CHAPTER IV

DHYĀNA IN THERAVĀDA AND TRADITIONS

IV.1. DHYĀNA IN THERAVĀDA

IV.1.1. Aspects Of Meditation In Theravāda

The Sakyāmuni Buddha, the founder of , has attained his enlightenment beneath the Bodhi-tree after practicing meditation for a period of forty days. Thus meditation has a paramount role in Buddhism for indicating man's own ability to release sufferings and attain the final liberation. For the Buddhists, meditation is a system of delving into the true spiritual meaning of life in a way of keeping oneself pure in mind and spirit. According to their teachings and beliefs, meditation is a way of achieving the status of enlightenment and Nibbāna. Therefore in this part of the thesis we deal with the aspects of meditation in Theravāda Buddhism.

Meditation can be considered as a part of the path towards enlightenment and Nibbāna. Venerable P. V. Mahāthera rightly resents the important of meditation thus: "Buddhism teaches various methods of meditation practice, but all may be grouped under the two main categories of bhāvanā and vipassanā bhāvanā. The former refers to serenity (samatha) and is a mode of training designed for the specific purpose of cultivating one-pointedness of mind (cittekaggata); the latter refers to insight (vipassanā), the penetrative mental faculty which perceives and understands realities the way they really are.63"

63 P.V. MahāThera, Op. Cit., p. 342. 98

It is clear from the foregoing passage that Samatha is a state of mind characterized by serenity, one-pointedness and undistractedness. It is a practice of mental concentration leading to tranquility through ridding of mental defilements (sense desire, ill-will, etc.). It is one of the two branches of mental development (bhāvanā) and it ultimately leads to mind absorptions (jhāna). Samatha meditation employs concentration on objects, ideas, images things that are external to the body, and so is concerned with the universe outside, made for us through name-calling, designation, conceptualization (Paññatta).

P. V. Mahathera has also defined the word Samatha as serenity, stillness, tranquility or calmness 64. Samatha practice involves a sustained, unwavering attentiveness to a single object. Whenever the attention is drawn to other thoughts, sensations or sounds, one has simply to let go of them, and thus his attention will return to the object meditated upon. When one gets into the thick of Samatha, he is considered to have a temporary suspension of the activity of his body and mind. Therefore, the outstanding characteristic of the Samatha meditation is the state of the absence of mental wandering and agitation, when this state is attained, all the mists of passion disappear by being replaced by the clearness of insight.

Meanwhile, Vipassanā meditation uses the power of concentration (samādhi) on sensations within the body and so it is concerned with the universe within that is beyond the realm of concept. It purifies the mind to enable it to gain insight (pañña) leading to the right way (magga) of knowledge. It is the main branch of mental development (bhāvanā) to attain liberation (Nibbāna). It is the application of mind over matter (rūpa) using the

64 P.V. MahāThera, Ibid., p.17. 99

two legs of concentration (samādhi) and sensation (vedanā), whereas Samatha uses concentration as its main support. In respect of Vipassanā meditation, the Buddha teaches thus:

"The four foundations of , what are the four? Here, , a abides contemplating the body as a body, ardent, fully aware, and mindful, having put away covetousness and grief for the world. He abides contemplating feelings as feelings, ardent, fully aware, and mindful, having put away covetousness and grief for the world. He abides contemplating mind as mind, ardent, fully aware, and mindful, having put away covetousness and grief for the world. He abides contemplating mind-objects as mind-objects, ardent, fully aware, and mindful, having put away covetousness and grief for the world."65

So with this type of meditation, mindfulness is the key factor in the development of insight. This mindfulness is the quality of awareness which is applied to four groups of experiences, namely, those of the body, the sensations, the mind, and the mind-objects. And this is the direct path for the purification of minds, the direct path to surmount all kinds of sorrows and the only path for the realization of Nibbāna.

Moreover, with this practice we may bring mindfulness and equanimity to our ordinary experiences, too. As a result of which, we may get a purified mind leading us to ultimate happiness. And we may also get a better insight of things that we deal with in our day to day life. We may also get ultimate freedom and thus we may no longer be dependent on different circumstances that we go through.

65 MN.I.145. 100

To develop a sense of happiness independent of all kinds of circumstances is quite challenging, but actually, to have such a sense of happiness is like having half of the spiritual path traveled. The other half of the path left to travel deal with what we are going to do for the benefit of the mankind. In addition to Vipassanā mindfulness, one also cultivates states of Loving Kindness and Compassion, and tries to translate these subjective states into objective actions that are meant for the benefits to others.

So we may conclude that Samatha and Vipassāna meditations were known prior to the establishment of Buddhism, but they were refined and standardized in the Buddhist systems of practice. Nevertheless, in itself, it does not lead to the extinction of dukkha and the realization of Nibbāna, although it may be useful to a certain extent in respect of mental development. Before enlightenment, the Buddha himself practiced with some highly accomplished teachers of his time, and he attained the very final stage of absorption, the sphere of neither perception nor non-perception, but very soon, he discovered that it was an unsatisfactory and inadequate means for achieving the highest spiritual realization. Concentration may be instrumental for a happy life, but it is only Vipassāna meditation and nothing else that really enables one to purify one's mind and realize Nibbāna.

IV.1. 2. Ānāpānasati Meditation

Ānāpānasati meditation is the basic method of meditation taught by the Buddha himself. With the method of mindfulness () of breathing (anapana), Ānāpānasati meditation is considered as the first and the most important tenchnique which can be practiced in both samatha and vipassanā meditation. According to Harcharn Singh Sobti, Ānāpānasati (Pāli) or ānāpānasmṛti () means "mindfulness of breathing" and it is regarded

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as the original subject of Kammaṭṭhāṇa meditation recorded in Pāli literature. The world 'Ānāpānasati' has three component parts such as Āna + Apana + Sati. Āna means inhaled breath or inbreathing, Apana means exhaled breath or out breathing and Sati stands for mindfulness or awareness. Thus, the world Ānāpānasati means mindfulness on in-breathing and out-breathing.66

In the book of Satipaṭṭhāna: The direct path to realization, Anālayo describes this meditation thus: "Ānāpānasati comprises both the Samādhi and Vipassanā meditation. The discourses present mindfulness of breathing in a variety of ways. The Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta describes four steps of the practice, to which the Ānāpānasati Sutta adds another twelve, thereby forming a scheme of altogether sixteen steps. Elsewhere the discourses speak of mindfulness of breathing as cognition (saññā), and as a concentration practice." 67 These various presentations demonstrate the multifunctional character of the process of breathing as a meditational object. They also address the benefits of Ānāpānasati meditation applied in both Samatha and Vipassanā meditation.

As a meditation practice, mindfulness of breathing has a peaceful character and leads to stability of both postures that we make and our mind. The mental stability brought about through mindfulness of breathing acts in particular as an antidote to distractions and discursive thoughts. Awareness of the breath can also become a stabilizing factor at the time of death, ensuring that even one's last breath will be a mindful one.

According to the Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta, we find the practice of mindfulness of breathing mentioned as follow:

66 Harcharn Singh Sobti, Vipassanā: The Buddhist Way, Delhi: Eastern Book Linkers, 2003, p.66. 67 Anālayo, Satipaṭṭhāna: The Direct Path to Realization, Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society, 2003, p.125. 102

"Herein, monks, a monk who is forest-gone or gone to the root of a tree or gone to an empty place, sits down cross-legged, holding his back erect, arousing mindfulness in front of him. Mindful he breathes in, mindful he breathes out. Whether he is breathing in a long (breath) he comprehends, 'I am breathing in a long (breath)'; or whether he is breathing out a long (breath) he comprehends, 'I am breathing out a long (breath); or whether he is breathing in a short (breath) he comprehends, 'I am breathing in a short (breath)'; or whether he is breathing out a short (breath), he comprehends, 'I am breathing out a short (breath)'. He trains himself, thinking: 'I shall breathe in tranquillizing the activity of the body'. He trains himself, thinking: 'I shall breathe out tranquillizing the activity of the body."68

Having described the appropriate environment and posture, the Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta instructs the meditator to breathe in and out mindfully. Next, the meditator should become aware of the length of each breath as "long" or "short". The point here is to be aware of long and short breaths, not consciously to control the length of the breath. Nevertheless, the progression from knowing longer breaths to knowing shorter breaths reflects the fact that the breath naturally becomes shorter and finer with continued contemplation, owning to increasing mental and physical calmness.

Ānāpāsati meditation is mentioned several times in Pāli literature. In the Nikāyas it is placed under four different categories; it is found among the four Satipaṭṭhāna. In the Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta, among the ten Saññās in the Girimānanda Sutta, as Ānāpānasati itself in the Ānāpānasati Sutta; and as Ānāpānasati-samādhi in the Ānāpāna Saṁyutta. It usually contains sixteen exercises, except in the Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta which gives only the first four,

68 MN. I. 72. 103

forming a part of Kāyānupassanā "contemplation of the physical body." It takes the tenth place among the Sañña meditations, where it appears under its own name of Ānāpānasati. In the Ānāpānasati Sutta it is embodied with the four Satipaṭṭhānas and combined with the seven Bojjhaṅgas to form a complete system of training which lead to Nibbāna. And Ānāpānasati is also included in the system of Samādhi meditation as a kammaṭṭhāna (subject of meditation).

In the scheme described in the Ānāpānasati Sūtta, awareness moves through sixteen steps, which proceed from the bodily phenomena of breathing to feelings, mental events, and the development of insight. Considering the range of these sixteen steps, it becomes evident that mindfulness of breathing is not limited to any changes in the process of breathing, but covers related aspects of subjective experience. Undertaken this way, mindfulness of breathing becomes a skillful tool for self-observation. Furthermore, contemplation involving first four steps of mindfulness of breathing, as explained in the Ānapānasati Sutta, directs awareness to the experience of joy (pīti) and happiness (sukha).

Although the breath can undoubtedly be used for the development of concentration, the instructions throughout the sixteen steps are invariably based on distinct awareness of each in and out-breath. The central purpose of this distinction is to cultivate awareness of the impermanent nature of the breath. Any bodily or mental phenomena coming within the focus of awareness during the sixteen steps are experienced against the background of the ever-changing rhythm of in and out-breaths, which provides a constant reminder of .

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The basic difference between mindfulness of breathing as a samatha or as a vipassanā practice depends on what angle is taken when observing the breath, since putting an emphasis on just knowing the presence of the breath mentally is being to be capable of leading thoughts to deep levels of concentration, on the other hand while putting an emphasis on various phenomena related to the process of breathing does not lead a person to have a unitary type of experience, but he stays in the realm of variety of sensory experiences, and thus he is more geared towards the development of an ultimate insight. These considerations suggest that the sixteen steps are not solely a concentration practice, but they also introduce an insight based on the development of mindfulness of breathing.

A thorough examination of the context in which the sixteen steps are taught in the Ānāpānasati Sutta supports the things suggested above. According to the introductory section of the discourse, the Buddha's rationale for giving this discourse was to demonstrate this technique of meditation to a group of monks, who were already using breath as an object of meditation in order to have it developed as Satipaṭṭhāna. That is to say that the Buddha resorted the breath as an object of meditation in order to demonstrate how sati can naturally lead one from mindfulness of breathing to a comprehensive awareness of feelings, mind, and dhammas, and hence to the development of all satipaṭṭhānas and to the emergence of the seven awakening factors. Thus the main purpose of the Buddha's exposition was to broaden the scope of mindfulness of breathing from awareness of the bodily phenomenon to the awareness of feelings, mind, and dhammas; and thus this method of meditation is employed as a means to gain the insight of wisdom. Such being the case, it seems reasonable to conclude that the purpose of the sixteen steps of mindfulness of breathing described in the Ānāpānasati Sutta, and the

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purpose of the four steps of mindfulness of breathing in the Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta, is not restricted to the development of concentration only, but it also covers both tranquility and insight of meditation.

Therefore, ānāpānasati meditation was developed as an independent system of . In the Majjhima Nikāya, we find the consequences of this meditation described a follows:

"Monks, this concentration on mindfulness of respiration fulfils the Four Stations of Mindfulness. The four Stations of Mindfulness being developed, fulfil the Seven Priciples of Enlightenment, The Seven Principles of Enlightenment, being developed, fulfil knowledge and emancipation." (MN. III.82).

Furthermore, the meditator who has practised this method of meditation, is supposed to be aware of the cessation of his final breathings. Again, in the Majjhima Nikāya, it's been mentioned thus:

"Rāhula, when the mindfulness of respiration is developed in this way, those breathings which are final, are known, when they cease, they do not cease unknown." (M. I. 425-426).

This means that a person who has practised such a method of meditation and because of that he is mindful of his respiration is able to realize that the end of his life has come at the time of his death. He is, therefore, able to die in any posture he wishes to go through and prepares his body accordingly.

So the aspirant who practises this kammaṭṭhāna of ānāpānasati in accordance with the method explained above will attain manifold advantages as its immediate results, and will finally attain the happiness of Nibbāna in 106

the state of Arahatship. Therefore the wise should always hanker after the attainment of mindfulness of respiration to bring about such great results which culminate in the bliss of Nibbāna.

So with the mindfulness of breathing, the Buddha can teach the meditator the way to practice and comprehend the awareness from the bodily phenomenal breath to feelings, different states of mind and dhammas, and this is the only path leading to the achievement of the insight wisdom. Therefore, it is reasonable to conclude that the purpose of sixteen steps of mindfulness of breathing described in the Ānāpānasati Sutta, the four steps of mindfulness of breathing described in the Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta, is not restricted to the development of concentration only, but they also cover both the attainment of tranquility and insight of meditation.

IV.1.3. Vipassanā Meditation

IV.1.3.1. The Definition Of Vipassanā Meditation

Vipassanā is one of India's most ancient techniques of meditation; it is explained by J. Doshi as follows: “Vipassanā means to see things as they are; to see things in their true perspective, in their true sense. It is, in essence, a technique of self-observation and self-exploration”.69 It was discovered by Gotama Buddha more than 2500 years ago and was taught by him as a universal remedy for all sufferings of human beings. This non-sectarian technique aims at the total eradication of mental impurities and the resultant highest happiness of full liberation. Healing, not merely the curing of diseases, but the essential healing of human suffering, is its purpose.

69 J. Doshi, Vipassana – Addictions & Health, Maharashtra: Vipassana Research Institute, 1998, p. 7. 107

D.C. Ahir analyses for the word Vipassanā and writes: "the term Vipassanā, which is a compounding of the prefix. ‘Vi’ used as the proposition and the root word Passana from verb Passati, means to see. The prefixes are generally used to modify or to add emphasis to the sense of the root words. In this case, the prefix has been applied to carry the vigour of Insight, Clarity, Distinctness, Accuracy, Rightfulness or Specification etc. to the Act of seeing or perceiving".70 A synonym for Vipassanā is paccakkha (before the eyes), which refers to a direct experiential perception. Thus, observing a thing through Vipassanā is like having a direct realization of the thing being observed, leaving all other knowledges or ideas related to that thing behind.

In connection with the term Vipassanā, Winstion L. King puts his idea thus: "The Pāli word “Vipassanā” is a purely Buddhistic term and has quite a distinct meaning. It is derived from the verb “Vi-passati,” to see in many ways,” (Vividham), which means “to see, to penetrate an object thoroughly.” Hence “Vipassanā” is the best rendered by Insight."71 Dealing with the same thing, P.V. Mahathera writes further: "Full knowledge (Pañña) and knowledge-vision (Ñaṇa-Dassana) are the terms generally used to define “Vipassanā”. 72 And a full description of them is frequently given in the suttas, while they are further elaborated in the Abhidhamma Pitaka. This term is particularly applied to the full knowledge acquired by a discerning of the three characteristics of the phenomenal world, namely; impermanence (anicca), suffering (dukkha), and non-self (). In the doctrines of

70 D.C. Ahir (ed.), Vipassana: A Universal Buddhist Technique of Meditation, Delhi: Sri Satguru Publications, 1999, p. 29. 71Winston L.King, Theravāda Meditation: The Buddhist Transformation of , Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 2007, p. 82. 72 P.V. MahāThera, Op. Cit., p. 22. 108

meditation the term signifies the whole system designed to induce that insight, with or without the practice of the Samādhi method.

Vipassanā meditation is also considered as a way of self- transformation through self-observation and introspection. And Mehm Tin Mon says thus: "Vipassanā (Pāli) or vipaśyanā (Sanskrit) means insight into the impermanent nature, or anicca, of mind and body".73 William Hart rightly observes Vipassanā and puts his remarks as follows: "In English, Vipassanā meditation is referred to simply as insight meditation, specially, insight into the impermanent nature of mind and body. In Vipassanā meditation, one gets the systematic development of insight through the meditation technique of observing the reality of oneself by observing sensations within the body".74 And Mehm Tin Mon explains further: "In essence, Vipassanā stands for the pañña-cetasika (wisdom) present in mahā-kusala cittās and mahā-kiriya cittās".75

As we have already observed, Vipassanā and Samatha are two types of meditation practiced in Buddhism. Samatha is a type of meditation in which you focus on a particular object and pacify yourself. And it is common to many traditions prevalent in the world, especially the tradition of yoga. It is used as a stepping stone for Vipassanā, calming the mind and strengthening the concentration in order to get into the work of insight. This classification is also sometimes discussed as "stopping and seeing." In Buddhist practice it is said that, while samatha can calm the mind, only insight can reveal how the mind was disturbed. Vipassanā leads us to paññā (wisdom) and jñāna

73 Mehm Tin Mon, Op. Cit., p. 350. 74 William Hart, The Art of Living: Vipassana Meditation as taught by S.N. Goenka, India: Vipassana Research Institute, 1998, p. 164. 75 Mehm Tin Mon, Ibid., p. 350. 109

(knowledge) and from this insight of wisdom we can understand ourselves and prevent our mind from being disturbed again.

IV.1.3.2. The Explanation For The Practice Of Vipassanā Meditation

Explaining about Vipassanā meditation, P. V. MahāThera rightly remarks thus: "Vipassanā is a way of self-transformation through self- observation. It focuses on the deep interconnection between mind and body, which can be experienced directly by disciplined attention to the physical sensations that form the life of the body, and that continuously interconnects and conditions the life of the mind. It is this observation-based, self- exploratory journey to the common root of mind and body that dissolves mental impurity, resulting in a balanced mind full of love and compassion. It is also the Buddhist heart of the Theravāda meditational discipline. As the technique for attaining Nibbāna par exellence, it is the living existenial essence of the Theravāda world view and the mode is absolutely essential to achieving final salvation."76

The goal of Vipassanā meditation is to purify the mind completely by eradicating all mental impurities such as anger, hatred, passion, fear etc. In Vipassanā, it is important for a pracitioner to be aware of his respiration and he should go through the four foundations of mindfulness. For this, one must gain complete knowledge of the body, of the mind, and of the mental impurities at the experiential level. If one wants to understand one's own physical and mental nature, one must use a pure object of concentration, that

76 P.V. MahāThera, Op. Cit: 82. 110

is just normal respiration and nothing else. One should not try to regulate the breath or do any breathing exercise. Nor should one repeat any word or or visualize any shape, form or imaginary object along with awareness of respiration. One should observe one's respiration only as it is.

In meditation, control and concentration of the mind on a particular object is considered essential. But in Vipassanā, concentration of the mind is found to be a necessity to some extent only. Concentration of the mind is not the ultimate aim of Vipassanā.

Like D. C. Ahir explains Vipassanā and writes: "Vipassanā being the introvert or the insight system of practicing, it directs the thoughts and the activities within oneself, and, therefore, is basically related to the meditator himself".77 In this process, the mind of the meditator remains in the state of equanimity. The meditator is supposed to observe and notice the arising and disappearing of the feelings of his mind with full awareness.

In this state of meditation, our mind should remain calm and alert. Due to intensive and continuous observations of every function, action and perception of the body and the mind, namely, ‘standing, walking, sitting, lying, touching, seeing, hearing, rising, falling, breathing etc’, the knowledge of Insight automatically becomes a reality, and the Mind transforms in the state of Serenity, Peace and Happiness. Therefore, in Vipassanā, with the objects of meditation, because of the observing of our sensations, we understand our body, because of the mind-object, we understand our mind; and by the virtues of interactions, we have the relation between the body and mind. In other words, in Vipassanā, we become aware of the relation between our boy and mind in the state of insight of wisdom.

77 D.C. Ahir, Op. Cit., p. 30. 111

Moreover, in the Vipassanā method, there being no particular object on which one should keep his mind fixed, ignoring all other sense-organs, namely, eye, ear, nose, tongue and other parts of the body, the meditator has to mind each and every aspects of his observations with full awareness. He must not allow his mind to wander away without even the least degree of watchfullness.

The great Master S. N. Goena rightly explains: "When one observes respiration, one begins to understand the nature of the mind. One reality about the mind becomes very clear; the mind is very fleeting, very fickle. It wanders repeatedly from one object to another. It wanders to so many objects. Even if one kept a diary, one would not be able to make a list of all the objects. But, if the meditator is attentive, he will see that the mind wanders in two areas only; either in the past or in the future. It recalls some past incident and stars to roll in thoughts of the past; This had happened or this had not happened. Suddenly it may jump to the future and start rolling in thoughts of the fufure; this must happen or this must not happen".78

From the fact that Vipassanā meditation can take up all kinds of experiences, physical, emotional, and psychological, as its objects of training; it is reasonable to say that one can practice it in all activities and situations. Vipassanā aims at the increasing of awareness, knowledge, wisdom, right understanding, virtues. Its ultimate goal lies in the purification of the mind and the realization of Nibbāna.

Master S. N. Goenka adds further and says: "In talking about vipassanā meditation, it is important to keep in mind that we don't actually

78 S.N. Goenka, Meditation Now – Inner Peace Through Inner Wisdom, India: Vipassana Research Institute, 2003, p. 75. 112

practice insight meditation; we practice mindfulness. This is a critical difference. When we practice mindfulness, if we are fortunate and if all the other factors are present, then insight arises. There's a lot of emphasis on insight in the Buddhist tradition, because insight is what leads to liberation."79 In Vipassanā, the emphasis is solely upon the development of wisdom, upon breaking down our concepts and our beliefs and our images about ourselves, and upon understanding what is true.

One of the most important discourses by the Buddha dealing with Vipassanā meditation is the Satipaṭṭhana sutta 80 (the Discourse on the Foundations of Mindfulness), it is considered that this sutta explains how Vipassanā meditation shoud be practised by all buddhist traditions. In the opening words of the discourse, the Buddha categorically affirms that the development of mindfulness in accordance with the Satipaṭṭhana constitutes the direct way, the only way, to purification of the Mind, the extinction of all kinds of suffering, and the realization of Nibbāna. It is one of the few discourses in which the Buddha has so explicitly and unequivocally given such a strong assurance.

According to the Satipaṭṭhana Sutta, mindfulness is the key factor in the development of insight. This mindfulness is the quality of awareness which is applied to four groups of experiences, namely, the body, the sensations, the mind, and mind-objects (particularly in reference to moral and spiritual experiences or the Dhamma). Thus the discourse is divided into four principal sections, each dealing with an individual class of experiences on which mindfulness should be cultivated.

79 Ibid.,p.75. 80 Majjhima Nikāya Sutta no. 10 113

Whenever one brings mindfulness and equanimity to ordinary experience, an evolutionary process, consisting of two aspects, takes place. On one hand it is related to insight and on the other it is related to the purification of mind. We all have within us sources of unhappiness. We notice our happiness very quickly when we sit down to meditate. However, we have acquired certain limiting forces: cravings and aversions, painful memories, inappropriate yet habitual behavior patterns, and so forth.

Most people would affirm such a spiritual reality, but they don't directly experience it. They experience only their own projections, wishful thinking, or beliefs about it, without ever being able to see it directly. Through the practice of mindfulness and equanimity, we can remain in the present moment. We receive wordly experiences from five sense organs namely, the organ of hearing, seeing, smelling, tasting and touching with the help of our Mind. Mindfulness is defined as specificity in awareness, clarity in awareness, continuity in awareness, richness in awareness, precision in awareness. Equanimity is defined as not interfering with the flow of the senses at any level.

When sufficient mindfulness and equanimity are brought together with ordinary experiences, we arrive at the purification of mind and insight of wisdom. When one starts doing meditation, one gets very concerned with the suppression of one's wandering thoughts. However, gradually he learns how to concentrate his mind in order to get calmness and mindfulness. But when he gets further along with the practice, he is able to experience the flow of thoughts with his equanimous mind. As the result of the purification and insight of wisdom by practising Vipassanā meditation, we discover that our thoughts of the phenomena of the world turn out to be the world of spiritual

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energy, and thus we find ourselves interrelated to this phenomenal word, moment by moment, with the help of our mind.

Doing Vipassanā simply means to be aware of what is happening at our sense doors each and every moment. That may seem like a trivial practice. But when all the components of experience become distinct enough, when there's crystal about what's happening exactly around us, moment by moment, then the senses become literally transparent, i.e., insubstantial. And a reality that is beyond time and space starts can shinning through to us. One is able to contact the Source continuously molding one's time, space, self and world, moment by moment. Technically, this is referred to as insight into impermanence.

A practitioner is supposed to be mindful of his own or her mental states through Vipassanā. By continuously practicing Vipassanā, one not only comes to understand oneself better, but one also eventually becomes able to penetrate deeply into the most remote reaches of one's own consciousness. Thus one learns to come in terms with oneself, along with efforts to remove one's weakness. This kind of practice is not only valuable as far as insight is concerned, but it substantially contributes to peace and harmony. It brings peace and harmony to individuals who practises it and further to the society where they lives in. If one, for instance, keeps taking a mindful note of one's own greed, lust, anger, or aggression as they arise in the mind, it is most probable that the thoughts or actions associated with such negative qualities be recognized as quickly as they originate and will subsequently be kept under control or eliminated. It is like having our here and now clandestine enemies duly exposed so we can take appropriate action against them. There is no better way to deal with them than this.

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Insight meditation is essentially a Buddhist contribution to the spiritual wealth of the world. This is a method of analysis in which the emphasis is placed on the development of mindfulness and knowledge of reality. By applying constant awareness to the present reality of existence, the meditator becomes perfectly identified with his own being and experience. One comes to perceive the realities of impermanence, change, unsatisfactoriness, and non-substantiality in all existential phenomena, and intuitively realizes the true nature of his own inner experiences. All things are characterized by emptiness; in the ultimate analysis there is nothing that should be attached to as me or mine. The meditator sees for himself the wholesome and unwholesome thoughts rising and falling in his mind, the defilements, the virtuous qualities, the good, the evil, the noble, and the ignoble, all are seen and recognized in their true nature. Once the realities are directly intuited and experienced, they can be subjected to further analysis and investigation. Self-knowledge and deeper understanding of realities are obtained through consistent effort and perseverance in the practice of this kind of meditation.

Another facet of insights is related to a person's sense of self. Things seem to be true and useful when their senses arise in the mind. In other systems of philosophy what is known as self is nothing but an activity called personality that rises and passes away as part of the effortless flow of nature. This activity is made up of certain ideas and certain body sensations that give us the sense of existence by each and every moment. When those ideas and body sensations are greeted with complete awareness of ourselves and without any interference, then we have a wonderful paradoxical experience. Obviously, if we have a complete awareness of ourselves without any interference with ideas and body sensations which give us the sense of

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existence, then we probably allow our personality to completely express itself by our mind. The sense of existence is very distinct in itself.

Therefore, with the practice of Vipassanā meditation, the practitioner happens to observe the sensations of his body and the mind-objects arising and deceasing, and thus he comes to understand the nature of impermanence of all phenomena of the world. Thus he succeeds in overcoming his all types of sufferings. And since there is no permanent existence of anything in this world, there is "no separate self" existing in this world. And since things of the world are interconnected and contingent upon certain conditions for their existence, the self is also seen as a part of the phenomenon of conditioned existence. According to the concept of anicca (impermanence), there is nothing in this world that is permanent and as for (no-self), everything in this world is interconnected. Through Vipassanā meditation, we experience and understand the three characteristics of phenomena mentioned in Buddhism, namely, the impermanence of things, our sufferings, and the concept of anatta.

Furthermore, one might say that through mindfulness meditation the old dirty paint is scraped off the walls of the soul and through daily "loving kindness" meditation a new beautiful coat is put on at a time. There is much to be said about developing "loving kindness" and compassion and the intimate link between Insight and Love on the spiritual path. Suffice it for now to say that through mindfulness and equanimity the very substance of the feeling self becomes porous, transparent, elastic, and vibratory. Being porous it can soak up any flavor, being transparent it can take on any coloration, being elastic and vibratory it can resonate any tone. Through loving kindness and related meditations one intentionally imparts to one's feeling core of a habitual coloration, flavor and tone of deep human warmth and beneficence. 117

This constantly and subtly flows out and significantly influences the people around. At the level of action it translates into various expressions of effortless service to others.

IV.1.3.3. The Four Foundations Of Mindfulness (cattaro -satipaṭṭhāna)

As we have mentioned above, mindfulness is the key factor for the practice of the development of insight of wisdom. And this mindfulness is applied to four groups of experiences, namely, those of the body, the sensations, the mind, and mind-objects. Therefore, it is necessary to discuss, in detail, the way to practice and cultivate these four groups of mindfulness emphasized for the spiritual life of the Saṅgha by the Buddha.

Mehm Tin Mon has explained it thus: "The Four Foundations of Mindfulness are taken from original pāli word Cattaro satipaṭṭhāna. Sati means mindfulness or attentiveness. And Paṭṭhāna means establishment, application, fixing or foundation".81

Thus, we have the four foundations of mindfulness (Cattaro satipaṭṭhāna) by which one prevents the mind from wandering to other sense objects and keeps the mind fixed attentively and firmly on the single object of meditation. They are also indispensable for the development of tranquility and insight. Mindfulness is a basic approach to the spiritual journey that is common to all traditions of Buddhism. The Buddha says in Nikāya sutta:

“There is this one way, monks, for the purification of beings, for the overcoming of sorrows, griefs, for the going down of sufferings and

81 Mehm Tin Mon, Op. Cit., p. 263. 118

miseries, for winning the right path, for realizing nibbāna, that is to say, the four applications of mindfulness”82.

For the followers of the Buddha’s teachings, there is a need for great emphasis on the practice of meditation. One must see the straightforward logic that mind is the cause of confusion and that by transcending confusion one attains the enlightened state. This can only take place through the practice of meditation. The Buddha himself experienced this, by working on his own mind, and what he learnt has been handed down to us.

People have a difficulty in beginning a spiritual practice because they put a lot of energy into looking for the best and easiest way to get into it. We might have to change our attitude and give up looking for the best or the easiest way. Actually, there is no choice. Whatever approach we take, we will have to deal with what we are already. We have to look at who we are.

Spirituality is situated in the mind. In Buddhism, mind is what distinguishes sentient beings from rocks or trees or bodies of water. That which possesses discriminating awareness, that which possesses a sense of duality, which grasps or rejects something external, that is mind. Fundamentally, it is that which can associate with another, with any thing that is perceived as different from the perceiver. That is the definition of the mind.

By mind we mean something very specific. It is not just something very vague and creepy inside our heads or hearts, something that just happens as part of the way the wind blows and the grass grows. Rather, it is something very concrete. It contains perception, which is very sublte, very basic, very precise. Mind develops its particular nature when perception begins to linger

82 M I. 63. 119

on something other than oneself. When our mind perceive something, we become aware of ourselves.

Mind contains emotions and it cannot exist without emotions. It will be too boring if it has only discursive thoughts. We tend to create waves of emotions which go up and down: passion, aggression, ignorance, and so on and so forth. In the beginning we create emotions deliberately, for having a proof that we exist. But eventually it becomes difficult for us to handle them with ease.

So we have created a world that is bitter and sweet. Sometimes things seem terribly funny, but, on the other hand, they are terribly sad. Life plays its game with us and we set trapped in its tricks. But it is the mind which has created the whole thing. Problematic situations arise automatically and they go beyond our control. They are our own production, arising from our own net work. And that is what is called the tricks of mind.

The method for beginning to relate directly with the mind, which was taught by Lord Buddha and which has been in pratice for the past twenty-five hundred years, is the practice of mindfulness. There are four aspects of this practice, traditionally known as the Four Foundations of Mindfulness.

Four foundations of mindfulness stand for having or following four kinds of objects of the practice of mindfulness. We know that the first object of mindfulness is our own body. The second domain of mindfulness is mindfulness of feelings. The third domain is the domain of mental formations of the mind. And the fourth object of mindfulness is the dhamma. Mehm Tin Mon elaborates the point and says: “The only way that leads to the attainment of purity, to the overcoming of sorrow and lamentation, to the end of pain and

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grief, to the entering of the right path, and to the realization of Nibbāna is the way comprising the four foundations of mindfulness.”83

IV.1.3.3.1. The First Foundation: Body Contemplation (Kāyānupassanā)

The first of them is the contemplation of the body (kāyā) or mindfulness of our forms (rūpakkhandha). This includes the breaths, the physical postures, the bodily activities, the analysis of various physical components, the material elements, and death. These are the realities of life one has to deal with. A practioner of insight meditation should practice by constantly applying mindfulness to all kinds of experiences of the body. For instance, he should be attentively mindful of his breath, without being worried of seeing if they are short or long, shallow or deep, refined or gross, regular or irregular, and so on and so forth. The purpose is to train the mind to dwell in the present, by being constantly aware of what goes on at the moment. The same principle may be applied to the bodily posture, such as standing, walking, sitting, or lying down, as well as to other physical activities like eating and drinking, or even the movements of feet and hands. Sometimes body does not mean the whole physical body, but a group of some material properties. Breathing is also called the body. Different parts of the body are also called the body. By the word "body" we must understand anything that is associated with the body. Thus the Buddha says:

"Herein, monks, a monk fares along contemplating the body in the body, ardent, clearly conscious (of it), mindful (of it) so as to control the covetousness and dejection in the world"84.

83 Mehm Tin Mon, Op. Cit: 264. 121

According to the tradition, the body we think is what is known as psychosomatic body. It is largely based on projections and concepts of body. This psychosomatic body contrasts with the enlightened person's sense of body, which might be called body of the body. This sense of body is free from conceptualizations. It is just simple and straightforward. There is a direct relationship with the earth. As for us, we do not actually have a relationship with the earth. We have some relationship with our body, but it is very uncertain and erratic. We flicker back and forth between body and something else-fantasies, and ideas. That seems to be our basic situation. Even though the psychosomatic body is constituted by projections of body, it can be quite solid in terms of those projections. We have expectations concerning the existence of this body, therefore we have to refuel it, entertain it, wash it. Through this psychosomatic body we are able to experience a sense of being, that is that we are alive.

It is mentioned in the Visuddhimagga that the exercise of mindfulness of the body was never practised before the advent of the Buddha, nor was it practised even in other religious systems. Mindfulness of body, is also connected with the need for a sense of being, a sense of groundedness. To begin with, there is some problem about what we understand by body. We sit on chairs or on the ground; we eat; we sleep; we wear clothes. But the body we relate with in going through these activities is questionable. The Buddha explains this thus:

“And again, monks, a monk, when he is walking, comprehends, ‘I am walking’; or when he is standing still, comprehends, ‘I am standing still’; or when he is sitting down, comprehends, 'I am sitting down'; or

84 M I. 56. 122

when he is lying down, comprehends, 'I am lying down'. So that however his body is disposed he comprehends that it is like that. Thus he fares along contemplating the body in the internally, or he fares along contemplating the body in the externally, or he fares along contemplating the body in the internally and externally…It is thus too, monks, that a monk fares alongs contemplating the body in the body”85.

To be mindful of the body (mindfulness of the body) implies that our mind should be aware of each and every activity of our body. The practice of meditation has to take into account that the mind continually shapes itself according to the different postures of our body. Though meditation is possible in all kinds of postures that our body makes, yet we follow the sitting postures only. The sitting postures has been in the vogue since the time of the Buddha. The basic technique that goes with sitting meditation is working with the breath. We identify our body with the breath, particularly with the out-breath. The in-breath is just a gap, a space. During the in-breath we just wait. So when we breath out the breath is gone and then there is a gap. The practice of breath with the awareness of our body can go this way through the course of meditation.

IV.1.3.3.2. The Second Foundation: Feelings Contemplation (Vedanānupassanā)

The second foundation deals with feelings (vedanā). In this state the practitioner is supposed to observe his feelings (vedanākkhandha). It is explained in the Majhima Nikāya thus: "They are of three types, pleasant, unpleasant, and neutral. These feelings keep arising one after the other and

85 M I. 57. 123

the meditator should apply mindfulness to them at the moment they arise, understanding them objectively as conditioned phenomena that arise and fall according to the law of causality, not subjectively as ‘my feeling’. The basic stages of meditation should be simply observation of breath. Concentrate on the nostrils where the breath flows in... out... in... out".86

In this foundation, the practitioner is supposed to be aware of the touch of air as it strikes the passage through his nostrils. In fact, he should be aware of everything that is happening inside his body and of nothing he is attached with. It sounds contradictory, yet it is really not. To make the thing simpler, the practioner doesn't have to go after his migratory thoughts. While meditating, he needs to be aware of his physical posture; afterwards, he needs to forget his posture also. While meditating, neither should we think of the things happened in the past nor should we be worried about the things are going to happen to us in the future. We must try to remain in the present moment. That's what is meant by meditation. Then all we have is the present moment "right now"... the in... out... in... out rhythm of the breath of life. The idea is to "empty the mind," so that we get rid of all garbage, all fleeting and intruding thoughts. Simply to breathe in - out, in - out, never forcing the breath. Just allow the mind to feel the "touch" of breath as it flows in and flows out. In the first session of meditation, we should think of nothing more. We will find the breath thinning out as it becomes more subtle and finer until the time we begin to feel that we are not breathing at all. This is how we may calm the flow of the breath, then it becomes very pleasant and satisfying. Thus the Buddha explains:

86 M I. 57. 124

“And how, monks, does a monk fare along contemplating the feelings in the feelings? Herein, monks, while he is experiencing a pleasant feeling he comprehends: ‘I am experiencing a pleasant feelings;’ while he is experiencing a painful feeling he comprehends, ‘I am experiencing a painful feeling’; while he is experiencing a feeling that is neither painful nor pleasant he comprehends; ‘I am experiencing a feeling that is neither painful nor pleasant.’ … It is thus, monks, that a monk fares along contemplating feelings in the feeling”87.

Feeling is a mental state. We experience the physical pain of our body with the help of the mind. When it's paining, we know that is the painful feeling. When the Buddha said that a monk contemplates feeling in the feeling, he meant the monk was contemplating on that mental state and not necessarily on the pain. In practice, when we have pain we have to concentrate on the pain and be mindful of it. That feeling is of three kinds pleasant, unpleasant and neutral.

Sensations or feelings have a peculiar way of misleading us into a false sense of individuality. We conceptualize feelings and when we are overwhelemed by them, we are dragged to act accordingly and create various kammas. According to the Buddha, the false belief in the existence of self is largely due to our feelings. It is therefore important that the meditator trains himself to perceive reality as it is by simply observing his own feelings for what they really are, natural phenomena that constantly arise and disappear in accordance with their conditionality. Another way to consider feelings is the careful analysis of their nature and their origination and dissolution. The meditator is fully mindful whether he experiences pleasant, unpleasant, or

87 M I. 59. 125

neutral feeling. He is aware of the feelings but does not become attached to them.

Thus he lives contemplating feelings in feelings internally, or he lives contemplating feelings in feelings externally, or he lives contemplating feelings in feelings internally and externally. He lives contemplating origination of factors in feelings, or he lives contemplating dissoluting factors in feelings, or he lives contemplating originating-and-dissoluting factors in feelings. Or his mindfulness is established with the thought 'feeling exists' to the extent necessary just for knowledge and mindfulness, and he lives detached, and clings to nothing in the world. Thus, the meditator lives contemplating feelings in feelings.

IV.1.3.3.3. The Third Foundation: Consciousness Contemplation (Cittānupassanā)

The next section in the Four Foundations of Mindfulness is contemplating of consciousness or mindfulness of the consciousness group (vijñāṇakkhandha). If a part of the spiritual practice involves the ability to understand and control one's own thoughts, this is, perhaps, one of the most effective methods to realize that objective. Here, the meditator dwells observing his own mind and thoughts, ever mindful of their origination and dissolution. He also observes how they change and are conditioned. The meditator should constantly apply full-awareness to the present moment of experiences only, not the past or the future, and simply acknowledge the existence and nature of those mental phenomena. There is no conscious intervention involved to suppress one thought or encourage another. It is a

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simple, uncomplicated process of recognizing the realities as they are, a pure psychological act of detached understanding and acceptance.

Please note that although we use the word consciousness for the word "citta", it is not an exact translation of the word. Consciousness is defined as a mental state which is the awareness of an object. Only when is there a contact with an object, there can be an awareness of the object, a feeling of the object, a liking of the object, a disliking of the object and so on. Therefore, these mental states are subordinate to consciousness, but they are also components of the mind. Furthermore, mind may be divided into two, consciousness, and mental factors. Contact, feeling, perception, attention, like, dislike and so on. Thus the Buddha says:

“And how, monks, does a monk fare along contemplating mind in the mind? Herein, monk, a monk knows intuitively the mind with attachment as a mind with attachment; he knows intuitively the mind without attachment as a mind without attachment…the mind with hatred as a mind with hatred…the mind without hatred as a mind without hatred…the mind with confusion as a mind with confusion…the mind without confusion as a mind without confusion…Thus he fares along contemplating the mind in the mind internally, or he fares along contemplating the mind in the mind externally, or he fares along contemplating the mind in the mind internally and externally…or, thinking, ‘There is mind,’ his mindfulness is established preciesly to the extent necessary just for knowledge, jusr for remembrance, and he fares along independently of

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and not grasping anything in the world. It is thus, monks, that a monk fares along contemplating mind in the mind”88.

Mehm Tin Mon rightly adds that: "According to the Abhidhamma there are fifty-two of them, and these fifty-two are grouped into three feeling, perception and mental formations. So when we add consciousness to these three, we get four kinds of mental states. It’s amazing that the Buddha could define and differentiate each of these mental states that arise simultaneously taking the same object"89

Furthermore, in the Majhima Nikāya, the Buddha preaches thus: "When we practice meditation and say "sorry, sorry", that means we have a consciousness accompanied by sorrow or something like that. It could be contemplation on consciousness. When I say, "angry, angry", I am doing contemplation of consciousness." 90 When we observe the arise and disappearance of pain and grief, our insighted mind knows that it is the physical pain of the body or the mental grief and this is what we call suffering is controlling our mind. In order to overcome our pain and grief, we should practice the four Foundations of Mindfulness. As we know that all of us may not be able to advoid pain all together, pain may not disappear from our life forever. However, it we practice mindfulness we will able to observe and accept the pain and then we can live with it. Like the disciples of the Buddha, because they practice mindfulness, their mind would not be disturbed or perturbed by the physical pain at all.

88 M I. 59-60. 89Mehm Tin Mon, Op. Cit: 130. 90 M III. 84. 128

Since mind can take only one thing at a time, we can overcome sorrow and grief by the practice of mindfulness. Let's take anger, for example. Suppose I am angry with Mr. A. So long as my mind is on Mr. A, my anger will increase and I will be getting more and more angry with him because I am taking him as the object of my consciousness or mind. But once I turn my mind from Mr. A, who is the source of my anger, to anger itself; the moment I turn my mind to anger itself, Mr. A does not exist for me any longer at that time. He has already disappeared from my mind. When my mind is on the anger itself and when the source of anger has disappeared, anger has to disappear also.

That way, we treat such mental states with mindfulness. This is how we should deal with emotions such as attachment, anger, hatred, depression, and sorrow. Whatever the mental state we may be in, we just treat them with mindfulness and try to be mindful of it. Our emotions will surely disappear because the method of mindfulness. Therefore, this is the best way for us to overcome sorrow, pain, grief, etc.

IV.1.3.3.4. The Fourth Foundation: Dhamma Contemplation (Dhammānupassanā)

Dhamma is the Pāli word that is most difficult to translate into other languages. This word means different things in different contexts. To express the sense of dhamma in respect of four foundations of mindfulness, it means the mind-objects, the five aggregates, the twelve bases, the seven factors of enlightenment, and the Four Noble Truth. Therefore, it is better to keep the word "dhamma" untranslated to advoid confusion.

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Thus, The Buddha says:

“And how, monks, does a monk fare along contemplating mental objects in mental objects? Herein, monks, a monks fares along contemplating mental objects in mental objects from the point of view of the . And how, monks, does a monk fare along contemplating mental objects in mental objects from the point of view of the five hindrances?…It is thus, monks, that a monk fares along contemplating mental objects in mental objects”91.

In practical terms, Dhamma may also include mindfulness in contemplation, deliberation, and investigation of the Buddha's teachings in the context of one's own perception at the present moment. Dhamma may also be referred to as mental objects because it becomes the subject of contemplation and investigation of mind during meditation. A few categories of Dhamma are listed in the Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta are as follows: the five hindrances, the five aggregates, the six sense bases, the seven factors of Enlightenment, and the . Detailed explanations illustrative of the techniques of practice are also given there.

Broadly speaking, most of the deliberate intellectual exercises pertaining to ethics and truth come within the scope of this mode of insight meditation. To be more precise, however, each of the aforementioned categories of the should not be viewed merely as a subject for academic scrutiny or an article for purely abstract contemplation. Rather, they are specific mental objects to which a meditator should apply mindfulness as and when they are actually experienced and comprehended, right at the moment of their arising and disappearing. In this way the meditator will be

91 M I. 60. 130

able to understand the Dharma not as some abstract concept, but as the actual reality of personal experience which it truly is.

With the help of meditation, the practitioner is supposed to have mindfulness all the time and have the ability to see the true nature of things. That is he starts seeing the object as arising and disappearing in his mind. And since the things arising and disappearing in the mind, the practitioner comes to realize that the things don't stay for all the time, and thus they are impermanent (anicca). By realizing them as impermanent, he also comes to realize their non-self (anatta) nature and that he suffers because he takes them to be permanent and gets attached to them. Therefore, seeing of these three general characteristics of all conditioned phenomena is the essence of Vipassanā. If we practice Vipassanā, we must see these three characteristics because the word "Vipassanā" means seeing in different ways and seeing in different ways means seeing in the light of impermanence, in the light of suffering and in the light of non-self. What is important in Vipassanā is to see these three characteristics and in order to see these three characteristics, we need to observe, we need to watch and pay attention to the objects at that present moment.

Furthermore, in order to have mindful of the object at the present moment we need to make efforts. Without efforts nothing worthwhile can be achieved. By being mindful of objects with efforts, we will be able to overcome covetousness and grief regarding the object we observe.

In short, The Four Foundations of Mindfulness as described by the Buddha can be practiced simultaneously, depending on which of the four is more prominent or conspicuous at the moment of experience. The present moment is what counts, not the past or the future. The beginners may also

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find it more practicable to begin his training with mindfulness on his body, particularly his breath. Once the basic technique of observing the breath has been mastered, it becomes increasingly more natural to 'ever dwell in meditation,' constantly and effortlessly observing the body, the feelings, the mind, and the mental objects while carrying on their duties and responsibilities.

IV.1.3.4. The Five Spiritual Strengths Of Insight

According to Theravāda tradition, when we practice meditation, there are five qualities of heart and mind known as the five spiritual powers. They also have been called five priceless jewels, because when they are well developed, the mind resists domination by the dark forces of greed and hate and delusion. When the mind is no longer bound by those energies, then understanding and love have no limits. These five spiritual powers are also called the controlling faculties. When they are strong and balanced, they control the mind, and generate the power which leads to liberation.

When we live a spiritual life, what matters most is not what we know, but the thing that matters more are our actions we take. The essential elements of the five Powers are the same as those of the five faculities. It should be understood that each of these five elements has two distinct properties: The ability to control the mind. The ability to be firm and unshakable by the opposing force. The five Spiritual Strengths of Insight consists of: Faith: Saddhā-bala. Effort: Vīriya-bala. Mindfulness: Sati-bala. Concentration: Samādhi-bala.

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Wisdom: Paññā-bala.92

FAITH (Saddhā-bala)

The first of the five faculties, faith, actually, is a rather suspect word today. The most conspicuous examples of faith are in the various extremes of religious fundamentalism, where faith is often a coercive force, a force which is used to control insiders so that they will stay within the confines of the faith. It’s also a force that’s sometimes imposed upon outsiders in order to encourage them to believe. It has nothing to do with conventional belief. It is an innocence of conviction, an open heart that is not afraid to trust, and so can move beyond the known. It senses the possibility of transcendence that what seems to be, isn’t all there is. It senses that there is some profound human possibility to be realized, even though it’s not immediately apparent.

In the Saṃyutta Nikāya, the Buddha rightly says:

"And what, bhikkhus, is the faculty of faith? Here, bhikkhus, the noble disciple is a person of faith, one who places faith in the enlightenment of the Tathāgata thus: The Blessed One is an arahant, perfect enlightened, accomplised in knowledge and conduct, fortunate, knower of the world, unsurpassed leader of persons to be tamed, teacher of devas and humans, the Enlightened One, the Blessed One." 93

Faith, which here means trust and confidence in the Dhamma inspires an outpouring of energy. When energy is strong, then the effort to be alert and pay attention is easy. Mindfulness prospers and becomes more and more

92 Mehm Tin Mon, Op. Cit: 267. 93 S.IV. 1671. 133

continuous. The stronger the continuity of mindfulness happens, the more focused and steady the mind becomes. Concentration grows. As concentration deepens, in the stillness of an attentive mind, wisdom emerges. It is the wisdom of emptiness, whose only expression is love.

Such faith is born because of experience. It cannot be given. It arises spontaneously out of seeing and knowing things in their totality for oneself. From it flows devotion and gratitude and commitment. It is a natural self- giving aspect of our one's life. It stems from knowing the problematic nature of life, from realizing that human existence is thoroughly imperfect. Because of this one is sensitive to follow, to some other way of being. Faith may arise from hearing the Buddha's words that say that there is a cause for suffering, a cause that can be removed so that suffering comes to an end. It may arise from seeing someone whose presence, whose manners or words, are so calm and cool that they suggest that there are certain mental states that are still left to be reached. It may come from reading something that suddenly reveals a meaning that speaks to the heart. It may dawn upon us through music or art or, as it has happened to great people, from a glimpse of something seen in the nature.

Faith, by its very nature, implies that we have the ability to realize that truth. It leads us to have trust in ourselves, the more trust we have, the better it is for our hearts and minds. It also has a very great influence upon our consciousness. It removes the shadows of doubt that are so debilitating. It gives clarity to our mind, which is energizing

EFFORT (Vīriya-bala)

Effort or Energy is the second spiritual power. These two words are linked, but they are not quite the same. It should neither be too much nor to 134

little. When the meditators keep their mind on the object, it involves mental effort. When they do not make any mental effort, they cannot keep their mind on the object. So mental effort is necessary to keep the mind on the object. Mental effort has to be present during any moment of mental activity, during any moment of noting. However, the meditators should not make too much or too little effort. Too much effort leads to restlessness, and too little effort leads to sleepiness. The Buddha rightly says that:

"And what, bhikkhus, the faculty of energy? Here, bhikkhus, the noble disciple dwells in energy aroused for the abandoning of unwholesome states and the acquistion of wholesome states; he is strong, firm in exertion, not shirking the responsibility of cultivating wholesome states. This is called the faculty of energy."94

Energy comes first, and effort channels it, and puts it to use. Nothing happens without effort in any kind of endeavor, but especially, perhaps, in spiritual practice. This practice is not easy. The instructions are simple, but carrying them out is not so. A lot of energy is expended here just to get out of the pull of habit, the kind of gravitational pull of the mind that would get us and keep us in the grooves of habit that have been worn over years of time. The mind is used to wandering, just erratically wandering from one thing to the next, keeping itself busy with planning and hoping and fantasizing, fearing, complaining, judging. It doesn’t even know that anything might lie outside of its own limited scope.

The characteristic of energy is driving towards something. Its function is to consolidate mental states that arise together with the mental effort. It supports and helps the investigation of the . It manifests to meditators

94 S. IV. 1671. 135

as non-sinking, non-collapsing. When meditators put forth, they do not sink or collapse. It is said, when rightly initiated, effort should be regarded as the root of all attainments. No attainment can be reached wihout making an effort or using energy.

Right effort is the effort to be mindful, and to bring the mind back when it wanders, so it knows what is happening right now. To do this is really a very delicate balancing act. Right effort is not striving. Striving leads to clinging. It reinforces the sense of self, and can be very painful. Right effort is not trying to get anything, for there is nothing to get. It’s not trying to penetrate something and go deeper and deeper. Rather, it’s the effort to listen with greater sensitivity. It’s a soft receptivity. Just total surrender, receiving and welcoming whatever is here.

When effort is balanced, without any strain, there is no sense of, ‘I should do this’. Rather, there’s just a willingness to do. Out of that willingness there comes a constant flow of energy. This quality of energy is bold and courageous. It can be described as ‘the state of the heroic ones’. It gives patience and perseverance in the face of difficulty. If pain arises, the heat of the energy burns away fear, and makes it possible to do what, ordinarily, is very difficult to do, to go right to the center of the pain.

There are many levels of effort. Like the gears of a car, one level leads to the next. But the key to them all is being willing to start fresh, to start all over again. At the beginning of each day, at the beginning of each sitting, at the beginning of each breath to bring back the wandering mind and start fresh. As we become more skilled, effort becomes smoother and steadier, and mindfulness grows.

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MINDFULNESS (Sati-bala)

Mindfulness is the third of the spiritual powers. It is one of the spiritual faculties that creates success in meditation. It is the observing power of the mind, the active aspect of awareness. It means not forgetting to pay attention, not forgetting to be aware of whatever is happening within us, around us, from moment to moment. It’s a very subtle process. If it is not fully understood and fully practiced, we waste a lot of time in our meditation. And the Buddha teaches that:

"And what, bhikkhus, is the faculty of mindfulness? Here, bhikkhus, the noble disciple is mindful, possessing supreme mindfulness and discretion, on who remembers and recollects what was done and said long ago. This is called the faculty of mindfulness95

When first we notice something, there is a fleeting moment of pure awareness, before the thinking mind jumps in. It’s a moment that’s nonverbal, pre-verbal. It has in it no thought. It’s a moment of seeing with very great clarity and no thought. The thing noticed is not yet separated out, but is simply part of the whole flow of the process of life. Perception then fixes it on the thing, puts boundaries around it and labels it.

Under ordinary circumstances, that first pristine moment of awareness is very brief, and it goes unnoticed. What this practice of mindfulness does is to prolong the moments of pre-verbal knowing. The effect of doing that, over time, is profound. It’s a kind of deep knowing which changes the way that we understand the world.

95 S. IV. 1671. 137

When mindfulness is present, it’s like an empty mirror. It sees whatever appears before it with no distortion. Mindfulness has no likes and no dislikes. When mindfulness arises in meditators, they know that there is mindfulness in them. It means that we have mindfulness and take note of it, saying to ourselves that, “mindful, mindful, mindful” or “mindfulness, mindfulness, mindfulness”. The cause for the arising of this mindfulness is wise reflection. There is no passion or prejudice to color in what is seen. It knows things in the round, as it were in their totality, just as they are.

Now, the breath may not have the same compelling quality as seeing a lizard crawling on the ceiling, but the more careful attention we pay to it, the more we get into the habit of paying attention. Interest grows. Careful attention in itself creates interest, for it brings us close to experience increasingly close, so that we see the texture, the detail, the remarkable wonder of experience. In the doing there comes a brightness and a vividness to things.

Strong mindfulness, however, is needed in all instances; for mindfulness protects the mind from lapsing into agitation through faith, energy and understanding, which favour agitation, and from lapsing into idleness through concentration which favours idleness. So it is as desirable in all instances as a seasoning of salt in all sauces, as a prime minister in all the king’s business. And mindfulness has been called universal by the Blessed One. Because the mind has mindfulness as its , and mindfulness is manifested as protection, and there is no exertion and restraint of the mind without mindfulness. Close attention opens the heart. When there is interest, real interest, there is no judgment. Whatever appears is welcome. Acceptance is unconditional. Awareness has a benevolent quality, a friendly quality about it, which leads to bodhicittā. This welcoming acceptance allows whatever 138

comes to reveal itself in its fullness. Ultimately, mindfulness opens into the realm of the sacred. To speak of knowing things as they are, as they really are what is that but spiritual talk.

CONCENTRATION (Samādhi-bala)

The fourth spiritual faculty is concentration. Concentration arises naturally out of the effort to be mindful. It gives the power which makes mindfulness so effective. Concentration is often defined as one-pointed attention. In the context of insight meditation, it is steady, one-pointed attention upon a succession of changing objects. Concentration keeps attention pinned down upon whatever object mindfulness is noticing. As mindfulness moves from, say, the breath to a sound, concentration moves with it, and again keeps attention focused and steady. In each case it lasts for just a moment, because the mind moves so quickly. But it begins again in the next moment, with the same intensity. This so-called ‘momentary concentration’ provides the power for the work of our practice. The Buddha says thus:

"And, what, bhikkhus, is the faculty of concentration? Here, bhikkhus, the noble disciple gains concentration, gain one-pointedness of mind, having made release the object. This is called the faculty of concentration."96

The key to developing concentration is one word: Effort (Vīriya-bala). It’s the effort to pay close attention, to keep coming back. Usually the energies of the mind are scattered in a thousand different directions. The mind is all over the place, and its energy is simply frittered away in random

96 S. IV. 1671. 139

thoughts and desires, hopes, fears, feelings. All the huge potential power that it has is wasted. But as the effort to be mindful becomes more consistent, these scattered energies come together and converge around a single point, and the mind becomes focused, like a lens. If parallel rays of light fall upon a piece of paper, they won’t do much more than warm the paper. But if the same amount of light is focused through a lens, the paper will burst into flame. In the same way, concentration focuses the energy of the mind, and gives it the power to cut through surface appearance. Then idleness overpowers one strong in concentration and weak in energy since concentration favours idleness. Agitation overpowers one strong in energy and weak in concentration since energy favours agitation. But concentration coupled with energy cannot lapse into agitation. So these two should be balanced; for absorption comes with the balanceing of the two.

As concentration deepens, the mind becomes calm and centered. It’s less reactive. It comes into greater emotional balance. We can more easily let go and let things be. The mind has a spaciousness which gives room for pain and anger and fear all to arise and pass, without our being broken by them, or needing to act them out.

It is also a name given to a method, or system of meditation which leads to a well balanced, tranquil mental state; and this connection is known as “Samādhi” or “Samātha-Bhāvanā” which precedes Vipassanā. The explanation given in the Nikayā sutta97 refers to the method of Samādhi as Bhāvanā, or the cultivation of mindfulness efforts, which are respectively the two principles of Right Mindfulness and Right Effort in the Eightfold Path, of which Right Concentration is the culmination. Right Effort supports Samādhi,

97 M I. 302. 140

preventing it from sinking into a state of mental passivity. Right Mindfulness fortifies the mind with good qualities and acts as the guiding principle that keeps it alert and steady in the Samādhi state, not permitting it to lapse into a subconscious condition. These two principles join forces to produce Right Concentration; and their development embraces the whole field of meditation common to both systems, Samādhi and Vipassanā. But when the term Samādhi is used with reference to the method, it must be understood to mean the system that tends to Samādhi in the preliminary stage, that is to say before the attainment of Vipassanā.

WISDOM (Paññā-bala)

Wisdom is the last of the spiritual qualities. It is ongoing inspiration for the work of the other four, and also their fulfillment. Wisdom is not knowledge. It cannot be learned from books, for it is intuitive understanding that arises from close observation of experience. It is insight into reality, into the nature of things as they are. The Buddha teaches thus:

"And, what, bhikkhus, is the faculty of wisdom? Here, bhikkhus, the noble disciple is wise, he possesses wisdom directed to arising and passing away, which is noble and penetrative, leading to the complete destruction of suffering. This is called the faculty of wisdom."98

One aspect of wisdom is seeing the omnipresence of anicca- impermanence. Wisdom knows that nothing in this conditioned realm will last. It knows that everything that arises passes away. It knows that change occurs at every level from the cosmic to the microscosic. A star, a civilization, a tree, a thought-each arises, and evolves through time,

98 S. IV. 1671. 141

disintegrates and disappears. Timetables differ of course, for every phenomenon and event. And change can be so rapid or so slow that it is not ordinarily seen at all. But the trajectory is always the same.

We may think we know this truth, and perhaps we do. But is it living wisdom. For each of us, the mark of impermanence reveals itself most intimately in our inescapable mortality. We all are going to die. However unwelcome that thought may be, death is at the end of every life. You, I or we are no exception. Everything that is born will die. But because we do not live our lives from this place of understanding, we suffer.

There is a constant clash between the nature of existence and our desires. In a world of radical change, we want permanence, security and enduring happiness, and they cannot be found. We live in an imaginary world, and grasp and cling to the way things used to be, or how we want them to be, and find it hard to accept the way they actually are. The result is suffering (dukkha), all the dissatisfactions and sorrows of the human heart. Dukkha is the second truth, with wisdom more and more deeply comes to know.

But the deepest lesson that wisdom has to teach is the fact of anattā. The fact that nothing is inherently substantial and real. We think that we are separate, solid entities, and struggle to protect and satisfy and gratify our precious sense of self, not understanding that at the closest level of examination, no permanent, unchanging self is ever to be found. The constituents of mind and body are, in fact, in constant flux. Body, sensations, thoughts, emotions, arise and disappear, arise and disappear, moment by moment. Keen observation reveals that mind and body are an ever changing process, a moving energy field. There is no permanent being behind phenomena to whom it all is happening. There is no one here to suffer.

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The sense of self lessens. We become less selfish, less self centered. As mindfulness reveals our suffering and we experience its pain, we begin to feel the suffering of others. Boundaries disappear, and we turn to the needs of others as if they were our own. Gradually the delicate art of loving without being processed of anything becomes apparent.

Wisdom is a very rare thing to have. It comes from facing our own sufferings and learning the profound lessons that sufferings have to teach. The lessons are all about letting go. Not holding on to desire, but letting it go. Wherever we hold, the sense of self is present together with suffering. When we let go, self vanishes and suffering dissolves into lightness, ease and peace. It is in the deep understanding of suffering that compassion comes to full bloom. For when the mind no longer holds to anything, it is fully open. There is no self-centeredness and so, no separation. No I, no you, no self. Love then is boundless, and ceaselessly responsive.

The practice of the Buddha's teaching is most commonly depicted by the image of a journey, the eight factors of the constituting the royal roadway along which the disciple must travel. The Buddhist scriptures, however, illustrate the quest for liberation in a variety of other ways, each of which throws a different spotlight on the nature of the practice. Although the alternative formulations inevitably draw upon the same basic set of mental factors as those that enter into the eightfold path, they structure these factors around a different root metaphor an image which evokes its own particular range of associations and highlights different aspects of the endeavor to reach the cessation of suffering.

The qualities that exercise the function of faculties are of humble origin, appearing initially in mundane roles in the course of our everyday

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lives. In these humble guises they manifest as trustful confidence in higher values, as vigorous effort toward the good, as attentive awareness, as focused concentration, and as intelligent understanding. The Buddha's teaching does not implant these dispositions into the mind from scratch but harnesses those pre-existent capacities of our nature toward a supramundane goal toward the realization of the unconditioned thereby conferring upon them a transcendental significance. By assigning them a task that reveals their immense potential, and by guiding them along a track that can bring that potential to fulfillment, the Dhamma transforms these commonplace mental factors into spiritual faculties, mighty instruments in the quest for liberation that can fathom the profoundest laws of existence and unlock the doors to the deathless.

In the practice of the Dhamma each of these faculties has to perform simultaneously its own specific function and to harmonize with the other faculties to establish the balance needed for clear comprehension. The five come to the fullest maturity in the contemplative development of insight, the direct road to awakening. In this process the faculty of faith provides the element of inspiration and aspiration which steers the mind away from the quagmire of doubt and settles it with serene trust in the Triple Gem as the supreme basis of deliverance. The faculty of energy kindles the fire of sustained endeavor that burns up obstructions and brings to maturity the factors that ripen in awakening. The faculty of mindfulness contributes clear awareness, the antidote to carelessness and the prerequisite of penetration. The faculty of concentration holds the beam of attention steadily focused on the rise and fall of bodily and mental events, calm and composed. And the faculty of wisdom, which the Buddha calls the crowning virtue among all the

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requisites of enlightenment, drives away the darkness of ignorance and lights up the true characteristics of phenomena.

Just as much as the five faculties, considered individually, each perform their own unique tasks in their respective domains, as a group they accomplish the collective task of establishing inner balance and harmony. To achieve this balanced striving the faculties are divided into two pairs in each of which each member must counter the undesirable tendency inherent in the other, thus enabling it to actualize its fullest potential. The faculties of faith and wisdom form one pair, aimed at balancing the capacities for devotion and comprehension; the faculties of energy and concentration form a second pair aimed at balancing the capacities for active exertion and calm recollection. Above the complementary pairs stands the faculty of mindfulness, which protects the mind from extremes and ensures that the members of each pair hold one another in a mutually restraining, mutually enriching tension.

Born of humble origins in everyday functions of the mind, through the Dhamma the five faculties acquire a transcendent destiny. When they are developed and regularly cultivated, says the Master, they lead to the Deathless, are bound for the Deathless, culminate in the Deathless.

IV.1.3.5. The Threefold Practice Of Śīla - Samādhi - Pañña In Vipassanā Meditation

Śīla (morality), Samādhi (concentration), and Pañña (wisdom) are considered to be the foundation of in Vipassanā meditation. By virtue of developing these basic and necessary components of meditation, the meditator can remove all the attachments and the fetters for deliverance from the cycle of birth, decay, death and .

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The practice of Śīla, Samādhi, and Paññā is devided into three stages of training in the Noble Eightfold path. Śīla is the moral practice that involves abstention from all unwholesome actions of body and speech. Samādhi is the practice of concentration, developing the ability to consiously direct and control one's own mental processes. Pañña is wisdom, the development of purifying insight into one's own nature.

The Practice Of Śīla

The Pāli word Śīla originally meant simply conduct. But in the context of spiritual training it signifies a particular kind of good conduct or good character. Hence Śīla means both moral conduct and mortal virtue; the former stands for habits of body governed by moral principles and the latter is the interior quality of mind that controls our behaviour all the time.

Śīla (morality) implies a suitable behavior that conforms with code of conducts generally accepted in society. It is codified in the form of five, eight, ten, or two hundreds and twenty-seven moral precepts in monasteries. If followed as directed in precepts, it results in peace and freedom from undesirable effects. In the Noble Eightfold path, Śīla is explained as the right speech, right action and right livehood. We have five basic precepts of Śīla, they are: 1. to abstain from killing any living creature; 2. to abstain from stealing; 3. to abstain from sexual misconduct; 4. to abstain from false speech; 5. to abstain from intoxicants. For a Vipassanā practitioner, the precepts can be added further and they could be either eight or ten in number. In addition to precepts mentioned aboved, they are precepts abstaining from keeping money, using a luxury bed or listening to music etc. However, the precepts, whether they are five, eight, or ten in number, are not sheer formulas dictated by traditions. They are literally "steps to implement the training", one has

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received to ensure that one's speech and actions are not harmful to oneself and others.

Therefore, by practising Śīla, we attempt to control our speech and physical actions, to reduce the unwholesome defilements, so that we may purify our mind. Thus this is the first and foremost step to take on the path of insight meditation.

The Practice Of Samādhi

The second aspect of the is concentration (samādhi). It consists in constraining the mind to remain in the codition most conducive to succeed in whatever one wishes to achieve. The Buddha described the concentrated mind as ”fit for work,“ being in a suitable condition for doing one's job. In order to purify the mind, the meditator must develop the practice of right effort, right mindfulness and right concentration in the Noble Eightfold Path.

Samādhi means the mind that is firmly concentrated, and the more we practise the firmer the mind becomes. The more firmly the mind is concentrated, the more resolute in the practice it becomes. And with the concentrated mind, we will have the development of insight in observing things or phenomena. Hence the Lord Buddha says:

And what, bhikkhus, is the faculty of concentration? Here, bhikkhus, the noble disciple gains concentration, gains on-pointedness of mind, having made release the object. This is called the faculty of concentration."99

99 S. IV. 1673. 147

Samādhi, the state of concentration attained by meditation, has many levels depending on the degree of absorption of the citta with the object of meditated upon. The word "citta" means the mind, heart or consciousness; it makes a core of a person which is central, whereas everything else, including the five khandas are peripheral. Everyone needs the practice of Samādhi, if they want to attain wisdom and a state of eternal happiness. Having attained Samādhi, they become able to go further in the pursuit of wisdom.

The best way to enter Samādhi is to practise the ānāpāna-sati meditation. With right efforts and right awereness of respiration, the mind easily overcomes ignorance. Maintaning the awreness of respiration at each and every moment, the practitioners, with his calm and equanimous mind, gradually slips into the state of Samādhi and gets free from all cravings aversions and illusions.

There are various states of attainments that can be attained through the practice of Samādhi. The Buddha himself was taught eight states of mental absorption before he became enlightened, and he continued to practise them through his life. However, states of attainment of Jhānas alone could not liberate him. Then, he taught the states of absorption, and emphasized their functions as stepping-stones to the development of insight. Meditators develop the faculty of concentration not in order to experience bliss or ecstasy, but rather to train the mind as an instrument with which they may examine their own reality and remove the conditionings that cause their sufferings. This is the right concentration and that is why we should develop the mind so that it can ge to the state of wisdom (paññā).

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The Practice Of Paññā

William Hart, translates the word Paññā (Pāli) or Prajñā (Sanskrit) as wisdom, right understanding, discernment, cognitive acuity, or know-how100. In some sects of Buddhism, it especially refers to the wisdom that is based on the direct realization of the Noble Truths, impermanence, interdependent origination, non-self, emptiness, etc. It is able to extinguish afflictions and bring about enlightenment. The training in pañña (insight or wisdom) gives rise to the right knowledge and understanding of the true nature of all things. Normally, we are incapable of knowing things in their true nature. We either stick to our own ideas or go along with popular opinion so that what we see is not the truth at all. It is for this reason that Buddhist practice includes training in insight, designed to give rise to a full understanding into the true nature of things.

H. S. Sobti explains it thus: "In the Pāli Canon, pañña is defined in a variety of overlapping ways, frequently centering on concentrated insight into the three characteristics (impermanence, suffering, no-self) of all things and the Four Noble Truths". 101 In the religious context, understanding or knowledge and insight or wisdom are not by any means the same. Understanding depends to some extent on the use of reasoning or rational intellect. Insight goes further than that. An object known by insight is like that it has been absorbed fully; it has been penetrated into and confronted face to face. It would not be out of place to know that the Buddhist training in insight does not talk about intellectual understanding of the kind used in present-day academic and scholarly circles, where each individual can have his own particular kind of truth. The Buddhist insight must be intuitive insight, clear

100 William Hart, Op. Cit., p. 161. 101 H.S. Sobti (Ed.), Vipassanā – The Buddhist Way, Delhi: Eastern Book Linkers, 2003, p. 87. 149

and immediate, the result of having penetrated to the true nature of an object by one means or another, thereby making an indelible impression on the mind. For this reason the objects of scrutiny in insight-training must be things with which one comes into contact in the course of everyday living; only through continual application is the mind able to become genuinely detached from things as transient, unsatisfactory, and not-selves.

To review this with the words of the Lord Buddha: "There is no jhāna without wisdom; There is no wisdom without jhāna; But for one with both jhāna and wisdom, They are in the presence of nibbāna".102

In the Noble Eightfold Path, the practice of training of insight wisdom includes in right thought and right understanding. And the method of practice in order to get the insight, paññā, is called Vipassanā-bhāvanā which led to enlightenment, expounded by the Buddha. Vipassanā-bhāvanā is the development of insight into one's own nature, by means of which one may recognize and eliminate the causes of suffering. This was practised by the Buddha for his own liberation, and he also preached the same throughout his life. This is the unique element in His teachings, that he gave the highest importance to. He rightly says it thus: ”If it is supported by morality, concentration is very fruitful, very beneficial. If it is supported by concentration, wisdom is very fruiful, very benefical. It is supported by 103 wisdom, the mind becomes freed of all defilements“.P102F

102 Dhp. 372. 103 Dīgha nikāya, sutta 16. 150

It is said that there are three kinds of wisdom. The first, suta-mayā paññā is the wisdom gained by hearing or reading the words of others. The second, cintā-mayā paññā is intellectual wisdom. It tests one‘s reasoning and analyze one's faculty to find whether the received wisdom is rational and logical or not. It cannot be said that these two types of wisdom are absolutely useless. They are borrowed wisdom, however. They are merely intellectual and no lasting benefit is derived from them. The third kind of wisdom, bhāvanā-mayā-pañña, is experiential wisdom. It is manifested within ourselves, based on our own experience of our body sensations. To develop bhāvanā-mayā paññā, it is essential to practice śīla (moral conduct) and samā dhi (concentration). Only the mind established in right sam ā dhi can understand and realize the truth as it is.

Morality (śīla) and concentration (samādhi) are valuable in themselves, but their real purpose is to lead to wisdom (pañña) finally. It is only in developing pañña that we find a true middle path between the extremes of self-indulgence and self repression. By practising morality, we avoid actions that cause the grossest forms of mental agitation. By concentrating the mind, we further calm it and at the same time shape it into an effective tool so that we may undertake the work of self-examination. But it is only by developing wisdom that we can know the reality as it is and get ourselves free from ignorance and all kinds of attachments.

If this is so, it means that we are already on the path, i.e. practising Śīla, Samādhi and Pañña. These must be practised together, for if any are lacking, the practice will not develop correctly. The more our Śīla improves, the firmer the mind becomes. The firmer the mind is, the bolder Pañña becomes and so on ... each part of the practice supporting and enhancing all the others. As we deepen and refine the practice, Śīla, Samādhi and Pañña will mature 151

together from the same place. They are refined from the same raw material. In other words the Path has a coarse beginning but as a result of training and refining the mind through meditation and reflection, it becomes increasingly subtle. As the mind becomes more refined, the practice of mindfulness becomes more focussed, being concentrated on a more and more narrow area. The practice actually becomes easier as the mind turns more and more inwards to focus on itself. We no longer make big mistakes or go wildly wrong. Now, whenever the mind is affected by a particular matter, doubts will arise. Such as whether acting or speaking in a certain way is right or wrong that we simply keep halting the mental proliferation and, through intensifying effort in the practice, continue turning our attention deeper and deeper inside. The practice of Samādhi will become progressively firmer and more concentrated. The practice of Pañña is enhanced so that we can see things more clearly and with increasing ease.

The end result is that we are clearly able to see the mind and its objects, without having to make any distinction between the mind, body or speech. As we continue to turn attention inwards and reflect on the Dhamma, the wisdom faculty gradually matures, and eventually you are left contemplating the mind and mind-objects. It means that we start to experience the body as immaterial. Through our insight, we are no longer groping at or are uncertain in our understanding of the body and the way it takes. The mind experiences the body's physical characteristics as formless objects which come into contact with the mind. Ultimately, we are contemplating on just the mind and mind- objects, those objects which come into our consciousness. Now, examining the true nature of the mind, we can observe that in its natural state, it has no preoccupations or issues prevailing upon it. It's like a piece of cloth or a flag

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that has been tied to the end of a pole. As long as its own nature is undisturbed, nothing will happen to it.

In short, the practice of Śīla - Samādhi - Paññā is the foundation of Vipassanā meditation. Following Śīla in order to take care of our actions and speech, and from that we can purify our mind to get into the state of Samādhi. Gradually, with the practice of the awereness and mindfulness of respirations and sensations of our body, our mind realizes the nature of the impermanence and non-self of all phenomena, gets free from all sufferings and attachments. And that liberation is comprehended by the experience of wisdom from insight, not by the knowledge of intellectual understanding. And that is the wisdom of Vipassanā, the wisdom of the ultimate reality.

To conclude, on the four foundations of mindfulness, and the help of five spiritual strengths of Insight, Vipassanā meditation is the path leading to the development of insight wisdom. This insight system of meditation is considered to be based on śīla (morolity), samādhi (concentration), pañña (wisdom). By practising this technique of meditation, the practitioners can get a calm mind through realizing the nature of three characteristics of existence of all dhammas called anicca (impermanence), sukkha (suffering) and anatta (non-self). This is the only path that leads to the removal of all types of attachments and deliverance from the cycle of birth, decay, death and rebirth, and finally the attainment of the Arahanship.

IV.2. MEDITATION IN PURE LAND TRADITION

IV.2.1. Origin Of Meditation In Pure Land Tradition

As we known that was originated in India around the first century A.D. In the development of Pure Land Buddhism in India and

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in the other countries, the practices of visualization (anusmṛti) and oral recitation of the name of Amitābha Buddha are very common for the Pure Land followers. Especially, the practice of "samādhi" (concentration) on the contemplation on the Buddha" became very popular in , and was considered as the technique of dhyāna (meditation) in Pure Land tradition. Later, this type of practice led to the sycretism of Ch'an (dhyāna) and Pure Land movement in Chinese Buddhism. In this part of the chapter, we would like to discuss, in detail, about the origin of dhyāna in Pure Land tradition.

It is said that the Pratyutpanna Sūtra was the first text that was devoted to Amitābha Buddha. It was translated into Chinese by Lokasema and Zhu - Fo - Shuo in 179 CE.104 We find recorded here that two natives of Loyang, Meng-Fu and Chang-Lien, served as the copyists in this translation work, and this is the first text dealing with the Buddha Amitābha to be translated into Chinese. This work does not give a detailed description of the adornments of the Pure Land, Sukhāvatī, but rather teaches that by means of meditation, and concentration of mind, one is able to actually see the Buddha Amitābha of the Western Land. This text is famous for teaching a method by which one is enabled to see Buddha while in a state of samādhi. In other words, the Pratyutpanna Sūtra is the earliest literature with reference to Buddha Amitā bha and his Pure Land, in which the Buddha expounds a practice called pratyutpanna samādhi (nianfo sanmei) with which a practitioner can see the Buddhas in ten directions standing face to face before him. The S ū tra explicitly stresses that, if one is mindful (nian) of Amitābha Buddha for one

104 Shinkō Mochizuki, Pure Land Buddhism In China, Chapter IV, trans. Leo M.Pruden, California: Institute of , 1942, p.241 154

to seven days, one will see the Buddha in front of oneself or be born in the Pure Land.

Furthermore, one of the earliest Pure Land resource for visualization and recitation practices would be the Kuan wu-liang shou ching (Kuan- ching).105 Believed to have been compiled in the late fourth century, this sūtra undoubtedly describes practices of the early fourth, if not third century. The sūtra refers to the practice of visualization as the "samādhi (concentration) on the Buddha". Thus, Pure Land visuallization may be regarded as one among many of the early Mahāyāna samādhis such as the Śuraṇgama-samā dhi (concentration of the heroic Buddha in which the defilements are destroyed) and Pratyutpanna-samādhi (concentration in which the Buddhas stand before one). The textual background and content of the Kuan-ching suggest that it belongs to a group of so-called visualization sūtras (kuan-ching) devoted to Mahāyāna and Buddhas. These meditation techniques gained popularity in Central Asia in the fourth century AD. The central Asian popularity of visualization may be partially seen in the inordinately large number of Central Asians involved in translating "visualization sūtras" into Chinese in the early fifth century.

Nāgārjuna is considered as the first patriarch of Pure Land Buddhism in India. In his work of "The Discourse on the Ten Stages, a commentary on the chapter on the Ten Stages of the Garland Sūtra, Nāgārjuna explains various methods of practice for entering the first and second stages, especially the Pratyutpanna Samādhi or the Buddha-recollection Samādhi. In his view, by concentration on Amitābha Buddha, one can visualize him and other Buddhas and, through this, firmly settle in these stages. Since one partly realizes True Suchness with the undefiled wisdom which is awakened on

105 Kenneth K. Tanaka, Op. Cit., p.10. 155

visualizing Buddhas, it is stated that one has been "born in the Tathāgatas' Family".106

In the Sukhāvatīvyūhopadesa of , the second patriarch of Pure Land Tradition, he wrote about "instructions to enable all sentient beings to be born in the Pure Land of Buddha Amitāyus and recommended that such birth be realized through faith. This faith comprises five aspects of recollection (smṛti): worship, praise, vow meditation, and transferral of merits. The first four aspects describe the process whereby one attains birth. Worship signifies mindfulness of power of Amitāyus. Praise consists in the chanting of his name: nien-fo. Vow is the firm commitment that one makes with himself and that is to be born in the Pure Land. Meditation is the visualization of the merits of Buddha Land. The fifth aspect is the final practice of compassion that flows from attainment, the leader to the Buddha Land. Whereas, as for Vasubandhu, faith itself encompasses all practices.

In China, Master Lu-shan Hui Yuan is considered as the first Pure Land patriarch. In 402 AD, with one hundred and twenty-three followers, Hui-yuan founded the White Lotus Society (Pai-lien she) on the Southern Chinese mountain, Mt. Lu (Lu-shan). This society was a meditation group whose members would meditate on the form of the Buddha Amitābha in an attempt to realize nien-fo san-mei (buddhaanusm ṛ ti-samā dhi), a sam ā dhi based primarily on the P'an-shou san-mei ching. If a devotee was able to see the form of the Buddha, it is believed he would eventually be reborn in the Pure Land. It also emphasized on meditation that came to be normative in Chinese Buddhism.

106 Hisao Inagaki, Op. Cit., p. 70. 156

From the period of the Liu-Sung Dynasty onward, the Pure Land faith spread widely throughout China: lectures on the Wu-liang-shou ching came to be frequently offered, and many images of the Buddha Amit ā bha were constructed. Bodhiruci translated Vasubandhu's Amitayus Sūtra Upadeśa in the reign of the Emperor Hsuan-wu of the Northern Wei Dynasty. Soon thereafter, T'an-luan (476-542 or 488-554) composed a commentary on it, and in this commentary, T'an-Luan was the first person to apply the theory of the division of the buddhadharma into an easy path and a difficult path (first taught in the Dasabhumi-vibhāsa) teachings of Nāgārjuna. T'an-luan also stressed the power of Amitābha's fundamental or original vows (known as ”other-power“), a teaching which was emphasized by subsequent writers in the prominant tradition of Pure Land thought.

Tan-Luan's writings inspired another Master, Tao-Ch'o (562-645), who put an emphasis on the recitation method because he believed that it was well- suited to common people. Tao-Ch‘o was the teacher of Shan-Tao (613-681), one of the most important figures in Pure Land history.

Masters Tao-ch‘o and Shan-tao became the inheritors of the tradition of T'an-luan, and in their writings, they also dealt with the power of the fundamental vows of Amitābha exclusively. These men were also the first to introduce the concept of mo-fa into Chinese Pure Land thought. The theory of mo-fa divides Buddhist religious history into two, or three, periods: the first period is that of the True Dharma, the second period is that of the Counterfeit Dharma, and these two are then followed by the period that sees the total Extinction (mo) of the Dharma (fa). In their writings, they taught that the Pure Land teachings were the teachings specifically designed by the Buddha to fit these historical conditions. Shan-tao most especially spelled out the Pure Land doctrines originally set by T'an-luan and Tao-ch'o. Presented in his 157

Commentary on the Kuan Wu-liang-shou ching (the Kuan Wu-liangshou ching Shu), his exegesis set a standard that was widely read and followed by many subsequent generations of Chinese Pure Land thinkers.

At about the same time as Tao-Ch'o, Master Ching-Ying Hui-Yuan's (523-592) wrote a major commentary on the Visualization on Sūtra that helped set up the doctrinal framework for Pure Land Buddhism. His writings established Pure Land as a distinct kind of Buddhism. He emphasized Buddha Visualization Sam ā dhi (Nien-fo San-Mei) as the main thrust of the Visualization Sūtra.

The practice of devotion to Amitābha Buddha also became a part of the T'ien-t'ai school from its inception. The founder, Chih-I (538-597), made Pure Land Buddhism an integral part of his system of meditative practice. Chih-I's major work, the Great Concentration and Insight, describes four kinds of meditation practice: (1) constant sitting, (2) constant walking, (3) half- walking and half-sitting, and (4) neither walking nor sitting. The constant walking meditation practice was based upon the Pratyutpanna S ū tra. It consists of circumambulating a statue of Amitābha Buddha while chanting that Buddha‘s name and visualizing him.

IV.2.2. Shantao And His Method Of Meditation On The Amitābha Buddha

As we discussed above, after Master Tao-ch'o, Master Shan-Tao was respected as the third patriarch of Pure Land Buddhism in China. Master Shan-T'ao was born in the Tang Dynasty, the most flourished time of Buddhism in China; with commentary on Kuang-Wu-Liang-Shou Ching (Kuan-Wu-Liang-Shou Ching-Shu, Shan Tao's exegesis set a standard that

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was widely read and followed by many subsequent generations of Chinese Pure Land thinkers.

Master Shan-Tao (613-681), was born in Szu-chou, present day Anhui province. There are many controversy about his biography but commonly it is believed that he went to monastic life when he was ten years old. His first master was Ming-sheng, who was a disciple of San-Lun master Fa-lang (507- 581).107 After that he met Tao-ch'o in his early twenties, having encountered the Kuan-ching beforehand, and soon became Tao-ch'o most famous disciple, Shan-Tao's initial encounter with the Pure Land tradition probably occurred through art, as local Shan-tung tradition used painted scenes from the Kuan- ching as aids to visualization practice, He thereafter became an urban monk in the capital of Ch'ang-an for the next thirty years, for a time living in the same monastery that housed Hsuan-tsang's translation office, as the famous pilgrimage had just returned from India.

Shan-Tao's writings in this regard may be part here thus:

1. Kuan-nien A-mi-t'a-Fo hsiang-hai san-mei kung-te fa- men (Meritorious Methods of the existing in Contemplating the Sea of Characters of Buddha Amita), T. 1959, 47: 22-30. Usually abbreviated as Kuan-nien Fa-men.

2. Chuan-ching hsing-tao yuan wang-sheng ching-t'u fashih tsan (Hymns [used] in the Ceremony of Chanting, Circumambulation and Resolve of Rebirth in the Pure Land), T. 1979, 47: 424-438. Usually abbreviated as Fa-shih tsan.

107 Julia F. Pas, Op. Cit., p.81.

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3. Yi kuan-ching-teng ming pan-chou san-mei hsing-tao wangsheng tsan (Hymns used During the Circumambulation at the Rebirth Ceremony Explaining the Pan-chou-samadhi according to the Kuan-ching), T. 1981, 47: 448-456. Usually abbreviated as Pan-chou tsan or Pan-chou san-mei tsan.

4. Wang-sheng li-tsan chieh, (Hymns of Praise used in the Rebirth Ceremony), T. 1980, 47: 438-448. More often titled Wang-sheng li-tsan.

5. Nien-Fo-ching (NFC) (Mirror of Nien-Fo), T. 1966, 47: 120-133.

6. Other Works

Besides the above mentioned lost Nien-Fo chi, Mochizuki lists two other works by Shan-Tao which are also lost: Mi-t'o yi (The Meaning of Amita); and Ta-ch'eng pu-sa fa ( Method in Mahāyāna).

From an unexpected sources, another lost work of Shan-tao came to my attention: Hsi-fang hua-tao wen (Essay About Techniques for Converting People to the Western Paradise). It has, to my best knowledge, never been listed among Shan-tao's works, but it occurs in the biography of Shao- k'ang, where it is said to have caused Shao-k'ang's conversion to Pure Land Buddhism.

Furthermore, some hymns are attributed to Shan-tao which are either included in works by other Pure Land teachers or have been discovered in manuscript form in Chinese Central Asia and Tun-huang:

1. A hymn called Hsi-fang li tsan-wen (Hymn used in the Ceremony of the Western Land). The hymn is mentioned in a work by Fa-chao, was discovered at Tun-huang, and was published in T. 85. The hymn text is reproduced and attributed to monk Shan-tao.

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2. Manuscripts of fragments from Shan-tao's works have been discovered in Chinese Central Asia, near Toyuk in the years 1910-1911. One of the manuscripts is titled Hsi-fang tsan and is in fact the same hymn as the one above, taken over by Fa-chao.108

Master Shan-Tao's commentary on the Kuan Wu Liang Shou Fo Ching (Kuan-ching) is the most influential and one of the most inspiring works withthin the Pure Land School. In this work, Shan-Tao demanded from his followers to have absolute sincerity and faith in their practice, and taught them both oral invocation of the name and the complex visualization practices of the Pure Land and those of Amitābha Buddha and Bodhisattvas.

Shan-Tao also analyzed the Five Right Practices of Vasubandhu and their relationship to the three major Pure Land sūtras. But his major emphasis on the Five Right Practices, especially on the recollection of Amit ā bha Buddha which is considered to be a good practice work of Vasubandhu. Shan- Tao said that visualization, hearing and calling the Buddha's name and meditating on the Buddha and the Pure Land are all aspects of Buddha- remembrance.

In the commentary of Kuan-ching, Master Shan-Tao concerned with meditation and intends to clarify the teaching of the Kuan-ching with relation to the particular method of Amitābha vision. In the opinion of Shan-Tao, there are two great gates or methods (men) promising entrance into Sukhāvatī. The first one is about ethical conduct, which he calls ting, it literally means serenity and the second one is also about ethical conduct, which he calls san, dispersion of merits. After quoting some passages to prove his statement, he

108 Life and thought of Master Shan-Tao was discussed in the book: "Visions of Sukhāvatī, Shan-Tao's Commentary on The Kuan-Wu-Liang-Shou-Fo-Ching" written by Julia F. Pas., page 67 161

asks the question: what is 'the goodness of meditation' (ting-shan) called?; What is 'the goodness of nonmeditative action' (san-shan) called?

The answer is: meditation from one to thirteen are about the 'goodness of meditation'; from fourteen to sixteen are about the three kinds of merits and the nine degree of rebirth, these are called 'goodness of non-meditative action.'109

Furthermore his teaching about practice "meditation" and "non- meditative action" also refers to ethical conduct. Shan-Tao says that the only hope for rebirth into the Pure Land is when faith and ethical conduct are cultivated together. Shan-Tao also means that in order to attain the mindfulness, the Pure Land practitioners must approach the Threefold Mind sincerity of practice with the deep faith and a vow for rebirth in Pure Land.

Moreover, the two 'gates' also correspond the monastic śīla and dhyāna (moral discipline and spiritual cultivation). In the view of Shan-tao, there are two main methods of meditation: preparation and actual meditation with regard to Ting-shan:

• Preliminaries Stage Of Meditation

In the preliminary stage of meditation, firstly, Shan-Tao emphasizes the important of confession. The practitioner should make the conffession that "In this present life I regret and confess all my transgressions committed from the beginningless pass till now, by actions, words and thoughts the ten evils, the five deadly sins, the four serious offenses, the transgressions of slandering the dharma and unbelief."

109 Julia F. Pas, Op.Cit., p. 180. 162

• Actual meditation

When the confession is complete, the practitioner must sit down again in the right posture. With the calm mind, he should continue to grasp the object of visualization (the sun, water, the Pure Land, the Amitābha Buddha, etc). Once the spiritual hindrances have gone away, the proper meditation can be undertaken.

In the commentary on the Kuan -Ching, Shan tao explains clearly the way to meditate on Amitābha Buddha. It would not be out of place to mention the teachings of Kuan-ching here. It runs thus:

"All the Buddhas Tathagathas are identified with dharmadhatu- kaya: they universally enter into the minds of all sentient beings. Therefore, when your mind visualizes the Buddha, this mind is identified with the thirty-two body marks and the eighty minor marks. This mind "creates" the Buddha; this mind is the Buddha. The ocean of true and universal knowledge (omniscience) of the Buddhas arises from the mind. Therefore you should with singlemindedness and close mindfulness thoroughly inspect that Buddha Tathāgata, the , the Fully Enlightened One."110

Commentary, Shan-Tao explains that this passage recommends a careful step-by-step visualization process and inspection of the major and minor marks of Amitābha.

Firstly, he will only explain the words "to create the Buddha." This is to visualize mentally without interruption the body marks, starting from the top

110 Ibid., p.196.

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of the head down to the feet, and inspect them one by one without a moment's rest. One first visualizes the mark of the top of the Buddha's head, next the mark of the white hair-twist between his eyebrows, and so on down to the mark of the thousand-wheels imprint on his footsoles. While performing this visualization, all the major and minor marks of the Buddha image will appear that is perfectly clear with propriety and majesty. Just because the mind conditions the marks one by one, they will become visible one by one . If the mind does not condition them, the marks will not be visible. Only if they are created by the mind's imagination will they respond to the mind and become visible. That is the meaning of the words "this mind is identified with the thirty-two body marks." When the Buddha marks appear, all the minor marks will follow. This clarifies the Tathagatha's teaching that when visualizing one should fully inspect all details and explains the words ". . . and the resulting eighty minor marks.

In the commentary of the Kuan-ching, Shan-Tao use the phrase of "This mind is the Buddha". This phrase signifies that when the mind visualizes the Buddha, then relying on this visualization the body of the Buddha appears: this is a mind-Buddha (or a mental Buddha). Outside this mind, there is no other Buddha.

According to Shan-Tao, during the time we visualize the image of Amitābha Buddha, with the mindful mind of the visualization, our mind becomes the Buddha-mind. It means that with the process of meditation, our consciousness becomes true-nature of the Buddha, the Buddha nature. In other words, we become one with Buddha nature, no essential difference between subject and objects exists anymore then. This is the basic teaching of Mahāyāna Buddhism.

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After this rather philosophical digression followed by a defense of the true nature of Amitābha vision, Shan-Tao becomes practical again and further explains the technique of visualization-inspection.

1. In any of the four postures of the body, whether the eyes are open or closed, one perceives a golden image of the Buddha as if appearing before one's eyes; one should continuously hold on to that imagination.

2. In the beginning, one must visualized the image of Amitābha Buddha as sitting on a lotus flower.

3. After imagining and perceiving the sitting image, the mind's eyes gets opened.

4. When the mind's eyes have been opened, one will perceive a golden image and all the splendors of that Land of Happiness. That empty space above the Land will become clear without hindrance.

Further, the method of inspection of the image and of mental concentration is the same as has been explained above: one should visualize one by one all the body marks starting from the top of the Buddha's head: the mark of eyebrows and white hair between the eyebrows, eyes, nose, mouth, ears, throat, neck, shoulders, arms, hands, fingers. Then draw the mind's attention upwards and imagine breast, abdomen, navel, concealed male organ, shinbones, knees, heels, feet, the ten toes, the thousand wheels on the footsoles, etc. This one-by-one-imagining from top to bottom is called inspection in straight order; from the thousand wheels below going upward, is the inspection in reverse order. If in this way the practitioner tries to settle his mind using these two methods, straight and reverse, after a short time he will certainly succeed.

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Furthermore, he must thoroughly inspect the Buddha's body, the flower-throne, the jewel ground, etc., both in downward and upward order, since among the thirteen inspections, those of inspecting the jewel ground (Med. 3), the jewel flowers (the jeweled flower throne) (Med.7) and the golden (Buddha) image (Med. 8) are the most important ones. If you want to teach other people, then you have to teach them this method. If this one method succeeds the other inspections will naturally become clear.

On the other hand, Master Shan-Tao reminds the reader that since the body measurements of Amitā bha Buddha are boundless, they cannot be grapsped through the limited power of the humand mind. But because of the power of Amitābha Buddha's ancient vows, all those who visualize him with concentrated mind will be successful.

If vsualizing the Buddha image already brings the meditator immeasureable happiness, how much more the inspection of his true body will result in is a matter of great discussion for the followers of Buddha.

IV.2.3. Syncretism Of Pure Land And Ch'an In China

Historically, the culmination of Ch'an-Pure Land syncretism after T'ang dynasty was mainly due to the devastating T'ang Hui-Ch'ang Persecution (845). 111 When Chinese Buddhism reached its apogee during T'ang dynasty, eight major schools flourished. However, the persecution wiped out the vitality of academically oriented schools, such as the T'ien-T'ai and Hua'yen schools, which were dependent on well established institutions of monasteries and libraries. The practice-oriented Ch'an and Pure Land

111 David J. Kalupahana, Buddhist Thought and Ritual, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited, 2001, p. 71. 166

became only remaining 'living' schools that survived the persecution. They survived for a number of reasons. They did not have to rely as heavily on scriptures as the philosophical schools did. They were economically self- sufficient without depending on imperial patronage. Especially, they were survived because they could be practiced almost anywhere and under most circumtances. The instrumental figures for the promotion and popularization of this movement are Master Yong-Ming (904-975 CE), Zhu-Hong (1532- 1612 CE) and Ou-yi (1599-1655 CE).

After the Hui-chang Persecution, the Pure Land tradition and Ch'an existed side-by-side as the main Buddhist practices. At that time, there was a popular view that saw the Ch'an practice as the only true practice, whereas other practices were false because they were 'conditioned dharma'. Cimin (680-748) criticized this view in his "Collection on Compassion of the Pure Land". He advocated not only the sycretism of Ch'an and Pure Land but also the sycretism of Ch'an and the doctrine-oriented schools and the sycretism of the (The Discipline School) and Pure Land. Cimin stressed that: for the practitioner proper meditation means to concentrate the mind on one object continuously in on's thought… He must not discard the Western Pure Land. If a practitioner of meditation can practice like this, his meditation becomes harmonious with the holy teachings. He becomes the eye for sentient beings, and all Buddhas will approve of him. All Buddha dharmas are equal and comply with suchness, leading to perfect enlightenment.

Thus, Cimin conveyed that all Buddhist practices were means and were all equally effective in aiding practitioners to reach the final goal of becoming a Buddha. Cimin's thought was adopted by Yongming, later passed down to Zhuhong, Fazhao, and finally Ou yi.

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Yongming is one of the most influential figures in the history of Chinese Pure Land Buddhism. The syncretic nature of his thought can first of all be seen from his daily practices. He syncretized all kinds of different practices. For example, everyday, he recited and sūtras - such as the Heart Sūtra and the Lotus Sūtra, meditated, preached, practiced recitation, and offered food to hungry ghosts, and he dedicated the merits generated through all these kinds of practices to all sentient beings to attain rebirth in the Pure Land.

In his Wanshan tonggui ji (Myriad Virtues Return to the Same Source), Yongming set forth his Pure Land thought based on his Ch'an and Hua-yen background. His view of the Pure Land can be termed "Mind-only Pure Land" (weixin jingtu,), in contrast to the physical and objective Western Paradise (Xifang jingtu).

For several centuries in China there had been two competing ways of thinking about Pure Land practice. The first was "Mind-Only Pure Land" (weixin jingtu), which held that the Pure Land appears when the mind is purified; or, to put it another way, that the transformation of the mind that comes with the attainment of also purifies one's surroundings. This style of thought has its roots in the Vimalakīrti-nirdesa-sūtra, and was further developed by the T'ian-tai School in its exposition of Pure Land practice. The opposing stream was "Western Pure Land" practice (xifang jingtu), which held that the Western Paradise of Amitābha Buddha was a real, concrete destination, and that the goal of Pure Land practice was to attain rebirth there after death.

For Yongming, "the Pure Land is a projection of the Mind, that is, the Pure Land is the Mind alone". As the Vimalakīrti Sūtra stated, the purity of

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the Buddha's land reflects the purity of his own mind. Therefore, one only needs to purify one's mind, and then one can realize the Pure Land here and now. Yongming's viewpoint of "Mind-only Pure Land", is obviously harmonized with Ch'an thought.

Yongming stressed that recitated-samādhi is a state of no-thought and no-word. For him, the practice of recitation is taught for those who do not believe that one' s mind is the Buddha and thus seek for the Buddha outside of the Mind. Those of medium and inferior faculties are expediently taught to concentrate their scattered thoughts on the physical features of the Buddha. Relying on the external image in order to manifest the internal image, and thus one gradually gets awakened and reaches the state of single mindedness. But those of superior faculties are taught to contemplate the true form of the body of the Buddha.

Therefore, Yongming provided two approaches to nianfo. One is the meditative nianfo with "the mind of concentration" (dingxin) for those with superior capability. The other is the oral invocational nianfo with "the mind of single devotion" for those with inferior capability. These methods are all means of training for internal realization.

As a successor of Yongming's syncretic thought, Zhuhong (1532-1612) also stressed the teaching of One-Mindedness, but when he commented on "reciting the name of the Amitābha Buddha wholeheartedly without confusion" in the Smaller Sūtra.

Borrowing from Hua-yen terminology, Chu-hung distinguished two levels of "one mindedness" resulting from Buddha invocaton; the one mind of particularity and the one mind of universality. While the first might be shallow, the second was profound, for it was not different from absolute 169

reality itself. Chu-hung used this concept to justify his syncretic approach to Buddhism in general and to prove the identity between Pure Land nien-fo and Ch'an meditation in particular.

What makes his thought different from Yongming' s is that Yongming treated the Pure Land and Chan as two separate practices for people with different capabilities, whereas in Zhuhong's thought Pure Land and Chan were not two.

Another point necessary to mention about Zhuhong is his successful promotion of lay Buddhism. During his time, lay Buddhist associations grew increasingly popular, while the monastic order lost both prestige and vitality because of lack of discipline and the effects of secularization. The rise of lay Buddhist movements in the late Ming dynasty shows an increasing emphasis on self-enlightenment through a practical methodology and a growing openness toward Confucianism and Taoism). Zhuhong and his followers made many efforts to present to the educated officials as well as to the common people a "united Buddhism," which put as much emphasis on civic virtue and filial piety as it did on compassion and wisdom.

As the contemporary of Zhuhong, Ouyi was another famous monk in the late Ming advocating syncretism within Mahāyāna Buddhism. But for him, Ch'an (or meditation), the Teaching Schools (or the Dharma), and the Vinaya School came from one origin. Meditation is the mind of the Buddha (the Buddha here means the Dharmakaya), the Dharma is the Speech of the Buddha, and the Vinaya is the practice of the Buddha. They are one practice instead of three separate things. Because people did not really understand this, they separated them into three schools.

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Just like Zhuhong, Ouyi based his understanding of nianfo (reciting the Buddha's name) on the teaching that the mind, the Buddha, and all sentient beings are not different. He even went further to point out that the Pure Land practice of chanting the name of Amitābha Buddha, the T'ian-tai's meditation and four kinds of Samādhi, and the 's "painting to the mind" all could be called Nianfo practices. For him, there are different practices of nian-fo. There is first, nian ta fo (being mindful of the other Buddha). This is concentrating on the recollection and visualization of Amitābha Buddha. When practitioners reach the state of single-mindedness without confusion, they attain the nianfo Samādhi and hence, can be reborn in the Pure Land. The practice of Hui-yuan of Mt. Lu is an example. The second type is nian zi fo (being mindful of the self Buddha). This is meditating on one's own mind, contemplating on the idea that this mind is identical with all Buddhas in the ten directions. Through this practice, the practitioners can be suddenly enlightened. Ch'an and T'ian-tai belong to this practice. Finally, there is a state when one becomes mindful of both self and other Buddhas. This is the state of understanding that the mind, the Buddha, and all sentient beings are identical; sentient beings are only sentient beings in the mind of the Buddha; and the Buddha is only the Buddha in the mind of the sentient beings. Practitioners can contemplate the features of the Buddha and his land and then manifest practitioners' own mind. Yongming and his followers belong to this practice.

In his famous commentary on the Smaller Sūtra, Master Ouyi also stressed the importance of maintaining the faith, vow and practice and reciting the Buddha's name single-mindedly all the time. But different from Zhuhong, who thought the Pure Land and Ch'an are identical, Ou yi emphasized that the Pure Land has Ch'an of the Pure Land, and Ch'an has the

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Pure Land of Ch'an, that is, Ch'an and Pure Land overlap each other. They should not be confused.

Again, Yung Ming Yen Show was considered as one of the greatest syncretists of Ch'an and Pure Land syncretism movement. Yung Ming synthesized all systems of Buddhist thought in theory, and more importantly, united all approaches of Buddhist disciplines, especially Ch′an meditation and Nien-Fo (Buddha-recitation), in practice. So now we will discuss about the syncretism of Ch'an and Pure Land in China folowing the idea of Master Yung Ming.

IV.2.3. 1. Yung-Ming‘s Ch′an - Pure Land Syncretism

There are three factors which led to Yung-Ming's advocacy of the joint practice of Ch′an and Pure Land. The first factor was the strong antagonism, prevailing at the time of Yung-ming, between Ch'an Pure Land schools. Ch'an practitioners denigrated Pure Land believers as simple-minded seekers of the external phenomena instead of the true self, whereas the Pure Land followers criticized Ch'an monks as arrogant and undisciplined. Yung-Ming realized the harmful effects caused by the extremely unconventional (anti-scriptural and anti-ritual) attitude cherished by some Ch'an followers, which often led them to indulge in the ”wild Ch'an“ in which they utilized various fanatic and eccentric gimmicks to demonstrate their understanding of Ch'an. Some even went too far as to ignore all disciplines and disregard totally the accepted codes of morality on the pretext of practicing non-attachment. To Yung-Ming, the application of the ”wild-Ch'an“ was dangerous if the person applying it had no genuine insight but only superficial understanding. Thus Yung-Ming

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incorporated Nien-Fo practice, as well as other disciplines,112 into Ch'an so as to counteract the one-sided practice of Ch′an.

The second fact that led to syncretism of Ch'an -Pure Land of Yung- Ming was the sociopolitical conditions during his time. It was a very turbulent era in which the suffering populace cried out for salvation. The Ch'an meditation was too difficult and demanding for the masses, but when Ch'an was accompanied by Nien-Fo, it became an accessible, effective, and egalitarian approach, for it suited people with high or low spiritual endowment.

The third factor was his non-sectarian attitude towards all systems of Buddhist thought in general, and the Ch'an and Pure Land Buddhism in particular. This syncretism thought was consistent with the traditional Chinese philosophy of harmony.

Although in the syncretism mind of the unfication of Ch'an and Pure Land according to the view of Yung-Ming, there is no theoretical and practical contradiction on the joint exercise of Ch'an meditation and recitation, yet traditionally, Ch'an and Nien-Fo are radically different. Therefore, we will first examine how these two distinctive types of Buddhist experience differ from each other, and how Yung-Ming syncretized them.

IV.2.3.2. "Other Power" Versus "Self-Power"

One of the most apparent differences between Ch'an and Pure Land lies in the ”self-power“ - oriented salvation of Ch'an versus ”Other power“, oriented salvation of the Pure land, the following quotations from Shan-Tao

112 According to the Chih- Cheh Ch‘an - Shih tsu-hsing-lu. Yung ming engaged himself daily in 108 practices, including reciting of Stras and Dharmas, performance of repentance, releasing lives. 173

and Hui-neng, which are representatives of the devotional Pure Land and the intuitively experimentalist Ch'an, demonstrate their perceptions on the approach to salvation. Shan-Tao the systematizer of the Pure Land teaching, says:

"Buddha Amitābha, through his forty-eight vows, takes in sentient beings who by harboring no doubt and worry and relying on the saving power of the Buddha's vows, is certainly to attain birth in the Pure Land."113

On the other hand, in response to a question regarding the attainment of birth in the Pure Land, according to Hui-neng, he explains that the deluded person concentrates on Buddha and wish to be born in the other land, the awakened person makes pure his own mind; if only the mind has no impurity, and the western land is not far. If the mind gives rise to impurity, even though you invoke the Buddha and seek to be born in the west, it will be difficult to reach. If you awaken to the sudden Dharma of bootlessness, you will see the western land in an instant. If you do not awaken to the Sudden Teaching of Mahyna, even if you concentrate on the Buddha and seek to be born, the road will be long. How can you hope to reach it?

Hui-neng means that there is a sharp distinction between these two kinds of Buddhist soteriology: "the path of Pure Land", based on the other- power from the grace of the Buddha, and the "path of the sages" based on good work and religious exercises such as meditation, scholarship, ascetic disciplines and generally any attempt to realize enlightenment by one's own efforts.

113 David J. Kalupahana, Op. Cit., p. 72.

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Traditionally, the notion of ”other power“ denotes the absolute surrendering of oneself to the saving power of the Buddha. But what does ”other power“ really mean and to what extent can one rely on it? Is there absolute ”other-power“? In other words, is the working of ”other-power“ possible without some sort of response from ”self-power“? Let us first examine how ”other-power“ has been interpreted in the context of Chinese Buddhism. With regards to the Ten Questions concerning the Pure Land (Ching-T′u Shih yi Lun), Chih. I was quoted as defining ”Other power“ in the following way:

”Other-power means that if one believes that the power of the compassionate vow of the Buddha Amitābha takes to himself all sentient beings who are mindful of him, then one is enabled to generate the mind of Bodhi, practice Nien-Fo samādhi, detest the body which is within the three-words, and practice giving, morality, and . And if within each of these various practices, the merit is transferred to others, and if ones vows to be born in the Pure Land of Amitābha by relying on the power of the Buddha's vows, one's nature and the Buddha's response will be in mutual accord, and one will be born in the Pure Land.“114

This definition of ”Other-power“, obviously implies the faith in the saving power of the Buddha which generates the Bodhi-mind as well as other practices. But it is through ”Other power“ accompanied by ”self-power“ that ”one‘s nature and the Buddha‘s response are in mutual accord“, and this harmony actualizes birth in the Pure Land. Hence, the ”other-power“ is not

114 Patriarch Chih I and Master T'ien Ju, Pure Land Buddhism: Dialogues with ancient Master, trans. Master Thich Thien Tam, Canada: Translation Committee of The United States and Canada, 1992, pp. 19, 20. 175

the exclusive factor leading to the Pure Land. If this interpretation sounds unorthodox, let us examine some interpretations from the orthodox Pure Land masters. T′an-luan defines the two powers - Self and Other in the following passages:

"I regard ”Other-power“ as the helping condition: How could it be otherwise? Now, I shall set forth again a metaphor of Self-power and Other-power.

"Self-power" is like a person who, because he is afraid of the three evil Gates, keep the precepts; because he keeps them, he is able to practice samādhi; because of samādhi, he is able to exercise supernatural power; because of the supernatural power, he is able to traverse the four corners of the world.

Again, the, [other-power is] like an inferior person, who cannot even mount on a donkey [with his own strength]; yet if he accompanies the flight of the Cakravartin (universal king), he can then traverse the four corners of the world without hindrance."115

T′an-Luan illustrated the ”other-power“ method of salvation through the analogy of a weak man going everywhere in the world by relying on the power of the Cakravartin (an ancient Indian term used to refer an ideal universal ruler, whose chariot is rolling everywhere without obstriction), yet he called ”other power“ a ”helping condition“ in the sense that ”other-power“ was not the exclusive condition. Just as the power of the Cakravartin is not available to the person who has no desire for travel to Sukhāvatī, So the saving power of the Buddha cannot function if men do not send out the

115 David J., Kalupahara. Op.cit., p. 73. 176

”corresponding-power“, which can be in the forms of austere discipline, desire for birth in the Pure Land, or recitation practice. Otherwise, motivated by infinite compassion, the Buddha would have liberated all beings long ago through his saving power alone. Hence, in the context of Chinese Pure Land Buddhism, usually three conditions are necessary for assurance of birth: Faith, Vow and Practice, although the practice here does not necessarily refer to the traditional Buddhist discipline of śīla, samādhi, and prajñā. Nevertheless, "other power" in Chinese Pure Land Buddhism never means total abandoning of one's own spiritual effort. As long as some sort of self-effort is required to correspond with the "other-power", it seems that the gap between these two seemingly contradictory approaches can be bridged.

This conception of ”some sort of self-effort“ changed as Pure Land thought developed from the ”five mindfulness of Vasubandhu‘s Sukhāvatīvyūhopadeśa, to the vocative Nien-Fo of Shan-Tao, and even to the ”faith and faith alone“ of Shinran. Yet regardless of the forms and the emphasis of the self-effort, the self-effort from the devotee is indispensable.

Amitābha is regarded as the basic teacher of devotees. The primal Vow says, ”If the beings in the ten directions, when I have attained Buddha hood, should believe in me with all sincerity of heart, desiring to be born in my country, and should, say ten times, think of me and of they should not be born-there, may I not obtain enlightenment.“

According to this Vow, the belief in the Buddha with sincerity of heart, the desire to be born in the Pure Land and ten times of thinking (Nien) of the Buddha is the conditions for the working of the primal Vow. To put it in another way, the saving-power can transmit only to those who utter the name of Amitābha with sincerity of heart and desire for birth in the Pure Land. The

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”self-power“ appears in the forms of arousing faith and Nien-Fo on the part of Pure Land seekers. And since that is the case, should we not say Nien-Fo exercise based on strong faith is a form of ”self-power“.

It is in this notion of self-powered Nien-Fo that Yung-Ming finds the simultaneous cultivation of self-power oriented Pure Land practices and other-power oriented Ch'an meditation possible.

IV.2.3.3. Reciting Buddha's Name Versus Meditations

The other main difference between the Pure Land and Ch'an which is closely related to the notion of"'self-power", "Other Power" is the devotional Nian-Fo practice of the Pure Land and the rigorous meditation of Ch'an. Psychologically, there are four approaches to Nien-Fo.

The first is to think of the Buddha as fully enlightened and thus to take him as a model to follow for one‘s moral training. The second is to call upon the name, since the calling of the name itself contain innumerable merits. This form of Nien-Fo is based on the belief in the mystery of the name as well as of the sound produced by pronouncing it. The third form of Nien-Fo is to call upon the Buddha's name as the saving power. The last one resorts to liberating beings from worldly sufferings. The psychological impact of this type of Nien-Fo is so powerful that the Pure Land devotees believe that only one calling of the Buddha with much intensity at the time of death will warrant a response from the saving power of the Buddha and thus assure one's birth in the Pure Land.

Since this third form of Nien-Fo is the genuine devotional type of Pure Land Buddhism, the Pure Land teaching appears to be dualistic. It is dualistic as long as Amitābha is taken as existing on the other shore of transmigration

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and sinful being on the other side. In other words, the dichotomy arises when Amitābha stands for the object of adoration and mortals for the subjects who want to adore him. The practice of Nien-Fo based on this dualism is thus often criticized, especially by Ch'an followers, as seeking an external form which contradicts the Mahyna doctrines of no-form and no-birth.

It is in the fourth type of Nien-Fo that Yung-Ming found some common ground between the devotional Nien-Fo and the speculative Ch'an meditation. This form may be termed wei-hsin Nien-Fo (mind-only nien-fo) or i-hsin Nien-Fo (one mind Nien-Fo). According to Yung-Ming the mind-only Nien- Fo means contemplating that the mind pervades all dharma. After realizing that the phenomenal is created by the mind and that mind itself is the Buddha; then whatever One thinks of is nothing but the Buddha. The Pratyutpanna Sūtra says: "For example, a man is delighted to see seven kinds of jewel and his relatives in his dream, but after waking up, he is unable to find their whereabouts". The mind-only Nien-Fo is also like this, because it is made from the mind. It is existing and at the same time empty; therefore, The Buddha neither comes nor goes away. Because the forms of Nien-Fo is unreal like an illusion; one should get rid of the notion of the mind and Buddha. But on the other hand, because the illusory forms of Nien-Fo exist, one should not get rid of the thought of the mind and the Buddha. When emptiness and existence are mutually unobstructive, there is neither coming nor going of the Buddha, yet this does not prevent one from universally seeing the Buddha. Seeing is no seeing. This complies with the principle of the .

Based on the doctrine of Vijñāna, the mind-only Nien-Fo (reciting the Buddha's name) then turns from being dualistic and devotional to being monistic and speculative. It is a kind of Nien-Fo carried out with ”one-mind 179

undisturbed“ , when one dwells on the name of the Buddha in continuous and uninterrupted succession, one creates a state of consciousness similar to that derived from deep meditation. This is why the Fo-tsang ching defines Nien- Fo the following way: ”Nien-fo means leaving behind all thoughts. When no thought arise, the mind give rise to no discrimination names, hindrances, desire, grasping or discernment.". However, this Samādhi state of consciousness is different from merely hypnotic trance, for in the Nien-Fo consciousness, a true self shrines out, and the cognizing subject is united with the cognized object. This ”one mind“ is thus the link between Ch'an meditation and Nien-Fo, for this "one-mind Nien-Fo" is nothing but "seeing into one‘s own nature" of the Ch'an school. Although the devotional Pure Land followers might disagree with this Ch'anistic interpretation of Nien-Fo, this does not mean that Nien-Fo and Ch'an meditation cannot be reconciled.

IV.2.3. 4. The Non- Duality Of The Two Truth

Another key philosophical principle used by Yung-ming to rationalize the unification of Nien-Fo and Ch'an meditation is the doctrine of the non- duality of any dichotomy based on the doctrine of One-mind. Yung-ming sees the One-mind in its two aspects: the mind's essence (Lí) and its function (Yuan). Although there are two minds in terms of essence and function, nevertherless we can say that there is only one mind working. Applying the same principle of the non-duality of essence-function, Yung-ming expounds the non-duality of the two Truths, or broadly speaking, the non-duality of all polarities.

Ultimate Truth (paramārth-) refers to the unconditioned, ineffable wisdom, prajña, which is the realization of Emptiness of all realities. Conventional truth (saṃvṛti-satya), the domain of compassion and

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expediency, pertains to the phenomenal world of everyday life. The deluded and dualistic mind makes a distinction between the non-differentiable absolute from the differentiable empirical world. However, Mahāyāna Buddhism does not stop at the differentiation of these two truths. The gist of the theory of two Truths lies in the Middle way: the undifferentiating of the two-fold truth through the realization of emptiness. This is to say, when one realizes that all existing things are empty of self-nature, because of dependent co-arising, then a Mahāyāna conception of religious life can be positively applied.

The reason that Yung-ming emphatically advocated the teaching of non- duality was to refute those who clung to the ultimate Truth and were not able to move back into the sphere of the conventional Truth. They rejected the validity of the Conventional Truth under the pretext that ”all forms are empty“. According to their thinking, all religious practices are characterized by form and should therefore be rejected. Yung-ming argued that only when an individual could move from ”form“ to ”emptiness“ and back from ”emptiness“ to ”form“ did he have true understanding of the two truths and complete fulfillment of religious experience. This was so because a religious practice without a base on the ultimate of Truth of Sūnyata accrued worldly virtues only, whereas a religious realization lacking constructive application of that realization in the empirical world was nothing but a dry, cold and irrelevant experience.

To further demonstrate the non-duality and complementarity between Ch'an and Pure Land, Yung-ming listed ten pairs of non-dual and complementary polarities as doctrinal proofs. They are:

1. The non-obstruction between the absolute and the phenomenal.

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2. The simultaneous exercise of the provisional and the true. 3. The compatibility of the two Truths. 4. The interpretation of nature and characteristics; 5. The free interaction of essence and function. 6. The mutual complementarity of emptiness and existence; 7. The simultaneous cultivation of the primary and auxiliary practices; 8. The one-realm of the identical and the different; 9. The non-duality of the acquired and natural, and 10. The non-differentiation of cause and effect.

The first of these ten pairs is regarded as the ”general" (tsung) and the other are ”particular“ (pei). Because of his Hua-yen orientation, Yung-ming adopted the familiar theme of the harmonious identity of the absolute (li) and the phenomenal (shih) from the Hua-yen philosophy as the foundation of his syncretism. Thus, he said that if one wishes to simultaneously cultivate various practices, one must completely follow li and shih. When li and shih are non-obstructive, one can benefit both oneself and others, perfecting compassion for beings that are of the same nature as oneself.

Applying this ontological li-shih identity to religious life, Yung-ming emphasizes the unity of the theory (li) and practice (shih) for soteriology. The principle guides the practice, and the practice manifests the principle. However, because of the discriminative tendency of human nature, some make too much of theory while other make two much of practice. Moreover, in the world of realities (shih), practices often go against one another, consequently, the religious experience becomes one-sided. Confrontation and antagonism, instead of harmony, arise. If an individual, Yung-ming says, clings to the theory without applying it in practice, he falls into the 182

foolishness of the Śravakas, and if he engages in practice without basing it on the understanding of the theory, he falls into the attachment of mortals. Thus, as the Vimalakirti Sūtra says, in order to implement the non-obstruction of the theory against practice, although a Bodhisattva attains insight into the meaning of emptiness, he plants virtuous roots; although he practices non- form, he liberates sentient beings; although he understands the theory of non- activity, he manifests himself in various ways to help others; and although he practices non-arising, he gives rise to all good deeds.

In summary, Yung-ming‘s Ch'an - Pure Land syncretism has involved four aspects:

1. In the light of idealism, Yung-ming interpreted Pure Land as "mind only Pure Land"

2. Yung-ming explained away the contradiction between self-power and other-power by rejecting the possibility of salvation through the reliance on the other-power solely,

3. Yung-ming found the common ground between Nien-Fo and Ch'an meditation from the theory of one-mind Nien-Fo.

4. Yung-ming built his syncretism on the Mahāyāna doctrine of non- duality of any polarity. The purpose of Yung-ming's syncretism of these two practices was to show that, basically and ultimately, not only do they not contradict each other, but also the dual practice of both ensures salvation.

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IV.2.3.5. The Evaluation Of Dhyāna (Ch'an) - Pure Land Syncretism

From as early as the time of the fifty Ch'an patriarch, the trend of Ch'an - Pure Land rapprochement and synthesis had gradually developed. It culminated at the time of Yung-ming, and remains in the mainstream to this day in the form of recitation (Nien-Fo). In the course of its development the syncretism trend encountered little resistance from either the Ch'an school or pure-land school. However, it was mainly championed by Ch'an monks rather than Pure Land teachers. Thus some questions arise. Does this effort of syncretism indicate that the Ch'an school has traditionally ”read its presuppositions into the Pure Land tradition so as to synthesize Pure Land teachings with its own,“116 as one scholar points out? Or is the syncretism a remolding of traditional Pure Land doctrine and practice which has transformed Pure Land into an ”inferior“ from of Ch'an?

As close study of the historical and doctrinal interaction between the two traditions shows negative answers to these questions. As we have already seen, although the Nien-Fo practice incorporated into the Ch'an school represented only a certain form of Nien-Fo, namely the meditative type, this type of Nien-Fo is by no means a ”remolded“ traditional Pure Land practice. In fact, it is the earliest form of Nien-Fo from which the more popular vocational Nien-Fo developed. This meditative Nien-Fo functions the same way and produces the same effect as Ch'an meditation, and this is exactly why both traditions can be practiced simultaneously and harmoniously.

However, it is true that those who advocated Ch′an and Pure Land syncretism emphasized only one aspect of the Pure Land teaching, and that

116 David J . Kalupalana, Op.cit., p. 78. 184

when they tried to rationalize the joint practice, they dealt little with, or often overlooked and ignored, the differences between the two traditions. They simply explained away the differences or contradictions by denying any differences from the point of view of enlightenment (ultimate Truth).

Furthermore, Yung-ming and other syncretists were not interested in dialectics; rather, they were soteriologically oriented. That is to say, to them all disciplines with the same religious goal were valid and could be practiced together regardless of their differences, which existed only on the level of conventional truth. Moreover, to the practical minds of the Chinese, the dual practice of Ch'an and Nien-Fo were a ”double insurance.“ If a practitioner failed in one (more likely Ch'an), he was sure to succeed in the other. The Chinese syncretists sincerely believed in the compatibility of the diverse schools. They had the practical religious goal in their minds when they advocated the simultaneous use of meditation and Nien-Fo, and did not care to maintain the ”purity“ of the distinctions of different sects. Thus, the Ch'an - Pure Land harmonization was not a conscious attempt of one school to denigrate the other, but an effort to insure the co-existence of both disciplines so that the Sectarian confrontation could be avoided and the religious goal could be more quickly reached.

However, in spite of the positive intention on the part of the syncretists, we will want to ask what kind of impact, positive or negative, the syncretism of Ch'an and Pure Land had upon Chinese Buddhism on the whole. Did it cause the deterioration of the quality of Ch'an as some opponents claimed? Did the Pure Land School lose the distinctive features of its teachings, such as devotion and faith when it was allied with Ch'an? and did the syncretism contribute to the decline or the survival of Chinese Buddhism?

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The main criticism of the indiscriminate mixture of disparate elements of Ch'an practice impure and degenerate. In other words, the incorporation of the devotional elements of the Pure Land contaminates and dilutes the vitality of Ch'an meditation, which is essential for a profound, direct, unique ”break- through“ experience. However, when we examine closely the way that the Ch'an followers practice Nien-Fo, we find that they understand and practice it in monistic idealistic terms. Buddha Amitābha no longer represents a transcending being, but rather the self-Buddha in every sentient being. As such, the Nien-Fo exercise is nothing but another form of meditation device, which aims at the realization of the Buddha-nature as Ch'an meditation does. Since the devotional Nien-Fo is understood and practiced in this fashion, it should be free from the criticism of the deterioration in the quality and purity of Ch'an practice.

If the Nien-Fo adopted in the Ch'an fashion does not necessarily reducee the function of Ch'an as we have argued, then we want to raise the question as to whether this Ch'an -fashion Nien-Fo has altered the fundamental Pure Land doctrines or re-located the emphasis of its teachings. The main concern of the Pure Land devotees with regard to the Nien-Fo Ch'an is that it de-emphasizes the essential teachings of faith in the "other- power" of Buddha Amitābha and the desire for the birth in the Pure Land after death, and in some cases, it even denies the existence of the Buddha and his Pure Land under the slogan that "the Pure Land is mind only and the self- body is Amitābha." According to Pure Land devotionals, if the faith in the Buddha is not strong and the desire for birth in the Pure Land is not earnest, its ultimate religious goal, the realization of birth in the Pure Land, cannot be achieved. Superficially, it seems that the devotional aspect of faith in the Pure Land teachings is not stressed when Nien-Fo is practiced in a Ch'an fashion.

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Actually, faith is not totally ignored; rather, its dimensions are widened. The Ch'an monk Yung-church yun-hsien interpreted it in the following way:

"There are two aspects with regard to the faith in the Buddha. One is the faith in the "principle" (li) means to believe that one‘s mind is the Pure Land and one‘s nature to believe that the Pure Land is in the western region, and there exists Buddha Amitābha. From the aspect of the "principle", the aspect of "phenomenal" manifests; it is like the Ocean-seal‘s being able to manifest myriad phenomena. From the aspect of "phenomenal", the aspect of "Principle" manifests, for the myriad phenomena are in separable from the ocean-seal. These two aspects of faith are both one and two, yet neither two. To have faith in this manner is called true faith."117

The argument is that from the view point of the principle, the Pure Land and the Buddha do not go beyond one-mind, and from the viewpoint of the phenomenal, the mind-only Pure Land and the Buddha exist. Yet the idealistic and realistic views do not contradict each other. To have faith in both aspects is to have true faith in the Pure Land teachings.

Aside from the harmony of seemingly contradictory elements of both traditions, which is justified by the doctrinal interpretation, there is also the psychological affinity between them that leads to their ultimate identification. The pronouncing of the Buddha‘s name starts with a feeling of dualism in the devotees who, as is usually assumed, are people of inferior capacities, and thus do the Nien-Fo not to attain Samādhi, but to express their devotion with the purpose of attaining birth in the Pure Land after death. Nevertheless, without the awareness of the devotee, the Nien-Fo works in some mysterious

117 David J. Kalupna, Op. Ciṭ., p. 80. 187

manner is the consciousness in which the barrier of all distinctions - ”other power“ versus ”self-power“, the Buddha versus the self, the Pure Land versus this Sahā world - break down. Understanding the mysticism and psychology of Nien-Fo, the syncretists did not find it necessary to put much effort into rationalizing the disparate elements between Nien-Fo and Ch'an. So with the awareness of devotees, there is no separate understanding between the other- power and self-power, the Pure Land and this Sāha world. Consequently, there is no difference between Ch'an (meditation) and Nien-Fo (reciting the Buddha's name) practices.

Another factor that harmoniously united Ch'an and Pure Land is that they represent two indispensable pillars of Buddhism, wisdom (prajñā) and compassion (karuṇā), which constitute enlightenment. Pure Land is more inclined to emphasize compassion, whereas in Ch'an there is a stronger tendency to emphasize wisdom. Being too demanding and too independent, Ch'an often ignores the emotional side of life, and disregards the need for an intimately spiritual relationship between mortals and object of their devotion. This is why, if carried to the extreme, Ch'an is described as ”dried up Ch'an“. On the contrary, Pure Land devotional, which is based on the compassion of Buddha Amitābha, provides a hopeful, secure, and complacent the strict life of Ch'an. It is because of this complementarity of Ch'an and Pure Land, or prajñā and karuṇā, that Suzuki once said: "Buddhism produced the two schools of (Ch'an) and Shin and the future development of Mahāyāna over the whole world will come from the synthesis of these two." Actually, the synthesis of the two has already been existing in China for many centuries.

Now we come to the question whether Ch'an - Pure Land syncretism left a positive or negative impact upon post- T′ang Buddhism.

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From a sectarian viewpoint, the answer may be negative, but in terms of Chinese Buddhism on the whole, it has left a positive impact. The main reason is that Ch'an and Pure Land contributed to each other with their own strengths and eliminated each other‘s weaknesses.

By the time of Sung Dynasty, Ch'an had already lost its originality and vitality due to the loss of great Masters and the great Religious persecution in late T′ang. The systematized Kung-An was then developed in order to regain its inner strength. Because of its systematized approach and accessibility to all enlightenment seekers, kung-an was regarded as a reviving stimulus to the weakening Ch'an tradition. However, some undesirable features of Ch'an developed in the post-golden period which undermined the essence of the earlier Ch'an tradition. One of them was the tendency toward intellectualism. The Kung-an Ch'an, if not rightly practiced, turned from a striving for intuitive enlightenment to an intellectual interpretation and analysis of the Kung-an, which at best, resulted in as imitation of genuine experience of enlightenment.

The other feature was that post-t′ang Ch'an became more iconoclastic and anti-scriptural. It showed little reverence toward images or rituals and it discouraged Sūtra-study and neglected the exercise of traditional Buddhist disciplines. All these caused the most disastrous results, not only to the individual who had no genuine enlightenment or had only partial enlightenment, but also to Buddhism on the whole. Another development of the post-t′ang Ch'an was the approach to Ch'an championed by the Ts‘ao- Tung sect. It was called the "silent illumination Ch'an" characterized by a preference for quiet meditation. Although the practice of total quiet meditation was not without merit, it was often accused of leading the mind to

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passivity and stagnation (hun-ch′en), which was a great hindrance to enlightenment.

It is the incorporation of Nien-Fo into Ch'an that corrects these short- coming to some extent. The devotional of the Pure Land counters the intellectualism in the Kung-an practice, for devotional practices make the religious experience more personal and intuitive than intellectual. Moreover, broadly speaking, Nien-Fo is a kind of mental and moral discipline. When the mind concentrates exclusively on the Buddha, this is a state of innocence, morally speaking, since there is no room for thought of avarice or hatred, nor for any thought of discrimination. together with Nien-Fo exercise, other moral disciplines are also emphasized in Nien-Fo Ch'an, for as we have shown, the pure-land school in Chinese Buddhism has never totally disregarded other religious practices.

Thus, Ch'an - Pure Land syncretism has also left a positive impact on the Pure Land Buddhism. As indicated in the Smaller Sukhāvatī-vyūha Sūtra, the focal point of the Nien-Fo exercise is the ”undisturbed single- mindedness“ (i-hsin-pu-luan). It is through the uninterrupted mindfulness on the Buddha (either by invocation or by meditation) that the Pure Land practitioner reaches the state of undisturbed mindfulness. This is where Ch'an meditation can help primarily, when the Ch'an meditation is associated with Nien-Fo practice itself. The other way, by synthesizing with Nien-Fo, Ch'an was able to avoid further quietism, intellectualism, and moral degeneracy, which could have caused a total loss of the essence of Ch'an. As for Pure Land Buddhism, although the adoption of Nien-Fo by the Ch'an School might have shifted emphasis from some of its characteristics, it enriched, rather than impoverished, the Pure Land practice. It is for these reasons that we conclude that Yung-ming's Ch'an Pure Land syncretism has made positive contributions 190

to Chinese Buddhism and obviously self-power and other power belong to the Pure Land practice.

IV.3. CONCLUSION

In this chapter, we have examined the various practices of meditation prevelent in Theravāda and Pure Land tradition seperately.

In Theravāda tradition, we have discussed about the practice of Ānāpānasati and Vipassanā meditations. They are the practices of serenity and insight meditation, starting with the practice of sati (mindfulness). On the foundation of midfulness of breathing of ānāpānasati meditation, we continue practicing Vipassanā meditation with the four foundations of mindfulness. Vipassanā meditation is a way of self-transformation through self-observation. It focuses on the deep interconnection between mind and body, which can be experienced directly by disciplined attention to the physical sensations of the body, and continuous interconnected and conditions of the mind. It is this observation-based, self-exploratory journey to the common root of mind and body that dissolves mental impurity, resulting in a balanced mind full of love and compassion.

Furthermore, dhyāna is one of the important methods of practice in Pure Land tradition. In Amitāyurdhyāna Sūtra, we find sixteen methods of meditation on Amitābha Buddha and His Sukhāvatī. We have also addressed the method of meditation on the Amitābha Buddha of Master Shantao, as well as the syncretism of the dhyāna and Pure Land tradition of Yung-ming. When the practitioner recites the Amitābha Buddha's name or meditates on the image of Amiābha Buddha and his Pure Land mindfully, he reaches the state of one-pointedness of mind and attains samādhi. Thereafter, he realizes True Suchness with the undefiled wisdom. For the purpose of spreading Buddhism, 191

a method of practice which is suitable to all types of people in different countries with different cultures and perceptions was very much in need. At first, we can say that there was difference among the techniques of practice in all , especially in Theravāda and Pure Land traditions, but later, we realize that because the common goal of both of the traditions is the state of enlightenment; thus these practices, though different, are considered to be similar and same. Furthermore, the final purpose of the teachings of Buddhism is to help human beings to get rid of their own sufferings, to reach their final states of insight wisdom, and to get liberation for their own spiritual happiness.

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