Sino-German Summer School in , PR September 7–20, 2009

Activities of Ancient People and their Natural Environments along the (Turpan), — Theory, Methods and Practice

Prof. Dr. Olaf Bubenzer Prof. Dr. Cheng-Sen Li Prof. Dr. Xiao Li Universität Heidelberg Chinesische Akademie der Academia Turfanica 海德堡大学 Wissenschaften, Peking 吐鲁番研究院 Heidelberg University 中国科学院， 北京 Turpan Academy Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing

Chinesisch-Deutsches Zentrum für Wissenschaftsförderung

中德科学中心 Imprint © 2009 Department of Geography Heidelberg University Im Neuenheimer Feld 348 69120 Heidelberg Germany Tel.: + 49 (0) 6221 54-4595 Fax: + 49 (0) 6221 54-4997 http://www.geog.uni-heidelberg.de Editor: O. Bubenzer Layout: K. Fricke Revision and translations: A. Koch SUmmer school Turpan 2009 | iii

Contents

Summary of the summer school 1 Subject of the summer school ...... 1 Importance of the topic and methods to be taught ...... 1 State of research...... 2 Goals of the summer school...... 3 References...... 3

Xinjiang – Geographical background 5 Introduction...... 5 Climate...... 5 Soils...... 6 Vegetation...... 9 Excursus: WRB soil types...... 9 References...... 11

Introduction to Geoarchaeology 12

Sediment tomography for archaeological purposes – geoelectrical and seismic refraction me- thods for on-site and off-site studies 13 Geophysical methods in geoarchaeology...... 13 Conclusions and outlook...... 15 References...... 16

Case study: Buried in the sand – 3000 years of man and environment along the Silk Road 17 Preliminaries...... 17 ...... 18

IntroductionApproach. . and. . .scientific . . . . objectives...... 18 Results...... 18 Conclusions and outlook...... 21 iv | Table of Contents

Satellite data and digital elevation models as tools for landscape reconstruction 22 Satellite data...... 22 Elevation model from satellite data...... 22 ...... 24

CombinationFurther readings of elevation. . . . . and. . field. . . data ...... 25 Examples of satellite images of the Turpan region...... 26

Basics of laser scanning 30 Introduction...... 30 Mode...... 30 Carrier...... 30 Sensors...... 31 Post-processing...... 31 Georeferencing /Registration...... 31 Further analysis...... 31 Geomorphological and archaeological usage...... 32 References...... 32

Investigation, sampling and interpretation of soil profiles and fluvial sediments 34 Standard Form “Relief, Bedrock, Sediments and Soils”...... 35

Drilling techniques 37 Percussion drilling ...... 37

Lecturers 38

Participants 41 Participants from China...... 41 Participants from Germany...... 42 | 1

I Summary of the summer school Prof. Li Cheng-Sen, Beijing, China, and Prof. Olaf Bubenzer, Heidelberg, Germany

1 Subject of the summer applied to archaeological studies. Based on data of histo- school rical localities and computer analyses, earth resistivity tomography can detect underground constructions of The subject of the summer school is the early human acti- ancient times without destruction or excavation and vity and the natural environment in Turpan. The main therefore reveal new information. Percussion core dril- content is related to the agriculture, life style and cul- tures of people several thousand years ago. It also deals sediments for further analyses. In addition, the seismic with strategies of early human survival and development refractionling in lakes technique and floodplains gives information allows the sampling about the of sedi old- under the challenging climatic and environmental con- ment structure up to 50 m below the surface and the ditions in arid areas. In the summer school, we will dis- depth of the underlying bedrock. Such techniques may cuss how the ancient people in Turpan interacted with also be helpful for the studies of the ancient environ- the natural environment and how they used the water ment and climate changes, the origin and dispersal of resources. All the studies will help us to understand the agriculture, etc. All these advanced techniques will be processes of economic, commercial and cultural deve- introduced theoretically, applied practically and analy- lopment in Turpan. It will also make us comprehend the zed exemplarily during the summer school. As a result impacts of the natural environment on the early human the participants will become much more familiar with activity there. the theoretical background and the practical applica- Many areas where modern man lives today are as arid as tion of up-to-date geoarchaeological researches and will the place where the summer school will be held. Turpan be able to understand complex human-environmental district belongs to the Gobi desert. In such arid condi- interactions. tions modern man still faces many problems, including In sum, the contents of the summer school will provide environmental, socio-economic and cultural issues. knowledge combining natural and social sciences. After Moreover, the factor of global warming adds to the old the school the participants will have gained new insights problems, causing the challenges in arid areas to become even more complex and aggravated. The selected Turpan anthropology and archaeology. This interdisciplinary region is remarkably well suited because it is situated at approachinto the fields will ofalso botany, help climatology,the participants geography, to understand geology, a branch of the famous Silk Road and at the desert mar- the impacts of the predicted climate change and to gin, which has reacted and will continue to react highly manage possible complex future human-environmental sensitive to environmental changes. challenges in arid regions. Considering these problems, we will focus on the general situation of the early human activities and try to under- 2 Importance of the topic and the special cases of early human activities from Turpan methods to be taught andstand other the influenceslocalities around of the environment. the world, we By will introducing teach the - participants new theories and technologies in relation to tion of human activity, the environment has changed such problems. Moreover, we will show them the advan- andWith is the changing development to a great of extent.societies More and and the moreintensifica atten- ces of comparable studies, especially the experiences tion is paid to global change by governments and scien- tists from all over the world. Understanding the climate theory and practice and will therefore enhance a better changes is not only the goal of modern environment stu- understandingof the selected of teachers. human-environmental The field work interaction will combine in dies but also the key to the prediction of environment the past, present and future, and the application of new changes in the future. techniques and instruments. Global warming is one of the most important issues in The investigations of the impact of global change in the context of global environmental changes in modern recent years have led to the development and applica- time. It will lead to changes and rearrangements of the tion of multiple methods, ranging from simple environ- global and regional water cycles, for example due to the mental descriptions to more precise and quantitative melting of glaciers and frozen soils. Drylands such as the levels. This became an international standard. Within region of Turpan will react extraordinarily sensitive to geoarchaeology, advanced technologies such as seismic these changes. In Northwest China, higher rainfall vari- refraction, earth resistivity tomography and detailed ability and more frequent sand or dust storms are pre- geomorphological and sedimentological analyses are

dicted. These effects will harm the ecological systems 2 | Summary of the summer school

corn and millet were found and show the development of people in the respective areas. of agriculture. Moreover, a grapevine was discovered in and will influence the food supply and the living habits Yanghai Tombs and is evidence of horticulture activities. Glaciers store most of the fresh water on earth. Studies This is the earliest record of grape cultivation in China. on glaciers over several decades tell us that the global All the plants that were unearthed and well-preserved glaciers are melting very fast. Especially in the areas played an important role for studying early human acti- that are located in the forelands of mountains, this vities and climate changes in Turpan. to the decreases of available water. Turpan District is In sum, Turpan is a key locality for the interdiscipli- suchmelting a typical will first area cause and floodingthe people and there then are drought, relying due on nary study of past and recent environmental changes, melt water from the glaciers of the Heavenly Mountains human adaptation and human-environmental interac- (Tianshan Mountains). Therefore, the Turpan District is tion in China, and can function as a prototype for other a suitable locality for us to study such problems. arid regions in the world. A summer school held there As we all know, water is the basic element of human life these interactions. In addition, the results of the school and activity. As there is hardly any natural rain fall, the will enhancebe a benefit the protectionto the whole of groupthe cultural for understanding heritage, the main supply of water originates from the melted glacier natural resources and the future ecological sustainabi- in the Bogeda Mountains. Local people dug underground lity in Turpan. wells called Karez, a wonderful world famous under- ground irrigation system that protects the water from evaporation. Some of the water is utilized by the local 3 State of research people, but most of it is transferred to the other Karez in Trade connections between China and Europe have the Turpan area. This kind of water supply created and existed for several thousand years. The German explo- supported the oasis civilization over the last two thou- rer Ferdinand v. Richthofen named the main trade route sand years. “Silk Road”. During the Han Dynasty (206 BC - 220 AD) In the context of global warming, the glaciers of the trading along the Silk Road was very intensive, particu- Bogeda Mountains are melting quickly, causing natural larly with the Roman Empire. In the beginning of the - due the shrinking glaciers. After that, with the water tury) the Silk Road experienced a second bloom ( supplyhazards from such theas flooding glaciers and, decreasing, later on, the water underground shortage 2007) but according (7th century to and first half (2004) of the trade 8th cen was water supply will also be reduced. The local people will interrupted several times due to political restraintsWong and climatic oscillations. Bao et al. irrigation. As a consequence the people there will have to The Silk Road splits into two branches to bypass the suffer from a lack of fresh water for drinking, living and and the . Turpan and the - ancient cities Jiaohe and are located on the tually,manage the the oasis difficult civilization situation in byTurpan, using whichwater differentlyhas lasted northern branch of the Silk Road. Jiaohe was founded as foror more several efficiently thousand or years, by migrating will end. to other places. Even a ward fort during the western Han Dynasty (206 BC - 24 The water surface of Aiding Lake near Turpan lies below AD). From 618 to 907 AD, during the Tang Dynasty, Jia- the sea level (about -154 m). This is the lowest area ohe experienced a period of prosperity. Since around the in China and the second lowest on earth. The water of year 1400 the city has been abandoned ( 2004), Aiding Lake also mainly originates from the melted gla- but the ruins are extraordinarily well preserved and are cier ice of the Heavenly Mountains. As the depth of the on the list of historical monuments in China.Guter The blooming period of the Silk Road from the 3rd cen- archaeological researches in Aiding Lake show us that tury BC until the 5th century AD was also a period of onewater Neolithic changes, relic it probably is located reflects at the climate edge of changes. Aiding Lake The favorable climatic conditions in Northwest China, with at about -37 m, and two ward forts of the Han Dynasty higher temperatures and more rainfall ( and one of the Tang Dynasty are located at -141 m and -140 m respectively. Moreover, the water surface area of Bao et al. Aiding Lake is decreasing. During some periods of the (2004). Rivers 2004). flowed After through this climatic the Taklamakan optimum during phase, year there is even no water in Aiding Lake at all. All these athat lot period of oases and and filled lakes widespread fell dry. The lakes, last i.e. wet the phaseLop Nor in facts show the sensitivity of the Turpan area and the theBao Tarim et al. Basin is recorded for the time span between necessity for further interdisciplinary research. 1450 and 1850 AD. For this period historical sources The oasis culture in Turpan has developed over a long are available ( 1976), for the older phases climatic period of time. As early as the Neolithic period, man evidence is given by plant remnants and pollen ( lived in the areas of the tombs of Gouxi and Astana, Liu where stone knives were unearthed. In Yanghai and Sub- as ice cores ( 2000). Recent investigationsCampo eixi Tombs, the artifacts show a colorful life style of the and1996), models fluvial, imply lacustrine that and Northwest aeolian Chinasediments reacts as verywell ancient people. In Yanghai Tombs, wheat, barley, broom sensitively to theThompson predicted global warming ( 2007). Shi et al. Summer school Turpan 2009 | 3

The studies on plant remains such as grape, wheat, bar- The social and intercultural goals of the summer school ley, broom corn and millet, and on animal dung collected are: from the archaeological sites in Turpan and about 3000 ♦ - years old greatly advanced our level of knowledge in the ♦ rences of the cultures, histories, and traditions of Chinato obtain and insightGermany into and the similarities and the diffe based on their leaves, stems, fruits, seeds and woods, whichlast decade. are morphologicallyThe correct identification and anatomically of these plants investi is- ♦♦ to enhance communication and further future coope- gated. The relationships among the plants, the ancient ration between all participants. environments and the human activities were interpre- - ted based on new research data (G We feel very confident that our approach, which com hosh et al. 2008; with intercultural discussion, is suitable to achieve these 2008). bines interdisciplinary scientific theory and practice Jiang et al. 2006, 2007, 2008; Mukherjee et al. 2008; goals. Russo et al. 4 Goals of the summer school 5 References The summer school aims at conveying new advances in ., 2004. Evidence the studies on the early human activity and the natural for a late Holocene warm and humid climate period and environment in Turpan, Xinjiang. All the participants environmentalBao, Y., Bräuning, charcteristics A., Yafeng, S., in Fahu, the arid C zones of nor- are young scholars, including post-doctor and Ph.D. thwestern China during 2.2 ~ 1.8 kyr B.P. Journal of Geo- candidates, as well as intercultural master and bachelor physical Research 109, D02105. candidates. In the school, we will teach not only theory and methods, but also successful examples of research. , 1996. Holocene envi- Moreover, all the participants will learn how to do prac- ronmental changes in Bangong Co basin (western Tibet), partCampo, 2: The E.V., pollen Cour, record. P., Hang, Palaeogeogr., S.X. Palaeoclimatol., Palaeoecol. 120, 49-63. ticalIn view field of work the main and operate topic of the this instruments. school, we will on the one hand focus on how the ancient people in Turpan ., adapted to their natural surroundings and utilized the 2008. Ovi-caprid dung as an indicator of paleovegeta- given resources under conditions of low productivity tionGhosh, and R., paleoclimate Gupta, S., Bera, in northwestern S., Jiang, H.E., China, Li, X., QuaterLi, C.S- and a challenging environment. On the other hand, nary Research 70, 149-157. , 2004. Lexikon zur Geschichte Chinas.- Marix, changes on the activities of ancient people. For the latter we will concentrate on the influence of environmental Wiesbaden, 640 p. we need detailed information from geoarchives. Guter, J. J Against this background, we plan to present the stu- , 2006. dents with study cases on the early human activities and Aiang, new H.E., insight Li, into X., Zhao, Cannabis Y.X., Ferguson, sativa (Cannabaceae) D.K., Subir, uti B.,- their natural environments during the training course. lizationFrancis, fromH., Wang, 2500-year-old Y.F., Zhao, L.C., Yanghai Liu, C.J., Tombs, Li, C.S. Xinjiang, Teachers will introduce the theory, the methods and China. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 108, 414-422. comparable successful research examples from other arid regions of the world. The most important objective 2007. Fruits of the summer school is that students understand the contents of the training course by discussing them with anJiang, early H.E., plant Li, X., decoration Liu, C.J., Wang, (2500 Y.F., years Li, C.S.,BP) in Xinjiang, China.of Lithospermum Journal of Archaeological officinale L. (Boraginaceae)Science 34, 167-170. used as knowledgeteachers and and partners practical in abilities.the class room and in the field. All teachings will benefit and improve the students’ C.S., 2007. The discovery of Capparis spinosa L. (Cappa- The thematic goals of the summer school are to establish ridaceae)Jiang, H.E., in Li, the X., YanghaiFerguson, Tombs D.K., Wang, (2500 yearsY.F., Liu, BP), C.J., NW Li, a deeper understanding in the following issues: China, and its medicinal implications. Journal of Ethno- pharmacology 113, 409-420. ♦♦ human-environmental interactions in the Turpan region and in arid regions in general, J ., 2008. A con- sideration of the involucre remains of Coix lacryma-jobi ♦ ♦ L.iang, (Poaceae) H.E., Wang, in the B., Sampula Li, X., Lu, Cemetery E.G., Li, C.S(2000 years BP), these interactions and interdisciplinary scientific approaches to investigate Xinjiang, China. Journal of Archaeological Science 35, ♦♦ the use of new methods and techniques that are 1311-1316. - , 2008. stions and practical applications such as climate Fossil coniferous wood from the Middle Jurassic of Liao- research,transferable non-destructive to a wealth of underground different scientific detection, que ningJiang, Province, H.E., Ferguson, China. Review D.K., Li, of C.S.,Palaeobotany Cheng, Y.M. and Paly- detailed geomorphological and geoarchaeological nology 150, 37-47. investigations, archaeology, botany, earth and envi- ronmental sciences, and nature conservation. (ed) 1976. Climate change in Southern Tarim Basin.- Ancient and Present-Day Bookstore, Tokyo. Liu, B. 4 | Summary of the summer school

, 2008. Results of molecular analysis of an archaeologicalMukherjee, A., hempRoy, S., (Cannabis De Bera, sativaS., Jiang, L.) H.E., DNA Li, sample X., Li, fromC.S., Bera, North S. West China. Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution 55, 481-485.

Russo, E.B., Jiang, H.E., Li, X., Sutton, A., Carboni, A., del Bianco, F., Mandolino, G., Potter, 2008. D.J., Phytochemical Zhao, Y.X., Bera, and geneticS., Zhang, analyses Y.B., Lü, of E.G., ancient Ferguson, Cannabis D.K., from Hueber, Central F., Zhao, Asia. JournalL.C., Liu, of C.J., Experimental Wang, Y.F., Li, Botany C.S., 59, 4171–4182. S ., 2007. Recent and Future Climate Change in Northwest China.hi, Y., ClimateShen, Y., Dynamics Kang, E., Li, 80, D., 379-393. Ding, Y., Zhang, G., Hu, R

2000. A high-resolution millennialThompson, record L.G., Yao, of the T., Mosley-Thompson, South Asian monsoon E., Davis, from HimalayanM.E., Hendenson, ice cores. K.A., Science Lin, P.N., 289, 1916-1919. ., 2007. Die Seidenstraße – kultureller Trans- fer auf den Handelsrouten der Tang-Dynastie. In: Kunst- undWong, Ausstellungshalle D.C der Bundesrepublik Deutschland GmbH, Ed. Unter der gelben Erde – Die deutsch-chine- - sische Zusammenarbeit im Kulturgüterschutz. Kon gressbeiträge; Von Zabern, Mainz, 129-153. | 5

II Xinjiang – Geographical back- ground Katharina Fricke, Heidelberg, Germany

1 Introduction crucial passageway for transportation and a stake in the region‘s stability and security. Turpan is situated in Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, which covers an area of 1.66 mio. km² and lies The region Xinjiang is characterized by large landscape in China‘s Northwest. Xinjiang shares national borders structures of mountain ranges and basins (cf. Fig. 1). In with Tibet Autonomous Region, Gansu and Qinghai pro- the North, the Altay Mountains present the border to the vince and international borders with Mongolia, Rus- boreal coniferous forests of Siberia, and in the South, the sia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyztan, Tajikistan, Afghanistan and Karakorum Mountains, the Kunlun Shan and the Altan Kashmir. Xinjiang belongs geographically and ethnically Shan separate Xinjiang from the Tibetan Plateau. In the to Central Asia and is situated on one of the routes of West lie the and the Western Tianshan. the Silk Road. Due to social and natural factors, it was The Eastern Tianshan that runs in East-West direction the main channel of exchange on the land route for over divides the northern from the southern 2000 years. As a site of adaptation and struggle of men and larger Tarim Basin. The Turpan Basin is a smaller against the natural environment, man has used the natu- basin northeast of the Tarim Basin and is situated bet- ral environment along rivers, groundwater and wells. It ween the Bogeda Mountains to the north and the Kuluke is situated also at a geostrategic position between seve- Mountains to the south. The prefecture covers an area of ral Turkish ethnics and the Chinese, and is therefore a about 69.324 km²

Fig. 1. Map of Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Province (Source: SRTM 30, www.fallingrain.com/world/CH,

Autonomous Region Bureau of Surveying and Mapping 2004, 8f; own design) 6 | Xinjiang - Geographical background

T Climate chart Turpan (WebGIS China) P 2 Climate (°C) 42,93° N 89,2° E 34,5 m (mm) The climate in Xinjiang is in general continental and very 35 70 dry. The extreme aridity is caused by the large distance 30 60 T to the oceans and the shadowing of precipitation by the 25 50 mountain ranges in between. Xinjiang can be divided into two climatic regions: there are the continental bas- 20 40 ins with little precipitation and high temperatures and 15 30 there are the mountains that receive relatively high pre- 10 20 cipitation and low temperatures due to their elevation. P 5 10 Turpan District is characterized by an extreme continen- 0 0 tal desert climate (cf. Fig. 2). The average maximum tem- J F M A M J J A S O N D perature in July is 37.2 to 39.5 °C, with a maximum air -5 -10 temperature of 49.6 °C (in 1975). However, the tempera- -10 -20 tures in the winter fall as low as -28 °C (in 1978). Due to -15 -30 its continental position and the high mountains around the Turpan Basin, little or no rain falls. The annual preci- Fig. 2. Climate chart of Turpan. WebGIS China. pitation here amounts to only 25.2 mm, but the evapora- tion rate is as high as 2500 mm. As a result, the climate low in winter (Dec-Feb) at most stations when the Cen- - tral Asian anticyclone is strongest. It also shows a high cation, the climate in Xinjiang is a desert climate (BW) withof Turpan a 100 is% veryprobability dry. According and extremely to Köppen‘s dry continental classifi 4, the regional distribution of precipitation and tempe- climate ( 1992, 204). Other authors, including raturevariability in Xinjiang over the is years. extremely As one uneven, can see indue figures to the 3 altiand- (1986, 169), (1988, 263) and tude and the climate being divided by the Tianshan and Yoshino (1993, 42), classify it as a middle temperate Himalayan Mountains ( 1987, 40). zone.Zhao Domrös and Peng Corresponding to the annualRoberts distribution of the tem- Roberts perature, the relative humidity is highest in winter and considerably more precipitation as they block humid air lowest in summer. It also changes with elevation as it masses,As it is shown causing in rain figure to fall 3, there.the mountain The mountains ranges Kunlunreceive increases with the altitude in summer and decreases in Shan and Karakorum receive most of their precipitation winter and lessens from Urumqi to the Junggar Basin from the Indian monsoon, while the Tianshan, Pamir and ( 1988, 263). Altay get their water from the Atlantic Ocean and Nor­ thern Polar Sea. The wind-ward side of the mountains 3Roberts Soils 1987, 40; Domrös and Peng intercept the humid oceanic air masses and they release the moisture as rain or snow. In the higher reaches the 3.1 Soil processes moisture is stored in glaciers, permafrost and snow Generally the conditions in the Junggar Basin are unfa- and delays the water delivery to the basins ( vourable for the development of a soil and vegetation - cover: a continental climate with a large amplitude of Roberts annual temperatures, sharp changes in the seasons, and1987, geomorphologic 40). The mountain processes. ranges The also horizontal introduce tempe diffe- extreme dryness and brevity of the vegetation period. rent altitudinal belts with modified climatic conditions- The soil development begins with the physical weathe- lity and proximity to the centre of the basin, which is a coldrature pole differentiation in the winter growsand heats with up increasing in the summer. continenta The basin.ring and The fluvial vegetation and aeoliancover is sedimentationusually sparse processes,due to the with the altitude, where it is colder in the summer and ariditydifferentiated and short invegetation altitude season from and the reacts mountains very sen -to the warmervertical temperaturein the winter, differentiation and promotes theshows development an inversion of sitively to water deprivation. The climate also suppres- smog in the winter ( ses further biological activity, restrains transportation 1988, 263). The climatic conditions in the Jung- processes and deep soil development. Soils and ground Roberts 1987, 34ff; Domrös and are rich in anorganic nutrients, but lack thicker layers TianshanPeng Mountains act as a meteorological divide, the of top soil. Consequently, the soil is sensitive to utiliza- Northgar and receives the Tarim more Basin precipitation differ as comingwell (cf. fromFig. the4). AsCen the- tion and erosion is expected due to slow regeneration tral Asian Anticyclone, but is slightly cooler (cold tem- perate), while the South is almost totally isolated from the climate are lime concretions, as the rare but intense humid air masses and has higher temperatures due to rainfallsand strong let aeolian the soil and dry fluvial out during forces. the Characteristical time in between, for its latitude and the increased solar radiation/insolation then the soil water ascends capillary and lime accumu- (warm temperate). lates in the upper horizons. Combined with the steppes The precipitation is fairly well distributed throughout vegetation on the widespread sediments and accumula- the year, but has a peak in late spring (May-June) and a tion of humus and carbonates, a neutral or alkaline soil Summer school Turpan 2009 | 7

Fig. 3. 2004, 12) Average annual precipitation in Xinjiang [mm] (Source: modified according to Autonomous Region Bureau of Surveying and Mapping

Fig. 4. 2004, 12) Average annual temperature in Xinjiang [°C] (Source: modified according to Autonomous Region Bureau of Surveying and Mapping 8 | Xinjiang - Geographical background

environment is common. But with a high groundwater content of organic substances and typical characteristics table, impermeable layers of clay or agricultural utiliza- such as desert pavement or desert varnish ( 2001, tion and irrigation, lime concretions tend to develop in the lower horizons and salinization can occur for the large part these would be found as Arenosols.Eitel 129; Schultz 2000, 378). In more recent classifications The basin fringes receive more precipitation and the 1988,(Institute 263). of Geography U.S.S.R. Academy of Science 1969, 198; drainage to the basin centre is the most important pro- 3.2Roberts Soil 1987, types 54ff; Domrös and Peng cess. The material on the slopes is eroded and deposi- ted with decreasing gradient. Especially on the southern (translated according to B. Winter) slope of the Tianshan, but also in the southern Tarim Basin, soils developed in the alluvial quaternary sedi- ments. Among other things there have to be carbonate The soils in Xinjiang are classified according to the FAO sediments as today calcerous Fluvisols can be found (see aeolianclassification dynamics. of 1990. The high The aridity, large basinsstrong morphodyna of the Tarim- Fig. 5). During arid conditions calcium carbonate can micsRiver and and the the high Junggarian proportion are significantlyof quartz sands influenced hinder the by accumulate, but there are no Calcisols found in Xinjiang. development of soils. According to - The development of the so-called salt pans are also - caused by hydrological processes. Due to repeated nosols. Such a development is possibleZech when and the Hinter sands water supply and high groundwater tables Solonchaks aremaier-Erhard stabilized by (2002) pioneer large vegetation. areas are It classified is also possible as Are are formed. Large areas with Solonchaks are situated that the Arenosols were formed in more humid phases south of the Central Tianshan, in the western part of and until now have not been eroded or covered up. The the Junggar Basin, and in the eastern part of the Tarim sands and dunes without any soil development. as gypsic Yermosols. During the restructuring of the largest areas however are classified as unconsolidated Basin. In eastern Xinjiang enormous areas are classified Also widespread are Yermosols and Xerosols, which are soils of the deserts and semi-deserts according to the were omitted and replaced by soil types that feature theirclassification characteristic concept values. of the For FAOexample 1998 gypsic the Yermosols

FAO classification. They are characterized by the low

Luvic Xerosols (Xl) Lithosols (l) Dunes or shifting sand (D/SS)

Gypsic Yermosols (Yy) Calcaric Fluvisols (Jc) Undifferentiated Solonchaks (Z) Glaciers Haplic Yermosols (Yn) Gleyic Solonchaks (Zg) Water bodies Fig. 5. Soil Map of The People‘s RepublicUndifferentiated of China, reversed Kastanozems version (K)1990 Takyric Solonchaks (Zt) Summer school Turpan 2009 | 9

are probably replaced by yermic Gypsisols ( 2002, 526). Excursus: WRB soil types Scheffer & ( WRB (2006)) SchachtschabelNot per se the extensive Leptosol areas in the Soil Map of Xinjiang can be assigned to the dryland soils as the ANTHROSOLSIUSS Working Group precipitation in the mountains exceeds the potential evaporation. However, it can be assumed that to some - extent in the lower altitudes with still relatively high foundly through human activities, such as addition of Anthrosols comprise soils that have been modified pro relief energy arid conditions prevail. There, aridic Lep- organic materials or household wastes, irrigation and tosols are possible. In the higher altitudes, temperatures cultivation. The group includes soils otherwise known are too low for intensive decomposition and weathering as: Plaggen soils, Paddy soils, Oasis soils, Terra Preta do because cold arid conditions predominate. Indio (Brazil), Agrozems (Russian Federation), Terre- strische anthropogene Böden (Germany), Anthroposols In the Northwest, Kastanozems can be found. They are (Australia), and Anthrosols (China). typical short grass steppe soils with a distinctive topsoil rich in humus ( 2001, 108). Equally worth mentio- Summary description of Anthrosols ning is the cultivation and reclamation of large areas in Connotation: Soils with prominent characteristics that Eitel agriculture changed the original soil attributes. These human being. youngXinjiang and into anthropogenically agricultural fields. changed Especially soils the are irrigation classi- result from human activities; from Greek anthropos, Parent material: long-continued cultivation or addition of material. Virtually any soil material, modified by 4fied as VegetationAnthrosols. Environment: In many regions where people have been practising agriculture for a long time. Xinjiang is located in the intersection of many phyto- Profile development: these areas. Examples are the European-Siberia, Paleo- - geographical districts, with plenty elements of floras in tiation of a buried soilInfluence may still be of intact humans at some is normally depth. are many types of vegetation, including mountain forest, restricted to the surface horizons; the horizon differen grasslandAsian, Mediterranean and steppe, anddesert Tian grassland, Shan-Pamir oasis floras. vegetation There and agriculture vegetation etc. FLUVISOLS Fluvisols accommodate genetically young, azonal soils Junggar Basins would be described as written below. in alluvial deposits. The name Fluvisols may be mislea- InAn theexample mountains profile above from the 2,600 Tianshan m but Mountains below the to snow the line, alpine meadows are common. Then follows a very narrow and sometimes discontinuous stripe of conife- inding lacustrine in the sense and marine that these deposits. soils areMany not Fluvisols confined corre only- rous forest with Picea schrenkiana (Siberian spruce) on to river sediments (Latin fluvius, river); they also occur northern expositions. This zone is also used as summer pasture. Below 1,600–1,800 m continues a grassland and late with: Alluvial soils (Russian Federation); Hydrosols steppe zone on the upper foothills. There are no shrubs, (Australia); Fluvents and Fluvaquents (United States of but dense Festucca sulcata with Stipa capillata can be America); Auenböden, Marschen, Strandböden, Watten found. On the intermontane and promontory area, used and Unterwasserböden (Germany); Neossolos (Brazil); as winter pasture, sparse Festucca sulcata with Stipa colluvialand Sols (France). minéraux bruts d’apport alluvial ou colluvial or Sols peu évolués non climatiques d’apport alluvial ou capillata and associated shrubs can grow. Summary description of Fluvisols In the transition from the foothills to the alluvial fan zone Connotation: below 1,200 m semi desert scrub and Artemisian semi desert follow and are used as a pasture in the spring. Soils developed in alluvial deposits; from In the lower part of the alluvial fan are spots of Ulmus LatinParent fluvius, material: river. - pumila forests and herbaceous grassland, which once strine and marine deposits. Predominantly recent, fluvial, lacu Environment: Alluvial plains, river fans, valleys and tidal cultivated land due to fresh water supply and salt-free soils.were winterOn the pasturespring zone but werearound the the first lower to be boundary turned into of - the alluvial fan, lowlands with saline soils, halophytic or cally.marshes on all continents and in all climate zones; many swamp vegetation developed, which have been meliora- Fluvisols under natural conditions are flooded periodi ted and used for planting of cotton and sugar beet. In the Profile development - sand desert, a sparse growth of Haloxylon ammaden- horizon may be present.: Profiles Redoximorphic with evidence featuresof stratifica are risparian forests with Populus diversifolia can be found tion; weak horizon differentiation but a distinct topsoil (dron and Haloxylon persicum that fix dunes or lowland 1994, 279f). common, in particular in the lower part of the profile. Betke et al. 1987, 72ff;Roberts 1993, 50; Zhao 10 | Xinjiang - Geographical background

GYPSISOLS LEPTOSOLS Gypsisols are soils with substantial secondary accumu- Leptosols are very shallow soils over continuous rock lation of gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O). These soils are found in and soils that are extremely gravelly and/or stony. the driest parts of the arid climate zone, which explains Leptosols are azonal soils and particularly common in mountainous regions. Leptosols include the: Lithosols of them Desert soils (former Soviet Union), and Yermosols orwhy Xerosols leading soil (FAO–UNESCO, classification 1971–1981). systems labelled The many US Soil of Lithic subgroups of the Entisol order (United States of Taxonomy terms most of them Gypsids. the Soil Map of the World (FAO–UNESCO, 1971–1981); Summary description of Gypsisols Petrozems and Litozems (Russian Federation). In many nationalAmerica); systems, Leptic Rudosols Leptosols and on Tenosols calcareous (Australia); rocks belong and Connotation: Soils with substantial accumulation of to Rendzinas, and those on other rocks to Rankers. Con- - tinuous rock at the surface is considered non-soil in sum. secondary calcium sulphate; from Greek gypsos, gyp Parent material: Mostly unconsolidated alluvial, colluvial manySummary soil classification description systems. of Leptosols or aeolian deposits of base-rich weathering material. Connotation Environment: Predominantly level to hilly land and Parent material: Various kinds of continuous rock or of depression areas (e.g. former inland lakes) in regions : Shallow soils; from Greek leptos, thin. unconsolidated materials with less than 20 percent (by with an arid climate. The natural vegetation is sparse and dominated by xerophytic shrubs and trees and/or ephemeral grasses. volume)Environment fine :earth. Mostly land at high or medium altitude and with strongly dissected topography. Leptosols are Profile development: found in all climate zones (many of them in hot or cold accumulation of calcium sulphate, with or without car- dry regions), in particular in strongly eroding areas. bonates, is concentrated Light-coloured in the subsoil. surface horizon; Profile development: Leptosols have continuous rock at or very close to the surface or are extremely gravelly. KASTANOZEMS Leptosols in calcareous weathering material may have a mollic horizon. Kastanozems accommodate dry grassland soils, among them the zonal soils of the short-grass steppe belt, south of the Eurasian tall-grass steppe belt with SOLONCHAKS of Chernozems but the humus-rich surface horizon is Solonchaks are soils that have a high concentration of thinnerChernozems. and not Kastanozems as dark as havethat ofa similarthe Chernozems profile to thatand soluble salts at some time in the year. Solonchaks are they show more prominent accumulation of secondary carbonates. The chestnut-brown colour of the surface and to coastal regions in all climates. Common interna- largely confined to the arid and semi-arid climate zones names for many Kastanozems are: (Dark) Chestnut Soils (Russiansoil is reflected Federation), in the Kalktschernoseme name Kastanozem; (Germany), common belongtional namesto: halomorphic are saline soils soils (Russian and salt-affected Federation), soils.Halo - In (Dark) Brown Soils (Canada), and Ustolls and Xerolls solsnational (China), soil and classification Salids (United systems, States manyof America). Solonchaks (United States of America). Summary description of Solonchaks Summary description of Kastanozems Connotation Connotation Parent material: Virtually any unconsolidated material. from Latin castanea and Russian kashtan, chestnut, and : Saline soils; from Russian sol, salt. zemlja, earth: or Dark land. brown soils rich in organic matter; Environment: Arid and semi-arid regions, notably in areas where ascending groundwater reaches the solum, Parent material: A wide range of unconsolidated mate- with vegetation of grasses and/or halophytic herbs, and in inadequately managed irrigation areas. Solonchaks in loess. coastal areas occur in all climates. rials; a large part of all Kastanozems has developed in Environment: Dry and continental with relatively cold Profile development: From weakly to strongly weathered, many Solonchaks have a gleyic colour pattern at some dominated by ephemeral short grasses. depth. In low-lying areas with a shallow water table, winters and hot summers; flat to undulating grasslands Profile development: A brown mollic horizon of medium salt accumulation is strongest at the soil surface of the depth, in many cases over a brown to cinnamon cambic soil (external Solonchaks). Solonchaks where ascending groundwater does not reach the topsoil (or even the horizon in the subsoil, in some cases also with secon- solum) have the greatest accumulation of salts at some daryor argic gypsum. horizon; with secondary carbonates or a calcic depth below the soil surface (internal Solonchaks). Summer school Turpan 2009 | 11

Along the rivers, the natural vegetation would be dense broad leaved and riverian forests, respectively, with 2006. Xinjiang Statistical Yearbook 2006. China Ulmus pumila, Tamarix, Populus and Salix species. Statistics Press, Bureau 714 p. of Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Secondary forests can be found in Ili Valley and around Region, , M., 1992. Wind and rain on the desert region of the Irtysch River, planted as shelterbelts or economic Xinjiang, Northwest China. Erdkunde, 46, 203–216. forests. Anthropogenic changes in the vegetation cover Yoshino were especially large in the alluvial fan zone, where , G., 2002. Böden der swamp and semi-desert vegetation or risparian forests Welt. Heidelberg. were replaced by irrigated crops and settlement areas Zech, W., Hintermaier-Erhard , S., 1986. Physical . Science ( 1993, 50). Press, 209 p. Zhao andBetke shores et ofal. rivers 1987, and 75; lakes Roberts have been the mainRoberts area of 1994. Geography of China. Environment, resour- (1987, 68ff) emphasizes that the boundaries of the basin ces, population and development. Wiley, 332 p. vegetation. In the history of development, the vegetation Zhao, S., coversettlement is still and very anthropogenic unstable and influencescontinuously on adaptingthe natural to the climatic circumstances, restrained by climatic and hydrologic features. Interventions in the water cycle and vegetation will have inevitable consequences for more demanding species, especially the climax vegetation. Oases are now 7.1×104km² in size, occupying only 4.3 % of the land in Xinjiang. More than half of the area is used as farmland. Agricultural production includes tem- perate zone crops such as wheat, corn, and paddy rice as main crops. Furthermore, cotton, vegetables (toma- toes), fruits, especially grapes and melons, are cultivated ( 2006). Statistics Bureau of Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous 5Region References (eds), 2004. Atlas of Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region. SinoMapsAutonomous Press, Bureau 307 p. of Surveying and Mapping (eds), 1987. Wuding und Manas: Ökolo- gische und sozioökonomische Aspekte von Boden- und WasserschutzBetke, D. et al., in den Trockengebieten der VR China. Urbs et region 43. Gesamthochschul-Bibliothek, 129 p. 1988. The climate of China. Sprin- ger, 360 p. Domrös, M., Peng, G., . Bodengeographie. Westermann, 244 p.

Eitel, B., 2001 1969. The physical geography of China – 2. Praeger, 337 p.Institute of Geography U.S.S.R. Academy of Sciences, 2006. World reference base for soil resources. IUSS Working Group WRB, , B., 1987. Ökologische Risiken der Stadtent-

BremerRoberts Beiträge zur Geographie und Raumplanung, 12, 277wicklung p. und Landnutzung in Ürümqi, Xinjiang, China. , B., 1993. Water management in desert envi- ronments: a comparative analysis. Lecture notes in earth sciencesRoberts 48. Springer, 337 p. 2002: Lehrbuch der Bodenkunde. Heidelberg. Scheffer, F., Schachtschabel, P., , 2000. Handbuch der Ökozonen. Stuttgart.

Schultz, J. 12 |

III Introduction to Geoarchaeology Prof. Olaf Bubenzer, Heidelberg, Germany

- Geoarchäologie – eine stigating geo-bio-archives in an archaeological context interdisziplinäre Wissenschaft par excellence. In: withGeoarchaeology the methods can of geography, be defined geosciences as the science and ofarchae inve- Brückner, H., Vött,(eds). A., 2008. Umgang mit Risiken. Kata- ology. The objective is to reconstruct the evolution of strophen – Destabilisierung – Sicherheit. 56. Deutscher former landscapes and ecosystems. This is done particu- GeographentagKulke, E., Popp, 2007. H. Tagungsband herausgegeben larly with regard to the interrelations between man and the environment. In short: geoarchaeology addresses Bayreuth, Berlin, pp. 181-202. - im Auftrag der Deutschen Gesellschaft für Geographie. Geoarchaeology. The earth- gical concepts, methods and skills (comp. archaeological issues with geoscientific and archaeolo science approach to archaeological interpretation. New 2007). Rapp, G., Hill, C. L., 2006. Brückner & Haven/London. Following (1982), however, geoarchaeologists Gerlach 1982. Archaeology as Human Ecology. are dedicated to elucidating environmental contextual Butzer Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. issues and must be more than casual practitioners of Butzer, K.W. applied science. “Geo-archaeology must extend its roots deep within archaeology, the better to serve the disci- pline" ( 1982, 42). Geoarchaeology therefore is

Butzer anTo interdisciplinarythis day, man has field engaged of research himself par in almost excellence. all natu - ral ecosystems and even altered some of them irrever- sibly. Time, form and consequences of human impact are documented in the landscape archives by the appea- rance of direct settlement indicators such as pottery, crop pollen or certain heavy metals. Indirect evidence is provided for example by an increasing sedimentation rate due to soil erosion, heightened phosphate contents - logy makes it possible to gain entirely new insights into man-environment-relationsor truncated soil profiles. The in approach time and of spacegeoarchaeo ( 2006, 2007, 2008). Rapp & Hill Brückner & Gerlach Brückner & Gerlach - mple the investigation of the evolution of cultural land­ Subjects of this still young field of science are for exa living spaces, the transformation of the environment by manscapes throughout as a precondition history or the for resource understanding management today’s of former societies, balancing between sustainable usage and excessive waste. Geoarchaeology has the potential to answer questions systems and their ability to respond to a changing envi- ronment.regarding The the importance flexibility ofof societiespalaeogeographic as well asresearch social for archaeological and historical sciences and vice versa shows itself time and again. At best, the results of looking back can be used to forecast future scenarios ( 2008). Brückner References& Vött , 2007. Geoarchäologie. In: G . (eds). GeographieBrückner, H.,– Physische Gerlach, Geographie R. und Humangeogra- ebhardt, H., Glaser, R., Radkte, U., Reuber, P phie. München, 513-516. | 13

IV Sediment tomography for archae- ological purposes – geoelectrical and seismic refraction methods for on-site and off-site studies Dr. Stefan Hecht, Heidelberg, Germany

as wall remains, post holes or pits in the measurement 1 Geophysical methods in data. geoarchaeology What often poses a problem when interpreting geoelec- In medicine tomographic methods for x-raying our body trical or seismic refraction data is the ambiguity of the have belonged to the standard repertoire of physical measurement results (comp. f.ex. or examinations for years. For the “x-ray examination” and - imaging of the shallow subsurface to reveal archaeolo- sent themselves as possible explanationsLange 2005 for theKirsch mea- gical treasures, several geophysical methods are now sured& Rabbel data 1 when997); generatingthis means a that model several of the solutions near-surface pre available, two of which – geoelectrical tomography (also underground. Under favorable measurement conditions earth resistivity tomography, ERT) and seismic refrac- they can usually be reduced to small-scaled questions of tion – will be illustrated in more detail below. They both - generate a two-dimensional cross-section of the under- tation of the results, since value anomalies in the mea- ground, representing changes in resistivity respectively detail. Another difficulty consists in the correct interpre wave velocity. “Real” tomographies require a three- dimensional data set. Other geophysical methods exist withsured archaeological data can reflect relevance. both natural This variations is where ofinterdisci soil and- besides these, for example magnetic prospecting, ground plinarysediment collaboration structures as between well as anthropogenicgeoscientists and influences archae- penetrating radar (georadar), etc. ( ologists is essential to exclude misinterpretations. 1997). Geoelectrical and seismic refraction methods can be Knödel et al. 2005, - BebloThere are essentially two areas in which to apply geo- physical methods within (geo)archaeological research. chaeological research. While seismic refraction is espe- On the one hand, they can be used directly on the archae- ciallyapplied suitable in different to distinguish areas of unconsolidatedarchaeological and substrate geoar ological site (on-site studies) to map small-scale archae- from bedrock, the geoelectrical tomography is better ological structures with the highest resolution possible and display them in their spatial position in the subsur- and identify archaeological structures. Thus, the seismic suited to differentiate within different loose sediments reconstructing the environment in the surroundings of whereas the geoelectrical tomography can be applied theface. archaeological For so-called site, off-site less-detailed studies surveys on the are other often hand, refraction methods are rather used in off-site studies, - mation across greater distances is important. According 1.1for both Geoelectrical off-site and on-site earth studies. resistivity tomo- sufficient. Instead, for aspects of landscape genesis infor graphy (ERT) Geoelectrical methods are applied to map the electrical to these distinct demands different methods or method resistivity of the subsurface. In order to identify natu- configurationsA major advantage come of intothese operation. geophysical methods of sedi- ment tomography is that they allow a non-destructive, ral or anthropogenic structures with this method it is seamless and often high-resolution prospection of areas of archaeological potential along a measurement pro- complicationnecessary that arises the resistivity from the fact values that (measured the values forin Ωm)cer- taindiffer rocks significantly or substrates from may eachvary considerably other. A (Tab.methodological 1). informationfile or across used a surface. to be Foravailable, investigations gathered on for landscape example reconstruction (off-site studies) only selective, punctual of rock from a certain measurement value. For a correct a certain amount of insecurity when interpreting the interpretationThis means that it oneis essential cannot directly to compare infer anda specific verify type the results.from drillings; For archaeological the areas in prospection between always in a narrower harbored results with additional information from boreholes, sense (on-site studies), seamless, detailed information with high resolution is even an indispensable prerequi- other geophysical methods or archaeological findings. site to detect small-scale archaeological structures such various factors. In addition to the chemical and mine- The electrical characteristics of rocks are influenced by 14 | Sediment tomography for archaeological purposes

Tab. 1. 1997)

soil, sandyElectrical resistivity of different rocks and substrates (compiled according150- to Greinwald 7.000 W& Thierbachm soil, loamy 50- 9.000 Wm soil, clayey 20- 4.000 Wm sand 1.000- 10.000 Wm silt 10- 1.000 Wm clay 1- 1.000 Wm limestone 100- 7.000 Wm granite 300- 30.000 Wm ralogical composition the most relevant parameters based on the four-point-method. Strictly speaking, only are the structure and porosity as well as the geological a 3D-exploration is a tomography in the truest sense of constitution and formation of the rocks ( 1997). The water content thereby plays an Greinwald & the word. Depending on the research question different distributionThierbach of unconsolidated sediments. Fine-grained orelectrode vertical configurationsresolution of the can resistivity be used, distribution. each exhibiting The substratesimportant role, can reflected store more for examplerain water in the than grain coarse- size different sensitivities regarding the lateral/horizontal grained substrates, which due to their better permeabi- - surementdipole-dipole (compare configuration f.ex. offers the best results2003) andwith can lead to a wide spectrum of electrical resistivity for isregard therefore to the particularly lateral differentiation suitable for aof detailed a resistivity detection mea certainlity tend rocks. to be drier. These manifold influencing factors of archaeological structures.Lange For 2005, 3D-measurements Kneisel the The high-resolution geoelectrical tomography deve­ for small-scale measurements with close electrode spa- loped from the classical “four-point-method” (see f.ex. cingspole-pole ( configuration1996). achieves the best compromise 1997): two electrodes induct the current into the underground (“feed-in-dipole”), while the two other 1.2 SeismicLoke & Barker refraction tomography (SRT) electrodesBerktold function as the “potential dipole”, where the electrical resistivity is measured. A multitude of such The seismic refraction method is based on the varying four-point-measurements constitutes the modern multi- - electrode system, which generates a cross-section of the strates. To successfully apply this technique the travel subsurface resistivity distribution. For this the elec- travel times of seismic waves in different rocks and sub trodes are arranged in a linear array – for example 100 An impact source and signal transmitter (e.g. a ham- electrodes spaced at a distance of 1 m each – and several mer)times provides(propagation the seismicvelocities) energy must anddiffer generates considerably. seis- hundreds and thousands of individual measurements mic waves, which can be detected on the surface using a are conducted. A two-dimensional layout of the elec- linear array of receivers (geophones) (Fig. 6). trodes allows the measurement of the three-dimensional distribution of resistivity values. This technique is also breaks of the compressional waves (p-waves), which are In the case of seismic refraction studies, only first determination of first-arrival times of seismic waves in seismogram

seismogram plot

data inversion: registration of waves as seismogram records calculation of layer depths seismograph source seismic sensor (geophone) layer 1: velocity v1 layer 2: velocity v2 (v2>v1) direct wave refracted wave Fig. 6. The concept of seismic refraction for a two-layer case 2001)

(Hecht Summer school Turpan 2009 | 15

refracted at the interfaces of subsurface layers before returning to the surface, are considered. They register at assess the quality of the results the ray tracing method shouldand profile be of applied, layers can where be reconstructed. synthetic travel To timeverify dataand are compared to the measured data. The model is then notthe receivers taken into faster account. than Similarthe reflection to the or earth surface resistivity waves. corrected successively (iteratively) until the measured tomographyDynamic effects, measurements such as amplitudes, it is not frequencies possible to detectetc. are values show good agreement with the calculated values (comp. 2005). The method of f.ex. 1990). Table 2 shows the partly great seismic refraction tomography determines the distribu- a specific rock type from a certain velocity value (comp.- tion of p-waveSandmeier velocities & Liebhardt in the subsurface in high detail strates,Lankston which means that additional data are required forrange the of correct p-wave interpretation velocities for of different the data. rocks and sub dense coverage with traveltime data over the complete studyalong area a measurement ( 2005). profile. For This optimal procedure results, needs over- - laying receiver spreads by as much as half the spread ting seismic refraction data: direct inversion methods length shouldUtecht be em­ployed. For the interpretation of (standardDifferent inversion methods methods),exist for methods processing of iterativeand interpre modeling and methods of seismic refraction tomogra- and Rayfract are used. phy ( 1997). With the direct inversion seismic traveltime data the software packages Reflexw methods the layer boundaries and velocities can be derivedKirsch directly & Rabbel from the travel times, while the itera- 2 Conclusions and outlook tive and tomographic methods require a starting model The application of sediment tomography in hyperarid of the underground conditions ( 2005). environments produce promising results in the context The intercept-time method as well as the Generalized of (geo-)archaeological investigations. Although the Reciprocal Method (GRM) are amongBrückl the most et al. common main focus of sediment tomography lies on the geoe- direct evaluation processes for seismic refraction data lectric investigation for archaeological prospection, the ( 997). Their advantage is that clear- results of seismic refraction tomography cnan reveal cut boundaries can be generated, with which the depth - Kirsch & Rabbel 1 (top) soil valuable data, particularly in the field of landscape evolu zone of weathering sand gravel quat. overlying stratum turf/peat loam loess clay slide rock detritus sandstone marl mudstone/shale marl stone water till gypsum chalk siltstone dolomite limestone permafrost igneous rock metamorphic rock (glacier) ice

p-wave velocity in m/sec Tab. 2. , complemented by other authors and own measurements ( 2001))

P-wave velocities in different media (compiled fromFertig Hecht 16 | Sediment tomography for archaeological purposes

tion. Information on soils and sediment structures even physik. Ernst & Sohn. Berlin: 89-96. of the deeper subsurface is an essential prerequisite for 2001. Anwendung refraktionsseismischer the interpretation of archaeological sites or settlements - with regard to the environment and its changes through Hecht, S., - history ( 007). Even more the combination of land.Methoden Stuttgarter zur Erkundung Geographische des oberflächennahen Studien 131. Unter geoelectric with magnetic surveys is exceptionally sui- grundes – mit acht Fallbeispielen aus Südwestdeutsch table for Hecht archaeological 2 purposes. Magnetic measure- ments can quickly yield detailed information about very seismic refraction methods – potentials and limitations large areas on the basis of which more narrowly focused Hecht, S., 2003. Differentiation of loose sediments with investigations, such as earth resistivity tomography, can 132: 89-102. provide precise information about the depth and topo- derived from case studies. Z. Geomorph. N. F., Suppl.-Bd. . logy of archaeological structures ( Erkundung der Kladeos-Mauer im antiken Olympia mit 2004). Hecht, S., Eitel, B., Schukraft, G., Herrmann, K., 2007 Fassbinder & Hecht If possible, 2D and 3D geoelectric surveys should be Ergebnisse - (Messkampagne vom 7.-12. März 2005). In: Hilfe geoelektrischer Tomographien (2D/3D) - vorläufige of each procedure: 3D measurements are appropriate die Ausgrabungen in Olympia 13. toperformed obtain atogether, clear layout because of archaeologicalof the different structures, strengths Deutsches Archäologisches Institut (ed). Bericht über ., 2003. Electrical resistivity tomography as whereas 2D tomographies, especially in the case of a tool for geomorphological investigations - some case dipole-dipole arrays, normally provide more detailed Kneisel, Ch data along a line because of a higher spatial resolution. Therefore, the improvement of the spatial resolution studies. Zeitschr. f. Geomorph. Suppl. Bd. (eds) 132: 2005. 37- 49. Geo- of 3D geoelectric surveys is one big challenge for the physik. Handbuch zur Erkundung des Untergrundes von future from a methodological point of view. In addition, Knödel, K., Krummel, H., Lange, G., - the measuring time in extremely dry substrata is two to three times longer than under humid conditions BerlinDeponien Heidelberg und Altlasten New York / BGR, . Bundesanstalt für Geo and should be reduced. To learn more about the wissenschaften und Rohstoffe, Band 3. 2. Aufl. Springer. 1997. Seismische Verfahren in characteristics of resistivity values of archaeological der Umweltgeophysik. In: B (ed). Umweltgeo- physik.Kirsch, Ernst R., Rabbel, & Sohn. W., Berlin: 243-311. of the tomographies be compared to archaeological eblo, M., excavationsfindings it is ofdirectly. particular The importance more geophysical that the results and ., 2005. Gleichstromgeoelektrik. In: archaeological data are compared, the better the (eds). Handbuch zur Erkundung interpretation of resistivity tomographies should be desLange, Untergrundes G von Deponien und Altlasten.Knödel, Bd. K., 3: even if no excavations are carried out. Moreover, a better Geophysik.Krummel, H., Berlin. Lange, Heidelberg: G., 128-173. understanding of geoelectric data on archaeological 1990. High-Resolution Refraction Seis- sites will help to achieve a better understanding of the mic Data Acquisition and Interpretation. In: archaeological sites themselves. (ed).Lankston, Geotechnical R.W., and environmental geophysics Vol. 1: Review and tutorial. Society of Exploration GeophysiciWard, S.H.,- 3 References sts. Tulsa: 45-73. B ., 1997. Geoelektrik - Vierpunkt-Verfahren. 1996. Practical techniques for In: B ., (ed). Umweltgeophysik. Ernst & Sohn. Ber- 3D resistivity surveys and data inversion. Geophysical lin:erktold, 97-129. A ProspectingLoke, M.H., Barker, 44: S. 499-523. R.D., eblo, M 2004. Geophysikalische 2005. Refraktionsseis- Untersuchungen zur Erforschung vorspanischer Kul- mik: Iterative Interpretationsmethoden. In: Fassbinder, J.W.E., Hecht, S., - Sandmeier, K.-J., Liebhardt,(eds). G.,Handbuch zur Erkundung dio de las culturas prehispánicas en Palpa. Neue natur- des Untergrundes von Deponien und Altlasten.Knödel, Bd. K., 3: turen in Palpa / Investigaciones geofísicos para el estu Geophysik.Krummel, H., Berlin. Lange, Heidelberg: G., 566-572. archäologische Forschung in Palpa, Peru / Nuevos méto- wissenschaftliche Methoden und Technologien für die 2005. Refraktionstomographie. In: Palpa, Perú. (eds). Publika- (eds). Handbuch zur Erkun- tiondos y zur tecnologías Feldkonferenz para la des investigación Projektverbundes arqueológica „Nasca: en dungUtecht, des T., Untergrundes von Deponien und Altlasten.Knödel, Bd. Entwicklung Reindel,und Adaption M., Wagner, archäometrischer G.A., Techniken 3:K., Geophysik. Krummel, Berlin.H., Lange, Heidelberg: G., 573-582. zur Erforschung der Kulturgeschichte“. Lima: 19-22. elektrische Tomographie. In: (ed). Umweltge- ophysik.Friedel, Ernst S., 1997. & Sohn. Hochauflösende Berlin: 131-151. Geoelektrik - Geo­ Beblo, M., 1997. Elektrische Eigen- schaften der Gesteine. In: ., (ed). Umweltgeo- Greinwald, S., Thierbach, R., Beblo, M | 17

V Case study: Buried in the sand – 3000 years of man and environ- ment along the Silk Road Dr. Stefan Hecht, Prof. Dr. Olaf Bubenzer, Dr. Bertil Mächtle, and Gerd Schukraft Heidelberg, Germany

geoelectrical earth resistivity tomography research of 1 Preliminaries the ancient cities Jiahoe and Gaochang, important tou- - rist destinations along the Silk Road. In Gaochang the ducted in Turpan, Xinjiang, funded by the Academia Tur- central part of the city was investigated while in Jiaohe, fanica,In April the 2008 Chinese first investigationsAcademy of Sciences and research and the was Heidel con- berg University, Project Global Networks. The research work concentrated on an important burial ground. In objectives were to test geophysical and geomorpholo- addition,a site protected an excursion and preserved into the surrounding by the UNESCO, area the gave field an gical-geoarchaeological methods. All planned acivities in Turpan were realised. The main focus was placed on test pit was dug on the northern edge of the Ai Ding Salt impression of the geoscientific potential of the region. A

Fig. 7. Location of the research areas of Jiaohe, Gaochang and Ai Ding (own draft). 18 | case study: Buried in the sand

Lake in the lowest part of the Turpan depression. 4 Results First results of the geoelectrical earth resistivity mea- surements could already be presented in Turpan. These presentations showed the potential of the method, inspi- 2008 focussed on earth resistivity tomopgraphies of the The main activities of the first field work phase in April red further interdisciplinary discussions and strengthe- ruins of Gaochang and of the important burial ground - Goubei at the famous city Jiaohe (see Fig. 7). ted the group and broadcast an interview (2:35 min). Additionally, short overview excursions demonstra- ned mutual confidence.The local television station visi summer school. reconstructing both palaeoenvironmental conditions as These first investigations provided the basis for the wellted the as recent huge geoscientific changes associated potential with of theglobal region change. for 2 Introduction and scientific For example, a distinct soil horizon was found in the Jia- ohe area and is to be further examined. Also a test pit objectives was dug on the north side of Ai Ding Lake, located at the lowest elevation of the Turpan depression (154 m below (Northwest China) document the long history of the nor­ - thernNumerous section archaeological of the Silk Road, findings which in once the was Turpan the most area nological results. important trade route on earth. Up to now, the archaeo- sea level), and yielded first sedimentological and chro 4.1 Earth resistivity tomography in investigated and the reason for the decline and downfall Gaochang and Goubei oflogical the ancient sites around cities remainsTurpan have unclear. only One been possibility superficially is a Between April 21 and 24, 2008, several 2D and 3D earth correlation with changes in the palaeoenvironment. resistivity tomographies were measured in the area of The cooperation of the Academia Turfanica, the Chinese the ancient city of Gaochang. In addition, 2D tomogra- Academy of Sciences and the Heidelberg Department of phies were conducted on the Goubei burial grounds of Geography aims at looking into this question and geoar- the deserted city Jiaohe. The objective of the measure- chaeologically investigating this area. ments was to explore the near-surface underground 3 Approach expected, in order to identify them and present them inat theirselected spatial sites position. where archaeological A multi-electrode findings resistivity were Besides establishing contacts and initiating cooperation, measurement system (Geotom) with a maximum of 100 electrodes was used. the♦♦ evaluatingfollowing scientific the potential goals were of the pursued: geoelectrical earth Below, selected measurements from Gaochang and Gou- resistivity tomography for further geoarchaeological - investigation in the areas of the famous ancient Silk tions were considered reasonable and were in principle Road cities Jiaohe and Gaochang and bei are presented. All findings and respective interpreta- ♦♦ nica, based on long years of excavating experience. environment interactions. confirmed by archaeologists from the Academia Turfa finding new geoarchives for reconstructing man-

Photo 1. Gaochang with earth resistivity measurement line (foreground) in the ruins of the Royal Palace. Present- day Gaochang (mosque) in the background. Summer school Turpan 2009 | 19 depth [m] depth [m] depth

Fig. 8. text for explanations). Earth resistivity tomography (2D) Gaochang 1 (99 electrodes, unit electrode spacing: 1 m, dipole-dipole configuration, see

4.1.1 Earth resistivity tomography (2D) in Gaochang 1 outline a tunnel, whose entrance can be made out at the topThe edge extremely of each high image, values approximately (red colors, 1-2 R >m 5000below Ωm) the The tomography Gaochang 1 was measured in the cen- surface (top row, left and middle images, depth levels tral area of Gaochang, where yet undetected chambers 0-70 cm and 70-150 cm). In the depth level below (150- and connecting passages are suspected (see Photo 1). 243 cm), a continuous green band from the left to the At intervals of 1 m, 99 electrodes were placed and mea- right might indicate a second connecting tunnel. Since the resistivity values are not very high here, this section data in Fig. 1 show relatively high resistivity values at of the tunnel has probably collapsed. sured with a dipole-dipole configuration. The resulting the base, 4 m deep and below, which probably represent 4.1.3 Earth resistivity tomography (2D) Goubei 1 - tinuous layer of very low resistivity values (blue colors, On the burial grounds Goubei of the deserted city Jia- fluvial gravel or sand. Above this follows an almost con (or derivatives thereof). Sections of higher resistivity measured (see Photo 2). Given its size and its exposed R < 50 Ωm), which can be assigned to the overlying loess location,ohe a profile this transectingseems to be a thesuspected most important grave mound grave was in Goubei. top(green, two yellow meters and very red high colors, values R >(red 100 colors) Ωm) disrupt are recor the- The distribution of resistivity values along the cross-sec- ded,loess which and indicatecan also archeologicalpoint to archaeological findings. remains. Within the In tion shows comparatively high values at the base (red some cases old subsurface excavation sites are detected, resistivity values. Especially interesting for future exca- colors, R > 2000 Ωm), which can presumably be assigned- vationswhere the are loose those sediments areas where of the higherrefill cause values very extend high tives.to fluvial Conspicuous terrace sediments. vertical structures The lower with values intermediate above this resistivity(blue colors, values R < 100 interrupt Ωm) represent this area, loess possibly or loess indicating deriva see Fig. 8). several meters deep (e.g. profile meter 25-30 or 65-70, subsurface burial chambers. Archaeological excavations 4.1.2 Earth resistivity tomography (3D) Gao- of similar burial mounds in Goubei had already revealed chang 3D several such burial chambers. The most distinct feature Also within the central area, a 3D tomography was mea- - sured in order to explore the structures and the exact can be identified approximately 2-5 m below the surface spatial location of the suspected underground cham- sectionbetween 17 profile to 20 meterm. During 26 and the 30. projected A second summer vertical school struc bers and passages. For this purpose 100 electrodes thisture gravecan be is distinguished to be examined at a in similar more depthdetail inby the means profile of were arranged in a two-dimensional layout, spaced at a as to obtain a complete three-dimensional image of the entireparallel burial 2D profiles mound and and additional its internal 3D structure. tomographies, so thedistance resistivity of 1 meter values each at several (measuring horizontal field 9depth x 9 m) levels. and measured with a pole-pole configuration. Fig. 9 displays 20 | case study: Buried in the sand

Fig. 9. Earth resistivity tomography (3D) Gaochang 3D: horizontal distribution of the resistivity values, recorded at increasing depth levels (100 electrodes, unit electrode spacing: 1 m, pole-pole configuration, see text for explanations).

Photo 2. Set-up of cables and electrodes across the burial mound of Goubei (foreground with security camera). Ruins of the Silk Road city Jiaohe in the background. Summer school Turpan 2009 | 21 depth [m] depth depth [m] depth

Fig. 10. for explanations). Earth resistivity tomography (2D) Goubei (50 electrodes, unit electrode spacing: 1 m, dipole-dipole configuration, see text 4.2 Test pit at Ai Ding Salt Lake A test pit, 1.5 m deep, was dug in the deepest part of the Turpan depression, on the northern edge of Ai Ding Lake, probably the area of thickest and most complete sediment conservation (cf. Photo 3). We found a strati- apply the well-proven method of percussion core dril- lingfied tosediment reach deeper composition. sediment Therefore layers. it was planned to 5 Conclusions and outlook The visited sites in the Turpan area are extraordinarily well-suited for future investigations regarding geoar- chaeological questions within our project „Buried in the Sand – 3000 Years of Man and Environment along the Silk Road”. The interdisciplinary cooperation of the disciplines Geo- graphy (Heidelberg), Archaeology (Academia Turfanica) and Palaeobotany (Prof. Li, Chin. Academy of Sciences, Beijing) provides an excellent opportunity for a future joint research project „Reconstruction of palaeoenvi- ronmental changes along the northern Silk Road and impacts on its historical development” in the Turpan region.

Photo 3. Test pit Ai Ding Lake. 22 |

VI Satellite data and digital elevation models as tools for landscape reconstruction Dr. Andreas Bolten, Cologne, Germany 1 Satellite data 2 Elevation model from The use of satellite data has become more and more satellite data important during the last 20 years. Even in less acces- - sible regions, satellite data can assist in many types of lopment of a digital elevation model. The Shuttle Radar questions. In addition, they can be used as a map sub- TopographyDifferent techniques Mission (SRTM)and data obtained bases exist area-wide for the topodeve- stitute in regions barely covered with cartographic data. graphy data of the earth‘s surface between 60° N and For these regions, maps up to scales of 1:50,000 with 56°S latitude. The radar-instrument consisted of a main additional information layers (e.g. waypoints or tracks) antenna located in the payload bay of the Space Shuttle Endeavour, a mast connected to the main antenna truss, the use of free or low cost satellite and elevation data for and an outboard antenna connected to the end of the landscapeare now available reconstruction on demand. and theThis combination chapter reflects options on mast. The active remote sensing method registered the with other data sources of the same region to get an emitted radar radiation and calculated the elevation by added value of interdisciplinary work. an interferogram. The SRTM-3 model has a resolution of three arc seconds (approx. 90 m), was calculated from the time of admission and the spatial resolution, which describesThe fundamental the edge difference length of each of the pixel. satellite Figure data11 gives used an is overview of the position of each cell in a raster dataset, its cell size and additional information of each pixel (e.g. the elevation corresponding with the pixel, the type of surface). In addition, the spectral resolution of the data is very important. Besides the colours red, green and blue, sensors are able to absorb radiation in a very broad range in the close and near infrared (Fig. 12). Table 3 gives an overview of satellite data which can be acquired at no or of the satellite images. The highest resolution with a celllow sizecosts of and 60 Figurecm is taken 13 shows from thesatellite different data resolutionswith costs Fig. 11. Illustration of a raster dataset with co- (QuickBird). ordinates (x,y), the cell size and an additional information z (e.g. the elevation value).

Fig. 12. ASTER compared to Landsat ETM+. The rectangular boxes (red: ASTER, black: Landsat ETM+) indicate the multispectral sensor chan- nels. The coloured curve in the background represents the atmospheric transmission depending on the wavelength. The vertical dashed line marks the approximate margin of visible light. Abbreviations for the sections of the light spectrum: VNIR = visible and near infrared, SWIR = short-wave infrared and TIR = thermal infrared. Summer school Turpan 2009 | 23

Tab. 3. Short overview of selected satellite data with resolution, bands and additional information. Name Resolution (pixel size) Bands Comment MODIS 250-1000 m 36 2 bands with 250 m reso- lution Landsat 7 14.25 m Panchromatic Free of charge until ca. 2002 28.5 m 6 SRTM 90 m 1 Elevation model (60°N-56°S) ASTER 15 m VNIR 3 (1 stereo) Low cost, ca. 70 € each scene, each 3600 km² 30 m SWIR 6 90 m TIR 5 ASTER GDEM 30 m 1 Global elevation model

Fig. 13. (QuickBird) with a cell size of 60 cm. The black frame in the boxes A-C indicates the extent of the next detail (C-D). The MODIS image (A) shows Different resolutions of satellite images of the Turpan region. The highest resolution is taken from satellite data not free of charge red colours as a result of an infrared shifted red colour channel. The QuickBird image (D) shows a remarkably high resolution of about 60 cm. a very natural colour layout with sand, bedrock and oasis ground. The Landsat 7 (B) and ASTER (C) images highlight the vegetation; ASTER in 24 | Satellite data and digital elevation models

the more detailed SRTM-1 model, and is available free of charge in different processing steps. - stions. With a resolution of 15 m for the spectral area of green,The ASTER red and instrument near infrared is used a forgood different natural typesappearance of que and a use of maps up to 1:50,000 is possible. Additio- nally, the scenes are often multitemporally available and comparable to the Landsat 7 images and analyses tech- niques. For every ASTER-scene taken in nadir position a second backward image is taken several seconds later with ano- image (Fig. 14). With the help of computer software it isther possible camera to positionedderive a digital at a elevation discrete anglemodel to which the first has half the resolution of the original pixel size (30 m). Com- Fig. 14. Illustration of the recording of stereo scenes in an along-track process (ASTER band 3n and 3b). bining the elevation data and the satellite images ena- bles to display a 3-dimensional image. Figure 15 shows a model of the summer school region in Turpan. 3 Combination of elevation Since August 2009 a global elevation model from ASTER and field data data is available free of charge and can be obtained via On the basis of the digital elevation models further infor- the Internet. However, only a few quality studies are mation can be deduced. These are basic data such as presented, the GDEM provides a 9 times higher resolved inclination or exposition of the slopes as well as hydro- elevation model than the SRTM-model. However, the advances in the spatial resolution of satellite images are still in progress. In 2009, the WorldView II satellites suchlogical data data, can e.g. be the combined flow direction with otheror the data watershed obtained of will launch. With a spatial resolution better than 50 cm byfluvial other systems. disciplines. In anFor interdisciplinaryinstance, every archaeological investigation (identical to the present WorldView I) it will obtain nearly remnant or archaeological site can be combined with its 20 % more pixels and data per area than QuickBird- elevation data and the derived data from the elevation data. Additionally, in comparison to the QuickBird-data model. Hence, an interdisciplinary dataset is generated (cf. Fig. 13 D), more channels are planned to enable connected in a spatial matrix. In result, the dataset with multispectral analysis in highest resolution. the external data and the internal elevation parameters

Fig. 15. 3-dimensional image of satellite data (Landsat 7) of the summer school region in Turpan (facing north-west, dimension approx. 90 km, 5-times exaggerated). Summer school Turpan 2009 | 25

cene land-use potential in arid regions. Geoarchaeology., the datasets. 21(7): 751-762. can be compared statistically to find relations between Using this technique for the western Desert of Egypt, the change in land use between the early and the middle 2009. Towards a Reconstruction of Land Use Potential. CaseBolten, Studies A., Bubenzer, from the Western O., Darius, Desert F., of Kindermann, Egypt. In: K.,- (eds). African Landscapes. Studies Holocene could be verified (cf. Fig. 16). in Human Ecology and Adaptation, 4: 57-77. Springer.Bol 4 Further readings lig, M., Bubenzer, O. 2000. The Advance Spaceborne Thermal 2008. The use of new elevation - data (SRTM/ASTER) for the detection and morphome- ductsAbrams, for M.,the high spatial resolution imager on NASA‘s Bubenzer, O., Bolten, A., TerraEmission platform. and Reflection Int. J. Remote Radiometer Sensing, (ASTER): 21(5): 847-859. data pro the eastern Sahara and the southern Namib. Geomor- phology,tric quantification 102: 221-231. of Pleistocene megadunes (draa) in 2006. New Elevation Data (SRTM/ASTER) for Geomorphological and Geoarchaeo- 2007. Atlas of Envi- Bolten, A., Bubenzer, O., ronmental Change and Human Adaptation in Arid Africa. 265-279. Heinrich-Barth-InstitutBubenzer, O., Bolten, A., e.V., Darius, Köln, 240F., + 60 pp. logical Research in Arid Regions. ZFG, Suppl. 142(142): 2006. A digital ele- 1993. Geographical Information Systems as vation model as a base for the reconstruction of Holo- Bolten, A., Bubenzer, O., Darius, F., N.F.,Dikau, Supplement R., Band, 92: 231-239. Tools in Geomorphology. Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie

Fig. 16.

the changeCombination in land use of from archaeological the early to data the ofmiddle a finding Holocene region based in the on western a climate Desert change. of Egypt and the parameters of the elevation model (flow accumulation and the relative topographic position) to verify 26 | Satellite data and digital elevation models

2004. Remote sensing and image interpretation. Wiley, New York,Lillesand, 763 pp. T.M., Kiefer, R.W., Chipman, J.W., - 2006. SRTM vs ASTER elevation products. Com- parisonNikolakopoulos, for two regions K.G., Kamaratakis, in Crete, Greece. E.K., International Chrysoula Journalkis, N., of Remote Sensing, 27(21-22): 4819-4838. , (2009, in press): Com- bining digital elevation data (ASTER/SRTM), high reso- lutionSiart, satelliteC., Bubenzer, imagery O., (Quickbird)Eitel, B. and GIS for geomor- phological mapping: a multi-component case study on Mediterranean karst in Central Crete. Geomorphology, DOI:10.1016/j.geomorph.2009.05.010.

5 Examples of satellite images of the Turpan region

Fig. 17. 1:250.000 - Landsat 7 - 2000. Summer school Turpan 2009 | 27

Fig. 18. 1:100.000 - ASTER - 3 - 2002.

Fig. 19. 1:100.000 - ASTER 8 - 2009. 28 | Satellite data and digital elevation models

Fig. 20. 1:5.000 - QuickBird - GoogleEarth.

Fig. 21. 1:2.500 - QuickBird - GoogleEarth. Summer school Turpan 2009 | 29

Fig. 22. 1:5.000 - QuickBird - GoogleEarth. 30 |

VII Basics of laser scanning Dirk Hoffmeister, Cologne, Germany

the head can be moved. The latter may be switched to a 1 Introduction 2D-mode. Although this new technique cannot be demonstrated during the summer school, this chapter is presented to 3 Carrier show the potential of this method for geomorphologi- Airborne laser scanning (ALS), alternatively referred to cal and archaeological usage. Laser scanning is a high- as Lidar (Light Detecting and Ranging), is the most deve- precision measurement technique. It uses laser-light, loped method. Other possibilities are terrestrial laser mostly with near-infrared wave lengths. In contrast to scanning (TLS), mobile laser scanning (MLS) and kine- hand devices or total stations it does not measure one or matic laser scanning (KLS). several points at a time, but thousands of single points in a second. With ALS, airborne vehicles carry a 2D laser scanner. The scanned distances are relative to the position of the After generating these huge unstructured point clouds airplane. To obtain the absolute position of a point on they need to be interpreted unlike former geodetic sur- the ground, a high-accuracy inertial navigation system veying. Overall, the acquisition of objects is revolutio- (INS) is used, which consists of inertial measuring units nized by this technique. It uses photogrammetric and (IMUs) and a global navigation satellite system (GNSS). geodetic principles and is an active remote sensing tech- With this method highly accurate digital height models nique (Fig. 23). (DHM) derived or digital elevation models (DHM) can 3D laser scanners are used extensively in a wide variety be obtained. The point spacing and accuracy can be less of applications including: as-built documentation, archi- than 30 cm. This data is essential for generating 3D-city tecture, heritage restoration, facility management, fore- models and is used for a huge amount of geographical stry, agriculture, power/piping, construction, surveying, issues, like hydrological modeling. TLS is ground-based, the scanner is usually mounted game development. Laser scanners can be distinguished on a tripod and normally uses a 3D-scanner. To achieve byforensics, their mode, accident carrier reconstruction, and sensor. films/movies, and a whole 3D object, like a house or a large rock, it is

2 Mode The resulting partial point clouds should then be regi- Laser scanners work either in a 2D or 3D mode. 2D means sterednecessary to create to scan one thecomplete object point from cloud different of the object positions. of that the laser beam direction can only be redirected in interest. Laser scanners can be equipped with a digital one direction, e.g. up and down a single line. 3D laser scanners can move in two different directions. Usually

Fig. 23. Terrestrial laser scanning principle. Summer school Turpan 2009 | 31

camera for colorization of the point cloud and texturing of light is a known and the round-trip time – twice the the object, for photo-realistic representations. distance between the scanner and the surface – is mea- sured. The distance to the object can then be calculated. MLS is a technique where laser scanners are mounted This technique has a maximum range of more than 1 km on moveable vehicles like cars or boats. Equipped with and an accuracy of 1 cm and is the most common. an INS, they are capable of recording a huge amount of data by passing the objects of interests, e.g. coast lines, harbors, streets or whole cities. This technique matches 5 Post-processing ALS-data with a side perspective. Moveable targets such The post-processing phase is more important than in as trucks or bridges can also be surveyed, this method alternative surveying techniques. Usually scans are regi- being called Kinematic Laser Scanning (KLS). of an object is selected and can then be used for further 4 Sensors stered or georeferenced first, then the whole point cloud question. analysis. This further analysis depends on the scientific There are at least three different types of sensors, each 6 Georeferencing /Registration with different pros and cons. Sensors can be based on In the case of ALS or MLS scans can be geoferenced by beam.principles of triangulation, phase-shift, or time-of-flight range detection. All use a mirror to deflect the laser Triangulation scanners shine a laser dot on the object scan positions can be registered to one another and which then is received and measured by a camera. This transINS data­formed in ainto global one coordinatesingle project system. coordinate Different system TLS technique is called triangulation because the laser dot, - the camera and the laser emitter form a triangle. The tion), known and selected common points or data-driven length of one side of the triangle, the distance between algorithmsby using the (comp. same Fig.special 24). reflectors This single (automatic project coordi detec- the camera and the laser sensor and the corresponding nate system then can be translated to a global coordi- angle (right-angle) is known. Therefore the distance and nate system by using known surveying points (indirect angle to the object can be calculated. These laser scan- detection of the laser sensor) or GNSS measurements ners have a maximum range of about 10 m and an accu- (direct detection of the laser sensor). racy of 0.5 mm. They are usually used for archaeological 7 Further analysis so on. documentation of small objects, like vases, figures and After selecting the point cloud of the object of interest, - there are two possible ways for further analyses. Overall rent phases to capture data on the object. The sensor these analyses can be divided into two major categories: Phase-shift laser scanners use laser light at three diffe data-driven (or iconic) approaches and interpreting (or surface. A phase-shift laser has a maximum range of 80 symbolic) approaches. Iconic analysis directly uses the manalyzes and an theaccuracy phase-shift of 1 mm. of the reflected beam on the points and triangulates them to surfaces, which then can be analyzed and textured (Fig. 25). Symbolic analyses use the point clouds indirectly, usu- Time-of-flight laser scanners analyze the distance to ally in CAD programmes, to rebuild objects with the an object by measuring the time difference taken from sending out the laser pulse until its reflection. The speed

Fig. 24.

Registration of three different scan positions. The different scan positions are registered to one another by using the same three targets from every position. Every scanning coordinate system (X2-Z2) is translated to a common project coordinate system (X-Z). 32 | Basics of laser scanning

high-accuracy measurements of the scanner. It is a kind of generalization process (cf. Fig. 26). 8 Geomorphological and archaeological usage - morphological and archaeological questions there are As mentioned above there is a wide field of use. For geo specificGeomorphology: usages. Boulder mass detection ( 2008) Fault displacement ( 2008) • Armesto 2005) et al. • Landslides (T Oldow & Singleton • 2009)Cliff erosion Rosser( et al. Documentation• of culturaleza et heritage: al. 2007; Dunning et al. Detection of archaeological areas in forests by ALS ( 2007) Fig. 25. Iconic analysis of a statue. From left to right • 3D modeling of sites, e.g. Pinchango Alto, Palpa, Peru and above to below: point cloud, triangulation, surface model and thinning. Doneus et al. 2007) • Reconstruction of building components ( (Lambers2008) et al. Pleistocene and Holocene fault displacement from the • Herdt & - Jones, nal basin, northern Great Basin, USA. - Geosphere, 4 (3): 9 References 536-563.offset of pluvial lake shorelines in the Alvord extensio 9.1 Basic literature - 2007. Photogrammetry: Geometry from 2005. Terrestrial laser scanning for monitoring Rosser, N. J., Petley, D. N., Lim, M., Dunning, S. A., Alli Images and Laser Scans.- Walter de Gruyter, Berlin, New son, R. J., York.Kraus, Chapter K., 8. Journal of Engineering Geology and Hydrogeology, 38 (4):the process363-375. of hard rock coastal cliff erosion. - Quarterly 9.2 Specific Literature T 2007. A ., 2008. Terrestrial laser scanner to detect landslide displace- eza, G., Galgaro, A., Zaltron, N., Genevois, R., Terrestrial laser scanning used to determine the geome- tryrmesto, of a granite J., Ordóñez, boulder C.,for Alejano, stability L.,analysis Arias, purposes. P Remote Sensing, 28 (16): 3425-3446. ment fields: a new approach. - International Journal of - Geomorphology, 106 (3-4): 271-277. 2008. Archaeological prospection of forested areas using full- waveformDoneus, M., airborne Briese, laser C., scanning. Fera, M., - Journal Janner, of M.Archaeo- logical Science, 35 (4): 882-893. 2009. Structu- ral and geomorphological features of landslides in the BhutanDunning, Himalaya S. A., Massey, derived C. I., from Rosser, Terrestrial N. J., Laser Scan- ning. - Geomorphology, 103 (1): 17-29. -

2007.Lambers, Combining K., Eisenbeiss, photogrammetry H., Sauerbier, and laser M., scanning Kupfer forschmidt, the recording D., Gaisecker, and modelling T., Sotoodeh, of the Late S., Intermediate Hanusch, T., Period site of Pinchango Alto, Palpa, Peru. - Journal of Archaeological Science, 34 (10): 1702-1712. 2008. Scanning Ancient Buil- dings. - Photogrammetrie - Fernerkundung - Geoinfor- mation,Herdt, G.,4: 245-251. Jones, M. W., 2008. Application of Terre- strial Laser Scanning in determining the pattern of late Oldow, J. S., Singleton, E. S., Summer school Turpan 2009 | 33

Fig. 26. point cloud information, 3D volume, further building of roof top and architectonic features. Symbolic analysis in a CAD programme. From left to right and above to below: outline detection, offset by using 34 |

VIII Investigation, sampling and inter- pretation of soil profiles and fluvial sediments Prof. Olaf Bubenzer, Heidelberg, Germany

Information on the morphological and pedological con- The episodical, periodical or permanent discharge of water in the wadis, along with possible ground water, also for archaeological ones. Understanding the sedi- provides sedimentary input (wadi sediments) and more mentationditions is not circumstances only relevant and for soilgeoscientific formations issues helps but to evaluate the state of preservation of near-surface archae- water particles of varying grain size were and are ero- - ded,humid transported conditions. and Depending deposited. on The the prevailing flow rate soils of theon over, this knowledge provides an indication of present andological past sites land and use to forms. locate Thus,possible buried buried (fossil) finds. soils More in soil material. The ability to circulate and store water is arid environments are evidence of more humid climates, stronglyfluvial sediments dependent are on characterized the proximity byto thefinely ground laminated water while sediment layers deposited by wind indicate dryer and the present grain sizes. The fertile soils of the oases climatic conditions. The sediments at hand and the geo- in the region of Turfan can therefore be found along the morphological context allow drawing conclusions about rivers and on the edge of depressions, where the melt the presently and formerly active surface processes, for water from the surrounding mountains can be used as example whether the sedimentation was controlled by surface or emerging ground water. After longer periods

(gravity). Therefore, investigations of relief, sediments In the mostly endorheic basins (depressions) the sur- andflowing soils or form standing the basis water, of geoarchaeology. wind or sliding processes of drought, though, salts and sulfides can accumulate. - in the Turfan depression lies close to the surface. High ments at selected sites will be investigated and sampled, ratesface run-off of evaporation collects. In as addition, a result the of theground predominating water table basedDuring on the the summer knowledge school, of the soil natural profiles context and fluvial (see chap sedi- arid climatic conditions therefore lead to an accumula- - tions the current hyperarid climatic conditions in the sediments. The prevailing soils are Solonchacks, saline Turfanter II). Outside depression of river admit and only groundwater very sparse influenced vegetation loca or tion especially of salt in the predominantly fine-grained none at all. Consequently, the soils are only weakly deve- high concentration – encrustation. loped and poor in organic substance. In addition, these soils with a puffy, porose structure or – in the case of a In the past, longer periods of humidity (several hundreds to thousands of years) resulted in the formation of exposed (windward) positions in the terrain sediments locations are strongly influenced by the wind, so that in aeolian sediments buried these paleosols, which is why positions sediments are deposited. distinct soils. Subsequently deposited fluvial and/or are eroded by deflation while in sheltered (leeward) - the past climatic conditions and possible anthropogenic mine the soil formations found there. Thus, on blowout landthey areuse alsoforms. called fossil soils. They offer an insight into surfacesThe resulting with angular surface weathering conditions debris significantly (hamada) deter so- For the detailed description and sampling of sediments called Leptosols dominate, poorly developed, shallow - soils, usually with large amounts of gravel, able to store only little water. On sand as well as gravel plains (serir) pH-value,and soils different calcium instruments carbonate concentration, and methods structure,will be pre Arenosols (poorly developed sandy soils with a high colorsented and in thehumus field content and parameters will be measured such as orgrain estima size,- ted. Additionally, with the help of the following forms, water storage capacity, and mostly low soil fertility), as many of the surrounding positions as possible shall Calcisolsinfiltration (soils rate with during little precipitation organic substance, but low substantial long-term be consistently characterized with regard to their relief, secondary accumulation of carbonates, high water sto- substrates and soils. rage but low circulation capacity) and Gypsisols (light- brown/brown to white due to secondary accumulation of gypsum, middle to high water storage capacity) pre- vail. In lower areas (wadis and depressions) sediment input, both by wind and – if present – by ground or surface water (melt water, rain water), usually predominates. Summer school Turpan 2009 | 35

Geoarchaeological Summer School Turfan 2009 - Standard Form “Relief, Bedrock, Sediments and Soils” Editor: Date: Time:

Location: Photo(s): Altitude (m a.s.l.): Relief- □ Ridge □ Top □ Slope Shoulder1 □ Upper Slope □ Middle Slope □ Lower Slope □ Slope Base position: □ Plateau □ Basin □ Plain □ Wadi Bottom □ Escarpment2 □ Alluvial Fan Prominent landmarks (visible on the satellite image):

[Vicinity & location of such landmarks (distance [m] & bearing [compass]). Example: Situated at the southern edge of a wadi mouth, 2 km southwest = 225° of a dune head / a bedrock outcrop / a single tree / an escarpment edge. Or: Southern end of an eastern barchan horn on a dark sandstone hamada surface with average stone diameters of 3–5 cm; around 2 km south of an escarpment.]

Slope: ° Exposition: ° [Only for slopes: direction of the slope inclination]

Vertical curvature [along the main slope gradient]: □ concave □ convex □ elongated

Horizontal curvature [parallel to the contour lines]: □ concave □ convex □ elongated

Subsurface Character: □ Bedrock □ Alluvial Sediments □ Serir3 □ Hamada4 □ Dune5 □ Sandsheet □ Wadi □ Wadi terrace □ Former lake bottom □ Other

Soil: Grain size □ stony □ sandy □ silty □ clayey □ salty □ gypsic Thickness cm Moisture □ moist □ dry Remarks Colour [MUNSELL-Value] =

[e.g. 7.5 YR 6/3 = light brown or light brown (Description without MUNSELL-Value)] Sample(s): Depth(s): cm

Vegetation: □ nonexistent □ existent □ Grass □ Herbs □ Shrubs □ Trees

Coverage % Coverage living plants [partly green] % dead %

Actual morphodynamics [prevailing morphodynamic processes]:

Aeolian: □ Accumulation □ Erosion □ [by wind] □ Corrasion [by wind]

Fluvial: □ Accumulation □ Erosion □ Deflationlinear □ area wide (Denudation) Gravitative Processes:

[e.g. Rock Fan from coarse blocks with grain sizes of 10–50 cm.] 1 = Transition plain/slope. 2 E.g. in combination with „lower slope“. 3 Pebbly (rounded scree material), by trend of small diameter (up to around 5 cm), e.g. alluvial fan. 4 Angular/sharp-edged, by trend of big blocks (diameter mostly > 5 cm). 5 When indicated differentiate between barchan, parabolic dune, longitudinal dune, mega dune (Draa), star dune, grid dune. 36 | Investigation, sampling and interpretation of soil profiles and fluvial sediments

Sketch of the situation(s)6 or detailed photo documentation(s) [View/compass, zoom lens, scale]:

6 e.g. location of the reference point within a slope profile and/or the archaeological site. | 37

IX Drilling techniques Gerd Schukraft, Heidelberg, Germany

1 Percussion drilling The mobility of the percussion drilling equipment and its easy and practical use are the reasons that percussion drilling has carved out its own place beside standard hand drilling methods.

gasolineIn the case powered of percussion percussion drilling hammer. the core By sampler,executing filled this withprocedure a liner step-wise, tube and meterfitted with by meter, a hardened the introduction cutting head and (see extraction Fig. 27), of is thedriven core into sampler the soil is usingsimpli a- fied and contamination is avoided as much as possible (cf. Fig. 28). Samples takenPercussion using drillingpercussion is for drilling instance suffer applied minimal for researchdisturbance. on soil and sediment - tions, soil pollution etc. It is usually applied when drilling has to be executed instratigraphy, harder soils, grain possibly size distribution, containing layers general of gravelsoil classification, and stones. profileThe percussion descrip core sampler can penetrate rubble and thus can also be deployed on dump sites or in urban areas. It can be used above as well as below the groundwater level. A percussion drilling installation is a complete and many-sided sampling system for not too hard types of sediments, up to a depth of about 10 to 15 meters with 1 meter extension rods. When drilling in muddy or clayey soils, however, there is a risk of partially losing sediments because of their bypassing the opening of the percussion core sampler. Also, drilling in wet sand or gravel below the groundwater level can plug the core sampler with coarse material, which will

Fig. 27. Percussion drilling equip- tubing of the borehole is necessary. ment with core sampler, transparent lead to the same filling being extracted in spite of deeper drilling. In this case a pvc-liner, cutting head, core catcher, striking pen for gasoline percussion hammer, extension rod.

Fig. 28. Step-wise sampling by using percussion drilling equipment. 38 |

X Lecturers

Prof. Dr. Cheng-Sen Li Cheng-Sen Li began to study geosciences at the Department of Geo- logy, Peking University, in 1973 and obtained a B.A. degree in 1977. Coordinator Chinese side From 1978 to 1986 he studied biological sciences at the Institute Institute of Botany, of Botany, CAS, and was conferred M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees. He took post-doctorate and research associate positions at the Institute Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing of Palaeontology, Bonn University, and the Senckenberg Institute, Frankfurt, Germany, from 1987 to 1989. Afterwards he lectured as visiting scholar at the University of Wales, UK, and the University of Liege, Belgium. In 1990, Dr. Cheng-Sen Li was promoted to be Full Professor at the Institute of Botany, CAS. He served as Director of the Department of Palaeobotany, Director of the National Museum of Plant History and Deputy Director of the Institute of Botany, CAS (until 1998). Professor Cheng-Sen Li is the president of the Palaeobotanical Asso- ciation, Botanical Society of China, fellow of the Linnean Society, UK, honorary member of the Palaeobotanical Section, Botanical Society No. 20, Nanxincun, Xiangshan, Beijing of America, and member of several other societies, i.e. Botanical Soci- 100093, China ety of America, International Associate of Wood Anatomists, Bota- [email protected] nical Society of China, Palaeontological Society of China, Geological Society of China. His research interests inlude the origin, develop- cseb.ibcas.ac.cn/LiChengsen.htm ment and diversity of ferns and seed plants in the geological past, Tel.: +86 10-62836436 vegetation successions and their response to the global climate Fax: +86 10-62593385 North America, and between East Asia and Europe. changes, and tertiary floristic relationships between East Asia and Prof. Dr. Olaf Bubenzer Olaf Bubenzer studied geography, geology, soil sciences and mete- orology at the Universities of Cologne and Bonn, Germany, got his Coordinator German side Diploma in 1992 and his Ph.D. (Dr. rer. nat.) in 1998. He was lec- Chair of Physical Geography, Department turer, junior researcher, senior researcher and associate professor at of Geography the Department of Geography in Cologne, Germany, between 1992 and 2007. In 2005 he gave a short guest lecture at the University of University of Heidelberg Kocice, Slovakia. Since 2006 he is secretary of the commission “Arid Lands, Humankind and Environment” of the International Geogra- phical Union (IGU). In 2007 he became professor at the Department of Geography, Uni- Geography during his incumbency as president of the University of Im Neuenheimer Feld 348, 69120 Heidel- versityHeidelberg. of Heidelberg, Since 2008 representing he is Vice-Dean Prof. of B. the Eitel’s Faculty chair of ofChemistry Physical berg, Germany and Geosciences of the University of Heidelberg and Chairman of the working group “Desert Margin Research” of the German Asso- Tel.: +49(0)6221-54-4595 ciation for Geography. In 2009 he was elected a Marsilius Fellow Fax.: +49(0)6221-54-4997 of the Excellence Initiative of the University of Heidelberg for one year. His research interests include geoarchaeology and landscape [email protected] www.geog.uni-heidelberg.de/personen/ in arid regions, and quaternary geochronology and application of physio_bubenzer.html reconstructiondating techniques in aridin Africa, regions, East aeolian Asia and and Australia. fluvial morphodynamics Prof. Hua-Yu Lu Hua-Yu Lu is a professor and Vice-Dean at the School of Geography and Oceanographical Sciences, Nanjing University. He has been wor- School of Geographic and Oceanographic king in the arid and semiarid region of central Asia for ten years. He Sciences, Nanjing University is one of the members who won the 2003 National Elite Young Sci- No.22, Hankou Road, Nanjing 210093, - China nical Award for Youths. In a broad international research context he entistworks Fund, together and withhe also scientists received in the Earth 2007 Sciences National and Scientific-Tech Archaeology. Tel.: +86 25-8368 6740 - logy of aeolian deposits and palaeolithic archaeology. He has publis- Fax: +86 25-8359 2686 Hished scienmore­tific than work 90 papers involves in climate peer-reviewed change, journals,geomorphology, and carried chrono out [email protected] several research projects including NSFC, CAS and others. He has experience in cooperating with German scientist, especially with the de.nju.edu.cn/jingpin2007/zrdlx/zjjs-2. Alfred-Wegener-Institut for Polar and Marine Research, Bremerha- htm ven Summer school Turpan 2009 | 39

Prof. Xiao-Qiang Li - Institute of Earth Environment, CAS Prof.research Li’s tointerests the natural lie in records the history of early of palaeovegetation, contact between palaeocliwest and mate,east Asia fire and and ancient human agriculture activity in in China. the middle Recently, Yellow he River extended valley, his to discuss the complex interactions between humans and the environ- ment during the Holocene. Tel.:10 Fenghui +86 29-88324671 South Road, Xi’an High-Tech Zone, Xi’an 710075, China Fax: +86 29-88320456 [email protected] english.ieecas.cn/User_Info. asp?Key=100007 Associate Prof. Dr. Xiao Li Prof. Li studied archaeology at the Northwest University, Chinese Academy of Sciences and the Peking University. Since 2004 he is the Academia Turfanica, Turfan Dean of Academia Turfanica and since 2006 the director of the Stu- Gaochang Road 224, Turpan, Xinjiang dies of Dunhuang and Turpan. He has working experiences in many Autonomous Region, 838000, China important archaeological research projects, i.e. the protection resto- ration project of the Ancient Ruins of Jiaohe, supported by UNESCO Tel.: +86 13909952298 and the State Bureau of Cultural Relics, the cooperative archaeolo- gical research on the Gouxi burial grounds of Jiaohe Ancient City in Fax: +86 995 8523189 Turpan. [email protected] de.nju.edu.cn/jingpin2007/zrdlx/zjjs-2. htm Associate Prof. Hong-En Jiang archaeobotany/palaeoethnobotany, wood anatomy as well as seed/ Department of Archaeometry, Graduate Dr. Hong-En Jiang’s research interests lie in vegetation history and University of CAS unearthed in Xinjiang, he also paid attention to the other archaeo- 19 (A) Yuquan Road, Shijingshan District, fruitlogical identification. sites. While he mainly worked on the plant remains Beijing 100049, China Tel.: +86 (0) 10-88256417 Fax: +86 (0) 10-88256417 [email protected] Dr. Stefan Hecht Stefan Hecht studied geography, geology, botany, soil sciences and urban planning at the Universities of Stuttgart and Hohenheim, Ger- Department of Geography, University of many. He received his Diploma in Geography in 1994 and his PhD (Dr. Heidelberg rer. nat.) in 2001. During this time he was lecturer and research assi- stant at the Department of Geography in Stuttgart, Germany. Since Im Neuenheimer Feld 348, 69120 Heidel- 2002 he is lecturer and assistant professor at the Department of berg, Germany Geography, University of Heidelberg, Germany. Stefan Hecht is also a Tel.: +49 (0) 2261 – 54 5529 study advisor at the Department of Geography. He has been in­volved in many geoarchaeological projects, e.g. in Nasca/Palpa (Peru), Anci- Fax: + 49 (0) 2261 – 54 4997 [email protected] various projects in southern Germany. His research interests include entthe Olympia application (Greece), of geophysical Zominthos methods (Crete), Vráble in geomorphology (Slovakia) and and in www.geog.uni-heidelberg.de/personen/ geoarchaeology, and landscape reconstruction in arid regions, and physio_hecht.html environmental history and landscape evolution. Dr. Bertil Mächtle Bertil Mächtle studied geography, geology, soil sciences and plant ecology at the Universities of Stuttgart and Hohenheim, Germany, Department of Geography, University of received his Diploma in 2002 and his Ph.D. (Dr. rer. nat.) in 2007. Heidelberg Since 2002 he is a research associate at the Department of Geogra- Im Neuenheimer Feld 348, 69120 Heidel- phy, University of Heidelberg. His research interests include geo- berg, Germany morphology and palaeoenvironmental reconstruction in drylands, geoarchaeology and ancient irrigation systems, and remote sensing Tel: +49 6221 54-4577 applications in geomorphology. Fax: +49 6221 54-4997 [email protected] www.geog.uni-heidelberg.de/personen/ physio_maechtle.html 40 | lecturers

Dipl.-Geol. Gerd Schukraft at BASF from 1970-1973, got an university-entrance diploma of Department of Geography, University of second-chance education in 1976, and studied chemistry from 1976- Heidelberg Gerd Schukraft completed an in-firm training as laboratory assistant Im Neuenheimer Feld 348, 69120 Heidel- studied geology and palaeontology from 1983-1989. Since 1989 he berg, Germany 1982.is the leaderFrom 1982 of the to Laboratory 1983 he had of aGeomorphology job at Grünzweig+Hartmann, und Geoecology then at the Department of Geography, University of Heidelberg. His research Tel.: +49 (0) 2261 – 54 4576 - Fax: + 49 (0) 2261 – 54 4997 intereststechniques. include geology and sedimentology, geoscientific labora [email protected] tory analyses, and development and application of geoscientific field www.geog.uni-heidelberg.de/personen/ physio_schukraft.html Dr. Andreas Bolten Andreas Bolten studied geography and physics at the University of Cologne and completed his degree with the state examination in 2002. Department of Geography, University of From 2002 to 2007 he was a research team member in the Collabo- Cologne Atlas of Holocene Land Use Potential for Selected Research Areas”. In rative2002 he Research received Centre his Ph.D. 389 (Dr. ‘ACACIA’ rer. nat.) in the at subprojectthe University E1 “GIS-basedof Cologne Albertus-Magnus-Platz, 50923 Cologne, with the thesis „Geomorphometric analysis for the reconstruction of Germany Holocene land use potential of selected sites in the Western Desert Tel.: +49 (0) 221 – 470 3735 of Egypt“. Since 2008 he is a research team member in the GIS and Remote Sensing Group of the Institute of Geography at the Univer- Fax: + 49 (0) 2261 – 470 5124 sity of Cologne. His research interests include geomorphometry and [email protected] geomorphology in arid regions, Geographic Information Systems and Digital Elevation Models from stereo satellite images, and geoar- www.geographie.uni-koeln.de chaeology and landscape reconstruction. Dr. Francis Hueber Department of Paleobiology, Smithsonian Institution Washington, DC 20013-7012, USA Tel.: +001-302-2277261 Fax: + 001-302-2277261 [email protected] Summer school Turpan 2009 | 41