling. Artner (2009) provided nantly carnivorous diets seem to be preferred, particularly winter air temperature not lower than 8°C for two months by hatchlings. and experienced good breeding results from his captives. Mauremys nigricans is long-lived. Ipser (2011b) main- However, some outdoor colonies encounter fluctuating winter tained a female for 36 yrs (still living at the time of the air temperatures down to -2°C or less and remain inactive publication), which he estimated to be 10–15 yrs old upon for four months of the year, yet also breed well (P. Vander acquisition, i.e., at least ca. 46–51 yrs old. He estimated Schouw and A. Luison, pers. comm.). another female to be 100 yrs old, though the actual ages Captive-bred specimens are tolerant of warmer water of his two specimens were unknown. A female acquired than many Southeast Asian species (to 30°C and warmer), by D. Uhrig (pers. comm.) in 1986 as an adult (though not and are not particularly sensitive to pH level or aqueous ni- yet fully grown) was still living 25 yrs later. Slavens and trogenous waste. However, they do appear to be sensitive to Slavens (2000) reported a female acquired as an adult still some tap water sources as suggested by the development of living after 13 yrs. epithelial white cheesy growth on the soft parts, particularly Current Research. — Mauremys nigricans is being in younger specimens. These lesions have been attributed to tested to confirm TSD type Ia and to establish the threshold Citrobacter and commonly afflict captives of turtle species temperature(s) for the benefit of assurance colony manage- from Southeast Asian streams (T. Blanck, pers. comm.). ment (Anders 2010). Saproglenia causes damage to epithelial and brain tissue in M. nigricans (Fu et al. 2010), and Chen et al. (2010) identi- Acknowledgments. — Frank Slavens provided us with fied antipathogenic effects from 20 of 55 Chinese herbal critical literature,T. Blanck provided us with geographical medicines on Saproglenia infection in this species. The distribution information, and C. Hagen, D. Ferri, B. Hughes, scutes are not shed during growth and are highly resistant M. Lau, A. Luison, O. Shiu, P. Vander Schouw, D. Uhrig, to abrasion – a possible adaptation to the species’ rocky and H. Zwartepoorte provided important personal observa- stream habitat – such that infection of the shell has not been tions. reported. Although interspecific aggression has not been noted LITERATURE CITED in M. nigricans (de Bruin 1988; Artner 2009), intraspecific aggression can be problematic among captives, particularly An d e r s , B. 2010. Turtle Survival Alliance Taxon Management Pro- in courting specimens (males abrade the necks of females posal: Kwangtung river turtle; red-necked pond turtle (Mauremys nigricans). Fort Worth, Texas: Turtle Survival Alliance, 18 pp. when the sexes are confined together for prolonged periods) Ar t n e r , H. 2009. 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