Strategic Initiative to Introduce Commercial Land Based Wind Energy Development to the Western Cape
TOWARDS A REGIONAL METHODOLOGY FOR WIND ENERGY SITE SELECTION
REPORT 1: EXECUTIVE SUMMARY & SYNTHESIS REPORT
MAY 2006 Strategic Initiative to Introduce Commercial Land Based Wind Energy Development to the Western Cape
TOWARDS A REGIONAL METHODOLOGY FOR WIND ENERGY SITE SELECTION
REPORT 1: EXECUTIVE SUMMARY & SYNTHESIS REPORT
prepared for
Provincial Government of the Western Cape 1 Dorp Street, Cape Town, 8000 Tel: +2721 483-3185 Fax: +2721 483-4373
by
CNdV africa planning & design environmental planning, landscape architecture, urban design 72 Barrack Street, Cape Town, 8000 Tel: +2721 461-6302 Fax: +2721 461-6466 Email: [email protected]
MAY 2006
Wind Energy Landscapes : Specialist Study: Report 1 - Summary Report - CNdV africa May 2006
"Planning shapes the places where people live and work and the country we live in. it plays a key role in supporting governments wider economic, social and environmental objectives, and for sustainable communities." (Source: PPS22- Planning Policy Statement 22: Renewable Energy : Office of the Deputy Prime Minister, United Kingdom)
"If renewable energy targets are to be met, a positive and innovative approach will be required. The planning system can only deliver sufficient additional renewable energy schemes to meet the shortfall if positive planning policies are in place. They need to be backed up by strong leadership, the integration of planning for renewable energy with other more mainstream planning activities and communications between planners, the renewable industry, interest groups and the wider public." Source: UK House of Lords Science & Technology Committee : July 2004
Wind Energy Landscapes : Specialist Study: Report 1 - Summary Report - CNdV africa May 2006 page i
OVERALL STRUCTURE OF REPORTS
LIST OF REPORTS Report 1 Executive Summary and Synthesis Report (This report) Report 2 Report on Methodology 1 (Criteria Based Assessment) Report 3 Report on Methodology 2 (Landscape Assessment) Report 4 Comparative Assessment of Methodologies 1 & 2 Report 5 Proposed Regional Methodology Report 6 Proposed Site Level Methodology Report 7 Annexure Reports 1. The Brief 2. Overseas Study Report 3. GIS / Software Report 4. Towards a Provincial Policy Framework for Wind Energy Development
CONTENTS : REPORT 1: EXECUTIVE SUMMARY AND SYNTHESIS REPORT
■ Executive Summary Report
■ Synthesis Report
1. INTRODUCTION 1.1 Report Structure 1.2 Background 1.3 Terms of Reference / Brief 1.4 Study Tour 1.5 International Best Practice and Applicability to the Western Cape
2. THE STUDY AREA 2.1 Area Description 2.2 The Cape West Coast Landscape
3. WIND TURBINES: GENERAL DESCRIPTION 3.1 Wind Technology 3.2 Turbine Size and Scale 3.3 Turbine Colour 3.4 Aesthetics 3.5 Impact on Birds
Wind Energy Landscapes : Specialist Study: Report 1 - Summary Report - CNdV africa May 2006 page ii
3.6 Noise 3.7 Cumulative Impact
4. GENERAL METHODOLOGICAL APPROACHES
5. SUMMARY OF METHOD 1 (REPORT 2) : CRITERIA-BASED INFLUENCES 5.1 Methodology and Key Outputs 5.2 Conclusions from Methodology 1
6. SUMMARY OF METHOD 2 (REPORT 3) : LANDSCAPE ASSESSMENT 6.1 Summary : Key Influences 6.2 Regional Landscape Types 6.3 Landscape Character and Sensitivity Assessment 6.4 Landscape Sensitivity and Capacity 6.5 Viewshed Analysis 6.6 Landscape Classification 6.7 ZVI and Viewshed Analysis 6.8 Method 2 Output 6.9 General Conclusions from Methodology 2
7. SUMMARY OF COMPARATIVE ASSESSMENT (REPORT 4) 7.1 Summary 7.2 Methodology 1 7.3 Methodology 2 7.4 Summary of Differences 7.5 Advantages 7.6 Shortfalls of Methodologies 1 and 2 7.7 Spatial Comparison 7.8 Conclusions
8. SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDED REGIONAL METHOD (REPORT 5) 8.1 Requirements 8.2 Urban Paradigm 8.3 Best Practice 8.4 Summary 8.5 Method 8.6 Criteria Layers 8.7 Merging of Layers
Wind Energy Landscapes : Specialist Study: Report 1 - Summary Report - CNdV africa May 2006 page iii
8.8 Disturbed Landscapes 8.9 Cumulative Impact 8.10 Conclusions
9. SUMMARY OF SITE LEVEL METHOD (REPORT 6)
10. PRELIMINARY CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 10.1. General Conclusions 10.2 Method Conclusions 10.3 Site Level Conclusions
11. FINAL CONCLUSIONS
LIST OF APPENDICES TO REPORT 1 Appendix A: Towards a Provincial Policy Framework for Wind Energy Development (Extract from British Policy (PPS22)) Appendix B: List of Reference Group Participants
LIST OF MAPS Map 1: Study Area in Context of Southern African and the Western Cape Map 2: Cape West Coast Study Area (Approximately 5337km² in extent) Map 3: Regional Criteria Synthesis Map (Methodology 1) : Composite Map 4: Regional Criteria Synthesis Map (Methodology 1) : Available Areas Map 5: Revised (Ranked) Output Map Map 6: Regional Landscape Types Composite Map 7: Composite Viewshed Analysis Map 8: Broad Framework for Location of WE Development based on Landscape Character Map 9: Method 1 Output Map 10: Method 2 Output Map 11: Spatial Comparison and Overlap Map 12a: Composite Overlay of all Negative Criteria Map 12b: Composite Overlay of all Positive Criteria Map 13: Preferred Wind Energy Areas Map 14: Cumulative Model Based on 50 x 50 Grid Map 15: Cumulative Model Based on 30 x 30 Grid
Wind Energy Landscapes : Specialist Study: Report 1 - Summary Report - CNdV africa May 2006 page iv
LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Project and Report Structure Figure 2a: Typical Images of Study Area Figure 2b: Typical Images of Study Area (cont.) Figure 3a: Turbine Sizes Figure 3b: Installed Capacity in Europe and America Figure 4: Changes in Turbine Size and Output Cost Figure 5a: Basic Methodology used in Denmark Figure 5b: Methodology used in Germany (Mecklenberg Region) Figure 5c: Interrelationship between resources, targets and criteria-based policies at regional level Figure 6: Methodology 1 - Process Figure 7: "Urban – Rural – Wilderness" Transect Figure 8: Distance Mitigation Figure 9: Four Components of Landscape Assessment for Wind Farms Figure 10: Landscape Components Figure 11: Study Area at Provincial Scale Figure 12: Typical Cross-section through Western Cape Province (source: WCPSDF, 2005) Figure 13: Landscape Capacity Matrix Figure 14: Methodology 2 : Final Output Step Figure 15: Methodology 1 Summary Figure 16: Methodology 2 Summary Figure 17: Overall Summary of Recommended Regional Method Figure 18: Summary Recommended Method to Achieve Final Wind Energy Zones Figure 19: Summary Method : Overlay Technique using Positive and Negative Criteria and Thresholds Figure 20: Landscape and Visual Assessment Figure 21: A multiple use of space : A “Railwind Turbine” Figure 22: Transmission Lines Figure 23: Framework for Location of Wind Energy Projects based on Landscape Character Figure 24: Conceptual diagram illustrating expected fine tuning of Wind Turbine Project based on further stages of Planning Refinement Figure 25: Municipal and District Council Boundaries Figure 26: Generic (Sectoral) Determinants of Final Areas Identified as Suitable for Wind Farms
LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Summary: Recommended Thresholds for Selected Criteria used in Methodology 1 Table 2: Land Form and Land Cover Types
Wind Energy Landscapes : Specialist Study: Report 1 - Summary Report - CNdV africa May 2006 page v
Table 3: Matrix of Landscape Classification Based on View Types and Land Cover Table 4: Summary of Key differences between Methodologies 1 and 2 Table 5: Comparative Assessment : Coverage on Map 3
ABBREVIATIONS / GLOSSARY
CSIR Formerly the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research DEA&DP Department of Environmental Affairs and Development Planning - Provincial Government of the Western Cape DEAT Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism DME Department of Minerals and Energy DWAF Department of Water Affairs and Forestry EIA Environmental Impact Assessment EMP Environmental Management Plan ENPAT An Environmental Information Database operated by DEAT GIS Geographic Information System I&APs Interested and Affected Parties LUPO Land Use Planning Ordinance MW Megawatt (1000 kilowats) NBI National Botanical Institute NEMA National Environmental Management Act PGWC Provincial Government of the Western Cape RSA Republic of South Africa SEA Strategic Environmental Assessment VIA Visual Impact Assessment WE Wind Energy WT's Wind Turbines
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This report was produced by Derek Chittenden, Ebrahim Daniels, Soraya Sabera and Reinhold Viljoen of CNdV Africa under the guidance of a Provincial Task Team comprising Paul Hardcastle, Ayub Mohamed and Raudhiyah Waggie.
The input of the project Reference Group to the project is acknowledged with thanks. Refer to Appendix C.
The authors also wish to thank those organisations and individuals throughout the world that provided valuable advice and guidance to this work.
Wind Energy Landscapes : Specialist Study: Report 1 - Summary Report - CNdV africa May 2006 page 6
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Report Structure
This report forms part of a series of specialist assessment reports that are interrelated and should be read together. The reports are part of a Department of Environmental Affairs & Development Planning (DEA&DP) of the Provincial Government of the Western Cape (PGWC) project entitled “Strategic Initiative to Introduce Commercial Land Based Wind Energy Developments to the Cape West Coast”.
Project and Report Structure
Report 1 is a Summary Report, which provides an Executive Summary and Synthesis overview of the work carried out and sets out the major conclusions, namely the recommendations related to a regional tool to assess landscapes for wind energy development.
Report 2 sets out Methodology 1. This is a criteria-based method for determining the suitability of specific areas for wind energy developments at a regional level.
Report 3 sets out Methodology 2. This is a landscape-based assessment method for determining the suitability of specific areas for wind energy developments at a regional level.
Report 4 contains a comparative assessment of the differences, strengths and weaknesses between Methodologies 1 and 2.
Report 5 recommends the proposed regional landscape assessment method which combines aspects of Method 2 (landscape assessment) with Method 1 (criteria based) as the foundation method.
Report 6 sets out the recommended project level assessment method.
Report 7 contains separate Annexures including a comprehensive report on the overseas study tour carried out by DEA&DP officials and the consultants, and a report on the GIS/ software investigation carried prior to and during the study.
Wind Energy Landscapes : Specialist Study: Report 1 - Summary Report - CNdV africa May 2006 page 7
1.2 Background
Global climate change is a recognised phenomenon of international significance. The continuing production of 'greenhouse gases', and carbon dioxide in particular, is contributing to the increasing rate of climate warming. This runs counter to the aims of sustainable development as the effects, including sea level rise and the increased frequency of extreme weather events, have human, environmental and economic costs which can be very great. Tackling climate change is a necessary condition for sustainable development. (Source: PPS22, Planning for Renewable Energy)
In 2003 the Provincial Government of the Western Cape, Department of Environmental Affairs and Development Planning, embarked on a rigorous programme to pave the way for wind energy development within the Province.
This specialist assessment flows from a strategic initiative undertaken by DEA&DP titled “Strategic initiative to introduce commercial land-based wind energy developments to the Cape West Coast”. This report sets out the following vision:
“The vision for the Western Cape is to establish a policy on the implementation of regional criteria for the identification of areas suitable for the establishment of wind energy projects. This will promote the implementation of wind energy projects while balancing national interests of promoting alternative energy generation with local strategic environmental objectives. This will also avoid conflict between local and national interests through a proactive environmental planning process” 1
The vision of the strategic initiative is to develop and establish a policy on the implementation of a methodology to be used for the identification of areas suitable for the establishment of wind energy developments, and is supported by the following objectives: • To facilitate the practical implementation of wind energy generation technology in a manner that meets the principles of the White Paper on Energy Policy for the Republic of South Africa; • To introduce wind energy developments to the Western Cape in a coordinated manner, that meets all requirements of sustainability as reflected in the National Environmental Management Act, 1998 (Act 107 of 1998), and which is based on international best practice; • To encourage responsible and rational wind energy developments, which are beneficial not only to developers, but to communities at large; • To discourage the investment of time and money in potentially unsuitable sites; • To introduce the wind energy industry to the public and thereby increase support for and interest in alternative renewable energy sources; and • To provide policy guidance in terms of the environmental impact assessment process.
The first stage of the programme consisted of a desktop study conducted by a departmental task team (P Hardcastle, A Mohamed, R Waggie). International approaches and procedures, and the identification of key environmental and spatial issues relating to wind energy development are covered in the document entitled “Strategic Initiative to Introduce Commercial Land Based Wind Energy Developments to the Cape West Coast”; DEA&DP, PGWC 2005. The document also sets out the regional guiding criteria method (Methodology 1) is some detail. In parallel with the preparation of the document, a Reference Group was established to provide critical input on aspects of the programme. The Reference Group
1 Strategic Initiative to Introduce Commercial Land Based Wind Energy Developments to the Cape West Coast”; DEA&DP, PGWC 2005
Wind Energy Landscapes : Specialist Study: Report 1 - Summary Report - CNdV africa May 2006 page 8 consisted of a wide range of role players from national, provincial and local government, utility companies and the private sector.
1.3 Terms of Reference / Brief
The second stage of the programme is the testing and development of alternative methodologies for assessing appropriate areas for commercial wind energy development on the basis of landscape assessment. A tender for a specialist study to undertake this assignment was awarded in March 2005 to CNdV africa.
The terms of reference are: • Apply, test and refine a set of regional guiding criteria and thresholds, as developed in the strategic initiative document, to the selected study area (Method 1). • Undertake a regional landscape assessment of the selected study area to identify sensitive areas to wind energy development based on cultural, social and biophysical characteristics (Method 2). • Compare the results of applying the two methodologies to the study area. • Subject to the outcome of the comparison of methodologies, develop a regional landscape assessment methodology. • Propose a basic methodology to perform landscape assessments as part of the EIA process at project level.
The terms of reference and project scope is set out in the tender bid document, EADP 2/2005 (Tender: Specialist Landscape Assessment) - Refer to Annexure 1.
The scope of the project is therefore focussed on the development of a robust methodology that could be used to formulate a provincial guideline of policy to be used to identify suitable areas for the implementation of wind energy developments in the Western Cape. It is intended that a Departmental Task Team will incorporate the findings of the project into a final guideline or policy. It is important to note that the project only focuses on environmental and planning issues. Technical issues such as the availability of wind resources, availability of capacity in the electricity grid, proximity to the grid, access requirements, etc., were not considered, as this information is not readily available. The level to which these technical issues influence the siting of wind energy developments will be dependent on the scale and nature of specific project proposals.
1.4 Study Tour
A study tour was undertaken in June 2005 to UK and Europe by PGWC officials and the consultants and, while not part of the original programme, it played an important role in determining approaches to methods for assessing wind energy developments at a regional scale. The report from the overseas trip is contained in Annexure 2.
1.5 International Best Practice and Applicability to the Western Cape
The DEA&DP report contained the following conclusions in relation to international approaches to promoting wind energy development:
• There is significant overlap and similarity in approaches worldwide in facilitating the establishment of wind-energy development, emphasising the need for a strategic
Wind Energy Landscapes : Specialist Study: Report 1 - Summary Report - CNdV africa May 2006 page 9
proactive approach to be taken to identify suitable areas for these developments at an early stage. • Internationally, the importance of landscapes, particularly their social and strategic value are increasingly being acknowledged, leading to the realisation that the intangible value of landscapes (and living environments) must be addressed in spatial planning. • There is a move internationally towards detailed planning, including the use of criteria and thresholds to designate areas of suitability, and the linkage of these criteria to regulatory instruments to ensure effective implementation and enforcement. • Designating areas of suitability for wind energy developments promotes more effective implementation of projects and enhances integration with other land-uses. Environmental and spatial issues can be addressed early in the siting process by introducing them at the strategic regional level. • Planning approaches internationally are not reliant on the availability of technical information, although approaches are enhanced by the inclusion of this information. Technical considerations are generally addressed by the applicant as part of site-specific environmental impact assessment processes. • In spite of commonality of environmental concerns internationally, the thresholds developed to address them vary significantly between countries, due to differences in legal frameworks and policies, different approaches to forward planning, different geographical sizes, biophysical and cultural characteristics, and degree of landscape modification. • A large volume of scientific and professional information already exists in most of the developed countries. Sensitive areas and scenically valuable landscapes have already been identified in leading countries, prior to the development of wind energy regional siting criteria. • The process of identifying “sensitive” areas usually entailed analysis by specialists of a defined geographical area on a broad scale, based on regional-level biological, environmental and landscape factors, to define areas of sensitive landscapes (“negative mapping”) to exclude wind energy developments.
A key foundation in most of the international precedent was the existence of strategic regional landscape assessments. These could simply be used as an input to detailed specialist studies for wind energy development which identify visually or environmentally sensitive landscapes that can be excluded at a preliminary planning stage (for example the designated Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONB) in the UK). These, often resource intensive, assessments do not generally exist in SA and DEA&DP have expressed concern that a developing country like SA cannot afford expensive studies on landscape sensitivity and capacity and have therefore initiated the investigation of a robust “regional guiding criteria” method.
A key challenge to this specialist study is therefore to assess whether a regional level landscape assessment method, that is not unduly resource or time intensive, can be added to a criteria based method.
Wind Energy Landscapes : Specialist Study: Report 1 - Summary Report - CNdV africa May 2006 page 10
2. THE STUDY AREA
2.1 Area Description
The initial study area chosen by DEA & DP covers a portion of the Cape West Coast loosely congruent with the West Coast Biosphere Reserve, extending from the Diep River in the South to a line north of the Berg River. (refer to Map 1: Initial Study Area)
Map 1 indicates the relative uniformity of the topography of the West Coast study area when viewed at the national and provincial scale. The study area therefore represents a relatively small and somewhat unique (and therefore somewhat unrepresentative) part of the Western Cape Province, and an even smaller part of the RSA as a whole.
Accordingly, during the early phase of the project, it was agreed to extend the study area to the N7 as the eastern boundary and the R399 as the northern boundary. This extends the study area to include the rolling hill country north of Malmesbury and south of Piketberg. The (extended) study area covers some 534 000 hectares (5 340 square kilometers).
Map 2 provides more detail of the study area from a topographical, land use and infrastructural perspective.
Wind Energy Landscapes : Specialist Study: Report 1 - Summary Report - CNdV africa May 2006 page 11
Map 1: Study Area in Context of South Africa and the Western Cape
Wind Energy Landscapes : Specialist Study: Report 1 - Summary Report - CNdV africa May 2006 page 12
Map 2a and b: Cape West Coast Study Area (Approximately 5337km² in extent)
Wind Energy Landscapes : Specialist Study: Report 1 - Summary Report - CNdV africa May 2006 page 13
2.2 The Cape West Coast Landscape
It is useful at the outset to reflect on the nature of the Cape West Coast landscape. A number of factors set it apart from landscapes nationally and internationally. (Refer to Figure 2)
1. The climate of the region is Mediterranean, with winter rainfall, unlike most of South Africa. 2. It forms part of the Cape Floral Kingdom that is unique to the Western Cape, with tremendous biological diversity. 3. It forms only a small part of the Western Cape itself and at a provincial scale its predominant feature is the coastline washed by the Atlantic and cold Benguela current. 4. The Cape West Coast is part of a lowland coastal plain that has relatively insignificant relief at the larger scale. 5. The landscape is dominated in many places by long range mountain views to the east (Hottentots-Holland) and south (Table Mountain) and by a dramatic coastline. 6. The vegetation of the Cape West Coast is characterized by indigenous shrubs and grasses that are generally low (below 2m), with the larger trees being predominantly of alien species. 7. Much of the Cape West Coast landscape has been transformed – mainly to agriculture. Of the original Renosterveld that covered the area, only some 3% remains in the form of unconnected remnants. These remnants are of extremely high value. 8. A relatively small proportion of the Cape West Coast landscape is currently urban, but this is changing rapidly. The undeveloped landscape is in part the legacy of a lack of efficient north-south transportation routes. Currently there is pressure on the landscape by the rapid expansion of metropolitan Cape Town northwards and of the Saldanha-Vredenburg urban and industrial complex in the north. 9. The Cape West Coast landscape has number of historic elements – such as farmsteads, buildings and archeological sites – as well as large areas of high conservation value, such as the Langebaan lagoon. 10. There are cultural ties to the landscape and a general appreciation of the relatively stark beauty and grandeur of the Cape West Coast amongst the residents of Cape Town and the Western Cape in general. 11. The Cape West Coast Biosphere Reserve covers a large part of the Cape West Coast landscape. It is an important organizational element in sustainable development in the area. 12. The natural component of the Cape West Coast provides a number of environmental services. Protecting the landscape from visual intrusion will assist in the protection of these services. 13. The area forms an important area of tourism with many areas on the West Coast providing significant tourism amenity. 14. Significantly, in the context of “energy landscapes”, it has SA’s only nuclear power plant (Koeberg).
Figures 2a and 2b overleaf give a general visual reference of the diversity of the West Coast landscape.
Wind Energy Landscapes : Specialist Study: Report 1 - Summary Report - CNdV africa May 2006 page 14
Dramatic long views to Table Mountain and Coastline
Farmhouse complex near the Darling Hills
Extensive agricultural areas. Long views
Langebaan Lagoon and National Park Figure 2a : Typical Images of Study Area
Wind Energy Landscapes : Specialist Study: Report 1 - Summary Report - CNdV africa May 2006 page 15
Large rural towns (Vredenburg) with low density sprawl
Saldanha Bay and Industrial Zone
Large areas of extensive agriculture and hills with remnant vegetation. Note long views to distant mountains.
Heritage coastlines Figure 2b: Typical Images of Study Area (cont.)
Wind Energy Landscapes : Specialist Study: Report 1 - Summary Report - CNdV africa May 2006 page 16
3. WIND TURBINES: GENERAL DESCRIPTION
To most South Africans who have not travelled recently in developed countries, wind turbines are an unknown feature in the landscape, and the technology itself possibly shrouded in uncertainty and myth. This section attempts to briefly summarise wind technology and briefly describes the basic attributes and major issues related to wind turbines for the uninitiated reader.
Appendix A provides a short background to wind energy in the South African context.
3.1 Wind Technology
There are now many thousands of wind turbines operating in various parts of the world, with a total capacity of over 47,000 Megawatts (MW) of which Europe accounts for 72% (2005). It has been the most rapidly-growing means of alternative electricity generation since the turn of the century and provides a valuable complement to large-scale base-load power stations. World wind generation capacity quadrupled between 1997 and 2002.2
Wind turbines are but one power technology of the group termed “renewable energy technologies”. These technologies have a common characteristic in that they rely on natural resources for fuels. These resources are solar radiation, wind, geothermal heat, biomass, water, tides and waves, all of which are naturally renewed.
The main attributes of wind turbines are:
1. Wind turbines produce no green house gases while generating electricity and are generally supported around the world as a clean energy source. 2. Wind turbines utilize wind energy that is a variable, intermittent and dispersed resource. A constant wind regime is therefore necessary to increase the rehability of supply. 3. Wind energy systems reduce the reliance of many countries on single fuels, especially coal. 4. Wind energy developments can be economically viable with appropriate financial mechanisms in place with renewable electricity costs now on a par with fossil fuel power plants in many parts of the world. (But not yet applicable in SA due to the low price of coal.) 5. Wind energy systems can be rapidly deployed in comparison to fossil fuel power plants. 6. Wind energy system development is highly capital intensive, a current 1,5mw turbine costing in the order of R10 – 12 million. However, advances in technology has meant
2 source: Wind Power, web article from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Wind Energy Landscapes : Specialist Study: Report 1 - Summary Report - CNdV africa May 2006 page 17
that wind energy has got 80% cheaper over the last 20 years (source: Roger East : Green Futures). 7. Wind energy can make a significant contribution to energy supply. In Denmark, wind’s contribution to energy is approximately 20%. In the UK, renewables are targeted to produce 10% of energy supply by 2010.
Although in the past most windfarm development tended to be located in upland areas due to higher wind speeds, technological advances, and changes to the renewable electricity markets have resulted in wind speed being less pivotal in the site selection process. Generally, whether there is a reasonable prospect of obtaining planning permission is becoming a much more dominant factor in the site selection process.
3.2 Turbine Size and Scale
The scale of wind turbines is the major factor in their profound impact on the landscape. Modern utility-scale wind turbines are now uniformly three-bladed upwind machines with the generator and rotor housed on a tower. The trend has been increasing outputs per turbine that has lead to larger blade-span and higher towers. Previous lattice type towers have largely given way to slender steel towers. The largest turbines in production are now in the 4.5MW range with hub heights of over 100 metres. This turbine has a tip height of over 150 metres. Improved technology and dramatic increase in size of turbines has resulted in a twenty-fold increase of swept area and a tenfold reduction is generation cost since the 1980’s. (Refer to Figure 3 below).
The scale of modern wind turbines is such that some form of visual impact will be inevitable. They are going to be new infrastructural elements in the SA landscape, and it is naïve to think that they will be totally “hidden” in some way.
The challenge to be addressed in this study is to ensure that, from a landscape perspective, that these projects are located in areas where their visual impact can be best absorbed, and that locational and other devices are used to mitigate visual impact, particularly cumulative impact.
Approximate sizes of typical three-bladed turbines by installed capacity, also showing approximate annual output based on an average capacity factor of the average UK household consumption of 4100kWh/year (OFGEM). (Source: PPS22) Figure 3a: Turbine Sizes
Wind Energy Landscapes : Specialist Study: Report 1 - Summary Report - CNdV africa May 2006 page 18
Megawatts installed each year. (Source: National Geographic Magazine, August 2005)
Figure 3b: Installed Capacity in Europe and America
source: …… see Fig 4A see Fig 4B
Figure 4a: 1.5 MW wind turbine Figure 4b: 3 MW wind turbine (Hub Height approx. 60m) Hub Height approx. 80m)
Figure 4: Changes in Turbine Size and Output Cost
Wind Energy Landscapes : Specialist Study: Report 1 - Summary Report - CNdV africa May 2006 page 19
3.3 Turbine Colour
Wind turbines now generally have grey or off-white towers with off-white blades. These colours are considered the least intrusive after decades of experience in Europe and the USA. Blade colour is of less importance than the tower, as blades are thinner and dynamic elements. The blade diameter to tower height also influences visual acceptability. (Many modern machines are designed to ensure a minimal variance between tower height and blade diameter.)
3.4 Aesthetics
Wind turbines make a strong visual statement due to their verticality, the movement of the blades, the pattern they form in groups and the contrast with the surrounding landscape. As a result the development of wind farms has become a major issue in landscape aesthetics, particularly since they are often located in areas of high visibility where the exploitation of the wind resource is optimized.
The landscape is however not static, new elements have been added continually to our landscapes as technology advances, for example nuclear power stations, and new gas fired power stations. Wind turbines may in time be given the same value as the facilities of the past such as windmills on farms, which we treat as cultural history. Obviously, people will have different aesthetic reactions to wind turbines - ranging from 'beautiful technological machines' … to ugly intrusions on landscapes.
3.5 Impact on Birds
A relative “myth” that has been unfairly developed is that wind turbines are lethal to birds. Significant studies overseas have shown that this is not the case; bird species are adept at altering flight patterns to avoid wind turbines.
The Royal Society for the Protection of Birds has, “not so far witnessed any major adverse effects on birds associated with wind farming.” (1-2 bird kills per turbine per year have been estimated versus over 10 million birds killed by cars in the UK). In fact, climate change created by burning of fossil fuels is a far greater long term threat to birds.
3.6 Noise
This issue is dealt with in detail in the criteria assessment in Methodology 1, but it is noted at the outset that noise from modern wind turbines is insignificant. This is backed up by international studies. It is also clear that livestock are not at all impacted upon, and will graze up to the base of the turbines.
3.7 Cumulative Impact
The issue of cumulative impact has become a major factor in European debates regarding windfarms. In Denmark and Germany in particular, due to very small thresholds buffers being set between consecutive windfarms, increasing concern is being expressed in regard to negative cumulative impact of windfarms on the rural landscape. The figure below (from Germany) illustrates a typical example of the plethora of turbines that now characterise the European landscape.
Accordingly, the issue of cumulative impact has been specifically addressed in the proposed regional methodology.
Wind Energy Landscapes : Specialist Study: Report 1 - Summary Report - CNdV africa May 2006 page 20
4. GENERAL METHODOLOGICAL APPROACHES
In the International Study undertaken by the Department, and as was evidenced on the overseas study tour, a number of distinct approaches are apparent in methodologies.
In England, Scotland and Wales more general techniques were employed in identifying three categories of area based on both a landscape sensitivity and a criteria based method. The three areas are: • Preferred areas, • Potential (Consultation areas) and, • Sensitive (Avoidance areas).
In Germany, very detailed “negative mapping” by means of fine grained GIS was used to identify very small areas left over for wind turbines (both visual, landscape and criteria based).
In Denmark a “decision matrix” was developed. Its outcome determined the following areas based on a balance between environmental considerations and indications of wind resources: • Free development (generally in urban and industrial areas) • Controlled development • Limited development • No development / non-useable areas
The various approaches followed internationally is based on the relative importance or existence of a wide range of factors. The level of information available (quality and quantity) will also determine the approach to be taken.
In South Africa the level of information available is generally limited and this has been deemed a key factor in the development of a preferred regional methodology.
Figures 5a and 5b following illustrate various approaches used overseas depending on the existence of data (for example bird migration maps, wind modelling statistics, or detailed landscape assessments). It is important to emphasise at the outset that any landscape assessment model (incorporating criteria) will only be part of a final methodology, which will ,in the final analysis, need to incorporate political (decision making), economic and social and technological issues.
ASSESSMENT OF WIND MODELLING LANDSCAPE (detailed data
BIRD MIGRATION PHYSICAL & ROUTES ECONOMIC
OFFICIAL MAPS (e.g. excluded areas designated for other uses e g
OVERLAY identify suitable areas for wi
Figure 5a: Basic Methodology used in Denmark
Wind Energy Landscapes : Specialist Study: Report 1 - Summary Report - CNdV africa May 2006 page 21
DATA DATA 1:50 000 1:50 000
BIOTOPES SETTLEMENTS
NATURAL BEAUTY INFRASTRUCTURE
= MAP 1 = MAP 2
DRAFT MAP A AREAS OF SUITABILITY (1:50 000)
FURTHER REFINEMENT STAGE “Revision of Investigation Outcomes”
WIND DATA ADDED (>5,2m/sec)
AUTHORITIES OPINIONS
AREAS TOO CLOSE TO EACH OTHER
AREAS > 20ha
DEBATE FURTHER CRITERIA
DRAFT MAP B AREAS OF SUITABILITY (±25% of A) (Final Output 1:100 000)
Figure 5b: Methodology used in Germany (Mecklenberg Region)
Wind Energy Landscapes : Specialist Study: Report 1 - Summary Report - CNdV africa May 2006 page 22
Figure 5c: Interrelationship between resources, targets and criteria-based policies at regional level. (Source: PPS22)
Opportunities for tapping these resources take place within a framework of criteria-based planning policies, which will have both proactive and safeguarding aspects and be based on environmental, economic and social considerations. Lead to the identification of broad areas which are particularly suitable for renewable energy development.
• Targets: these will be set at a regional level and may be disaggregated to the sub- regional level. They shall be derived from a region’s assessment of its renewable energy resource, expressed as a minimum, and revised upwards once they are met.
• Criteria-based policies: these may apply to whole regions, sub-regions, or local authority areas as appropriate.
• Locational considerations: the content of criteria-based policies will vary from region to region, and should be tailored in relation to issues such as the presence of internationally designated sites, nationally designated areas of nature conservation or landscape value, and green belts. They should take into account the specific requirements of urban and rural areas.
Wind Energy Landscapes : Specialist Study: Report 1 - Summary Report - CNdV africa May 2006 page 23
5. SUMMARY OF METHOD 1 (REPORT 2) : CRITERIA-BASED INFLUENCES
5.1 Methodology and Key Outputs
Method 1, a criteria based GIS enabled assessment method, is described in full in Report 2 of the Main Report. As described in the brief, Method 1 involved the refinement and testing of a set of regional guiding criteria and thresholds as applied to the selected study area.
Table 1 overleaf is an important output from the Method 1 assessment. The table has arranged all criteria deemed relevant at the regional scale and illustrated suggested thresholds based on an extensive literature search, and the overseas study tour. The table contains brief notes on the various criteria and lists data source where relevant. (It is important to note that the suggested thresholds are not rigid, and should be subject to negotiation based on particular regional characteristics.) The table also defines each criteria set in terms of a generic group type, (either "planning or environmental", or infrastructural issues), and lists the key "concern" per criteria (either visual, safety, or conservation related).
Each criteria is discussed in detail in Report 2, after which the criteria groups are mapped as separate layers. The process followed is illustrated in Figure 6.
The composite map output (all criteria groups) is illustrated on Map 3, and the resultant areas identified as being potentially suitable, (based on the absence of negative or exclusionary buffers), is indicated on Map 4.
On the basis of ranking and scoring of all criteria in Table 1 (refer to Table 2 in Report 2, page 17) a revised (ranked) output map was produced, and is illustrated in Map 5.
Wind Energy Landscapes : Specialist Study: Report 1 - Summary Report - CNdV africa May 2006 page 24
Table 1: Summary : Recommended Thresholds for Selected Criteria used in Methodology 1
Grouping Key Concern Environmental Infrastructural Conservation Planning Safety Group Subset Criteria Threshold Notes/Data Source Visual No. No. (Distance from) Value [See Note (1)]
1. Urban Areas Urban edge lines assumed where necessary 800m from for rural towns with no formal urban edge. urban edge This distance adequately covers noise and flicker criteria 2. Residential Areas (including rural dwellings) Threshold adequately covers noise and flicker criteria. All rural dwellings mapped 400m from 1:50 000 series, but these are not comprehensive or up to date. 3. Transport Routes 3a. National Roads Should depend on scenic value of route. 3km Can be reduced. 3b. Local Roads Review if high scenic value. Safety 500m consideration. 3c. Provincial Tourist Route 4km Statutory scenic drives. 3d. Local Tourist Route Assumption made for local importance. 2,5km Safety consideration. 3e. Railway Lines No distinction drawn between passenger 250m and goods lines. Also, rail corridors usually visually disturbed. Safety consideration. 4. Transmission Lines 4a. Major Power Lines 250m Excludes gas lines 4b. Cell Phone Masts + Communication No data available/provided. 500m Towers (Not mapped) 4c. Radio + Navigation Beacons 250m Digitised from aeronautical maps 5. Key Infrastructure/Airports 5a. Airport with Primary Radar Previous threshold of 15km increased. To be 25km confirmed with agency at regional level. 5b. Local Airfield 2,5km Previous threshold of 15km reduced. To be confirmed with agency. 5c. National Security Sites (e.g. Koeberg) 15km To be reduced where possible subject to discussion with agency concerned
Wind Energy Landscapes : Specialist Study: Report 1 - Summary Report - CNdV africa May 2006 page 25
Table 1 (Continued): Summary : Recommended Thresholds for Selected Criteria used in Methodology 1
Grouping Key Concern Environmental Infrastructural Conservation Planning Safety Group Subset Criteria Threshold Notes/Data Source Visual No. No. (Distance From) Value [See Note (1)]
6. National Parks + Provincial Nature Increased from 1km international standard 2km Reserves 7. Protected Areas 7a. Mountain Catchments 500m Not mapped. No defined info available. 7b. Protected Natural Environment 2km As per statutory protection 7c. Private Nature Reserves Data not consistently available (not all 500m (Open Space Zone II) mapped) 7d Heritage and Cultural Sites Includes fossil sites, national and provincial) 500m monument sites, graves and memorial sites. 8. Coast & Rivers 8a. Distance to Coastlines of Undisturbed See Note (2) 4km Scenic Value 8b. Distance to Rivers 500m Only perennial rivers used 8c. Distance to 1:100 Year Floodline 200m Not mapped. Info not available. 9. Sensitive Areas (Avian) 9a. Distance to Major Wetlands (Ramsar Sites) Increased from 1km. Assumed to increase 2km bird safety. 9b. Distance to Local Wetlands 500m Increased from 300m to ensure bird safety. 9c. Distance to Bird Habitats or Avian Flight Increased from 500m. Assumed specific 1km Paths where known breeding sites dealt with at EIA level. 10. Topographical 10.a Elevation and slopes 1:4 slope See Note (4) 10b. Distance from Ridge Lines 500m Ridge lines plotted manually 11. Vegetation 11a. Distance to Important Indigenous/Remnant __ Mapped at local scale, not considered Vegetation critical for regional criteria. (Note 5)
Wind Energy Landscapes : Specialist Study: Report 1 - Summary Report - CNdV africa May 2006 page 26
Table 1 (Continued): Summary : Recommended Thresholds for Selected Criteria used in Methodology 1
Notes: (1) "Non-mappable" criteria are indicated in Table 1. The following criteria were not used for the regional analysis: ● Mountain catchments (7a) ● Private nature reserves (7c) ● Distance to 1:100 year floodline (8c) ● Cell phone towers (4b) ● Mountain catchments (7a) ● Height above local topography (10a) ● Vegetation (11a)
The following criteria were either not relevant at the regional level, were not able to be mapped or were superceded by other criteria: ● Noise ● Shadow Flicker ● Wind farm layout / distance between turbines ● Gas transmission lines
These can be more effectively dealt with at the EIA level.
(2) Coastlines are typically areas of high wind resource, but also usually of high environmental and aesthetic value. In order not to arbitrarily exclude the entire coastline by means of a somewhat crude exclusionary buffer, it is proposed in the final recommended regional method that areas may be excluded from the coastal buffer due to low scenic value.
(3) Distance between separate wind farms (which was indicated in the "Original Table 7" from the PGWC report) with its suggested buffer of 2,5km (being the Danish model) was not used in Methodology 1, but has been referred to in detail in the recommended regional methodology.
(4) The original PGWC report (Table 7) indicated a threshold value of 25m as "maximum height of elevated feature in relation to local topography". During discussions with the task team it was agreed that this threshold value was impossible to be buffered or mapped effectively. The issue of topography, slope, and elevation was however a key theme in the landscape assessment in Method 2, and is recommended as a fundamental criteria layer in the recommended methodology.
(5) Remnant vegetation was not mapped in Method 1 on the basis that there was no clear classification available, and a lack of consistent data from Cape Nature. Landsat information was however interpreted by the consultants for use in Method 2 (Landscape Assessment). The proposed regional method has however re-introduced indigenous vegetation (as an unbuffered layer) due to the conservation potential of these areas at the local level.
Wind Energy Landscapes : Specialist Study: Report 1 - Summary Report - CNdV africa May 2006 page 27
Figure 6: Methodology 1 - Process
GIS FRAMEWORK / DATA COLLECTION
DATA COMPILATION
PRELIMINARY ANALYSIS
CRITERIA EVALUATION AND SELECTION
A1 B1 MAP SETS (A) MAP SETS (B)
ENVIRONMENTAL / PLANNING B2 INFRASTRUCTURE LAYERS A2 LAYERS B3
A3 B4
A4 B5
B6 A5 1. Urban edges B7 2. Urban areas A6 3. Residential 1. Coastline B8 4. Security Sites 2. Wetlands 5. Major airports 3. Rivers A7 B9 6. Local airfields 4. Reserves / Protected 7. Radio beacons areas B10 A8 8. Communication towers 5. RAMSAR Sites 9. National roads B11 6. Protected Bird Areas 10. Local roads 7. Heritage Sites A9 B12 11. Rail lines 8. Scenic Routes (major) 12. Powerlines 9. Scenic Routes (local)
SYNTHESIS (A) SYNTHESIS (B)
OVERLAY : MAP INDICATING AREAS OF EXCLUSION
Wind Energy Landscapes : Specialist Study: Report 1 - Summary Report - CNdV africa May 2006 page 28
Map 3: Regional Criteria Synthesis Map (Methodology 1) : Composite
Wind Energy Landscapes : Specialist Study: Report 1 - Summary Report - CNdV africa May 2006 page 29
Map 4: Regional Criteria Synthesis Map (Methodology 1) : Areas Left Available
Wind Energy Landscapes : Specialist Study: Report 1 - Summary Report - CNdV africa May 2006 page 30
Map 5: Revised (Ranked) Output Map
Wind Energy Landscapes : Specialist Study: Report 1 - Summary Report - CNdV africa May 2006 page 31
5.2 Conclusions from Methodology 1
The major conclusions that flow from this report on Methodology 1 are:
1 The extent of thresholds applied to the criteria can be critical in determining the areas available for wind turbines. (During the work on Method 1, the original criteria set defined by PGWC were run through the GIS model. This resulted in less than 8% of the study area being identified for wind technology. As illustrated on Table 2, the available land area increased to 22% of the study area on the basis of the recommended revised thresholds).
2 A key question that relates to residual area and thresholds is the atypical nature of the study area in relation to provincial or South African conditions. It contains a large number of airfields, security facilities and unusual land uses that may not be found in other regions. The thresholds relating to these criteria require individual negotiation with the regulatory authorities. (This issue will obviously be applicable to any method chosen).
3 Ranking of the criteria in terms of importance suggests that a short set of critical criteria can be derived that may be sufficient for an effective regional tool. This hypothesis is tested later in this project and is covered in Report 5 – Methodology 3.
4 As discussed in the introduction, wind energy developments have generally steered away from urban areas, often to reduce the visibility and therefore the volume of objections. The adoption of the principal that wind energy developments belong only in rural areas, which underpins the approach of Method 1, should be questioned. This aspect is further dealt with in Methodology 3 (Report 5).
5 A further shortfall of this methodology that is apparent at this stage is the somewhat limited ability to deal with landscape issues. These are only dealt with implicitly through the designation of protected areas and scenic routes. The relatively simple mapping of topography and slope, or indigenous vegetation coverage could only go part of the way to defining landscape value. This issue is dealt with in Report 4 – Comparative Assessment.
6 It must be recognized that since Method 1 excludes the mapping of positive criteria (especially wind resource data), it does not necessarily follow that the areas identified for wind energy development (based on the lack of negative / exclusionary criteria) will be suitable for such development. Method 1 simply uses threshold criteria to define where wind turbines should not be located on the basis of safety, conservation or environmental or planning concerns. Once more robust wind resource data is made available this can be overlain with the output of Method 1 to highlight areas of potential for development assuming there will be overlap with the areas already identified.
7 Although Method 1 is based on a more quantitative approach which does not incorporate the qualitative aspects of landscape value, the importance of certain landscapes is implicitly included by means of thresholds around formal protected areas. However, the lack of landscape character assessment and formal designations of areas of scenic beauty in South Africa creates a potential serious shortfall in the output of Method 1. This is discussed further in the Comparative Assessment.
Wind Energy Landscapes : Specialist Study: Report 1 - Summary Report - CNdV africa May 2006 page 32
6. SUMMARY OF METHOD 2 (REPORT 3) : LANDSCAPE ASSESSMENT
6.1 Summary : Key Influences
"Landscape is the physical reality of the environment around us, the tangible elements that give shape and diversity to our surroundings. But landscape is also the environment perceived, predominantly visually but additionally through our senses of smell, touch and hearing. Our appreciation of landscape is affected too by our cultural backgrounds and by personal and professional interests." (Northumberland National Park Authority)
Method 2 comprised a landscape assessment, based on a landscape character , value, sensitivity and capacity assessment.
Although some quantitative GIS based spatial planning input was possible, the outcome of this work is based on the international experience that landscape character assessment is essentially value based, and strong reliance is made on professional judgement.
Figure 7 below graphically illustrates a key premise to the work that an "urban – rural – wilderness" transect will generally show a gradation from damaged to disturbed landscapes through to pristine wilderness landscapes where scenic value increases along the transect line.
Figure 7: "Urban – Rural – Wilderness" Transect
Figure 8 illustrates the results of many years of research, particularly in Scotland (Scottish Natural Heritage (SNH)), that demonstrates, from a visual impact perspective, how distance is a major mitigating factor in wind turbine location. This work has lead to the recommended minimum distance between windfarms in SA at 30km to avoid or moderate cumulative visual impacts.
Figure 8: Distance Mitigation
Wind Energy Landscapes : Specialist Study: Report 1 - Summary Report - CNdV africa May 2006 page 33
Report 3 provides a review of best international practice for landscape assessment which is not repeated here, however Figure 9 below illustrates the four main components involved in landscape assessment for windfarms, as summarised from a host of international precedent.
Figure 9: Four Components of Landscape Assessment for Wind Farms
VISIBILITY (landscape character) (viewer perception and
VALUE SENSITIVITY (described (“inherent”) sensitivity community values) including biodiversity
CAPACIT Y (for change … specific type) ("absorption" capacity)
6.2 Regional Landscape Types
On the basis of the analysis of the various layers, the following landscape types are indicated in Table 2 below and further described in Chapter 6 of this report:
"Land Form" Types "Land Cover" Types
1. Hills and Mountains 6. Urban 2. Foothills 7. Urban / Industrial 3. Coastal Plain 8. Urban Resort 4. Inland Plain 9. Historic / Cultural 5. River Valleys / Estuaries 10. Agricultural
Table 2: Land Form and Land Cover Types
Figure 10 below illustrates the analysis step, and combination of elements that was used to create the "Landform" and "Landcover" maps, which resulted in the Regional Landscape Type Map (Map 6).
Figure 10: Landscape Components
Physical ("Land Form") Component Cultural ("Land Cover") Component
• Topography • Settlement Pattern
• Hydrology • Vegetation & Agricultural Patterns
• Elevation • Historical & Cultural Patterns
• Geology / Soils
Landscape Character (Sensitivity)
Regional Landscape Types
Wind Energy Landscapes : Specialist Study: Report 1 - Summary Report - CNdV africa May 2006 page 34
Map 6: Regional Landscape Types Composite
Wind Energy Landscapes : Specialist Study: Report 1 - Summary Report - CNdV africa May 2006 page 35
6.3 Landscape Character and Sensitivity Assessment
A major part of the exercise carried out in Method 2 involved a landscape character assessment. This was carried out over a number of days (in different climate conditions) and laid the ground work for the specialist workshop. The images overleaf document the range of landscapes identified, with a cross reference to the "view type" applicable to those landscapes, and the sensitivity rating applied to those landscapes based on the outcome of the workshop.
The landscape assessment carried out in Method 2 must be seen in the context of the relative "sameness" of the West Coast landscape (from a topographical perspective) when compared with the rest of the Western Cape Province (see Figure 11 below). The major distinguishing feature of the study area being the long expanse of coastline (exposed generally to good onshore winds in winter and strong offshore winds in summer).
This relative lack of topographical richness must be borne in mind when replicating this study in other parts of the province.
Figure 11: Study Area at Provincial Scale
Wind Energy Landscapes : Specialist Study: Report 1 - Summary Report - CNdV africa May 2006 page 36
Figure 12 below (extract from PSDF) illustrates a general transect typical of the Provincial landscape.
Figure 12: Typical Cross-section through Western Cape Province (source: WCPSDF, 2005)
6.4 Landscape Sensitivity and Capacity
The sensitivity and capacity of the landscape character types defined (refer to Section 2.2) were analysed on the basis of a number of criteria. These include:
Physical: - scale and openness - landform and shape - settlement - landscape pattern and foci - visual composition - physical context – effect on sensitivity from other landscape character types (LCT) within viewshed
Perceptual: - how landscape is experienced - context - sense of remoteness - modification - naturalness
In relation to landscape sensitivity however, it is important to stress an obvious point. It is acknowledged that almost any development, especially commercial wind energy development, will cause some landscape change. The key question from a landscape character perspective is whether such a development will cause changes to the key characteristics of a landscape type such that the character will change dramatically or to unacceptable proportions, or will exceed a limit of acceptable change (LOS). The concept of LOS is referred to in more detail in Section 8.5 of this report
The assessment was founded on the input of an expert group at the workshop referred to above. The results were combined and a weighted capacity for each landscape type ascertained.
Figure 13 illustrates the summary outcome of the landscape assessment, and particularly the specialist workshop carried out. The matrix defines four types of zones based on, firstly,
Wind Energy Landscapes : Specialist Study: Report 1 - Summary Report - CNdV africa May 2006 page 37 inherent landscape value, and secondly, landscape capacity to absorb change (WT's in this instance).
• Zone 1 would be highly favoured for WT development ("designated") • Zone 2 would include possible development areas ("negotiated") • Zone 3 would possibly allow WT development if exceptional mitigating circumstances exist (and would require "exemption") • Zone 4 would be restricted for WT development.
These four possible zones were simplified in the final regional method to "preferred", negotiated and "restricted".
Figure 13: Landscape Capacity Matrix
High +
3 4
high value, high capacity high value, low capacity limited WT development possible no WT development "Negotiated" Areas (B) "Restricted" Areas Inherent Landscape Value
1 2
low value, high capacity low value, low capacity WT development encouraged some WT development possible "Designated or Preferred" Areas "Negotiated" Areas (A) Low - + high Capacity for WT's or Landscape Change Low -
6.5 Viewshed Analysis
An analysis was carried out of the viewsheds from the primary access roads in the study area. Map 7 overleaf is the composite map created which illustrates those parts of the study area most visible from the major road network, assumed to be a key factor in the visual assessment.
6.6 Landscape Classification
The table below indicates the multiple layers landscape classification developed.
Wind Energy Landscapes : Specialist Study: Report 1 - Summary Report - CNdV africa May 2006 page 38
Map 7: Composite Viewshed Analysis
Wind Energy Landscapes : Specialist Study: Report 1 - Summary Report - CNdV africa May 2006 page 39
Table 3: Matrix of Landscape Classification Based on View Types and Land Cover
1. Urban
2. Urban industrial
3. Urban resort 30 possible combinations
4. Historic / cultural
5. Rural / agricultural
Land Cover (Use) Type 6. Wilderness
POSITIONED IN EITHER
• Hills and mountains Rolling Complex Open Flat Long Closed • Foothills Short Closed • Coastal plain
Land Form Type Land Form • Inland plain, or 1 2 3 4 • River valley / estuary View Type
6.7 ZVI and Viewshed Analysis
A comprehensive description is given in Report 23 in regard to the visual analysis undertaken. Map 8 attached represents the cumulative results of the analysis.
3 Section xxxx of Report 2 : METHODOLOGY 1 : CRITERIA BASED ASSESSMENT
Wind Energy Landscapes : Specialist Study: Report 1 - Summary Report - CNdV africa May 2006 page 40
Map 8: Broad Framework for Location of WE Development based on Landscape Character
Wind Energy Landscapes : Specialist Study: Report 1 - Summary Report - CNdV africa May 2006 page 41
6.8 Method 2 Output
Map 8 illustrates the output of Method 2. it was created by merging the results of the landscape character assessment with the viewshed analysis. Positive and negative criteria were merged as illustrated in Figure 14 below.
POSITIVE CRITERIA NEGATIVE CRITERIA
• Areas of low visibility VISIBILITY • Areas of high visibility
• Coastal plain, river valleys and • Inland plain LANDFORM estuaries
• Agricultural areas LANDCOVER • Natural and cultural areas
MERGED OUTPUT MAP
Figure 14: Methodology 2 : Final Output Step
6.9 General Conclusions from Methodology 2
1. The methodology used in this study is obviously biased towards landscape and visual issues – as the primary objective is landscape assessment.
2. The assessment has been based on extensive research of international precedent.
3. The method is relatively complex and somewhat subjective.
4. The challenge is to design a method that can be applied easily, consistently and economically at the Provincial and National scale.
5. The final output of the method are 3 "zones" in which wind energy development is either included or excluded or could be subject to negotiation. These zones have the following characteristics: a. Since they are based on landscape character assessment, they are extensive with large areas in each zone, rather than a patchwork of smaller areas. b. The boundaries between zones are indicative, rather than being clearly defined due to the overlap between character types, assumed sensitivity and capacity.
6. The method is critically dependent on assessing landscape value that is influenced by both objective and subjective criteria. Ascertaining value is inherent in establishing landscape sensitivity and capacity. Landscape valuation is largely judgment based and qualitative – but this does not diminish its validity, particularly if credible professional judgement can be obtained via a workshop method.
7. Apart from the critical value component, a significant number of elements of the method can be objectively derived through use of the GIS and a number of powerful analytical techniques. These however, are technically complex, relatively expensive and resource consumptive in the SA context.
8. It appears that only a limited number of components are required to identify landscape character types and delineate landscape character areas. The principle elements being topography (land form) and vegetation and human settlement (land cover).
Wind Energy Landscapes : Specialist Study: Report 1 - Summary Report - CNdV africa May 2006 page 42
9. In spite of the limitations of the evaluation process (i.e. its relative subjectivity), the landscape assessment method addresses the issue of conserving landscapes of high visual sensitivity.
10. The method incorporates a critical shift in thinking with the inclusion of (degraded) urban and industrial landscapes as suitable for wind energy developments. There is thus acceptance that some landscapes will become “wind energy landscapes’’ where no attempt is made to "hide" wind turbines.
11. The application of the method reveals some limitations in the choice of the study area. It is an area with relatively little relief, and is already substantially transformed and subject to developmental pressure in many places. Some critical infrastructural limits exist (military airfields and security installations). It may thus not be typical of the remainder of the Western Cape Province. However, it is felt that the methodology described in this report is sufficiently robust to be applicable elsewhere.
12. The method is fieldwork intensive with the requirement for visual data collection and extensive field analysis to be meaningful. It also ideally requires application of relatively complex and time consuming photomontage techniques if the evaluation exercise is to be by the Delphi technique, as applied in this case. (Delphi technique broadly refers to the workshop method of soliciting structured comment from a selected reference group by means of visual prompts.)
13. The method is leading towards regional planning of nodes of concentration in either transformed landscapes or open large-scale landscapes that can be shown to have low visual sensitivity.
Wind Energy Landscapes : Specialist Study: Report 1 - Summary Report - CNdV africa May 2006 page 43
7. SUMMARY OF COMPARATIVE ASSESSMENT (REPORT 4)
7.1 Summary
The Comparative Assessment (Report 4) sets out the results, differences and commonalities of Methodologies 1 and 2.
In essence, the comparative assessment has found that the Criteria Based Method (Method 1) is an effective and suitable foundation for the assessment and delineation of areas appropriate for wind energy development, but that the following aspects should be incorporated into a revised regional methodology:
• An appropriate technique, and related buffer zone suitable to the SA context, to build in cumulative impact concerns into a revised methodology. • An appropriate means of incorporating landscape issues relating to landscape character, value, sensitivity and capacity should be built into a revised methodology. • The primarily "negative" buffers used in methodology 1 should be augmented by incorporating appropriate "positive" buffers into a revised regional methodology.
7.2 Methodology 1
Methodology 1 is illustrated in summary form below:
Figure 15: Methodology 1 Summary
1. GIS FRAMEWORK
2. DATA COMPILATION
3. PRELIMINARY ANALYSIS OF CRITERIA
4. CRITERIA AND THRESHOLD SELECTION
5. CRITERIA GROUPING Non spatial & micro-scale criteria
Spatial criteria Infrastructure criteria Environment & planning criteria
6. GIS LAYER PREPARATION
7. OUTPUT
The output map of Method 1 is attached as Map 11A.
Wind Energy Landscapes : Specialist Study: Report 1 - Summary Report - CNdV africa May 2006 page 44
7.3 Methodology 2
Methodology 2 is illustrated in summary form below. The output map of Method 2 is juxtaposed with Map 10.
Figure 16: Methodology 2 Summary
1. GIS DATA (DEM & TIN)
2. DEFINE REGIONAL 3. CLASSIFY BROAD LANDSCAPE TYPES VIEW TYPES (based on Land Form and Land Cover)
4. DELINEATE REGIONAL LANDSCAPE AREAS
5. VIEWSHED ANALYSIS (WVA OR ZVI)
6. SCENIC VALUE /
SENSITIVITY & CAPACITY ASSESSMENT
7. OVERLAY POSITIVE & NEGATIVE CRITERIA
8. MERGED OUTPUT POSITIVE ZONES
Wind Energy Landscapes : Specialist Study: Report 1 - Summary Report - CNdV africa May 2006 page 45
Map 9: Method 1 Output Map 10: Method 2 Output
Wind Energy Landscapes : Specialist Study: Report 1 - Summary Report - CNdV africa May 2006 page 46
7.4 Summary of Differences
These differences between the two methodologies are summarised in Table 4.
Table 4: Summary of Key differences between Methodologies 1 and 2
METHODOLOGY 1 METHODOLOGY 2 Basis of method Criteria based Landscape based Process Negative mapping Landscape character, visual sensitivity and capacity studies. (Both positive and negative layers) Inputs Approximately 25 criteria (see Multiple criteria relating to landscape Table 1) character, sensitivities & capacities Input characteristics Uniform criteria Diverse criteria Objective criteria Some subjective criteria Spatial criteria only Spatial & non-spatial criteria GIS-based Expert opinion & GIS-based Output characteristics Fine grained Coarse grained Limited areas not excluded Large areas only included at regional level Benefits Public data – no fieldwork Fewer criteria Objective / Quantitative Explicit landscape issues Replicable results Simplicity Cost effective (assuming data available) Limitations Qualitative Landscape issues Time consuming fieldwork required not included Relative complexity and subjectivity
There are clearly elements in both Methodologies that are attractive and are incorporated into Methodology 3. The shortfalls of both methods however need to be probed in more depth.
7.5 Spatial Comparison Table 5 below illustrates the quantitative Comparative Assessment between the outputs of the 2 methods, and should be read in conjunction with Map 11.
Table 5: Comparative Assessment : Coverage on Map 3
COLOUR AREA KM² %
Dual overlap positive : Purple 346 6.5 Landscape based and Criteria based
Red Single Positive : Criteria based 550 10.3
Green Single Positive : Landscape based 900 16.8
Dual overlap : Negotiable Orange 129 2.4 (Positive Criteria based and Negotiable Landscape based
Yellow Single Layer : Negotiable (Landscape based) 1272 23.8
Sub-total 3197 59.8
TOTAL STUDY AREA 5337 23.8
Wind Energy Landscapes : Specialist Study: Report 1 - Summary Report - CNdV africa May 2006 page 47
+5 -2 +2
-2 +2 -2 -5 +5-2
-2 -2 +2 -5 -2
negative areas positive areas
+5 +5 +2 +2 -1 Preferred -2 -1 -1 +2 0 -2 0 -2 Negotiable (B) +2 -1 -5 +2 0 -2 0 Negotiable (A)
-1 -2 -1 0 -2 -2 Restricted
-1 +2 0 -5 +2 -5 -1
Composite overlay of positive & negative criteria
Fine tuning within preferred area based on site / W locational conditions (see Report 6)
15-25km buffer radius (cumulative impact)
Preferred location for wind energy development based on composite overlay
Figure 17: Conceptual Approach to Derive Preferred Wind Energy Zones and Regional Wind Energy Map
Wind Energy Landscapes : Specialist Study: Report 1 - Summary Report - CNdV africa May 2006 page 48
Map 11: Spatial Comparison and Overlap
Wind Energy Landscapes : Specialist Study: Report 1 - Summary Report - CNdV africa May 2006 page 49
7.6 Conclusions
Refer to Table 4 for a summary of the key differences between Methodology 1 and 2. the following discussion refers to advantages and shortcomings of the two methods.
7.6.1 Summary of Advantages
Both Methodologies have areas of merit:
• Methodology 1 has the major advantage of simplicity. The process is linear, relatively quick, and the inputs easily identifiable. Being GIS based, it has the advantage of easy manipulation of alternative threshold. • Methodology 2 has the benefit of addressing the primary issue related to wind turbines, namely visual impact on landscape.
7.6.2 Summary of Shortfalls
At a more general level both methods have a number of shortfalls that influence the development of the Revised Methodology:
• Neither Methodology is holistic. Methodology 1 excludes essentially qualitative issues that cannot be expressed spatially while Methodology 2 focuses largely on landscape issues. • Neither Methodology is currently integrated into planning activities at the regional level. (Although Visual Resource Management maps are recommended in the PSDF.) • Being focused on landscape issues, the brief specifically excludes a number of aspects that will inevitably play a major role in determining wind w\energy location; these include primarily wind resource and technical issues. • Neither Methodology is integrated into other planning activities at the regional level, although the PSDF recommends that local and regional authorities should build visual resource management assessment into spatial frameworks. • Methodology 1 is essentially a negative mapping technique. Some positive mapping layers (e.g. lack of visibility and low scenic value landscapes) were however built in Method 2. • Methodology 1 is based on a paradigm of placing turbines at maximum distance from settlements, in other words, an underlying philosophy that wind turbines should be excluded from urban areas and located at points of minimum visibility. This is rigorously challenged in the revised methodology. • Neither Methodology considers the developers view (as required in the brief). The development of utility-scale windfarms is a complex process, with locational considerations based on landscapes or visibility, being only one set of a large number of issues considered by wind energy developers. • A number of technical criteria are not considered in either Methodology. These include wind potential and access to the electrical network, however, proximity to grid is built into the revised methodology from a landscape rather than economic perspective.
7.6.3 Conclusion
In essence, the comparative assessment has found that the Criteria Based Method (Method 1) is to a large extent an effective and suitable platform or foundation for the assessment and delineation of areas appropriate for wind energy development, but that where possible, it must be augmented by landscape and visual assessment studies.
Wind Energy Landscapes : Specialist Study: Report 1 - Summary Report - CNdV africa May 2006 page 50
7.6.4 Towards a Revised Regional Methodology
The comparative assessment as well as the work completed under each method has therefore highlighted that the following aspects should be incorporated into a revised regional methodology:
• Addressing Cumulative Impact An appropriate technique, and related buffer zone policy suitable to the SA context, must be built into the regional method to address cumulative impact concerns. • Incorporating Landscape Issues An appropriate means of incorporating landscape issues relating to landscape character, value, sensitivity and capacity (as described in Method 2) should be built into a revised methodology which has the criteria based method as its foundation. • Using "Positive" Criteria The primarily "negative" buffers used in Methodology 1 should be augmented by incorporating appropriate "positive" buffers into a revised regional methodology.
Wind Energy Landscapes : Specialist Study: Report 1 - Summary Report - CNdV africa May 2006 page 51
8. SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDED REGIONAL METHOD (REPORT 5)
8.1 Requirements
The general requirements of the revised landscape assessment methodology are:
• The Revised Methodology must be an effective regional planning tool. In this regard the output should be directly usable at National, Provincial, District and Local levels for the development of policy and spatial plans.
• Linked to the above is the necessity for the Revised Methodology to be proactive in stimulating the introduction of wind energy development at the commercial scale in appropriate locations whilst not limiting smaller scale (urban) developments.
• The Revised Methodology must be holistic. It must address all major regional-level issues that relate to wind energy development in the context of landscape.
• The Revised Methodology should be logical, efficient, defensible and replicable and have a high level of acceptability by the relevant authorities, the wind energy developers, and the general public.
• The Revised Methodology must incorporate best practice as far as possible.
• The Revised Methodology must permit outputs to be used for other applications wherever possible, and as relevant and reinterpreted to the SA context.
The specific requirements of the Methodology are:
• It must address all aspects of the brief. These include:
o Determination of areas appropriate for wind energy development on the basis of landscape assessment founded on a criteria based method is the primary output of the Methodology.
o It must be technically simple, cost effective and non-resource consumptive. This is a key motivation for the adoption of the criteria-based method.
o It must be relatively simple and understandable by energy, environmental specialists, national and local authority officials and interested members of the public.
• It must be applicable throughout the Western Cape Province.
8.2 Urban Paradigm
A further key requirement is the critical consideration of the previous European and British paradigm of urban exclusion, whereby wind turbines are located as far away as possible from urban areas. This has the direct result of utilizing land that is potentially classified as either 'rural' or ‘wilderness’. Also, this paradigm has the effect of excluding significant areas of land that are visually degraded and therefore suitable for wind turbine development is excluded.
Utilizing land closer to urban areas also brings the energy generation closer to the bulk of the energy consuming population.
Wind Energy Landscapes : Specialist Study: Report 1 - Summary Report - CNdV africa May 2006 page 52
The following two quotes illustrate the relatively new policy trends of moving wind energy developments away from rural areas and within or closer to urban environments:
"Renewable energy development should be located and designed to minimise adverse impact on landscape wildlife and amenity … priority should be given to development in less sensitive parts of the countryside and coasts, including previously developed land and in major transport corridors." (Source: Planning Policy Statement 22 : Renewable Energy : Office of the deputy Prime Minister, United Kingdom)
"That wind turbines shall especially be placed in harbours and other industrial zones, or in open, big scaled landscapes." (Source: Danish Ministry of Environment, Spatial Planning Department (May 2005)
8.3 Best Practice
Best practice procedures are discussed in the report on the overseas study tour (See Appendix 2 as well as the Summary Report (Report 1)). Some issues that stand out from this report and other research work are:
• Wind energy development requires a positive regulatory framework for rapid deployment. Examples of this are the UK Planning Policy Statement (PPS) approach where the onus is shifted to parties objecting to wind energy developments to prove that the impacts outweigh the advantages of wind energy.
• Wind energy is best dealt with both at the regional and local scale. Rigorous interrogation of proposed developments is necessary at the local scale even where regional spatial policy is in place.
• There are a number of software tools that are commonly used to assess wind energy developments. Of these, Wind Pro is one widely used tool that allows some questions at the regional scale to be answered. All these software tools however operate best in the data-rich environment of Europe.
• There are explicit wind energy related regional planning models widely used in developing countries, notably Germany and the UK. These utilize GIS systems extensively to match wind energy resources to suitable land.
8.4 Summary
Figure 18 overleaf illustrates the overview of the recommended regional method which incorporates:
A. Method 1 (criteria based) as its foundation B. Method 2 (landscape assessment) as a vital component, incorporating character analysis, sensitivity, value and capacity considerations C. Other criteria, should these become available, particularly wind data. D. The site-level EIA and VIA methodology which would occur only on selected sites that were consistent with the outcome of the regional assessment.
Wind Energy Landscapes : Specialist Study: Report 1 - Summary Report - CNdV africa May 2006 page 53
Figure 18: Overall Summary of Recommended Regional Method A CRITERIA BASED Environmental (source: CNd ASSESSMENT THRESHOLDS (positive & Planning negative Preferred criteria) Zones Infrastructure “Wind Energy Cumulative Plan” (WEP) Negotiable GIS MODULE Impact (Designated Zones Wind Energy Assessment 1 Landscapes)
REGIONAL LEVEL REGIONAL B LANDSCAPE Landscape Restricted BASED Character COMPOSITE Zones ASSESSMENT LAYERS Sensitivity Analysis (capacity & value)
Viewshed Analysis
C OTHER Technology INFORMATION Wind Resource INTEGRATION Mapping
2 Socio-Economic NATIONAL REGIONAL LOCAL LEVEL LOCAL REGIONAL NATIONAL
D SITE LEVEL EIA MONITORING IMPLEMENTATION
3
LEVEL SITE WINDFARM PROPOSAL (Site Selection)
Wind Energy Landscapes : Specialist Study: Report 1 - Summary Report - CNdV africa May 2006 page 54
8.5 Method
Figure 19 below illustrates the detail of the various elements contributing to the overlay maps which have as their final output the identification of preliminary wind energy zones. This final map is subjected to the cumulative impact assessment. The key aspects of the recommended regional method is the integration of both positive and negative layers.
A. CRITERIA BASED B. LANDSCAPE BASED
Environmental Planning Infrastructure & Cultural & Criteria Criteria Landscape Landscape Criteria Criteria
Map 1 Map 3 Map 5 Map 7
Protected + Urban & Airports & Heritage & Cultural Sensitive Areas Industrial Areas Security Sites Assets (Negative) (Positive) (Negative) Scenic Drives (Negative)
Map 2 Map 4 Map 6 Map 8 Topographical Coastal Buffers Vertical & Disturbed Landscape (Negative) (Negative) Landscapes Character and (Positive) Visual Assessment (Positive and Negative)
Map 9 (A and B)
Composite Overlays: Positive & Negative Areas
Map 10
Preferred; Negotiable and Restricted Zones
Map 11 Recommended Wind Energy Zones in a Wind Energy Plan (Appropriate Spacing According to Cumulative Impact Assessment)
Figure 19: Summary Recommended Method to Achieve Final Wind Energy Zones embodied in a Wind Energy Plan
Figure 20 illustrates in more detail the key criteria to be used when building up the 8 recommended map layers, with an indication of the recommended buffers extracted from Table 1 (Methodology 1).
8.6 Criteria Layers
Figure 20 overleaf illustrates the detailed layers and recommended buffers for each of the 8 recommended map layers.
Wind Energy Landscapes : Specialist Study: Report 1 - Summary Report - CNdV africa May 2006 page 55 Figure 20: Summary Method : Overlay Technique using Positive and Negative Criteria and Thresholds
LAYER 1 LAYER 2 LAYER 3 LAYER 4 Environmental: Environmental: Planning: Urban Planning: (Positive Protected and Topographical and Industrial & Negative Buffers) Sensitive Areas Aspects (negative Areas (positive (negative criteria) criteria) criteria)
• National parks and provincial reserves • Elevation (define mountains and (Based on functional town classification)1 • Coastal areas (4km) (2km) significant hill features) • Major service and industrial towns (5km) • Positive zones mapped out from coastal • Wetlands and bird habitats (Negotiated • Slope (greater than 1:4) • Urban areas (5km) exclusion zones based on urban area Buffer) • Ridge lines (mapped manually) • Rural towns and villages (2.5km) and town location (Layer 3) • Major rivers (2km from centre) • Coastal (resort) towns (2.5km) • Remnant vegetation (not buffered)
LAYER 5 LAYER 6 LAYER 7 LAYER 8 Infrastructure: Infrastructure: Heritage and Landscape (negative criteria) Disturbed Cultural Assets & Character and Landscapes Scenic Drives Visual Assessment (positive criteria) (negative criteria) (positive and negative criteria)
• Airports and military bases (15km or as • Near "vertically disturbed or Major scenic drives, routes of tourism • Viewshed Analysis • Landform / Landcover analysis negotiated) compromised landscape" corridors importance (4km)
• Security sites (5km or other as per • Major powerlines (5km) • Local scenic drives or "cultural" routes (Note that a number of separate analysis restriction) • Railway lines (2km) (2.5km) maps are required to form this composite • Local airfields (2km) • Note: Any proposed extensions to • Defined historical or heritage sites (1Km; Map 8) transmission grid must be added depends on nature and status) Scenic areas, areas of natural beauty2
1 See Growth Potential of Towns Report (DEA&DP) 2 These are subjective values based on expert professional opinion
Wind Energy Landscapes : Specialist Study: Report 1 - Summary Report - CNdV africa May 2006 page 56
8.7 Merging of Layers
Figure 21 illustrates the final methodological step carried out in Method 2 where landscape character ("form and cover" in the form of both "positive" and "negative" layers from a character assessment perspective) were merged with the output of the Visual Assessment, (areas of high or low visibility from roads).
POSITIVE CRITERIA NEGATIVE CRITERIA
• Areas of low visibility VISIBILITY • Areas of high visibility
• Coastal plain, river valleys and • Inland plain LANDFORM estuaries
• Agricultural areas LANDCOVER • Natural and cultural areas
MERGED OUTPUT MAP Preferred Wind Energy Development Areas
Figure 21: Landscape and Visual Assessment
The merged positive and negative layers are illustrated in Maps 12a and 12b.
Map 12a: Map 12b: Composite Overlay of all Negative Criteria Composite Overlay of all Positive Criteria
Wind Energy Landscapes : Specialist Study: Report 1 - Summary Report - CNdV africa May 2006 page 57
Map 13: Preferred Wind Energy Areas
Wind Energy Landscapes : Specialist Study: Report 1 - Summary Report - CNdV africa May 2006 page 58
8.8 Disturbed Landscapes
The figures below illustrate two examples of focusing on disturbed "vertical" or "brownfield" landscapes as a primary location for wind turbines.
Figure 21: A multiple use of space : A “Railwind Figure 21b: Blyth Harbour: potential to reduce
Turbine” need for greenfield releases in longer term
Recent ideas for turbines combined with rail corridors, (source: Windtech International, Nov/Dec 2005), have created solutions for multiple use of space in often disturbed (brownfield) landscapes. The turbine can be accessed for maintenance without disturbing railway traffic.
This technological advance calls into question the need for buffers around rail corridors, and for this reason, rail lines are now included in the Regional Method as "positive" rather than "negative" layers.
Figure 22: Transmission Lines
"Vertically disturbed" landscapes (particularly those where major electrical transmission lines exist, or are planned, can be an ideal location for wind turbines (from a landscape perspective) as:
Wind Energy Landscapes : Specialist Study: Report 1 - Summary Report - CNdV africa May 2006 page 59 a) The visual quality of the landscape is already severely compromised b) Proximity to the grid can be a major factor in the locational economics of wind energy projects. c) The landscape has already been imbued with a "technology" image related to energy.
8.9 Cumulative Impact
The issue of cumulative impact is addressed in detail in Report 5. Two viewshed analyses were produced, firstly on a 50x50km grid with 120m turbine heights (Map 14 and secondly a 30 x 30km grid (Map 15)
Map 14 is based on a 25km buffer zone (i.e. a 50km x 50km grid) around 4 potential windfarms, using a large viewshed of 25km based on a high turbine height of 120m. This diagram shows that a very small part of the study area between Darling and Malmesbury may be exposed to two sites at once, assuming exceptionally clear conditions, but the viewing distance would render the wind farms basically insignificant from this overlap area.
Map 15 models a less restrictive cumulative buffer radius of 15km (i.e. a 30km x 30km grid), and a more realistic visual threshold of 15km for smaller turbines with a hub height of 80m.
This analysis shows that 8 windfarm sites could be established in the study area, with only marginal overlap of viewsheds. A striking feature of this map is that 3 windfarms could be placed in close proximity to the N7 without any visual impact from this road. The analysis further indicates that a site could be located on Cape Columbine which would also have a very limited viewshed with minimal impact on population centres.
8.10 Conclusions
Based on the output of the spatial analysis summarised above, Figure 24 indicates a broad guiding framework ('decision support matrix') for the location of WE development, based on a sensitivity and capacity scale of landscape value.
A key aspect of the graduated table is: • To positively encourage WE development in Suitable Urban Areas. These will generally be smaller scale projects. • To encourage and give qualified, in principle, support for WE development in Suitable (‘Preferred’) Rural Areas, subject to a formal scoping and EIA process. These will generally be larger scale projects. • To actively restrict WE development in Unsuitable (Restricted) Areas. It is envisaged that no site development / EIA applications will be acceptable in these areas.
The intention in Suitable Zones both urban and rural is to proceed rapidly to the EIA stage to assist WE developers to locate in these zones as first preference. (Must be compliant with legislative requirements)
The following broad zones are illustrated in Figure 24:
A. SUITABLE (PREFERRED) ZONES : URBAN ● These are primarily urban and industrial landscapes and "Brownfield" sites.
Wind Energy Landscapes : Specialist Study: Report 1 - Summary Report - CNdV africa May 2006 page 60
● The location of WE development close to areas of energy consumption makes economic sense as well as aesthetic sense. Urban dwellers will have to become accustomed to the idea of new technologies influencing the urban landscape. ● In this context, it is suggested that wind turbines can become an effective urban edge control mechanism. They can visually distinguish "town edges" and will be an effective buffer against urban sprawl. (Distance buffers in regard to safety, noise and shadow flicker must be observed).
B. SUITABLE (PREFERRED) ZONES : RURAL
Wind Energy development will undoubtedly occur at scale in rural landscapes notwithstanding urban and industrial landscapes being preferred and encouraged from a landscape perspective. This is due to a number of reasons, including: ● Availability of land and lower land cost than urban “brownfield” sites. ● Reduced public participation complexities due to lower populations in affected areas. ● The ability to build larger WE developments at scale (for example a 20 turbine development will require approximately 80 – 100 hectares of land).
Figure 24 indicates that large scale "open landscapes" are preferred to smaller scale "closed landscapes" within the Suitable Rural Zone.
The key intention of the landscape framework (illustrated overleaf) is to encourage relatively FEW, very LARGE wind energy projects which are significantly DISTANT from each other to eliminate, or strictly control cumulative impact.
C. UNSUITABLE ZONES
These are landscapes in which WE development will be clearly inappropriate. It is assumed that no wind energy proposal will be acceptable at all in these landscape zones, which will have the highest incidence of negative (exclusionary) criteria.
Wind Energy Landscapes : Specialist Study: Report 1 - Summary Report - CNdV africa May 2006 page 61
Map 14: Cumulative Model Based on 50 x 50 Grid
Wind Energy Landscapes : Specialist Study: Report 1 - Summary Report - CNdV africa May 2006 page 62
Map 15: Cumulative Model Based on 30 x 30 Grid
Wind Energy Landscapes : Specialist Study: Report 1 - Summary Report - CNdV africa May 2006 page 63
Map 16 Deriving a Wind Energy Plan
Wind Energy Landscapes : Specialist Study: Report 1 - Summary Report - CNdV africa May 2006 page 64
Figure 24: Framework for Location of Wind Energy Projects based on Landscape Character
Urban and industrial "Brownfield" sites.(Close to areas of energy consumption)
Visually and vertically "disturbed" urban landscape
POSITIVE
Most desirable for Wind WT's as urban edge mechanism
Turbines
Visually and vertically "disturbed" rural landscapes (Proximity to major transmission + rail lines)
Near to rural towns, close to elevated features (Assuming wind resource potential)
Coastal areas compromised by urban development
Project Smaller projects on available land Large WE development clusters Underdeveloped rural agricultural areas Type/Scale (lower turbine height) Wind energy landscape "concentration zones" Scenic coastal and mountain areas Unspoilt wilderness areas Landscape Scale Smaller Brownfield sites → Larger Large scale "open landscapes" Greenfield sites Small scale "closed landscapes or Landscape Type Urban and industrial landscapes 'Disturbed" rural landscapes (high Sensitive and scenic landscapes levels of rural settlement at infrastructure)
A. SUITABLE URBAN B. SUITABLE RURAL C. UNSUITABLE NEGATIVE → Least desirable for Wind Turbines
Wind Energy Landscapes : Specialist Study: Report 1 - Summary Report - CNdV africa May 2006 page 65
9. SUMMARY OF SITE LEVEL METHOD (REPORT 6)
This report is outstanding.
(Refer to first level indicative diagram below.
Figure 24: Conceptual diagram illustrating expected fine tuning of Wind Turbine Project based on further stages of Planning Refinement
Wind Energy Landscapes : Specialist Study: Report 1 - Summary Report - CNdV africa May 2006 page 66
10. PRELIMINARY CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The following conclusions and recommendations can be drawn from this study. The conclusions are arranged as follows:
10.1 General conclusions
10.2 Conclusions related to Recommended regional methodology
10.3 Conclusions related to Site level issues
10.1. General Conclusions
10.1.1 Publish Provincial Directives
It is considered critical that PGWC takes the lead in promulgating provincial policy to encourage wind energy developments. Experience overseas has been that leaving things to local government has not been ideal. Accordingly, it is recommended that a provincial policy is modelled on the following precedents:
• United Kingdom: Planning Policy Statement 22 : Renewable Energy
• Scotland: NPPG6 (backed by PAN 45) provides guidance to LA’s in preparing strategic plan. NPPG14 deals with National Heritage Issues – complimentary to NPPG 6.
10.1.2 Need for Pro-Active Planning
Many countries worldwide have acknowledged the critical need for pro-active forward planning to designate areas for wind development.
The experience in Australia was that the planning industry was not prepared for the massive increase in wind turbine development that surged after 1999. (Refer to figure below)
Wind Energy Landscapes : Specialist Study: Report 1 - Summary Report - CNdV africa May 2006 page 67
It is recommended that a provincial policy guideline is promulgated in the near future to ensure pro-active planning is achieved at the district / municipal level in the Province to facilitate the implementation of wind energy developments.
Such guidelines / spatial plans are imperative to put in place via the land use framework plan process, which includes opportunities for public comment, in order to create certainty for wind energy developers.
10.1.3 National, Regional and Local Perspectives
It is important that at the national level (SA being signatories to the Kyoto Protocol) that positive policy is enacted to encourage wind energy (and indeed all renewable) development. A national perspective should ensure that wind resource rich provinces and regions are identified in order to ensure a co-ordinated and holistic national strategy.
In this regard, it is accepted that the Cape West Coast (the study area and beyond to the north – indeed to the Orange River) will inevitably be attractive to wind energy developers due to the prevalence of coastal wind regimes. However, the importance of employing an effective cumulative impact model must be emphasised.
10.1.4 Targets
It is important in the context of the Kyoto Protocol commitments that national and provincial targets are expressed as the minimum amount of installed capacity for renewable energy in megawatts.
Targets for provinces or regions can only be identified in regard to the distribution of resources and potential for development.
It is recommended that PGWC take the lead in identifying regional targets for all renewable energies but particularly wind energy.
10.1.5 Local SDF's and Renewables
• Regional and local authorities should emphasise in their local development plans that renewable energy generation schemes will be encouraged subject to compliance with regional and local policy. • Regional and local authorities should include a proposals map in Spatial Frameworks that identify broad areas that are suitable for wind technologies. • Regional and local authorities should identify criteria to be approved in determining applications for renewable energy.
Wind Energy Landscapes : Specialist Study: Report 1 - Summary Report - CNdV africa May 2006 page 68
Case Study Regional renewable energy planning in North East England
A Renewable Energy Strategy for the North East of England was prepared during 2003 under the guidance of a steering group.
In preparing the Strategy the region’s potential resources were assessed using a number of tools including a geographic information system, complemented by grid and landscape studies.
Having assessed the region’s resources and established targets the Strategy also put forward suggested criteria-based policies which would help deliver the targets, and identified the broad areas where hydro, biomass and wind projects may be considered appropriate. These broad areas are shown in the “Draft Indicative Diagram” below while giving particular encouragement to developments in the areas shown in the diagram, also make it clear that projects in other areas will also be encouraged.
RE 2 – Spatial Strategy for Onshore Wind Development. In preparing policies and proposals for onshore wind projects Development Plans should conform to the following spatial strategy, broadly illustrated in the Renewable Energy Indicative Diagram: a) Within designated National Parks, AONBs and Heritage Coasts wind developments should be limited to individual turbines of no greater than 100kW installed capacity, to provide power to offmains properties and other small users. b) Kielder Forest should be the subject of further investigation to see if it could become a Strategic Wind Resource Area, where positive encouragement will be given to major wind farm developments. c) Particular encouragement should be given to the development of small to medium scale wind farms in the locations broadly illustrated in the Renewable Energy indicative Diagram and described in Annex 3 of the Regional Renewable Energy Strategy. d) Encouragement should also be given for wind developments in other parts of the Region, including appropriate urban and brownfield locations. e) Preference should be given to concentrated rather than dispersed or scattered patterns of wind development. f) In all cases proposals must be fully assessed against Policy RE3.
Point (d) is especially important in that it does not exclude sites elsewhere in the region, subject to the criteria being met.
RE 3 describes Factors to be considered in Planning for Wind Farms. These include: residential amenity (on noise and visual grounds); safe separation distances; nature conservation features; landscape characteristics and visibility; heritage designations; green belts; and any visual impact of new grid connection lines. (source: PPS22)
10.1.6 Landscape Assessment and SDF’s (Visual Resource Maps)
The existence of credible, professionally prepared regional and district landscape character assessments will greatly assist in future planning for the location of wind turbines.
It is highly recommended that district and local municipalities ensure sufficient resources are budgeted to embark on such studies as elements of their SDF’s.
It is important to note that the Provincial Spatial Development framework makes the following statement with regard to Visual Resource Mapping (PSDF, December 2005, pg 4-…)
Wind Energy Landscapes : Specialist Study: Report 1 - Summary Report - CNdV africa May 2006 page 69
Visual Resource Management Assessments can be used as a forward planning tool to analyse and make recommendations for the control of future development in scenically sensitive areas.
The need to classify and control the impact of human activity on the landscape is moving strongly to the forefront, and although visual impact assessments and design guidelines are becoming standard requirements for large developments in the urban and peri-urban environments, a number of activities … are not covered by such requirements.
A number of visual resource management and impact assessment systems are being applied in the Western Cape, but what is required for the Province is a standard system through which the scenic values of the landscape can be identified and evaluated to determine the appropriate levels of visual management.
Some of the classifications that are used to accurately describe the visual attributes of a particular landscape include:
● Landscape usage: this relates to the extent of human usage as well as categorizing the type of use e.g. urban, peri-urban, rural, agricultural and wilderness areas which can be further subdivided into the density or structure of urban areas, the type of agriculture and remoteness of the wilderness; ● Landscape type: the classification describes the overriding physical features of the landscape e.g. mountains, escarpment, valley, lake, estuary, etc. Many landscapes contain more than one of these types; ● Landscape description: the classification describes the landscape in terms of the predominant vegetation found e.g. grassland, forest, wetland, semi-desert, etc. Many landscapes contain more than one of these types; ● Human Intervention in the landscape: The classification describes the built elements found in the landscape e.g. roads, agriculture activities, quarries, airfields, communications towers, etc.; ● Position in the landscape: this describes the landscape in terms of the relationship between the elements located within e.g. foreground, middle ground and background; and, ● Qualitative description: an attempt to qualify the feel of the landscape e.g. pristine, degraded or polluted, but although certain guidelines can be used this description is not always scientific and quantifiable. (source: PSDF, Dec 2005)
It is recommended that local SDF’s should build in a specific zonation / designation for areas identified as suitable for wind energy developments based on the recommended methodology described in this report.
It is emphasized that the “sub-component” layer of the proposed method (see Figure (8) : Map 7) is recommended to be an “expert-opinion” (qualitative) method, rather than an elaborate (quantitative) GIS based method.
10.1.7 Wind Resource Mapping
Wind technology worldwide is likely to go through further development and turbine production is
European Wind Resource Map
Wind Energy Landscapes : Specialist Study: Report 1 - Summary Report - CNdV africa May 2006 page 70 expected to be enhanced to take advantage of lower wind regimes. In Europe, wind speeds of at least 6m/s (meters per second annual average)4 were required before a site feasibility was progressed with the preference being for greater than 7m/s.
It is important that private sector initiatives to introduce wind technology in South Africa should be supported by government efforts to produce credible wind resource maps. It is important to emphasis however that the LACK of availability of wind resource mapping is not considered a flaw in the landscape methodology recommended. (This was confirmed in several studies overseas.)
The landscape assessment method is totally credible in the absence of such wind data. However, it is clear that the outcome of the landscape assessment will not per se identify areas suitable from a wind resource perspective; this information will need to be “layered” over the results of the landscape assessment. Hopefully, there will be significant areas that remain viable for wind development, that are congruent with areas identified as being suitable from a landscape perspective.
10.1.8 Public Attitudes and Perceptions
A key question in South Africa will be the public willingness to embrace wind technology in the future, and therefore to the accept landscape change and the relatively high visual impact of this technology. Indeed, the greater global imperatives of addressing climate change (as embodied in the Kyoto Protocol) will need to weigh heavily against possible local opposition to wind energy projects. It is likely that certain areas (and communities) will be “paying for the greater good” by the location of large wind energy developments. This is a rigorous debate in the UK.
It is obviously imperative, that if this technology is to be meaningfully introduced into South Africa, that society as a whole is positively disposed to accepting landscape change, and that such change may not necessarily be in areas where landscape impact is the least, since this will not be the only locational criteria in the final analysis.
It is necessary to accept that some areas will become “wind energy landscapes” and that it will be impossible to “hide” turbines, nor should the locational method be based on such a notion.
4 Project viability at wind speeds of less than 6m/s in Europe were critically dependent on subsidies and favourable Power Purchasing Agreements.
Wind Energy Landscapes : Specialist Study: Report 1 - Summary Report - CNdV africa May 2006 page 71
10.1.9 Further investigation of Developing Countries Experience
The overseas study trip conducted for purposes of this investigation was hugely beneficial to the team. It gave the team not only first hand experience of wind turbines in various landscape settings, but exposed us to valuable decades of experience in European countries via many meetings and interactions with a variety of political, community, professional and business role-players.
A criticism of the overseas experience would be: a) that the landscapes experienced are vastly different in many cases to the SA landscape; b) that the level of development (per capita GDP) of the countries visited are vastly higher than SA and a more comparable developing country would have been worthwhile to investigate.
Therefore, should the department deem further international investigation of merit, it would be valuable to augment the lessons learnt in Europe with those of other developing countries with similar large scale landscapes to SA. 10.1.10 Dual Approach (Urban and Rural)
It is important that any policy in the Western Cape for the location of wind turbines should seek to promote and encourage this technology in the context of two generic location types:
• "Brownfield" urban sites, and • "Greenfield" rural sites
Both types of landscapes should be promoted, the decision not being an either-or scenario, as each type will be important to roll-out the technology in the future.
It is anticipated that the Brownfield sites will be more dispersed (less concern with cumulative impact); contain fewer, smaller height turbines, whilst the Greenfield sites will be generally widely spaced, at least 30km apart due to cumulative concerns, will contain largely numbers of turbines, generally of maximum height.
10.2 Method Conclusions
10.2.1 Summary of Landscape Method : Report 3
The response of observers to wind turbines in the landscape is complex, with factors other than energy playing a role. Observers that respond to the symbolic and referential (i.e. "clean energy") attributes of wind turbines tend to have positive attitudes towards them. An early study indicated that this group “was willing to forgive the visual intrusion of the turbines on the existing landscape for the presumably higher goals of the project where dislikers were not.” (Thayer & Freeman 1987). This positive group found wind turbines to be appropriate, efficient, safe, natural, progressive and a sign of the future. However the group with negative attitudes cited the visual conspicuousness, clutter and unattractiveness of wind turbines.
10.2.2 Regional Method : Key Objectives (Method Conclusion)
The following key objectives have been met by the proposed regional method:
• Defendable, relatively non labour intensive or expensive • Addresses the issue of cumulative impact as a key concern.
Wind Energy Landscapes : Specialist Study: Report 1 - Summary Report - CNdV africa May 2006 page 72
10.2.3 Cumulative Impact : Issues
South Africa has the benefit of learning (in hindsight) from the experience in Europe where (due to smaller landscape scale, and largely settled, densely populated rural areas), in general, very high cumulative impact of wind farms has resulted due to a policy of permitting small WE schemes in relatively close proximity to each other. (Only2,5km in Denmark)
The “dispersed” European model has clearly created high cumulative visual impact. Scottish National Heritage are now promoting a minimum distance between wind farms of 30km, especially due to the increasing size of turbines themselves, as well as the tendency to develop large wind farms with many turbines (often over 100).
The problem of cumulative impact has been clearly addressed in the methodology. The issue of decision making however needs further debate in terms of powers and functions in the Constitution. The political tendency will be for appropriate “concentration” zones to be designated at national and provincial level, and for district and local authorities to be expected to ensure effective implementation of projects. This needs to be reconciled however with local interests but local interest (potentially “not in my backyard” attitudes) should not be allowed to “trump” broader national and provincial imperatives.
In summary therefore, the recommended methodology will encourage: a. large installations extremely far apart (30 – 50km) but also, b. smaller installations (even individual turbines) in urban / brownfield areas.
10.2.4 Recommended Urban Focus
South African rural and wilderness landscapes have a high aesthetic value. The generally unspoilt nature of these areas in the Western Cape are the foundation of the turism industry, as well as a key reason why the second home market is so healthy in rural tourism and wilderness areas.
The Danish wind energy policy, after several decades of driving a “rural” model, has shifted (based on experience of creating visual “clutter” in rural landscapes) to emphasizing urban and industrial locations as “first preference” for wind developments.
South Africa should learn and benefit from this experience and avoid the mistake of pursing a “rural” model without also emphasising urban locations for wind energy development.
Our “large-scale”, undeveloped, non-urbanised “cosmic”5 landscapes should therefore be generally avoided, notwithstanding their high capacity to absorb wind turbines. This is really a philosophical debate in terms of which sector of the population should bear the visual impact of wind energy projects. There is a growing body of thought that supports a fundamental shift from previous international practice of locating turbines where the lowest number of people were affected (and therefore rural / wilderness landscapes generally most affected) to a policy of locating these renewable power generation plants close to urban populations that create the energy demand.
The urban focus can be both in brownfield (industrial) sites, at harbours, but also as an effective urban edge mechanism.
10.2.5 Recommended Disturbed Landscape Focus
5 Norbert Schultz, as quoted in PSDF.
Wind Energy Landscapes : Specialist Study: Report 1 - Summary Report - CNdV africa May 2006 page 73
In addition to the urban focus discussed above, the proposed methodology also departs from some of the international precedent by purposefully focussing on existing disturbed landscapes, and in particular, those rural landscapes that have already been “vertically compromised” by the location, for example, of transmission lines, railway lines, and all phone towers.
10.2.6 Landscape Assessment : Subjective / Qualitative
The role and value of public participation in perceptual based studies to determine landscape character and sensitivity to wind turbines has been highly questionable in overseas experience.
In general, a typical “bell curve” of attitudes can be expected based on individual taste and perception. In South Africa, public attitudes are likely to be ill-informed due to lack of exposure to wind technology, making any such assessment technique meaningless.
For this reason, this reason, this study did not attempt to canvass public opinion, but relied on the Reference Group, as well as informed officials and professionals in the field of landscape architecture and visual assessment to assist in the evaluation of landscape character, sensitivity and absorptive capacity. (Refer to Report 3)
It is accordingly recommended that a very high value should be placed on professional judgement from practitioners at the local level when assessing landscape values. This method is likely to be quicker and more effective than attempting a qualitative (GIS) based assessment technique.
10.2.7 Comment on Study Area Limitations
In hindsight, perhaps the West Coast Study area was not ideal for the testing of the methodologies for the following reasons: • Major airports, radar, and security installation zone buffers impact severely on land able to be designated as suitable. • The area is relatively very flat compared to many other areas in the Western Cape.
However, it is not believed that these limitations affected the outcomes of the project and the definition of the methodology. However, it is expected that for each area assessed in the future, local conditions must be considered when “fine-tuning” the recommended criteria and buffers.
10.2.8 Use of Computer Aided Techniques
There is no doubt that the analysis of landscape suitability for wind energy development is highly enhanced by computer technology, specifically GIS (Geographic Information Systems), ideally with a 3D visual modelling capability.
State of the art custom designed systems (such as "Winpro") are used internationally, but are relatively expensive in SA and have limited applicability outside of wind energy assessments.
The recommended methodology is driven by the base GIS module of Arc Map to which was added Arc GIS 3D Analyst. This software was purchased for this project, but seen to have wider applicability), but it is important to emphasise firstly, that the availability, quality and reliability of the data is critical; and secondly, that a computer-based method alone cannot replace human intuition and sometimes plain common sense in the qualitative assessment of landscape suitability for wind turbines.
10.2.9 Bird Migration Routes and Other Information
Wind Energy Landscapes : Specialist Study: Report 1 - Summary Report - CNdV africa May 2006 page 74
In Europe, a large body of knowledge exists in relation to avifauna, particularly nesting sites of many species and migration routes. This information accordingly featured prominently in spatial mapping overlays.
SA and the Western Cape does not have this quality of information, but it has been found that, at the strategic level, this is not a major issue. At the local level however, it is recommended that an avifaunal study be conducted to establish whether any resident bird populations would be threatened by a wind energy project.
10.2.10 Protecting Rural Landscape Values (put after "Urban Emphasis)
In the assessment of suitable sites for wind turbines, in Europe, a great degree of emphasis is given to quantifying views from residential locations. This policy emphasis has had the impact of effectively pushing these projects into more "remote" rural locations where a qualitative analysis can show that, in relative terms, only a small minority of people resident in a particular area will see the turbines.
It is a specific finding of this study that in the SA context this policy is flawed. It has the effect of "penalising" rural areas, where it is normal to expect that residents have chosen such areas for, inter alia, the relative non-disturbance by urban facilities.
In South Africa, we firstly do not have the density of settlement as pertains in Britain, and secondly, the introduction of wind turbines must be accepted as a primarily urban infrastructure for the benefit of urban residents.
10.2.11 Accounting for Static and Dynamic Views
Related to the above point, assessments of visual impacts from residential dwellings, either individual farmsteads or small towns and settlements, does not account for the dynamic (i.e. transient moving rapidly and often fleeting) views which will be available from the road networks in any given landscape.
The duration of impact on views should be a mitigating factor where turbine sites are visible from national, provincial and main roads.
It is accordingly recommended that the Viewshed Analysis Techniques as documented in Report 3 be employed in assessing potential impact from major road networks.
10.2.12 "Borrowed Landscapes"
The notion of "borrowed landscapes" needs to be considered in the landscape assessment.
Wind turbines, due to their sheer size and scale, will tend to "borrow" larger scale landscapes into their zones of visual influence.
Landscapes that are often very remote to the subject site will often be "borrowed" into the field of view.
10.2.13 Size of Windfarms
There must be a place for small windfarms created in any policy statement by PGWC. Small windfarms (even single turbines) will have a role to play in the future, and should be encouraged. It must be recognised that single turbine facilities or small windfarms (3 – 5 turbines) may play an increasingly important role in local energy production, A Rooftop mounted Urban Wind turbine (source: Wikipedia Wind Power http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_power)
Wind Energy Landscapes : Specialist Study: Report 1 - Summary Report - CNdV africa May 2006 page 75 especially for agro-industry or small rural communities in high resource areas.
However, in the SA context (given that an urban emphasis, or small rural settlement emphasis will be encouraged for small windfarms) it is recommended that large-scale commercial windfarms be encouraged to construct the maximum number of turbines possible in the framework of technology, resource and locational issues. This policy will support the key intent to prevent negative cumulative impact.
10.2.14 New Technology
Recent work shows a theoretical limit of about 30% for A Darrieus Wind turbine propeller type turbines. Actual efficiencies range from (source: Wikipedia Wind Power http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_power) 10% to 20% for propeller type turbines, and are as high as 35% for three dimensional vertical-axis turbines like Darrieus or Gorlov turbines. (see picture)
10.3 Site Level Conclusions
10.3.1 Allow a Fast Track EIA Method
Subject to legislative compliance.
10.3.2 Aesthetic Considerations
These will need detailed consideration depending on the scale of each proposal and the particular nature of each site. In general, the following broad recommendations have been made:
• Layout: o Stick to linear, non-organic layouts o Straight lines of turbines preferred o Consistent hub height (all turbines on same contour level)
• Turbines: o Same machines to be used on each project o The 1/3rd proportion in turbine form is preferred. (Less than 10% variance between hub height (tower length) and blade diameter)
• Colour: o Turbine tower: off white to light grey non-reflective, matt paint o Blades: same colour as above (avoid red tips) o Warning lights on turbine: only in exceptional circumstances (where required by authorities)
103.3 Community Involvement at the Regional Level
Regional and local authorities should pro-actively engage with communities in preparing regional spatial frameworks.
Wind Energy Landscapes : Specialist Study: Report 1 - Summary Report - CNdV africa May 2006 page 76
As renewable energy policies is a new field of planning work, it will be helpful to engage in specific consultation exercises to inform people of the positive attributes and possible negative implications of wind energy development.
Wind Energy Landscapes : Specialist Study: Report 1 - Summary Report - CNdV africa May 2006 page 77
11. FINAL CONCLUSIONS
In conclusion, it must be recognised that this study is but a very small part of the need for a holistic strategy for the introduction of renewable energy into South Africa, and indeed also a small part of the issues surrounding wind energy development. This context is captured on Figure 26 (overleaf).
This study has addressed the issue of a criteria based, and a landscape value influenced methodology for assessing landscape impact of wind turbine development.
There is a large body of work still to be completed, both at national and provincial level, which includes:
• Addressing the issue of financial instruments to encourage wind development (e.g. "Green Certificates" used in Britain). • Defining regional targets for wind energy based on updated assessments of wind resources. (In this regard, for example, some German provinces have very high national requirements for wind energy : Rostoc has 33% from such renewables versus a national average of 3%). • The publication of a formal policy guideline for wind energy based, inter alia, on the findings of this study.
Figure 25 illustrates the institutional framework of the Western Cape. It is strongly recommended that this pilot study be implemented across the regional planning districts in the Province.
Figure 25: Municipal and District Council Boundaries
Wind Energy Landscapes : Specialist Study: Report 1 - Summary Report - CNdV africa May 2006 page 78
Figure 26: Generic (Sectoral) Determinants of Final Areas Identified as Suitable for Wind Farms
BUFFER KEY ISSUE DETAIL TYPE
• Protected and sensitive areas -ve Environmental/Biophysical • Topographical - -ve slope/elevation
• Coastal Buffers -ve • Urban and industrial areas +ve • Urban edges +ve Planning • SDF Directives ("Wind Plan" of +ve Regional/District authority • Cumulative impact policy +ve
Included in this Study • Road access +ve • Airports and security sites -ve Infrastructure • Disturbed (vertical) landscape +ve • Distance to grid +ve • Radar -ve
• Scenic drives -ve Cultural + Landscape • Landscape character +ve/-ve assessment
• Availability of finance • PPA agreements • Job creation • Viability/feasibility (payback Economic time) • Cost and availability of land • Subsidies • Tax • Community "betterment"
• Wind data/conditions Wind Resource/Technology • Technology improvements Excluded from this Study (Further studies required)
• Policies (e.g. PPG's) Political • Political support vs. • Local opposition
Wind Energy Landscapes : Specialist Study: Report 1 - Summary Report - CNdV africa May 2006 page 79
Environmental context for the Western Cape ((Ref: Oberholzer, B. 2005. Guideline for involving visual & aesthetic specialists in EIA processes: Edition 1. CSIR Report No ENV-S-C 2005 053 F. Republic of South Africa, Provincial Government of the Western Cape, Department of Environmental Affairs & Development Planning, Cape Town.) REPEAT THIS ALSO IN REPORT 3
The Western Cape is richly endowed with scenic resources by virtue of the mountainous landscape, the coastline along two oceans, and the unique flora and fauna. In addition to this natural heritage, there are centuries of human settlement that have created a tapestry of vineyards, orchards, wheat fields, farmsteads, tree shelterbelts and country towns. The scenic resources of the Western Cape have enormous implications for the economy of the region mainly in the form of tourism, which provides income for the province, and creates jobs for the local population. Table Mountain, Robben Island and designated areas within the Cape Floral Kingdom have been declared World Heritage Sites, and therefore have international status. There are a number of National Parks in the province, which have national status, along with numerous other protected areas, which have provincial or local authority status. However, the scenic resources on which the economy of the region depends, is at great risk from rapid urban and infrastructure expansion. There has therefore been a growing emphasis on visual and scenic assessments for most major projects in the region, in order to maintain the integrity and value of these natural and cultural landscapes as far as possible.
Wind Energy Landscapes : Specialist Study: Report 1 - Summary Report - CNdV africa May 2006