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Drainage Structures and Transit-Time Distributions in Conduit-Dominated

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Drainage Structures and Transit-Time Distributions in Conduit-Dominated Drainage structures and transit-time distributions in conduit-dominated and fissured karst aquifer systems Zur Erlangung des akademischen Grades einer DOKTORIN DER NATURWISSENSCHAFTEN von der Fakultät für Bauingenieur-, Geo- und Umweltwissenschaften des Karlsruher Instituts für Technologie (KIT) genehmigte DISSERTATION von Dipl.-Geol. Ute Lauber aus Dachau Tag der mündlichen Prüfung: 21.11.2014 Referent: Prof. Dr. Nico Goldscheider Korreferent: Prof. Dr. Tim Bechtel Karlsruhe 2014 Abstract Abstract Abstract Karst aquifers are widely distributed across the world and are important groundwater resources. Solutionally-enlarged conduits embedded in fissured rock matrix result in a highly heterogene- ous underground drainage pattern that makes karst aquifers difficult to characterize. To ensure sustainable protection and management of karst water resources, hydrogeologic knowledge of karst systems is required. However, the quantitative characterization of groundwater flow in karst systems remains a major challenge. Specific investigating techniques and approaches are needed to account for the complexity of drainage. This thesis emphasizes the identification of drainage structures and the quantification of related transit-time distributions and hydraulic pa- rameters. To account for the strong heterogeneities of different types of catchment areas, three diverse karst aquifer systems are investigated: a conduit-dominated karst system, a fissured karst system and an aquifer system that comprises a karst and a porous-media (alluvial/rockfall) aquifer. For a detailed hydrogeologic assessment of the different catchment areas, adapted methods applied include a combination of artificial tracer tests, natural tracer analysis, and dis- charge analysis. The first two parts of this thesis describe a conduit-dominated karst system, the catchment area of the Blautopf (Swabian Alb, Germany). This highly karstified plateau comprises a well-de- veloped conduit system with two accessible and active caves. To resolve the internal structure of karst drainage and to obtain hydraulic parameters for the conduit system, combined tracer tests with two injections in the cave streams and two injections on the land surface were con- ducted in the catchment area. By using field fluorimeters, it was possible to record breakthrough curves directly in the cave system. The approach enabled verification of the hierarchical struc- ture of the conduit network and identification of sub-catchment areas of the cave streams. High- resolution spatial and temporal information about conduit flow was determined by analyzing the breakthrough curves with an advection-dispersion model. Flow parameters were highly var- iable, showing a substantial decrease of flow velocities from the epiphreatic to the phreatic section of this well-developed conduit system. To characterize drainage of the fissured karst system, hydrogeologic investigations were con- ducted in the steep Wetterstein Mountains (Bavarian Alps, Germany). Because of steady tec- tonic uplift of the area and strong gravitational erosion, small-scale karst structures dominate the catchment. A combination of artificial and natural tracers was useful to resolve drainage structures and related transit times. Predominantly associated with zones of tectonic weakness, underground drainage crosses topographic catchment divides, follows cross-formational flow paths, and contributes to deep drainage systems underneath alpine valleys. Artificial tracer tests defined a fast-flow component with transit times of a few days in karst conduits and open fis- sures, which is highly dependent on hydrologic flow conditions. Using stable isotopes (18O) as a natural tracer, an intermediate-flow component with a mean transit time of a few months was i Abstract associated with well-drained fissures and fractures. Both tracer methods also document a slow- flow component with mean transit times greater than one year that is attributable to slow flow and storage in a poorly-drained fissured network. The results enabled the first evaluation of groundwater resources in this alpine karst area. The last part of this thesis describes a complex aquifer system comprising a karst and a porous- media (alluvial/rockfall) aquifer in the Reintal valley (Bavarian Alps, Germany). The hydroge- ologic importance of alluvial/rockfall aquifers, which are often found in high-alpine valleys, is examined regarding effects on discharge and groundwater storage within the karstic catchment area. By conducting tracer tests and investigating discharge characteristics in the valley it was possible to demonstrate that the presence of the alluvial/rockfall aquifer delays and dampens sharp discharge peaks that are related to the karst conduit system. The sediments in the valley store groundwater and provide a continuous discharge source during periods of low flow. In this way, the alluvial/rockfall aquifer system in the high-alpine valley influences discharge of the karstic catchment area and play an important role in flood attenuation and the maintenance of baseflow. In conclusion, the integration of unique approaches provided new information on karst aquifer heterogeneity and dynamics of karst systems. This understanding of relevant flow parameters for the three different systems is crucial for the development of numerical models, for the pre- diction of effects of potential contamination, and for estimates about availability of groundwater resources in the future. ii Kurzfassung Kurzfassung Kurzfassung Karstgrundwasserleiter sind auf der Erde weit verbreitet und beinhalten einige der wichtigsten Grundwasservorkommen. Lösungserweiterte Karströhren, die in einer geklüfteten Gesteins- matrix eingebettet sind, führen zu einer sehr heterogenen unterirdischen Entwässerung der Karstsysteme und erschweren die Erschließung der Grundwasservorkommen. Um einen nach- haltigen Schutz und Bewirtschaftung der Karstwasserressourcen zu gewährleisten, ist eine de- taillierte hydrogeologische Kenntnis der Karstsysteme erforderlich. Dabei ist die quantitative Charakterisierung von Karstsystemen nach wie vor eine große Herausforderung, die spezielle Untersuchungsmethoden und Ansätze erfordert, um die Komplexität zu berücksichtigen. Be- sonderer Fokus dieser Arbeit liegt in der Identifizierung von Entwässerungsstrukturen und Quantifizierung der Verteilung der unterirdischen Fließzeiten und der hydraulischen Parameter. Um die Heterogenität verschiedener Einzugsgebiete zu berücksichtigen, werden in dieser Stu- die drei unterschiedliche Karstsysteme untersucht: ein röhrendominiertes Karstsystem, ein kluftdominiertes Karstsystem und ein Aquifersystem, das einen Karst- und einen Porengrund- wasserleiter beinhaltet. Zur detaillierten hydrogeologischen Erkundung der Einzugsgebiete wurden geeignete Untersuchungsmethoden ausgewählt, die eine Kombination aus Markie- rungsversuchen mit künstlichen Tracern, Auswertung natürlicher Tracer und Auswertung von Abflussganglinien an den Quellen beinhalten. In den ersten beiden Teilen dieser Arbeit wird ein röhrendominiertes Karstsystem beschrieben, das Quelleinzugsgebiet des Blautopfs (Schwäbische Alb). Das stark verkarstete Plateau bein- haltet ein gut ausgebildetes Karströhrensystem mit zwei zugänglichen und aktiven Höhlen. Um die interne Struktur der Karstentwässerung aufzulösen und hydraulische Parameter für das Röh- rensystem zu erhalten, wurden die ersten kombinierten Markierungsversuche mit zwei Einga- ben in die Höhlenflüsse und zwei weiteren Eingaben auf der Landoberfläche im Einzugsgebiet durchgeführt. Mithilfe von Feldfluorimetern konnten die Durchgangskurven direkt im Höhlen- system beobachtet werden. Damit konnten die hierarchische Struktur des Karstnetzwerks nach- gewiesen und die zwei Teileinzugsgebiete der beiden Höhlenflüsse zu lokalisiert werden. Um räumlich und zeitlich hoch aufgelöste Informationen zu den hydraulischen Parametern zu er- halten, wurden alle Durchgangskurven mit einem Advektion-Dispersion-Modell analysiert. In- nerhalb des gut entwickelten Röhrensystems wurde eine starke Variabilität der hydraulischen Parameter beobachtet. Die Fließgeschwindigkeiten nehmen vom epiphreatischen zum phreati- schen Bereich hin deutlich ab. Um die Entwässerung eines kluftdominierten Karstsystems zu charakterisieren, wurden im drit- ten Teil hydrogeologische Untersuchungen im hochalpinen Wettersteingebirge durchgeführt (Bayerische Alpen). Aufgrund der anhaltenden tektonischen Hebung des Gebietes und der da- mit verbundenen starken Erosion dominieren kleinräumige Karststrukturen im Einzugsgebiet. iii Kurzfassung Eine Kombination aus künstlichen und natürlichen Tracern ermöglichte es, Entwässerungsstuk- turen und Verweilzeiten zu charakterisieren. Die Entwässerung erfolgt überwiegend entlang tektonischer Schwächezonen, unabhängig von den topographischen Einzugsgebieten und unter tief eingeschnittenen Tälern und durch stratigraphische Einheiten hindurch. Künstliche Tracer ermöglichten den Nachweis einer raschen Entwässerungskomponente mit Fließzeiten von we- nigen Tagen, die entlang von Karströhren und größeren Klüften vorherrscht und stark von den Abflussverhältnissen abhängig ist. Die Auswertung von stabilen Isotopen (18O) ermöglichte den Nachweis einer intermediären Fließkomponente mit mittleren Verweilzeiten von wenigen Monaten, die entlang des gut vernetzten Kluftsystems dominiert. Beide Methoden deuten auf eine langsame Fließkomponente mit Verweilzeiten von mehr als einem Jahr hin, die auf lang- same Grundwasserströmung und -speicherung im schlechter
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