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Cunningham, A.B., Brinckmann, J.A., Kulloli, R.N. and Schippmann, U. (2018) Rising trade, declining stocks: The global gugul ( wightii) trade. Journal of Ethnopharmacology

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Rising trade, declining stocks: The global gugul (Commiphora wightii) trade

A.B. Cunningham, J.A. Brinckmann, R.N. Kulloli, U. Schippmann

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PII: S0378-8741(17)34489-6 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2018.04.040 Reference: JEP11335 To appear in: Journal of Ethnopharmacology Received date: 22 December 2017 Revised date: 23 April 2018 Accepted date: 27 April 2018 Cite this article as: A.B. Cunningham, J.A. Brinckmann, R.N. Kulloli and U. Schippmann, Rising trade, declining stocks: The global gugul (Commiphora wightii) trade, Journal of Ethnopharmacology, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2018.04.040 This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As a service to our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript. The manuscript will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting galley proof before it is published in its final citable form. Please note that during the production process errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain. Rising trade, declining stocks: the global gugul (Commiphora wightii) trade

A.B. Cunninghama,b*, J.A. Brinckmannc, R. N. Kullolid, U. Schippmanne aSchool of Life Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, King Edward Avenue, Pietermaritzburg, 3209, South Africa; and b School of Veterinary and Life Sciences, Murdoch University, 90 South St., Murdoch WA 6150, Australia cTraditional Medicinals, 4515 Ross Road, Sebastopol, California 95472, USA d Botanical Survey of , Arid Zone Regional Circle (AZRC), Jodhpur, -342014, India eBundesamt für Naturschutz (BfN), Konstantinstr. 110, Bonn 53179, Germany *Corresponding author. [email protected] (A.B. Cunningham)

ABSTRACT Ethnopharmacological relevance: Commiphora wightii is exploited in India and Pakistan for an oleo-resin (gum guggul) traditionally used in Ayurvedic, Siddha and Unani medical systems. Processed C. wightii oleo-resin products are exported from India to 42 countries, including re-export to Pakistan, for anti-inflammatory use and as an anti-inflammatory and an anti-obesity treatment considered to lower cholesterol and lipid levels. The C. wightii export trade has particular relevance to the European Union because Belgium, France, Germany, Hungary, Italy, the Netherlands, and United Kingdom are importing countries. Demand and prices for C. wightii oleo-resin are increasing and wild stocks of C. wightii are in decline. The overexploitation of C. wightii after tapping for its commercially valuable oleo-resin is not a new problem, however, but one that has existed for over 50 years. Lopping and chopping to extract C. wightii oleo-resin has had a devastating impact on C. wightii populations since the 1960’s. Aim of the study: The aim of this study was to review the sustainability of the global trade in C. wightii oleo-resin. This included reviewing studies on resin tapping methods and the impacts of wild harvest on C. wightii populations in India and Pakistan. Materials and Methods: Firstly, we reviewed studies on impacts of C. wightii oleo-resin harvest and on the policy responses taken in relation to harvest and trade in C. wightii oleo-resin. Secondly, we reviewed studies on C. wightii cultivation. Thirdly, global trade data for C. wightii were analyzed. Results and Conclusions: Destructive harvest to obtain the gum is the major threat facing this species. C. wightii populations are also fragmented by habitat loss through clearing for farming. Cutting and lopping in order to extract the medicinal gum are a major threat to C. wightii populations, as is poor recruitment due to grazing by livestock. As a result of over-exploitation, C. wightii oleo-resin production has declined in India. In , a key production area, the decline over a 50-year period has been from 30 tonnes in 1963, to 2.42 tonnes in 1999 to 1.6 tonnes in 2013. Consequently, large quantities of C. wightii oleo-resin (around 505 tonnes/year) are imported into India from Pakistan. An estimated 193 tonnes/year of crude gum equivalent is exported from India in the form of processed products. With remaining populations in decline due to commercial exploitation for international trade, a range of policy options (such as CITES Appendix II listing) and practical conservation actions (such as cultivation) need to be considered.

Abbreviations: AYUSH, Ministry of Ayurveda, Yoga & Naturopathy, Unani, Siddha & Homoeopathy; CAMP, Conservation Assessment and Management Plan process; CITES, Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species; CR, Critically Endangered; DD, Data Deficient; EU, European Union; E, Endangered; GRIN, Germplasm Resources Information Network; HS, Harmonized Commodity Description and Coding System; INR, Indian rupees; ITC, Indian Trade Classification; IUCN, International Union for Conservation of Nature; MT, metric tonnes; USDA, United States Department of Agriculture; VU, vulnerable. Keywords: Commiphora wightii, oleo-resin, guggul, harvesting impacts, CITES

1.0 Introduction Commiphora wightii () is a multi-branched growing to 2 - 3 m high with the papery bark typical of many Commiphora species. Commercial exploitation of the gum currently

1 takes place in Pakistan, mainly in Baluchistan and Sind, (Williams & Ahmad, 1999) but also in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province, Pakistan (Sher, et al., 2014) and in Gujarat and Rajasthan, India (Dixit & Rao, 2000; Kulloli & Kumar, 2013). Most gum harvest is from the wild, both for export and use in the Ayurvedic, Siddha and Unani systems of medicine (Chaudhary, 2012). In India, C. wightii oleo-resin (widely known as gum guggul or guggulu) is also used as in meditation and purification rituals, in perfumery, calico-printing, dyeing silk and cotton and as firewood (Reddy, et al., 2012). C. wightii oleo-resin is also reported in use as a substitute for African (C. africana) and as an adulterant of true myrrh (C. myrrha) (Tropicos.org. Missouri Botanical Garden, n.d.).

Although new compounds continue to be found in C. wightii oleo-resins (Meselhy, 2003), the main commercial interest is in guggulsterones. These contain active ingredients used to treat arthritis, cancer and to reduce cholesterol and obesity (Antonio, et al., 1999; González-Castejón & Rodríguez- Casado, 2011; Sharma, et al., 2009). The main active ingredients are Z- and E- guggulsterone (González-Castejón & Rodríguez-Casado, 2011).

Overexploitation of C. wightii and death after intensive tapping for its commercially valuable oleo-resin is a challenge that has persisted for over 50 years. Tapping, lopping and chopping trees to extract C. wightii oleo-resin has had a devastating impact on C. wightii populations since the 1960’s. Atal et al. (1975), for example, recorded that a “large number of of C. mukul (= C. wightii) were present some 10 to 15 years ago in Rajasthan, but the number has come down considerably, largely due to the faulty techniques of tapping employed by the local inhabitants” (Atal, et al., 1975). Similarly, in Gujarat, the local Forest Department collected 30 tons of gum-resin in 1963, but in 1999 only 2.42 tons were collected (Dixit & Rao, 2000). Observations by many researchers, including by Atal et al. (1975), Dixit and Rao (2000), Soni (2010), Soni and Swarnkar (2006) indicate declining C. wightii stocks.

In India in 2002, C. wightii was classified as ‘Lower risk and conservation dependent (LRcd)’ [GES (Gujarat Ecological Society), MSU (Maharaja Sayajirao University) and GUIDE (Gujarat Institute of Desert Ecology), 2002] cited in (Rajendrakumar, 2013). Commiphora wightii populations are considered to have declined to less than 50% of their original size, leaving isolated sub-populations (Parmar, 2003). More recently, a conservation threat assessment by Reddy et al. (2012) suggested that this species is threatened across all of Rajasthan and Gujarat and should be considered endangered (Reddy, et al., 2012). The Government of India now includes C. wightii under their Rare, Endangered, Threatened (RET) category of species (Samantaray, et al., 2011) and in Rajasthan there is a ban on tapping of C. wightii trees (Samanta & Mandal, 2014). It is not surprising, therefore, that in March 2015, the Government of India expressed concerns about difficulties the Ayurvedic medicine industry is experiencing procuring C. wightii (Naik, 2015). Internationally, although initially considered Data Deficient (DD) on the IUCN Red List, it has recently been changed to Critically Endangered (CE) (Ved, et al., 2015). With demand and prices for gum guggul increasing and wild stocks of C. wightii in decline, the aim of this study was to review the extent of international trade in C. wightii oleo-resins, current conservation measures and the evidence for criteria for inclusion on CITES Appendix II based on Art. IV 2(a) of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES).

2.0 Materials and methods

Firstly, to get clarity on the trade assessment, we accessed all available published information on the and trade names for C. wightii.

Secondly, trade data for C. wightii was analysed using a range of sources. Trade from Gujarat (2008- 2013) was from Yogi et al. (2014). International trade data was derived from the Govt. of India Department of Commerce EXPORT IMPORT DATA BANK (Version 7.2 – TRADESTAT) and the India- based Zauba import-export trade database, which relies on actual shipment documents (Zauba Technologies & Data Services Pvt. Ltd., n.d.). Using the harmonized system (HS) tariff codes (HS Codes) was complicated by two factors. Firstly, that a variety of HS Codes are used by Indian

2 exporters for various articles of commerce that contain C. wightii (= C. mukul) in various forms. For this reason, as Table 7 shows, the Indian Trade Classification (ITC) definitions are provided as well as the actual shipment descriptions that were used by the exporters, as these show the second challenge, namely that incorrect HS Codes are often used by exporters.

Thirdly, we reviewed published information on C. wightii ecology and population biology, oleo-resin yields and on the impacts of “gum guggul” harvest on C. wightii populations from across the geographic range of this species.

3.0 Results

3.1 Scientific name and synonyms

Correct species classification is at the basis of correct labelling of herbal ingredients and herbal products. The taxonomy of the source of gum guggul is particularly confused, possibly due to the taxonomic confusion pervasive across the genus Commiphora. For example, Balsamodendron mukul Hook. ex Stocks (1849), renamed as Commiphora roxburghii by Santapau in 1964 (Bhandari, 1964; Kulloli & Kumar, 2014a) and corrected to Commiphora wightii (Arn.) Band. by Bhandari (1964) (The List, 2013; USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program, n.d.). The current accepted name of the source of gum guggul is Commiphora wightii (Arn.) Bhandari (, 2013). Widely recognized synonyms for C. wightii are Balsamodendron mukul Hook. ex Stocks (1849), Balsamodendron wightii Arn. and Commiphora mukul (Hook ex. Stocks) (Gardner & McGuffin, 2013; USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program, n.d.). Yet The Plant List (2017) also considers C. mukul (Hook ex. Stocks) as an accepted name, contradicting other sources. Consequently, Commiphora mukul (Hook. ex Stocks) Engl., continues to be used in authoritative pharmacological publications (for example, González-Castejón and Rodriguez-Casado, 2011).

3.2 Common names including trade names Hindi: Gogil, Gugal, Guggul, Mukul, Ranghanturb, Bol, Hirabol; Sanskrit: Bhavabhishtha, Bhutahara, Bolah, Devadhupa, Deveshta, Dhurta, Divya, Durga, Guggalu, Jatala, Jatayu, Kalaniriyasa, Kaushika, Kumbha, Kumlhi, Kumbholu, KumbholuKhalaka, Kunti, Pavandvishta, Pura, Puta, Rakshoha, Rasagandhah, Sarvasaha, Shambhava, Shiva, Uddipta, Ulukhalaka, Usha, Vayughna; Tamil: Gukkal, Gukkulu, Mai shakshi , Vellaippapolam; Telugu: Gugul, Mabisaksh, Maisakshi, Balimtra-Polam; Kannada: Bola; Malayalam: Narumpasamaram, Narumpasa; Marathi: Guggala, Gulag; Gujarati: Gugal, Gugali, Gugar, Guggul, Mukul, Ranghanturb; Bengali: Gugal, Guggul, Mukul, Ranghanturb; English: Indian , Gum guggul, Mukul myrrh tree; Arabic: Mogla, Moql, Mokhil, Aphalatana; Persian: Baijahundana; Sinhalese: Rata – dummula (Sharma & Kumar, 2012; Lal & Kasera, 2010; Bedevian, 1994; Kapoor, 1990; Bhatt, et al., 1989; Sharma, et al., 1983; Atal, et al., 1975; Patil, et al., 1972; Nadkarni, 1954).

3.3 Geographic distribution C. wightii occurs in Pakistan (Karachi, Sind and Baluchistan) and India (Rajasthan, Gujarat, Haryana, Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh) (Rajendrakumar, 2013; India Biodiversity Portal, 2015). Reports of C. wightii in North Karnataka in the old floras are not supported by proper specimens (D.K. Ved., pers. comm., 2015). In addition, the occurrence of C. wightii in Oman by Mosti et al. (2012) needs confirmation. In India, C. wightii is reported from five of India’s 15 agro-climatic zones; Gujarat Plains and Hill Region, Western Dry Region (Rajasthan), Eastern Plateau and Hill Region (Madhya Pradesh), Central Plateau and Hill Region (Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan), and Western Plateau and Hill Region (Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh) (National Medicinal Plants Board, n.d.). In their recent review, Kulloli & Kumar (2013) have summarized the information on the distribution of C. wightii in India, where C. wightii occurs in arid regions of Gujarat and Rajasthan including foothills of the Aravalli ranges and the . According to Soni (2010), “biodiversity hot-spots” for C. wightii are near Jaipur and Ajmer, the Indian Thar desert (Udaipur, Banswara, Dungarpur, Pratapgarh and Chittorgarh). In India, Kulloli et. al. (2013a) have mapped the

3 distribution and density of C. wightii in each district of the Rajasthan state. C. wightii occurs in arid and semi-arid woodlands, particularly on hills or slopes at the base of mountains to a region of flat land, commonly in Euphorbia scrub (Champion & Seth, 1968; Kulloli & Kumar, 2013). Studies by Kulloli et al. (2013a) also showed that natural populations of C. wightii preferred hills and piedmonts at 94% sites and pediment plains at 6% sites. Its habitat had sandy and sandy loamy soils. Most common associates included Prosopis juliflora, Euphorbia caducifolia, Boswellia serrata, Wrightia tinctoria, Grewia tenax, Acacia senegal, Calotropis procera, Butea monosperma, Dichrostachys cinerea, Anogeissus pendula, Rhus mysorensis and Maytenus emarginata (Kulloli, et al., 2013a).

3.4 Reproductive biology and population densities

Relatively little is known about the reproductive biology, seed dispersal and seedling establishment of C. wightii (Kulloli & Kumar, 2013). What we do know is that in wild C. wightii populations, reproduction is primarily from seed. However, fruit yields and seed set are considered to be very low in natural conditions. In terms of its reproductive biology, C. wightii is a sporophytic apomict showing nucellar polyembryony (Gupta, et al., 1998). Despite the fact that C. wightii produces morphologically normal pollen and pistils, Gupta et al. (1996) have shown that C. wightii is non- pseudogamous (i.e., apomixis is independent of pollination stimulus). Seed germination experiments based on seed color and size of seeds revealed that a black large seed gives more germination (18 %) as compared to other seed morphs (Kulloli, et al., 2013b).

The total population size of C. wightii is unknown. In the Kachchh area of Gujarat, India, Dixit & Rao (2000) assessed C. wightii density in 286 circular 0.1 ha plots and found C. wightii in 125 plots (43.7%) with an average density of about 49 plants per ha. The highest C. wightii densities were in undulating (41.2%) and hilly (23.5%) terrain. Joshi et al. (2012) found an even higher density of C. wightii in the Kachchh area in their survey of the Tapkeshwari Hill ranges (75.84 plants per ha). In Rajasthan, C. wightii density varied from 2 - 14 plants per ha in protected sites and 2 - 8 plants per ha in unprotected sites. In protected sites its canopy cover and plant height were also more than that in disturbed sites. Though it was co-dominant at all the sites, its dominance improved in protection while it declined in open conditions (Kulloli, et al., 2013a). No quantitative studies are known from Pakistan.

3.5 Threats and population trends

Destructive harvest to obtain the gum is the major threat facing this species. C. wightii oleo-resin is important in international trade, but is being extracted using unsustainable methods (Fig. 1C). For example, the application of ethephon on tapping cuts to increase guggul gum certainly increased gum production, but in the long-term this kills C. wightii plants (Soni, 2010).

4

Fig. 1. A. Typical growth form of Commiphora wightii B. Natural gum exudate from branches. C. Destructive tapping showing exposed wood surrounded by exudate. D. Raw guggul gum resin in a local market in Rajasthan. E. Experimental tapping to quantify gum yield from C. wightii.

In a study in North Gujarat, India, Rajendrakumar (2013) quantified C. wightii distribution along 123 belt transects and assessed which impacts threatened this species. Cutting and lopping in order to extract the medicinal gum were the major threat to C. wightii populations. Poor recruitment due to grazing is also a threat (Dixit & Rao, 2000). In common with several other Commiphora and Boswellia species, tapping of resin from C. wightii takes place in the dry season and stops when the rain arrives. Krishna-Murthy & Shiva (1977) suggest that this is because wet season resin yields are low and the resin is washed away from the stem (Krishna-Murthy & Shiva, 1977). In India, steam

5 distillation technology has caused a shift from commercial resin tapping to intensive lopping of branches. Destructive harvest methods, possibly combined with infection by the bacterium Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. commiphorae (Samanta & Mandal, 2014) have had a devastating impact on C. wightii populations (Kulloli & Kumar, 2013). Although many researchers cite the observation of Atal et al. (1975) that “a healthy mature tree yields 250 to 500 g of dry resin in one collecting season”, Samanta & Mandal (2014) have quantified oleo-resin yields in relation to C. wightii tree diameter (Fig. 2) as well as oleo-resin production according to different seasons. In their study, Samanta & Mandal (2014) found that C. wightii trees tapped in September produced the highest gum (49.4 ±t14.4 g per tree), whereas oleo-resin production was lowest in May (3.1 ±40.6 g per tree). Arya et al. (2011) suggested that C. wightii plants treated with ethephon dose 200 - 225 mg in the month of March helps in plant survival in arid conditions even after gum tapping (Arya, et al., 2011).

Fig. 2. A. The relationship between oleo-resin tapping success and infection rate by the bacterium Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. commiphorae and B. The correlation between C. wightii tree diameter and oleo-resin yield (redrawn from Samanta and Mandal, 2014).

3.6 Utilization and trade 3.6.1 National and cross-border trade

In the 1970’s, Atal et al. (1975) noted that the Bhuj market in Gujarat, India, “meets practically the entire demand of the country. Bombay, Delhi, Calcutta and Amritsar are the important centres to which Guggul is exported from the Bhuj market” and that C. wightii oleo-resin was also sold from the Beawar and Balotra markets in Rajasthan to other markets in India. Today, the government of Rajasthan has banned the tapping of C. wightii trees (Samanta & Mandal, 2014). The main national supply source within India is from Gujarat, where the product is marketed through State controlled Gujarat State Forest Development Corporation Ltd (GFDCL) (Mandal, et al., 2011). Table 1 shows the trend of annual quantities for the five-year period of years 2008 - 2009 through 2012 - 2013 (Yogi, et al., 2014).

Table 1 Collection of guggul gum in Gujarat (from Yogi et. al., 2014) State Agricultural year (Apr-Mar) / Quantity C. wightii oleo-resin collected (tonnes) 2008-09 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13 Gujarat 9.9 tonnes 6.4 tonnes 2.9 tonnes 3.3 tonnes 1.6 tonnes

Large quantities of C. wightii oleo-resin are also imported into India from Pakistan. At present, due to shortages of C. wightii oleo-resin in India caused by over-exploitation, there is a major cross-

6 border trade in C. wightii oleo-resin guggul from the Baluchistan province of Pakistan to India (Mandal, et al., 2011).

In one of the few assessments of the domestic trade in C. wightii oleo-resin in India, it was shown that in 2000 the largest quantity was sold in Mumbai market (100-500 tonnes), followed by Bangalore (100-125 tonnes), Shivpuri (100-120 tonnes) and then the Delhi market (50-100 tonnes) (Subrat, et al., 2002). Anotherstudy on the medicinal plants trade in India (Ved & Goraya, 2008) identified C. wightii oleo-resin one of the high volume trade products and estimated the total industrial demand of Indian herbal industries as 500 to 1000 tonnes per year for C. wightii oleo- resin, with a price range of 140 - 160 Indian rupees (INR) per kg (2006 - 2007). Ved & Goraya (2008) also reported that more than 90% of this demand is being met through imports from Pakistan. Precisely quantifying the level of international trade is not possible due to the absence of a specific HS Code for C. wightii, the rampant use of incorrect general HS Codes, and the unknown quantities used as components of Ayurvedic medicine complex formulations and multi-herb products. However, with the knowledge that India has export restrictions in place for wild C. wightii of Indian origin and that Pakistan has become the primary supplier to India, determining the quantity that India imports from Pakistan can provide an estimation of most export trade. It is, however, not known whether Pakistan exports guggul gum in significant quantities to countries other than India. Because India’s domestic collection levels are very low (Table 1) it can be assumed that India’s exports of C. wightii are comprised, for the most part, of Pakistan origin material. The India-based Zauba import-export trade database, which relies on actual shipment documents, reveals that India imports C. wightii oleo-resin only from Pakistan (but under several different mostly incorrect HS Codes). Table 2 quantifies India’s 2014 imports of C. wightii oleo-resin at 504.6 tonnes, entirely from Pakistan, which corroborates the Ved & Goraya's (2008) conclusion the Indian herbal industry demand is at least 500 tonnes annually with most of this imported from Pakistan.

Table 2 India 2014 imports of guggal Origin Port of Quantity HS Code Description Value (INR) Country Discharge (kg) Herbs – Guggal (each bag NT WT. Nhava Sheva 12119049 Pakistan 34,300 1,360,233 50~65 kg) Sea Nhava Sheva 12119099 Guggal (Commiphora mukul) Pakistan 32,540 2,013,855 Sea Nhava Sheva 13019029 Guggal Pakistan 59,950 3,096,736 Sea 13019031 Pakistan Gum Guggal Part of Plants Pakistan Chennai Sea 2,100 1,213,788 Nhava Sheva Guggal (Commiphora wightii 13019039 Pakistan Sea and 325,055 13,828,697.33 (Arn.)/mukul) Tughlakabad Nhava Sheva 13019049 Guggal Pakistan 50,640 3,458,651 Sea India 2014 imports 504,585 24,971,960.33 Source: Zauba Technologies & Data Services Pvt Ltd., 2015

Table 3 provides estimated apparent consumption in India of 286.155 tonnes based on 2014 imports from Pakistan, 2013 collection in Gujarat, and 2014 Indian exports. The calculation does not take into account quantities from controlled cultivation in India.

Table 3 Apparent consumption of guggul gum in India Source: Elaboration on data presented in Tables 1 to 6 Collection in Gujarat 1.6 tonnes Imported from Pakistan 504.585 tonnes Exported by India – gum resin 27.504 tonnes

7 192.526 tonnes (estimated crude gum Exported by India- extracts [27.504 tonnes] equivalent based on average DER of 7:1 (w/w) Apparent consumption (not including significant unknown quantities used domestically as component of Ayurveda 286.155 tonnes Siddha, and Unani formulations and products)

Domestic consumption of C. wightii oleo-resin in Pakistan was estimated at 18.5 tonnes in 1978 (Williams & Ahmad, 1999), up to between 25 – 50 tonnes in 2000 (Sheikh, et al., 2000). Recent export trade data now shows Pakistan exporting over 500 tonnes to India in 2014 (see Table 2). Commiphora wightii oleo-resin is used domestically for medicinal purposes, but exploitation for export from Pakistan and India and the international export trade is also significant.

There is insufficient data available to quantify the level of illegal trade, which still needs clarification for both Pakistan and India. Ahmed et al. (2013) reported on governmental enforcement against illegal tapping of C. wightii in the Nagarparkar Hills of Tharparkar, Pakistan, but no information on the specific regulations were cited. In India, the export of C. wightii oleo-resin, its derivatives and extracts, if obtained from wild populations, has been banned since 1994 (Ministry of Commerce, Government of India, 1994). Despite this, it is possible that export of wild-collected C. wightii products of Indian origin may still be continuing. Although not specific to C. wightii, the extent of illegal wild collection and illegal export trade in India is reportedly high (Subrat, et al., 2002).

3.6.2 International export trade

Indian extraction houses and contract packagers process and value-add to C. wightii oleo-resin produced nationally or imported from Pakistan. This is then exported in the forms of bulk extracts as well as finished products in dosage form (capsules, tablets). Table 4 shows India’s 2014 exports (mainly with incorrect HS Codes used) of C. wightii oleo-resin.

Table 4 India 2014 exports of guggal/guggul/guggulu Source: Zauba Technologies & Data Services Pvt Ltd. Quantity Value HS Code Description Destination (kg) (INR) 12119091 Herbs: Commiphora mukul (gum) Hungary 6 10,570 12119099 Commiphora mukul France, Kuwait 700 1,120,731 Crude herbs, Guggal, Commiphora Germany, Pakistan, 13019039 6,450 768,159 mukul Nepal 13019042 Guggal (Balsamodendron mukul) UAE 1500 88,370 Guggul powder (Ayurvedic herbal 13021918 Romania 130 88,920 powders) 13021990 Ayurvedic herbal powder: Guggul Romania 305 223,862 14049090 Herbal items: Guggal powder UK 29 49,206 30049079 Guggul powder Romania 15 7,182 33079090 Guggul for prayer South Africa 60 21,187 38256100 Certified organic guggulu powder Germany 30 26,702 2014 GUGGUL GUM EXPORTS: 9,225 2,404,889

Table 5 shows that 2014 exports of various C. wightii oleo-resin extracts amounted to 27.502 tonnes. “Guggul native extract” has an approximate 9:1 drug-to-extract ratio (DER) (United States Pharmacopeial Convention, 2015) but there are also commercial extracts that are normalized or standardized down to an approximate 5:1 DER. Using an average of 7:1 (w/w),

8 the 27.502 tonnes of exported extracts would be approximately equivalent to 192,526 kg crude gum resin.

Table 5 India 2014 exports of guggul extracts Source: Zauba Technologies & Data Services Pvt Ltd. Quantity Value HS Code Description Destination (kg) (INR) Guggul Extract 2.5% 09109990 Canada 15 31,135 guggulsterones 13019039 Guggul gum extracts France, US, Indonesia, 4,158 12,638,411 Certified organic guggul 13021911 extract, 2.5-3% US 1 4,429 guggulsterones Commiphora extract 13021918 Spain, US 100 267,118 (Guggul) Indian origin guggul 13021919 powder extract, 2.5% US 50 206,251 guggulsterone US, Canada, Singapore, Italy, New Guggul extracts Zealand, France, Costa Rica, Japan, (Commiphora mukul); Brazil, Netherlands, Malaysia, Slovakia, 13021919 22,500 48,407,499 various different strengths Finland, Germany, Indonesia, South and standardizations Africa, Spain, Austria, Czech Republic, Netherlands Certified organic guggul 13021920 extract 3% guggulsterones US 250 968,083 Z&E Guggul (Commiphora 13021990 mukul) gum resin extract Netherlands, Japan, UK, Romania, US 331 938,240 3~5 : 1 (w/w) Guggul (Commiphora 13023900 mukul) extract, 2.5% Malaysia, Croatia 35 128,663 guggulsterones Certified organic Guggul 33012941 US 25 85,026 extract 33019090 Guggulu CO2 extract US 26 113,238 Alcohol-free guggul 33049190 (Commiphora mukul) Czech Republic, Saudi Arabia 13 39,312 perfumery compound 2014 GUGGUL EXTRACT 27,504 63,827,405 EXPORTS:

Table 6 shows the export quantities of complex mixtures or formulations and products that contain guggul as one component. For these goods, the quantity of guggul cannot be quantified as the amounts used in the formulations are not known and the export units are, for example, quantified by pieces (PCS), bottles (BTL), packages (PAC), numbers (NOS), and boxes (BOX).

Table 6 India 2014 exports of formulations/products that contain guggul Source: Zauba Technologies & Data Services Pvt Ltd. Value HS Code Description Destination Unit Quantity (INR)

9 Bulk certified organic medicinal 12119099 herb mixes USA, UK, Canada, Netherlands KG 2163 8,509,344 containing guggul with other herbs Herbal extracts & formulations containing guggul 12119099 Macedonia BTL 660 240,977 with other herbs (capsules or tablets) Shuddha Guggulu 12119099 (C. mukul) 500 mg Germany PCS 22,000 73,810 capsules Herbal products 20098990 Canada, USA PCS 2950 185,472 containing guggul Herbal products USA, Canada, France, BTL,CTN, 21069099 4,635 693,894 containing guggul Netherlands, UK, Sweden NOS, PCS Herbal products USA, Hungary, Ukraine, Bulgaria, 30033900 PCS, PAC 3914 1,050,415 containing guggul Netherlands, Australia, Nepal, Finland, Germany, Kyrgyzstan, Lithuania, Kenya, Ayurvedic Denmark, USA, Mauritius, NOS, PCS 30039011 medicines 61,114 4,489,426 Netherlands, New Zealand, BTL, BOX containing guggul Malta, Romania, Philippines, Singapore, Peru Herbal products Czech Republic, Peru, Mauritius, 30039090 PCS, NOS 403 26,217 containing guggul Singapore, Russia, Ayurvedic 30044090 medicines Tanzania, Malaysia PAC 1809 90,578 containing guggul Lookman-E-Hayat 30045090 Tel (97% sesame South Africa, Zambia NOS 186 8,419 oil, 3% guggul) Nepal, Sri Lanka, USA, UK, Malaysia, New Zealand, Ayurvedic Mauritius, Guatemala, Romania, BTL,CTN, medicines Malta, Poland, Latvia, Bulgaria, NOS, PCS 30049011 containing guggul 178,600 16,929,804 Russia, Finland, Netherlands, TBS,BOX, (capsules, tablets, Belgium, Kazakhstan, France, PAC, churnam) Czech Republic, Canada, Kuwait, Fiji, Seychelles, Singapore, Ayurvedic USA, South Africa, Australia, New 30049029 medicines PCS, NOS 4,160 255,553 Zealand containing guggul Ayurvedic herbal Belgium, Bulgaria, USA, Ghana, PCS, NOS 30049099 preparations Mauritius, Tanzania, Zambia, 5,880 799,810 PAC containing guggul New Zealand, Ukraine, Guggulu Vati 33049910 France NOS 10 2,957 Dietary Supplement Dietary USA, Mauritius, Afghanistan, 33049990 PCS 2406 219,108 Supplements Canada

10 containing guggul Shuddha Guggulu 33051090 Malaysia NOS 50 3,065 capsules (60S) Food supplements 33073090 containing guggul Malaysia NOS 50 3,065 (capseuls) Incense containing Nepal, Mauritius, Canada, DOZ, PCS, 33074100 1,832 340,073 guggul Trinidad & Tobago, UK, Australia CTN, KG, Incense containing PAC, PCS, 33074900 Nepal, Netherlands, USA, 1846 168,908 guggul KG Herbal products 33079090 Czech Republic PCS 54 6,416 that contain guggul

Table 7 shows the various HS Codes used by Indian exporters in 2014 for various articles of commerce that contain C. wightii (C. mukul) in various forms. The Indian Trade Classification (ITC) definitions are provided as well as the actual shipment descriptions that were used by the exporters, which clearly illustrates that incorrect HS Codes are often used by exporters.

Table 7 HS Codes used in 2014 for shipments exported by Indian companies described as containing C. mukul, C. wightii, guggal, guggul, or guggulu Sources: (1) Govt. of India Department of Commerce EXPORT IMPORT DATA BANK Version 7.2 – TRADESTAT; and (2) Zauba Technologies & Data Services Pvt Ltd: https://www.zauba.com/ Actual Shipment HS Code ITC Definition of HS Code Description(s) from Main Destination(s) Zauba.com HERBS: COMMIPHORA 12119091 Chirata (Swertia chirayita) Hungary MUKUL (GUM) 100% ORGANIC MEDICINAL HERBS & SPICES: 100% ORGANIC GUGGAL USA (KAISHORE GUGGULU) POWDER 100% ORGANIC MEDICINAL HERBS: 100% ORGANIC UK GUGGAL (COMMIPHORA Other plants and parts of plants MUKUL) WHOLE used in perfumery, pharmacy, 100% ORGANIC MEDICINAL 12119099 UK insecticidal / fungicidal HERBS: SIMHANAD GUGGAL purposes, fresh or dried HERBAL EXTRACTS & FORMULATION: Macedonia KANCHNAAR GUGGUL INDIAN HERB: Kuwait COMMIPHORA MUKUL ORGANIC MEDICINAL HERBS: 100% ORGANIC Canada THRIPHALA GUGGULU (COMMIPHORA MUKUL) COMMIPHORA MUKUL Germany COMMIPHORA MUKUL France EXTRACT (GUGGUL GUM) CRUDE HERBS: GUGGAL Pakistan 13019039 Other natural gum resins POWDERED HERBAL EXTRACTS: GUGGUL Indonesia, USA EXTRACT (2.5% Guggulsterones)

11 13019042 Oleoresins of fruits GUGGAL/BALASA MODERAN UAE COMMIPHORA EXTRACT Spain (GUGGUL) Gamboge gum-resin (Garcinia 13021918 GUGGUL POWDER hanburyi) extract (AYURVEDIC HERBAL Romania POWDERS) Brazil, Canada, Czech Republic, France, Germany, HERBAL EXTRACT: Italy, Japan, Netherlands, 13021919 Other extracts COMMIPHORA MUKUL New Zealand, Singapore, EXTRACT Slovakia, South Africa, Spain, UK, USA HERBAL EXTRACT: Organic Cashew (Anacardium 13021920 Guggul extract (3% USA occidentale) Shell Liquid (CNSL) Guggulsterones) AYURVEDIC HERBAL Romania POWDER: GUGGUL POWDER Other extracts, derived from GUGGUL EXTRACT 4:1 (5- 13021990 UK vegetable products 10% GUGGULSTERONES) COMMIPHORA MUKUL DRY USA EXTRACT (GUGGUL) Other mucilages and thickeners, whether or not modified, COMMIPHORA MUKUL (DP) 13023900 Malaysia derived from vegetable (GUGGUL E&Z) products Other vegetable materials not HERBAL ITEMS: GUGGAL 14049090 UK elsewhere specified (nes) POWDER HERBAL PRODUCTS: 20098990 Other fruit juice Canada, USA GOKSHRADI GUGGUL FOOD SUPPLEMENT: KACHANA GUGGAL 60 Sweden Tablets HERBAL SUPPLEMENT: Other food preparations, not (POWDER) GUGGUL Canada, France, 21069099 elsewhere specified (nes) POWDER. COMMIPHORA Netherlands, USA MUKUL POWDER POWDERED HERBS & MASSAGE OIL, PURE USA GUGGUL POWDER Other medicaments containing HERBAL PRODUCT: GUGGUL Australia, Bulgaria, hormones or other product of 30033900 CAPSULE or GUGGUL Hungary, Netherlands, heading 2937 excluding CHURNA Peru, Ukraine, USA antibiotics Australia, Denmark, Medicaments of Ayurvedic Finland, Kenya, Lithuania, Ayurvedic Guggul (Capsules 30039011 System, not put up in measured Malta, Nepal, Netherlands, or Tablets) doses or packed for retail sale New Zealand, Philippines, Singapore, USA Other medicaments not put up 30039090 in measured doses or in packing TRIFLA GUGGULU Russia for retail MEDICINES: ZANDU Formulations of other vegetable KISHORE GUGGUL 30044090 Malaysia, Tanzania alkaloids and its derivatives (AYURVEDIC) or SHUDDHA GUGGULU Capsules Medicaments of Ayurvedic Ayurvedic Medicines: Bulgaria, Canada, Finland, 30049011 System, put up in measured Guggul (Capsules or Tablets) Latvia, Kazakhstan,

12 doses or packed for retail sale / Commiphora wightii Malaysia, Nepal, (Shuddha Guggulu) Capsules Netherlands, Poland, Sri Lanka, Russia, UK, USA Other anthelmintic drugs, AYURVEDIC MEDICINES: 30049029 antiamoebic and other YOGARAJ GUGGUL (ZAN) New Zealand, South Africa antiprotozoal / antifungal drugs TABLETS PROCESSED INDIAN HERBS AS HERBALS SUPPLEMENTS: Belgium KISHORE GUGGUL SPL TABLETS AYURVEDIC HERBAL Other medicines put up for PREPARATION: TRIPHLA Ghana 30049099 retail sale, not elsewhere GUGGUL specified (nes) HERBAL SUPPLEMENT: GUGGUL COMMIPHORA USA MUKUL TABLET PHARMA PRODUCT: SHUDDHA GUGGULU Tanzania CAPSULE Other concentrates of essential oils in fats, fixed oils, waxes or the like, Terpenic byproducts of 33019090 GUGGULU CO2 EXTRACT USA deterpenation of essential oils, aqueous distillates and aqueous solutions of essential oils HERBALS PRODUCT ITEMS: GUGGUL (COMMPHURA Czech Republic Other (beauty, make-up or MUKUL) 33049190 skincare) powders, whether or PERFUMERY COMPOUND not compressed FREE FROM ALCOHOL: Saudi Arabia MUBARAK (GUGGAL) FOR BUKHUR Face creams (excluding HERBAL SUPPLEMENT: 33049910 France turmeric) GUGGUL VATI HERBAL DIETARY Other beauty or make-up SUPPLEMENT: 33049990 preparations and preparations USA PUNERNAVADI GUGGULU for the care of the skin 90 VEGETARIAN CAPSULES “AGARBATTI" and other Australia, Canada, Nepal, 33074100 odoriferous preparations which GUGGAL (50 GM PKT) USA operate by burning PUJA GUGGAL (for burning) USA Other odoriferous preparations HERBAL PRODUCTS: 33074900 used for deodorizing room HIMALAYA SUDDHA Czech Republic (excluding agarbatti) GUGGUL TABLETS

4.0 Discussion

Wild harvest is the main source of C. wightii oleo-resin and destructive tapping and oleo-resin extraction methods have had a devastating effect on wild C. wightii populations. Consequently, C. wightii oleo-resin production has declined in India over a 50 year period. Clearly, a range of strategies is required to manage wild C. wightii populations. These range from a ban on tapping C. wightii in Rajasthan (Samanta & Mandal, 2014) to community-based conservation in both India (Soni, 2010) and Pakistan (Ahmed, et al., 2013) and more formal in situ and ex situ conservation initiatives.

13 4.1 Commerce, conservation and conflicting approaches

It is clear from our review that while the Government of India has tried to ban C. wightii exports, the problem has shifted on to neighbouring Pakistan where wild stocks are also over-exploited for export on C. wightii oleo-resins to India. Over twenty years ago, the Ministry of Commerce, Government of India banned the export of C. wightii oleo-resin, its derivatives and extracts if obtained from the wild (Ministry of Commerce, Government of India, 1994), placing it on the ‘negative list’ for exports (Ministry of Commerce, Government of India, 2005). At the same time, Schedule I of India’s Import Policy states that the import of crude drugs, including guggulu (C. wightii oleo-resin), that are needed for the manufacture of Ayurvedic or Unani medicine, is permitted freely (Ministry of Commerce & Industry, Government of India, 2012). Goods on the ‘negative list’ for export such as C. wightii oleo-resin may be imported for value-adding and re- export. There is no evidence of a similar export ban in Pakistan for C. wightii obtained from the wild. In India, the main national supply of C. wightii oleo-resin is from the State of Gujarat, with marketing through state-controlled Gujarat State Forest Development Corporation Ltd (GFDCL) (Mandal, et al., 2011).

Due to over-exploitation, C. wightii is one of the top 40 conservation priority species in India (Bhattacharyya, et al., 2006) and India is no longer self-sufficient in C. wightii oleo-resin. The situation in Gujarat illustrates this point. In 1963, the local Forest Department collected 30 tons of gum-resin, with only 2.42 tons were collected in 1999 (Dixit & Rao, 2000), with just to 1.6 tonnes collected in Gujarat in 2013 (Yogi, et al., 2014). Over this same period, demand has increased. The global increase in obesity levels (Ng, et al., 2014), including a rapid rise in Asia (Ramachandran & Snehalatha, 2010) may be one driver of increased demand, due to use of guggulsterone containing products from C. wightii to treat obesity and high levels of blood cholesterol (González-Castejón & Rodríguez-Casado, 2011). Whatever the drivers of demand, declining national C. wightii populations stocks means that India is reliant on importing C. wightii oleo-resin from neighbouring Pakistan. Based on our analyses of trade data, India imported nearly 505 tonnes of Pakistan, while producing a fraction of this (Table 3). Based on the same set of trade data from Tables 2-7, India exports more C. wightii oleo-resin that it produces, particularly as extracts, which based on an average drug-to-extract ratio (DER) of 7:1 (w/w), would equate to an estimated crude C. wightii oleo-resin equivalent of 192.5 tonnes. An additional 27.5 tonnes are exported as unprocessed (“crude”) C. wightii oleo-resin. National consumption of C. wightii oleo-resin is high in India. Even if the presumably large quantities used domestically in Ayurvedic, Siddha and Unani formulations and products are excluded, as these are very difficult to quantify, we estimate that C. wightii oleo-resin consumption is at least 286.2 tonnes per year (Table 3).

Risks associated with unsustainable harvest and declining production are not just an environmental conservation issue. It is not uncommon for substitution to take place, with decline in active ingredients at best and potential associated health risks in a worst-case situation. Adulteration with resins from other species and “look-alike” problems are common. For example, a study on frankincense (gum olibanum) samples collected from markets in China showed that out of 50 commercial samples, 27 were official frankincense and 23 were fake (Zhong, et al., 2012). We are not aware of any similar comparative studies on what is being sold as C. wightii oleo-resin or extracts, but suggest there is a need for these comparative analyses.

4.2 What role is cultivation playing in C. wightii conservation?

There are some major initiatives to plant C. wightii using cuttings taken from wild trees in India and Pakistan. Some cultivation initiatives in India date back over 40 years. In Rajasthan, for example, the Regional Research Ayurveda Institute, Jaipur, started a Guggul Herbal Farm at Mangliawas (Ajmer) (Bhatt & Dixit, 1974). More recently, the Rajasthan government has started a project that aims to have 1,700 ha of C. wightii under cultivation, aiming to raise about 500,000 C. wightii saplings for distribution to nurseries in 32 districts in Rajasthan. And in the Kuchchh area

14 of Gujarat, the Indian National Medicinal Plants Board (New Delhi) initiated a C. wightii cultivation project in 500 to 800 ha area (Kulhari, et al., 2014). In India, the Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (CIMAP) has also developed a cultivar named ‘marusudha’ (National Medicinal Plants Board, 2008). In view of better vigor and survival in native sites in western Rajasthan’s bioclimatic conditions, ex-situ and in-situ conservation are likely to be more successful in the districts of Jaisalmer, Barmer, Jalore and Jodhpur than in other areas (Kulloli, et al., 2013a). Using Ecological Niche Modelling (MAXENT Algorithm), Kulloli & Kumar (2014b) have determined the best potential areas for the reintroduction of C. wightii (Kulloli & Kumar, 2014b).

Proliferation using tissue culture has also been demonstrated. Kulhari et al. (2014) also recommend ex situ conservation strategies, including micro-propagation of genotypes with high guggulsterone levels. Ex-situ and in-situ conservation of C. wightii has been recommended for specific locations in Barmer, Jaisalmer and Jodhpur of Rajasthan, India (Kulloli, et al., 2013a). This is also supported by higher amount of E and Z guggulsterone in plants from Bikaner and Jodhpur (247 - 257 µ/g) in arid western Rajasthan compared to those from southwest Rajasthan (135 - 166 µ/g) (Kulhari et. al, 2012). C. wightii in the Jaisalmer, Barmer and Jodhpur area have more E and Z guggulsterones, a desirable trait in this species (Kulloli, et al., 2013a) as these are potent active ingredients in C. wightii oleo-resin (Meselhy, 2003). For its ex-situ conservation, the density of trees in plantations should preferably be kept low (100 - 400/ha). Since it is open to invasion by shrubby weeds like Prosopis juliflora (Dixit & Rao, 2000) regular monitoring of weedy species is essential so as to check their spread through removal, if required (Kulloli, et al., 2013a). A recent study by Kulloli et al. (2015) was carried out to investigate appropriate season and treatments for C. wightii production from cuttings. In Rajasthan, India, for example 3,500 three-month old plantlets (each about 30 cm tall) were then transferred and planted in the Aravali hills at a site near Gulta (Jaipur district) with the help of local communities (Soni, 2010). Planting has also been implemented on a similar scale in Pakistan, with similar sized 4,250 rooted cutting planted in rangeland sites in Sind with the participation of local people and community-based “Green Guard’s” (Ahmed, et al., 2013). We support these developments and recommend the establishment of value chains that provide options for added values of cultivated material. Although experimental cultivation using cuttings in some locations (such as Madhya Pradesh), this is hampered by termite attack on the cuttings (A.B-C, personal observation, 2008). Challenges facing planting from cuttings need to be addressed if a shift from wild harvest to cultivation is to occur in the future.

4.3 Community-based management and planting of C. wightii

Achieving successful, community-based forest management is challenging anywhere and South Asia is no exception. Joint Forest Management (JFM) in India is a good example, where despite decades of donor support, conflicts still occur (Ballabh, et al., 2012). Despite this, community- based forest management still holds promise (Conroy, et al., 2002). In Rajasthan, India, the focus of community-based conservation work is through the “Guggal Bachao Abhiyan” (Save Guggal Movement) that includes conservation education and a planting programme. Similarly in Pakistan, planting of C. wightii has been implemented, with similar sized 4,250 rooted cutting planted in rangeland sites in Sind with the participation of local people and community-based “Green Guard’s” (Ahmed, et al., 2013). In common with any conservation, strong tenure over land and resources, avoidance of “elite capture” and adequate returns to local communities all play a key role. According to Kulhari et al. (2014), the National Herbal Farm Mangliawas, Ajmer, Rajasthan have tried to conserve C. wightii but despite this, “are not satisfactory in view of the increasing demand of the raw drugs and to cope up with the rapid denudation of the forests and depletion of the species”. So if cultivation is to meet market demand, then it has to successfully expand to avoid a situation where demand exceeds supply.

15 5.0 Conclusions

India exports more C. wightii oleo-resin that it produces, particularly as extracts. In essence, a long history of over-exploitation in India coupled to a ban exports from India has transferred the problem to Pakistan, with gum gugul imports from Pakistan to India now filling the supply gap. Improved monitoring of international trade on a species basis can be a useful conservation tool and will overcome the current difficulties in trade data analysis. But encourage the current shift to cultivated sources of supply, it would also be useful to develop traceable supply chains for C. wightii oleo-resin from cultivated stocks, so that producers are not disadvantaged by CITES App. II monitoring requirements for wild harvested C. wightii oleo-resins. Based on the evidence presented in this review, it is suggested that C. wightii fulfills the criteria for inclusion on CITES Appendix II based on Art. IV 2(a). Wild C. wightii populations have been fragmented by habitat loss through clearing for farming. Remaining populations are in decline due to destructive commercial exploitation for the international oleo-resin trade (Parmar, 2003; Rajendrakumar, 2013; Reddy, et al., 2012). Over a decade ago, Parmar (2003) considered that the wild C. wightii population in India had declined to less than 50% of its original size, leaving isolated subpopulations (Parmar, 2003). More recently, in a CAMP (Conservation Assessment and Management Plan) report (September 2007) for Rajasthan, C. wightii was assessed as Critically Endangered for the state of Rajasthan (with an estimated decline of more than 80% in its wild populations over a three generation time period i.e. 50 - 60 years) (D.K. Ved., pers. comm., 2015). Over-exploitation is compounded by poor seed set, very poor seed germination (5%) with arid conditions often resulting in recruitment failure in wild populations. Young plants are rarely seen under the adult plants (Yadav, et al. 1999, cited by Kulloli & Kumar, 2013, and Reddy, et al., 2012), not only due to low germination rates, but also due to grazing by livestock (Dixit & Rao, 2000). In March 2015, the Government of India’s Minister of State, Ministry of Ayurveda, Yoga & Naturopathy, Unani, Siddha & Homoeopathy (AYUSH), expressed concerns about C. wightii (Naik, 2015). In addition, the status of C. wightii has been changed from Data Deficient (DD) to Critically Endangered (CE) on the IUCN Red List (Ved, et al., 2015). Rising scarcity of C. wightii oleo-resin is the likely cause of increasing oleo-resin prices, with over 95% of India’s 500 - 600 tons/year industrial requirement for C. wightii oleo-resin being imported into India from Pakistan (Planning Commission, 2000).

Acknowledgements

Support from the Bundesamt für Naturschutz (BfN) that enabled us to review the conservation and trade situation facing C. wightii with regard to possible CITES Appendix II listing based on Art. IV 2(a) is gratefully acknowledged. RNK would also like to thank his research supervisor, Dr. Suresh Kumar for his support.

Authors contributions

A. B (Tony) Cunningham, Josef Brinckmann and Uwe Schippmann planned the review, which was written by Tony Cunningham and Josef Brinckmann, with Ravikiran Kulloli adding to the review on the basis on his fieldwork on C. wightii in India. Trade data were collected by Josef Brinckmann. The photographs in Figure 1 were taken by Ravikiran Kulloli.

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