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Durham E-Theses Textural and semantic studies in classical yoga Feuerstein, G. A. How to cite: Feuerstein, G. A. (1975) Textural and semantic studies in classical yoga, Durham theses, Durham University. Available at Durham E-Theses Online: http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/9765/ Use policy The full-text may be used and/or reproduced, and given to third parties in any format or medium, without prior permission or charge, for personal research or study, educational, or not-for-prot purposes provided that: • a full bibliographic reference is made to the original source • a link is made to the metadata record in Durham E-Theses • the full-text is not changed in any way The full-text must not be sold in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders. Please consult the full Durham E-Theses policy for further details. Academic Support Oce, Durham University, University Oce, Old Elvet, Durham DH1 3HP e-mail: [email protected] Tel: +44 0191 334 6107 http://etheses.dur.ac.uk ABSTRACT OF THE THESIS ENTITLED "TEXTUAL AND SEMANTIC STUDIES IN CLASSICAL YOGA" by G-.A. Peuerstein Notwithstanding that the Yoga-Sutra of Batanjali has received more scholar3y attention than any other yogic scripture* with the notable exception of the Bhagavad-G-Ita, the existing translations and accounts of the Yoga-Sutra are marred by serious misinterpretations. It is argued that these misapprehensions are due to (a) an almost naive reliance on the Sanskrit exegetists and (b) the want of a critical, in-depth analysis of both the textual structure of Ratafijali's work and his conceptual and doctrinal edifice* The present thesis represents an attempt to meet these desiderata by way of a strictly system-immanent interpretation of the teachings of Patanjali, founded on textual oriticism. The data are arranged into two major parts. The first part (chapters 2-4) consists in a stringent examination of the textual structure of the Yoga-Sutra on the basis of an explicit methodology postulating, in conscious contrast to the a priori assumptions of previous researchers, the intrinsic homogeneity of the text This approach proved generative of significant new perspectives. Above*all it established that the Yoga-Sutra is a composite of two sets of tradition viz. Kriyayoga and Astangayoga, the latter being represented by a series of aphorisms which appear to be 'quoted* in the main text rather than arbitrarily interpolated. This crucial finding furnished the starting-?point for the critical analysis, attempted in the second part of the thesis (chapters 5-7 )> of the conceptual framework of Classical Yoga as embodied in the Yoga-Sutra itself. It was possible to cast new light on several key concepts - philosophical, psychological and practical - of PataHjali system of thought. These analyses clearly evinced the full autonomy of Bataffjalayoga as a distinct darsana, thus correcting the popular misconception that Classical Yoga is merely Classical Samkhya transmogrified along theistic lines*. TEXTUAL AND SEMANTIC STUDIES IN CLASSICAL YO&A Dissertation presented to the University of Durham for the degree of Master of Letters by G-eorg Feuerstein October 1975 The copyright of this thesis rests with the author. No quotation from it should be published without his prior written consent and information derived from it should be acknowledged. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS In the course of this study I have become indebted to a number of people. First of all, I must record my gratitude to Dr. K. Werner, of the School of Oriental Studies, for providing the initial impetus to undertake this piece of research under his supervision at the University of Durham and for granting me the greatest latitude possible both as regards the contents and the form of this thesis* Next, I wish to express my deep obligation to Professor Corrado Pensa (Rome) and Professor Algis Mickunas (Ohio), whose friendly encouragement and abiding interest in my work have proven of inestimable value* This is the kind of rich nutriment which is so essential to any maverick researcher. The past two years in Durham have been in many ways rewarding, largely thanks to the courteous welcome of several members of staff of the local Department of Anthropology. I particularly wish to thank Professor Eric Sunderland and Dr. Norman Long, not least for seconding my nomination as a Fellow of the Royal Anthropological Institute. I am, finally, much obliged to Mr. Philip Rawson for allowing me to peruse an Indian PhD thesis which was in his custody at the time* ii CONTENTS PART ONE : INTRODUCTION Chapter 1 : A Preliminary Definition of 'Yoga' 2 PART TWO : TEXTUAL PROBLEMS Chapter 2 : The Yoga-Sutra in the Light of the Classical Exegetists 9 Chapter 3 : A Structural Analysis of the Yoga-Sutra 24 Chapter 4 : Kriya-Yoga and Asta-Anga-Yoga : A Comparison 80 PART THREE : SEMANTIC INVESTIGATIONS Chapter 5 : Philosophical Abstracta 1. TsVara 97 2. Purusa 116 3. Prakrti 133 4. Kaivalya 174 Chapter 6 : Psychological Concepts 1• Citta 184 2. Vrtti 189 3. Klesa, Klista-Aklis^a 191 iii 4* Samskara, Vasaim, Asaya 196 5. Nirodha 203 6. Pratyaya 207 Chapter 7 : Practice Concepts 1. Abhyasa, Vairagya 211 2. Pratyahara, Dharana, Dhyana 215 3. Samadhi 221 PART POUR : CONCLUSION Chapter 8 : Patanjala-Yoga and Classical Samkhya 246 List of Publications Cited 264 1 FART ONE INTRODUCTION 2 CHAPTER ONE A PRELIMINARY DEFINITION OF 'TOGA* It seems apposite to offer, at the very outset of this study, a preliminary definition of the subject-matter, viz* Toga. In the past several tentative definitions or, more accurately, descriptions have been proposed. These were either far too specific or else too imprecise* What does it mean to speak of Toga as a 'way of life*, •philosophy1, •Indian psychotherapy', 'religious union' or 'mysticism'? These concepts are themselves extremely vague, if not loaded, and hence quite inadequate as definitional tools* The rationale of a formal definition is the formulation of a set of propositions which are unconditionally valid* This means that only those components of the concept which are constant are to be singled out and logically related to each, other within the specifio semantic domain of that concept* The definition is expected to be both consistent and as complete as possible without at the same time violating the law of parsimony. Keeping these factors in mind I would suggest the following definition. Toga is a specifically Indian tradition consisting ] of sets of varyingly; codified and/or systematized ideas, methods and techniques primarily intended to induce a transformation of consciousness in the 3 practitioner (yogin) and transmitted from one / teacher to one or more disciples in a more or less \ formal setting. By 'specifically Indian* I mean that Yoga is a part of the. socio-cultural field of so-called Hinduism and its margins.' This includes some of the neighbouring countries, especially Tibet and Kashmir, but excludes all other regions which cannot be said to have had more than a negligible cultural contact with Hinduism and its two great socio-cultural cousin configurations Buddhism and Jainism. Thus it would be misleading to talk of an •Akkadian Toga' or 'Hebrew Yoga* as did W.J.FLAGG (1898), but the designations'Buddhist Yoga', 'Jaina Toga* or 'Tibetan Yoga' are fully justified. In view of the fact that Yoga is by no means a uniform tradition it is necessary to qualify the definition by speaking of 'sets' which, again, may be more or less complex according to the degree of codification and systematisation. By 'ideas' I mean simple concepts, fundamental suppositions, doctrines and even full-fledged' ideological superstructures. It is assumed that the goal of all forms and schools of Yoga is the breakthrough onto a different level of cognition. This automatically excludes magic with its central concern for the acquisition and mani• pulation of 'power'• Yoga proper can be said to be primarily orientated towards gnosis, although it cannot be denied that some of the variants of Yoga display a more or less pronounced interest 4 in 'magic power* (siddhi. vibhuti). Since there is no unanimity about the actual nature of the ultimate target of Toga, as is evident from the contrasting definitions of kaivalya, brahma-nirvana. nirvana etc.. it seems advisable to speak merely in general terms of a * trans• formation of consciousness*. This takes also into account the extraordinarily multiform experiences encountered in the course of the various yogio programmes, e.g. the multifarious types of meditative absorption and samadhi. The 'teacher' who may or may not be a fully qualified adept must also be regarded as an essential feature of,a complete yogic setting. His role is obviously analogous to that of the therapist or analyst in contemporary therapeutio procedures* The 'setting' in whioh the tradition of Toga is transmitted from guru to aisya can be as formal as the customary pupilage of upaniaadic times, where the.student lived in the teacher's hermitage (asrama). or as informal as the occasional congregations of like-minded devotees of, say, Krsna in medieval India. Specifications about the mode of transmission of the traditional knowledge remain outside the orbit of the definition, since there are far too many variables. For instance initiation by which a person is accepted into the teaching structure. can be. enacted on various levels of elaboration and formality. It may simply take the form of the teacher's silent consent, or else it can find ritualistic expression as in certain schools of Tantrism. The standards of selection differ greatly and particularly in 5 the more popular Toga movements, suoh as the medieval bhakti- marga, the threshold of tolerance can be unexpectedly -loW* One more important point calls for consideration in connection with the present definition of Yoga.