Kenchreai Eastern Port of Corinth

VI. Ivory, Bone, and Related Wood Finds

stern_KEN_i-iv.indd i 31-5-2007 10:49:43 stern_KEN_i-iv.indd ii 31-5-2007 10:49:44 Kenchreai Eastern Port of Corinth

Results of Investigations by The University of Chicago and Indiana University for The American School of Classical Studies at Athens

VI. Ivory, Bone, and Related Wood Finds

Wilma Olch Stern and Danae Hadjilazaro Thimme

Drawings by Martha Breen and Roxana Docsan

With 325 Figures, 3 Plans, 84 Photographic Illustrations

LEIDEN • BOSTON 2007

stern_KEN_i-iv.indd iii 31-5-2007 10:49:44 The publication of this volume was made possible through the generosity of the following foundations, funds, and donors:

Luther I. Replogle Foundation Schrader Fund, Indiana University Foundation Department of Classics and Ancient Mediterranean Studies, The Pennsylvania State University Frederick R. Matson

Sandra E. Knudsen, Editorial Consultant

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

ISSN 1874-5431 ISBN 978 90 04 15818 4

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, translated, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission from the publisher.

Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use is granted by Koninklijke Brill NV provided that the appropriate fees are paid directly to The Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Suite 910, Danvers, MA 01923, USA. Fees are subject to change. printed in the netherlands

stern_KEN_i-iv.indd iv 31-5-2007 10:49:44 list of plates v

For Diether Thimme Inspired teacher and dear companion

Diether Thimme (1910-1978) vi list of plates list of plates vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of Figures ...... ix List of Plates ...... xvii Abbreviations and Bibliography ...... xxi Preface ...... xxxv

I. Introduction to the Site and Circumstances of Excavation ...... 1 II. Nature of the Materials and the Craftsmanship of Late Roman Ivory, Bone, and Wood...... 13 III. Catalogue and Analysis of Figurative Relief Plaques and Veneer Panels 31 IV. Catalogue and Analysis of Decorative Plaques and Veneer ...... 95 V. Catalogue and Analysis of Ivory, Bone, and Wood Architectural Elements ...... 157 VI. Catalogue and Analysis of Wood Furniture and Related Veneers ...... 205 VII. Furniture Reconstructions, Provenance, Dating, Setting, and Function 275

Appendix 1. Catalogue of Miscellaneous Wood Fragments ...... 315 Appendix 2. Catalogue of Miscellaneous Plain Veneer Fragments ...... 321 Appendix 3. Conservation ...... 332 Appendix 4. Was Ivory Molded or Formed into Large Sheets in Antiquity? . . . . . 333 Appendix 5. Concordances and List of Ivory and Bone Objects ...... 338

Plates

General Index ...... 357 viii list of plates list of figures ix

LIST OF FIGURES

Figures are reproduced at 1:1 except as noted.

Plan I.1 Sketch map of Corinthia (Repr. from Kenchreai I, fig. 1) ...... 2 Plan I.2 Schematic restoration of Roman Harbor Area (Repr. from Kenchreai I, fig. 5) ...... 3 Plan I.3 Plan of Apsidal Room ...... 5 Fig. III.1 Eros Plaque, Cat. no. 3 ...... 77 Fig. III.2 Eros Plaque, Cat. no. 4 ...... 77 Fig. III.3a Curved Panel, preserved fragments ...... 78 Fig. III.3b Curved Panel, proposed reconstruction ...... follows p. 38 Fig. III.4 Curved Panel, Cat. no. 5 ...... 79 Fig. III.5 Curved Panel, Cat. no. 6 ...... 80 Fig. III.6 Curved Panel, Cat. no. 7 ...... 80 Fig. III.7 Curved Panel, Cat. no. 8 ...... 80 Fig. III.8 Curved Panel, Cat. no. 9 ...... 80 Fig. III.9 Curved Panel, Cat. no. 10 ...... 80 Fig. III.10 Curved Panel, Cat. no. 12 ...... 81 Fig. III.11 Curved Panel, Cat. no. 13 ...... 81 Fig. III.12 Curved Panel, Cat. no. 14 ...... 81 Fig. III.13 Curved Panel, Cat. no. 15 ...... 81 Fig. III.14 Curved Panel, Cat. no. 16 ...... 82 Fig. III.15 Curved Panel, Cat. no. 17 ...... 82 Fig. III.16 Curved Panel, Cat. no. 18 ...... 82 Fig. III.17 Curved Panel, Cat. no. 19 ...... 82 Fig. III.18 Curved Panel, Cat. no. 20 ...... 82 Fig. III.19 Curved Panel, Cat. no. 21 ...... 83 Fig. III.20 Curved Panel, Cat. no. 22 ...... 83 Fig. III.21 Curved Panel, Cat. no. 23 ...... 83 Fig. III.22 Curved Panel, Cat. no. 24 ...... 83 Fig. III.23 Curved Panel, Cat. no. 25 ...... 83 Fig. III.24 Curved Panel, Cat. no. 26 ...... 83 Fig. III.25 Curved Panel, Cat. no. 27 ...... 84 Fig. III.26 Curved Panel, Cat. no. 28 ...... 84 Fig. III.27 Curved Panel, Cat. no. 29 ...... 84 Fig. III.28 Curved Panel, Cat. no. 30 ...... 84 Fig. III.29 Curved Panel, Cat. no. 31 ...... 84 Fig. III.30 Curved Panel, Cat. no. 32 ...... 84 Fig. III.31 Curved Panel, Cat. no. 33 ...... 84 Fig. III.32 Curved Panel, Cat. no. 34 ...... 84 Fig. III.33 Curved Panel, Cat. no. 35 ...... 85 Fig. III.34 Curved Panel, Cat. no. 36 ...... 85 Fig. III.35 Curved Panel, Cat. no. 37 ...... 85 Fig. III.36 Curved Panel, Cat. no. 38 ...... 85 Fig. III.37 Curved Panel, Cat. no. 39 ...... 85 Fig. III.38 Curved Panel, Cat. no. 40 ...... 85 Fig. III.39 Curved Panel, Cat. no. 41 ...... 85 Fig. III.40 Curved Panel, Cat. no. 42 ...... 85 x list of figures

Fig. III.41 Curved Panel, Cat. no. 43 ...... 85 Fig. III.42 Curved Panel, Cat. no. 44 ...... 85 Fig. III.43 Curved Panel, Cat. no. 45 ...... 85 Fig. III.44 Animal Panel I, Cat. no. 46 ...... 85 Fig. III.45 Animal Panel I, Cat. no. 47 ...... 85 Fig. III.46 Animal Panel I, Cat. no. 48 ...... 86 Fig. III.47 Animal Panel I, Cat. no. 49 ...... 86 Fig. III.48 Animal Panel I, Cat. no. 50 ...... 86 Fig. III.49 Animal Panel I, Cat. no. 51 ...... 86 Fig. III.50 Animal Panel I, Cat. no. 52 ...... 86 Fig. III.51 Animal Panel I, Cat. no. 53 ...... 86 Fig. III.52 Animal Panel I, Cat. no. 54 ...... 86 Fig. III.53 Animal Panel I, Cat. no. 55 ...... 86 Fig. III.54 Animal Panel I, Cat. no. 56 ...... 87 Fig. III.55 Animal Panel I, Cat. no. 57 ...... 87 Fig. III.56 Animal Panel I, Cat. no. 58 ...... 87 Fig. III.57 Animal Panel I, Cat. no. 59 ...... 87 Fig. III.58 Animal Panel I, Cat. no. 60 ...... 87 Fig. III.59 Animal Panel I, Cat. no. 61 ...... 87 Fig. III.60 Animal Panel I, Cat. no. 62 ...... 87 Fig. III.61 Animal Panel I, Cat. no. 63 ...... 87 Fig. III.62 Animal Panel I, Cat. no. 64 ...... 87 Fig. III.63 Animal Panel I, Cat. no. 65 ...... 87 Fig. III.64 Animal Panel I, Cat. no. 66 ...... 87 Fig. III.65 Animal Panel I, Cat. no. 67 ...... 87 Fig. III.66 Animal Panel I, Cat. no. 68 ...... 87 Fig. III.67 Animal Panel I, Cat. no. 69 ...... 87 Fig. III.68 Animal Panel II, Cat. no. 70 ...... 88 Fig. III.69 Animal Panel II, Cat. no. 71 ...... 88 Fig. III.70 Animal Panel II, Cat. no. 72 ...... 88 Fig. III.71 Animal Panel II, Cat. no. 73 ...... 88 Fig. III.72 Animal Panel II, Cat. no. 74 ...... 88 Fig. III.73 Animal Panel II, Cat. no. 75 ...... 88 Fig. III.74 Animal Panel II, Cat. no. 76 ...... 88 Fig. III.75 Animal Panel II, Cat. no. 77 ...... 88 Fig. III.76 Animal Panel II, Cat. no. 78 ...... 88 Fig. III.77 Animal Panel II, Cat. no. 79 ...... 88 Fig. III.78 Animal Panel II, Cat. no. 80 ...... 89 Fig. III.79 Animal Panel II, Cat. no. 81 ...... 89 Fig. III.80 Animal Panel II, Cat. no. 82 ...... 89 Fig. III.81 Animal Panel II, Cat. no. 83 ...... 89 Fig. III.82 Animal Panel II, Cat. no. 84 ...... 89 Fig. III.83 Outstretched Arm Panel, Cat. nos. 86-89 ...... 89 Fig. III.84 Outstretched Arm Panel, Cat. no. 90 ...... 89 Fig. III.85 Outstretched Arm Panel, Cat. no. 91 ...... 89 Fig. III.86 Beautiful Head Panel, Cat. no. 93 ...... 90 Fig. III.87 Beautiful Head Panel, Cat. no. 94 ...... 90 Fig. III.88 Beautiful Head Panel, Cat. no. 95 ...... 90 Fig. III.89 Beautiful Head Panel, Cat. no. 96 ...... 90 Fig. III.90 Beautiful Head Panel, Cat. no. 97 ...... 90 Fig. III.91 Thiasos Panel, proposed reconstruction ...... follows p. 90 list of figures xi

Fig. III.92 Thiasos Panel, Cat. no. 98 ...... 90 Fig. III.93 Thiasos Panel, Cat. no. 99 ...... 90 Fig. III.94 Thiasos Panel, Cat. no. 100 ...... 91 Fig. III.95 Thiasos Panel, Cat. no. 101 ...... 91 Fig. III.96 Thiasos Panel, Cat. no. 102 ...... 91 Fig. III.97 Thiasos Panel, Cat. no. 103 ...... 91 Fig. III.98 Thiasos Panel, Cat. no. 104 ...... 91 Fig. III.99 Thiasos Panel, Cat. no. 105 ...... 91 Fig. III.100 Thiasos Panel, Cat. no. 106 ...... 91 Fig. III.101 Hunting Scene, Cat. no. 111 ...... 92 Fig. III.102 Hunting Scene, Cat. no. 112 ...... 92 Fig. III.103 Diamond-bordered Panel, Cat. no. 113 ...... 92 Fig. III.104 Diamond-bordered Panel, Cat. no. 114 ...... 92 Fig. III.105 Diamond-bordered Panel, Cat. no. 115 ...... 92 Fig. III.106 Cat. no. 116 ...... 93 Fig. III.107 Cat. no. 117 ...... 93 Fig. III.108 Cat. no. 118 ...... 93 Fig. III.109 Cat. no. 119 ...... 93 Fig. III.110 Cat. no. 120 ...... 93 Fig. III.111 Cat. no. 121 ...... 93 Fig. III.112 Cat. no. 122 ...... 93 Fig. III.113 Cat. no. 124 ...... 93 Fig. III.114 Cat. no. 125 ...... 93 Fig. III.115 Cat. no. 126 ...... 93 Fig. III.116 Cat. no. 127 ...... 94 Fig. III.117 Cat. no. 128 ...... 94 Fig. III.118 Cat. no. 129 ...... 94 Fig. III.119 Cat. no. 132 ...... 94 Fig. III.120 Cat. no. 133 ...... 94 Fig. III.121 Cat. no. 134 ...... 94 Fig. III.122 Cat. no. 135 ...... 94 Fig. III.123 Cat. no. 136 ...... 94 Fig. III.124 Cat. no. 137 ...... 94 Fig. III.125 Cat. no. 138 ...... 94 Fig. III.126 Cat. no. 140 ...... 94 Fig. III.127 Cat. no. 142 ...... 94 Fig. III.128 Cat. no. 143 ...... 94 Fig. III.129 Cat. no. 144 ...... 94 Fig. III.130 Cat. no. 146 ...... 94 Fig. IV.1 Ring 1 Reconstruction, Cat. nos. 147-152, in order clockwise from upper left (1:2) 99 Fig. IV.2 Ring 2 Reconstruction, Cat. nos. 154 and 155, in order clockwise at top and 153 at lower left (1:2) ...... 99 Fig. IV.3 Ring 3 Reconstruction, Cat. nos. 156-158, in order clockwise from upper left and 159 at lower left (1:2) ...... 100 Fig. IV.4 Ring 4 Reconstruction, Cat. nos. 163, 161, 162, 164-166, in order clockwise from upper left (1:2) ...... 100 Fig. IV.5 Ring 5 Reconstruction, Cat. nos. 167-172, in order clockwise from upper left (1:2) 105 Fig. IV.6 Ring 6 Reconstruction, Cat. nos. 173 at lower left and 174 at upper left (1:2) . . . . . 105 Fig. IV.7 Ring 7 Reconstruction, Cat. nos. 175, 176, 178, and 177, clockwise from lower left (1:2) ...... 106 xii list of figures

Fig. IV.8 Ring 8 Reconstruction, Cat. nos. 179, 180, 181, and 182, clockwise from upper left and 183 at lower left (1:2) ...... 106 Fig. IV.9 Ring 9 Reconstruction, Cat. nos. 184, 185, and 186, clockwise from lower left and 187 at lower right (1:2) ...... 108 Fig. IV.10 Ring 10 Reconstruction, Cat. nos. 188 and 189 at top (1:2), Cat. no. 190 location on ring uncertain and thus not illustrated ...... 108 Fig. IV.11 Flower Design Types A-N ...... 145 Fig. IV.12 Ring 1; Cat. nos. 147-152, in order clockwise from upper left ...... 146 Fig. IV.13 Cat. no 152, section ...... 147 Fig. IV.14 Cat. no. 153 ...... 147 Fig. IV.15 Cat. no. 154 ...... 147 Fig. IV.16 Cat. no. 155 ...... 147 Fig. IV.17 Cat. no. 156 ...... 147 Fig. IV.18 Cat. no. 156, section ...... 147 Fig. IV.19 Cat. no. 157 ...... 147 Fig. IV.20 Cat. no. 158 ...... 147 Fig. IV.21 Cat. no. 159 ...... 147 Fig. IV.22 Cat. no. 160 ...... 147 Fig. IV.23 Cat. no. 161 ...... 148 Fig. IV.24 Cat. no. 162 ...... 148 Fig. IV.25 Cat. no. 163 ...... 148 Fig. IV.26 Cat. no. 164 ...... 148 Fig. IV.27 Cat. no. 165 ...... 148 Fig. IV.28 Cat. no. 166 ...... 148 Fig. IV.29 Cat. no. 167 ...... 148 Fig. IV.30 Cat. no. 168 ...... 148 Fig. IV.31 Cat. no. 169 ...... 148 Fig. IV.32 Cat. no. 170 ...... 148 Fig. IV.33 Cat. no. 171 ...... 149 Fig. IV.34 Cat. no. 172 ...... 149 Fig. IV.35 Cat. no. 173 ...... 149 Fig. IV.36 Cat. no. 174 ...... 149 Fig. IV.37 Cat. no. 175 ...... 149 Fig. IV.38 Cat. no. 176 ...... 149 Fig. IV.39 Cat. no. 177 ...... 149 Fig. IV.40 Cat. no. 178 ...... 149 Fig. IV.41 Cat. no. 179 ...... 149 Fig. IV.42 Cat. no. 180 ...... 149 Fig. IV.43 Cat. no. 181 ...... 150 Fig. IV.44 Cat. no. 182 ...... 150 Fig. IV.45 Cat. no. 183 ...... 150 Fig. IV.46 Cat. nos. 184 (left) and 185 (right) ...... 150 Fig. IV.47 Cat. nos. 186 ...... 150 Fig. IV.48 Cat. nos. 187 ...... 150 Fig. IV.49 Cat. no. 188 ...... 151 Fig. IV.50 Cat. no. 189 ...... 151 Fig. IV.51 Cat. no. 190 ...... 151 Fig. IV.52 Cat. no. 211 ...... 151 Fig. IV.53 Cat. no. 261 ...... 151 Fig. IV.54 Cat. no. 267 ...... 151 Fig. IV.55 Cat. no. 283 ...... 152 list of figures xiii

Fig. IV.56 Cat. no. 284 ...... 152 Fig. IV.57 Cat. no. 286 ...... 152 Fig. IV.58 Cat. no. 287 ...... 152 Fig. IV.59 Cat. no. 288 ...... 152 Fig. IV.60 Cat. no. 289 ...... 152 Fig. IV.61 Cat. no. 290 ...... 152 Fig. IV.62 Cat. no. 292 ...... 153 Fig. IV.63 Cat. no. 294 ...... 153 Fig. IV.64 Cat. no. 297 ...... 153 Fig. IV.65 Cat. no. 298 ...... 153 Fig. IV.66 Cat. no. 299 ...... 154 Fig. IV.67 Cat. no. 301 ...... 154 Fig. IV.68 Cat. no. 303 ...... 154 Fig. IV.69 Cat. no. 307 ...... 154 Fig. IV.70 Cat. no. 308 ...... 154 Fig. IV.71 Cat. no. 323 ...... 154 Fig. IV.72 Cat. no. 324 ...... 154 Fig. IV.73 Cat. no. 332 ...... 155 Fig. IV.74 Cat. no. 333 ...... 155 Fig. IV.75 Cat. no. 335 ...... 155 Fig. IV.76 Cat. no. 336 ...... 155 Fig. IV.77 Cat. no. 345 ...... 155 Fig. IV.78 Cat. no. 346 ...... 156 Fig. IV.79 Cat. no. 348 ...... 156 Fig. V.1 Cat. nos. 351-357, in order clockwise from bottom left ...... 193 Fig. V.2 Cat. no. 358 ...... 194 Fig. V.3 Cat. no. 363 ...... 194 Fig. V.4 Cat. no. 368 ...... 194 Fig. V.5 Cat. no. 371 ...... 194 Fig. V.6 Cat. no. 373 ...... 194 Fig. V.7 Cat. no. 379 ...... 194 Fig. V.8 Cat. no. 386 ...... 194 Fig. V.9 Cat. no. 402 ...... 195 Fig. V.10 Cat. no. 404 ...... 195 Fig. V.11 Cat. no. 407 ...... 195 Fig. V.12 Cat. no. 410 ...... 195 Fig. V.13 Cat. no. 416 ...... 195 Fig. V.14 Cat. no. 417 ...... 195 Fig. V.15 Cat. no. 421 ...... 195 Fig. V.16 Cat. no. 426 ...... 195 Fig. V.17 Cat. no. 428 ...... 195 Fig. V.18 Cat. no. 431 ...... 196 Fig. V.19 Cat. no. 443 ...... 196 Fig. V.20 Cat. no. 452 ...... 196 Fig. V.21 Cat. no. 469 ...... 196 Fig. V.22a Erotes Arcade, preserved fragments on reconstructed Corinthian order; Cat. nos. 479 (left), 480 (center), 481 (right) (1:2) ...... 197 Fig. V.22b Erotes Arcade, proposed reconstruction (1:2) ...... 198 Fig. V.23 Cat. no. 479 ...... 199 Fig. V.24 Cat. no. 480 ...... 200 Fig. V.25 Cat. no. 481 ...... 200 xiv list of figures

Fig. V.26 Erotes, preserved fragments ...... follows p. 200 Fig. V.27 Cat. no. 483 ...... 201 Fig. V.28 Cat. no. 484 ...... 201 Fig. V.29 Cat. no. 485 ...... 201 Fig. V.30 Cat. no. 487 ...... 201 Fig. V.31 Cat. no. 488 ...... 201 Fig. V.32 Cat. no. 489 ...... 201 Fig. V.33 Cat. no. 490 ...... 201 Fig. V.34 Cat. no. 492 ...... 201 Fig. V.35 Cat. no. 493 ...... 202 Fig. V.36 Cat. no. 494 ...... 202 Fig. V.37 Cat. no. 495 ...... 202 Fig. V.38 Cat. no. 496 ...... 202 Fig. V.39 Cat. no. 497 ...... 202 Fig. V.40 Cat. no. 498 ...... 202 Fig. V.41 Cat. no. 499 ...... 202 Fig. V.42 Cat. no. 500 ...... 202 Fig. V.43 Cat. no. 502 ...... 202 Fig. V.44 Cat. no. 503 ...... 203 Fig. V.45 Cat. no. 504 ...... 203 Fig. V.46 Cat. no. 505 ...... 203 Fig. V.47 Cat. no. 506 ...... 203 Fig. V.48 Cat. no. 516 ...... 203 Fig. VI.1 Hypothetical reconstruction of ivory-veneered crossed-leg chair with dolphin arms (1:5) ...... 211 Fig. VI.2 Hypothetical reconstruction of ivory- and bone-veneered crossed-leg chair with arms decorated with fish designs (1:5) ...... 213 Fig. VI.3a Crossed-leg chair side viewed from outer side; Cat. nos. 519 (top right), 520 (bottom left), 521 (bottom right), 530 (top left) (1:3) ...... 256 Fig. VI.3b Crossed-leg chair side viewed from inner side; Cat. nos. 519 (top left), 520 (bottom right), 521 (bottom left), 530 (top right) (1:3) ...... 257 Fig. VI.4a Crossed-leg chair side viewed from outer side; Cat. nos. 522 (bottom left), 523 (bottom right), 532 (top left) (1:3) ...... 258 Fig. VI.4b Crossed-leg chair side viewed from inner side; Cat. nos. 522 (bottom right), 523 (bottom left), 532 (top right) (1:3) ...... 259 Fig. VI.5a Lower crossed-leg chair side viewed from outer side; Cat. nos. 526 (lower left), 527 (lower right) (1:3) ...... 260 Fig. VI.5b Lower crossed-leg chair side viewed from inner side; Cat. nos. 526 (lower right), 527 (lower left) (1:3) ...... 260 Fig. VI.6 Lower crossed-leg chair leg; Cat. no. 528, viewed from outer side (left) and inner side (right) (1:3) ...... 261 Fig. VI.7 Lower crossed-leg chair leg; Cat. no. 526, viewed from outer side (left) and inner side (right) (1:3) ...... 262 Fig. VI.8 Stretcher; Cat. no. 540 front view (top) and top view (bottom) (1:2) ...... 263 Fig. VI.9 Stretcher; Cat. no. 546 ...... follows p. 234 Fig. VI.10 Cat. no. 547 ...... 264 Fig. VI.11 Cat. no. 552 ...... 264 Fig. VI.12 Cat. no. 553 ...... 264 Fig. VI.13 Cat. no. 554 ...... 264 Fig. VI.14 Cat. no. 555 ...... 265 list of figures xv

Fig. VI.15 Cat. no. 558 ...... 265 Fig. VI.16 Cat. no. 566 ...... 265 Fig. VI.17 Cat. no. 567 ...... 265 Fig. VI.18 Cat. no. 575 ...... 265 Fig. VI.19 Dolphin; Cat. no. 579 ...... follows p. 234 Fig. VI.20 Cat. no. 579 (detail) ...... 266 Fig. VI.21a Cat. no. 580 (1:2) ...... 266 Fig. VI.21b Cat. no. 580 (detail) ...... 267 Fig. VI.22 Cat. no. 581 ...... 267 Fig. VI.23 Cat. no. 582 ...... 267 Fig. VI.24 Cat. no. 583 ...... 267 Fig. VI.25 Cat. no. 584 ...... 268 Fig. VI.26 Cat. no. 585 ...... 268 Fig. VI.27 Cat. no. 586 ...... 268 Fig. VI.28 Cat. no. 587 ...... 268 Fig. VI.29 Cat. no. 590 ...... 268 Fig. VI.30 Cat. no. 591 ...... 268 Fig. VI.31 Cat. no. 592 ...... 268 Fig. VI.32 Cat. no. 593 ...... 269 Fig. VI.33 Cat. no. 594 ...... 269 Fig. VI.34 Cat. no. 595 ...... 269 Fig. VI.35 Cat. no. 596 ...... 269 Fig. VI.36 Cat. no. 597 ...... 269 Fig. VI.37 Cat. no. 598 ...... 269 Fig. VI.38 Cat. no. 599 ...... 269 Fig. VI.39 Cat. no. 600 ...... 270 Fig. VI.40 Cat. no. 601 ...... 270 Fig. VI.41 Cat. no. 602 ...... 270 Fig. VI.42 Cat. no. 603 ...... 270 Fig. VI.43 Cat. no. 604 ...... 270 Fig. VI.44 Cat. no. 605 ...... 270 Fig. VI.45 Cat. no. 607 ...... 270 Fig. VI.46 Cat. no. 608 ...... 270 Fig. VI.47 Cat. no. 609 ...... 270 Fig. VI.48 Cat. no. 610 ...... 270 Fig. VI.49 Cat. no. 611 ...... 271 Fig. VI.50 Cat. no. 612 ...... 271 Fig. VI.51 Cat. no. 613 ...... 271 Fig. VI.52 Cat. no. 616 ...... 271 Fig. VI.53 Cat. no. 621 (1:2) ...... 271 Fig. VI.54 Cat. no. 636 (1:5) ...... 272 Fig. VI.55 Type A Border; Cat. nos. 639, 641 ...... 271 Fig. VI.56a-d Cabriole Leg; Cat. no. 646 ...... follows p. 250 Fig. VI.57 Cat. no. 648 (1:2) ...... 273 Fig. VI.58 Cat. no. 662 (1:2) ...... 274 Fig. VII.1 Crossed-leg Chair; hypothetical placement of Egg-and-Dart Molding (1:6) ...... 279 Fig. VII.2 Armarium; hypothetical reconstruction (approximately 1:8) ...... 291 Fig. VII.3 Armarium; hypothetical reconstruction (approximately 1:10) ...... 293 Fig. A-2.1 Type B Border ...... 331 Fig. A-2.2 Type C Border ...... 331 xvi list of figures

Plan I.3 was prepared by Penn State University Photographics on the basis of a plan by Joseph Shaw.

All figures in Chapters 3 through 5 and Appendix 2 were drawn by Martha Breen except the following:

Fig. III.3 – R. Docsan, with M. Breen and N. Griffiths Figs. III. 58, 79, 90 – P. Sharbaugh, Spring Mills Studio Figs. III.78, 80, 81, 82, 87, 115, and 118 – R. Docsan Fig. III.91 – R. Docsan, with M. Breen and N. Griffiths Figs. IV.1 through 10 – R. Docsan Figs. V.22 a, b, 25, and 45 – R. Docsan Fig. V.26 – R. Docsan, with M. Breen

All figures in Chapters 6 and 7 were drawn by Roxana Docsan except the following:

Fig. VI.9 through 18 – M. Breen Fig. VI.20 and 21 b through 52 – M. Breen Fig. VI.21a – Maria Shaw Fig. VI.54 – P. Sharbaugh, Spring Mills Studio, based on drawing by Joseph Shaw Fig. VI.55 – M. Breen Fig. VII.1 – P. Sharbaugh, Spring Mills Studio list of figures xvii

LIST OF PLATES

Plates follow page 356.

Pl. I.1 View toward northwest from apse of apsidal room showing entrance steps, fountain Pl. II.1 Scanning electron micrograph of bone fragment (X 80) Pl. II.2 Scanning electron micrograph of bone spiral strip (X 1500) Pl. II.3 Striated reverse of ivory veneer, Cat. no. I.V.23 Pl. II.4 Microprobe analysis of bone fragment Pl. III.1 Seated old philosopher, low relief plaque; ivory, Cat. no. 1 (X 2) Pl. III.2 Seated young philosopher, low relief plaque; ivory, Cat. no. 2 (X 2) Pl. III.3 Seated eros, incised relief plaque; bone, Cat. no. 3 Pl. III.4 Eros holding basin, incised relief plaque; bone, Cat. no. 4 Pl. III.5 Curved Panel, preserved fragments; bone (1:2) (Photo: I. Ioannidou) Pl. III.6 Curved Panel, enthroned figure; bone, Cat. no. 5 Pl. III.7 Curved Panel, attendants; bone, Cat. no. 15 Pl. III.8 Curved Panel, attendants; bone, Cat. no. 16 Pl. III.9 Animal Panel I, hunting dog in landscape; bone, Cat. no. 46 Pl. III.10 Animal Panel I, bird; bone, Cat. no. 52 Pl. III.11 Animal Panel II, eros and bird; bone, Cat. no. 70 Pl. III.12 Outstretched Arm Panel; ivory, Cat. no. 86 Pl. III.13 Beautiful Head Panel, female figure; ivory, Cat. no. 93 (X 2) Pl. III.14 Thiasos Panel, preserved fragments; bone (Photo: I. Ioannidou) Pl. III.15 Thiasos Mosaic; Argos, Villa of the Falconer (Photo: Courtesy of Prof. Gunilla Åkerström-Hougen) Pl. III.16 Hunting Scene, male figures; bone, Cat. no. 111 (X 2) Pl. III.17 Diamond-bordered Panel; ivory, Cat. no. 113 Pl. IV.1 Ring 1; bone, Cat. nos. 147-152 Pl. IV.2 Ring 5; bone, Cat. nos. 167-172 Pl. IV.3 Spiral Strips; bone Pl. IV.4 Tondo Plaque; ivory, Cat. no. 283 Pl. IV.5 Flower Circles; ivory, Cat. nos. 284-288 (left to right) (X 2) Pl. IV.6 Rectangle, Diamond, and Oval Border; bone, Cat. no. 292 Pl. IV.7 Quatrefoil Border; bone, Cat. no. 332 Pl. IV.8a-b Casket, side view (top), lid (bottom); Cairo, Coptic Museum, Inv. no. 9060-9063 (Photo: Museum Curatorial Department) Pl. IV.9 Scale Border; bone, Cat. no. 335 (right), 336 (left) Pl. IV.9a Scale Border; bone, Cat. no. 337 Pl. IV.10 Foliated Spiral Border; bone, Cat. no. 346 Pl. V.1 Erotes Arcade and Corinthian Order; wood, bone, ivory (1:2) (Veneer over arch at right incorrectly placed.) Pl. V.2 Chest; Qustul, Tomb 14; ivory, wood (Photo: Unknown) Pl. V.3 Egg-and-Dart Molding in situ; ivory Pl. V.4 Straight Egg-and-Dart Molding; ivory Pl. V.5 Bases and Capitals, ivory; Blocks, bone, of Corinthian Order Pl. V.6 Corinthian Capital; ivory (X 2) Pl. V.7 Column Bases and Shaft; ivory, wood xviii list of plates

Pl. VI.1a Concordius Sarcophagus; Arles, Musée d’art chrétien, Inv. no. 5 (Arles, Musée de l’Arles Antique–Photo: M. Lacanaud, © Musée des Beaux-Arts de Dijon) Pl. VI.1b Detail, right; Concordius Sarcophagus; Arles, Musée d’art chrétien, Inv. no. 5 (Arles, Musée de l’Arles Antique–Photo: B. Martin, © Musée des Beaux-Arts de Dijon) Pl. VI.2a Carrand Diptych; Florence, Museo Nazionale del Bargello, Inv. no. CAR 326 (Photo: Gabinetto Fotografico, Firenze; permission of Soprintendenza per i Beni Artistici e Storici) Pl. VI.2b Detail, top; Carrand Diptych; Florence, Museo Nazionale del Bargello, Inv. no. CAR 326 (Photo: Gabinetto Fotografico, Firenze; permission of Soprintendenza per i Beni Artistici e Storici) Pl. VI.3 Relief of Saints Peter and Mark; London, Victoria and Albert Museum, Inv. no. 270-1867 (Photo: V & A Picture Library, Neg. 37960) Pl. VI.4 Dijon, Musée des Beaux-Arts, Inv. no. CAT 326 (Photo: MUSÉE des BEAUX-ARTS de DIJON, OA 621) Pl. VI.5 Crossed-leg Chair, exterior view; ivory, wood, Cat. nos. 519 (top right), 520 (lower left), and 521 (lower right) (1:4) Pl. VI.6 Crossed-leg Chair, interior view; ivory, wood, Cat. nos. 519 (top left), 520 (lower right), and 521 (lower left) (1:4) Pl. VI.7 Crossed-leg Chair, interior view; ivory, wood, Cat. nos. 522 (right) and 523 (left) (1:4) Pl. VI.8 Crossed-leg Chair, exterior view; ivory, wood, Cat. nos. 524 (left) and 525 (right) (1:4) Pl. VI.9 Crossed-leg Chair, interior view; ivory, wood, Cat. nos. 524 (right) and 525 (left) (1:4) Pl. VI.10 Crossed-leg Chair, exterior view; ivory, bone, wood, Cat. nos. 526 (left) and 527 (right) (1:4) Pl. VI.11 Crossed-leg Chair, interior view; ivory, bone, wood, Cat. nos. 526 (right) and 527 (left) (1:4) Pl. VI.12 Crossed-leg Chair parts; ivory, bone, wood, interior view, Cat. nos. 528 (lower left), 529 (lower right), and 530 (top right); exterior view, 531 (top left) and 532 (top center) (1:4) Pl. VI.13a-c Stretcher, crossed-leg chair; ivory, wood, Cat. no. 540 (1:2) (Photo: I. Ioannidou) Pl. VI.14 Stretcher fragments, crossed-leg chair; ivory, wood, Cat. nos. 543 (left), 541 (second and third from left), 542 (fourth from left), and 544 (right) (1:2) Pl. VI.15a-b Stretcher, crossed-leg chair; bone, wood, Cat. no. 546 (1:2) (Photo: I. Ioannidou) Pl. VI.16 Decorated Veneer, stretcher, crossed-leg chair; bone, Cat. no. 547 Pl. VI.17 Decorated Veneer, stretcher, crossed-leg chair; ivory, Cat. no. 553 Pl. VI.18 Decorated Veneer, stretcher, crossed-leg chair; bone, Cat. no. 558 Pl. VI.19a-b Dolphin exterior and interior views, arm of crossed-leg chair; ivory, wood, Cat. no. 579 (1:2) Pl. VI.20a-b Dolphin Fragment; exterior and interior views, arm of crossed-leg chair; ivory, wood, Cat. no. 580 (1:2) Pl. VI.21 Veneer, fish design, arm of crossed-leg chair; bone, Cat. no. 581 Pl. VI.22 Veneer, fish design, arm of crossed-leg chair; ivory, Cat. nos. 594 (top), 597 (bottom) Pl. VI.23 Veneer, fish design, arm of crossed-leg chair; ivory, Cat. no. 610 Pl. VI.24 Veneer, fish design, arm of crossed-leg chair; ivory, Cat. no. 611 Pl. VI.25 Compound Molding; ivory, Cat. nos. 613-618 Pl. VI.26a-b Board with attached rod; ivory, wood, Cat. no. 631 (1:2) (Photo: I. Ioannidou) Pl. VI.27a-d Board with attached rod; ivory, wood, Cat. no. 632 (1:2) (Photo: I. Ioannidou) Pl. VI.28 Veneer from rod; ivory, Cat. nos. 633 (left), 634 (right) (1:2) Pl. VI.29a Flat Panels in situ (top center); ivory, wood Pl. VI.29b Flat Panel at time of excavation; ivory, wood, Cat. no. 636 Pl. VI.30 Veneer; ivory, Cat. nos. 639-645 (1:2) Pl. VI.31a-c Cabriole Leg; ivory, wood, Cat. no. 646 (1:2) (Photo: I. Ioannidou) Pl. VI.32 Cabriole Leg, untreated; wood, Cat. no. 647 Pl. VI.33a-c Cabriole Leg; bone, wood, Cat. no. 648 (1:2) (Photo: I. Ioannidou) Pl. VI.34 Stepped Stretcher; ivory, wood, Cat. no. 662 (1:2) Pl. VI.35 Stepped Stretcher; ivory, wood, Cat. no. 663 (1:2) list of plates xix

Pl. VII.1 Lunette Mosaic; Mausoleum of Galla Placidia, Ravenna (Alinari; Neg no. 18623) Pl. VII.2 Ms. Amiatino 1, c. Vr; Florence, Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana (Microfoto-s.r.l.; with permission of the Ministero per i Beni e le Attività Culturali) Pl. A-2.1a Appendix 2, Ivory Veneer; Cat. no. I.V.1 (1:3) Pl. A-2.1b Appendix 2, Ivory Veneer; Cat. no. I.V.1, detail Pl. A-2.2 Appendix 2, Bone Veneer; Cat. no. B.V.19 Pl. A-2.3 Appendix 2, Bone Veneer; Cat. no. B.V.23

Photographs of catalogued items, unless otherwise specified, were made by T. Hassia. xx list of plates abbreviations and bibliography xxi

ABBREVIATIONS AND BIBLIOGRAPHY

Periodical abbreviations follow the Notes to Contributors published in the American Journal of Archaeology 104 (2000) 10-24. The citation style follows the model of Kenchreai II, the first volume in the series. Citations of ancient authors follow those listed in the Oxford Classical Dictionary, 3rd edition.

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Tocci, I medaglioni romani: L.M. Tocci, I medaglioni romani Stern, H., “Les mosaiques de l’église de Sainte Constance e i contorniati del Medagliere vaticano. Vatican City, 1965. à Rome,” DOP 12 (1958) 157-218. Török, Ballana Culture: L. Török, “The Art of the Ballana Stern, Ivory and Bone Furniture Veneers: W. O. Stern, “Ivory Culture and its Relation to Late Antique Art,” in and Bone Furniture Veneers in Late Roman Egypt,” Africa in Antiquity: The Arts of Ancient Nubia and the Sudan, AJA 103 (1999) 279-280 (abstract). F. Hintze, ed., Meroitica 5. Berlin: Akademie Verlag, Stern, A Decorated Bone Ring: W. Stern, “A Decorated Bone 1979; 85-100. Ring from a Cabinet or Chest and Workshop Pro- Török, Contribution to Post-Meroitic Chronology: L. Török, cedures in the 4th c. A.D.” JRA 13 (2000) 359-364. A Contribution to Post-Meroitic Chronology: The Blemmyes Stern, Constantius II: W.O. Stern, “Constantius II (?) on in Lower Nubia. Paris: Centre de recherches archéo- an Incised Bone Panel from Kenchreai,” AJA 106 logiques, 1985. (2002) 289 (abstract). Török, Egyptian Late Antique Art from Nubian Royal Tombs: Stern, Evidence for Bone and Ivory Working: W.O. Stern, L. Török, “Egyptian Late Antique Art from Nubian Evidence for Bone and Ivory Working from the Palatine, Royal Tombs,” in Byzantine East, Latin West: Art- review, JRA 18 (2005) 745-746. Historical Studies in Honor of Kurt Weitzmann, D. Stevens, G.P., “How the Parthenos Was Made,” Hesperia Mouriki, ed. Princeton: Department of Art and 26 (1957) 350-361. Archaeology, Princeton University, 1995; 91-101. Strocka, House mit Privatbibliothek: V. M. Strocka, “Pompeji Toynbee, J.M.C.,”Roma and Constantinopolis in Late- VI, 17,41: Ein Haus mit Privatbibliothek,” RM 100 Antique Art from 312 to 365,” JRS 37 (1947) 135- (1993) 321-351. 144. Strong, Greek and Roman Gold and Silver Plate: D.E. Strong, Toynbee and Painter, Silver Picture Plates: J.M.C. Toynbee Greek and Roman Gold and Silver Plate. London: Me- and K.S. Painter, “Silver Picture Plates of Late thuen, 1966. Antiquity: A.D. 300 to 700,” Archaeologia n.s. 108 Strzygowski, J., “Hellenistische und koptische Kunst in (1986) 15-65. Alexandrie,” Bulletin de la Société archéologie d’Alexandrie Trigger, B.G., “The Ballana Culture and the Coming 5 (1902) 3-97. of Christianity,” in Africa in Antiquity, Vol.1; 106-119. Strzygowski, Koptische Kunst: J. Strzygowski, Koptische Kunst, Trilling, The Medallion Style: J. Trilling, The Medallion Style: Catalogue général des antiquités égyptiennes du A Study in the Origins of Byzantine Taste. New York: Musée du Caire, Vol. 12, nos. 7001-7394 and 8742- Garland, 1985. 9200. Vienna: A. Holzhausen, 1904. Turner, Greek Manuscripts: E.G. Turner, Greek Manuscripts Stutzinger, Die frühchristlichen Sarkophagreliefs: D. Stutzinger, of the Ancient World, 2nd ed., Institute of Classical Die frühchristlichen Sarkophagreliefs aus Rom. Bonn: R. Studies, Bulletin Suppl. no. 46. London: University Habelt, 1982. of London, 1987. Tales from an Eruption: Pompeii, Herculaneum, Oplontis, Guide Vaag, L.E., “The Stamped Decoration on Phocaean Red to the Exhibition, exhibition catalogue, Naples, Museo Slip Ware,” in Late Antiquity, Art in Context, 215-233. Archeologico Nazionale, March 20-August 31, 2003, Velkov, V., Cities in Thrace and Dacia in Late Antiquity. P.G. Guzzo, ed. Milan: Electa, 2003. Amsterdam: A.M. Hakkert, 1977. Terry, A., “The Sculpture at the Cathedral of Eufrasius Vermeule, Carved Bones from Corinth: E. Vermeule, “Carved in Pore´,” DOP 42 (1988) 13-64. Bones from Corinth,” in Essays in Ancient Civiliza- Theophili, qui et Rugerus...De diversis artibus, R. Hendrie, ed. tion presented to Helene J. Kantor, A. Leonard and B.B. London: John Murray, 1847. Williams, eds., Studies in Ancient Civilization 47, Chi- Theophilus/The Various Arts: De diversis artibus, C.R. Dodwell, cago 1989; 271-286. ed. London: T. Nelson, 1961. Vermeule, Roma: C.C. Vermeule, The Goddess Roma in the Thomas, T.K., “An Introduction to the Sculpture of Late Art of the Roman Empire, rev. ed. Cambridge, MA: Roman and Early Byzantine Egypt,” in Friedman, sold by Spink, London, 1959. xxxiv abbreviations and bibliography

Vetters, H., “Ephesos, Vorläufiger Grabungsbericht, der hl. Sabina auf dem aventinischen Hügel zu Rom. Trier: 1969,” ÖJh 107 (1970) 105-123. Paulinus-Drückerei, 1900. Volbach, Elfenbeinarbeiten der Spätantike3: W.F. Volbach, Williams, A.R. and Maxwell-Hyslop, R., “Ancient Steel Elfenbeinarbeiten der Spätantike und des frühen Mittelalters, from Egypt,” JAS 3 (1976) 283-305. 3rd ed. Mainz: Philipp von Zabern, 1976. Williams, Meroitic Remains: B.B. Williams, Meroitic Remains Volbach, Late Antique Coptic and Islamic Textiles: W.F. from Qustul Cemetery Q, Ballana Cemetery B, and a Ballana Volbach, Late Antique Coptic and Islamic Textiles of Egypt. Settlement, Oriental Institute Nubian Expedition, pt. 8. London: E. Weyhe, 1926. Chicago: Oriental Institute, 1991. Von Bargen, F. “Zur Materialkunde und Form spät- Wilpert, Die römischen Mosaiken: J. Wilpert, Die römischen antiker Elfenbeinpyxiden,” JAC 37 (1994) 45-63. Mosaiken der kirchlichen Bauten vom IV. -XIII. Jahrhundert, Wace, A.J.B., “Excavations on the Government Hospi- 2nd ed. Freiburg im Breisgau: Herder, 1917. tal Site: Preliminary Report,” Bulletin of the Faculty Wiseman, Stobi: J. Wiseman, Stobi: A Guide to the Excava- of Arts, Farouk I University of Alexandria 5 (1949) 151- tions. Belgrade: National Museum, 1973. 156. Woodbury, History of the Lathe: R. S. Woodbury, His- Wanscher, Sella Curulis: O. Wanscher, Sella Curulis, the tory of the Lathe to 1850. Society for the History of Folding Stool, An Ancient Symbol of Dignity. Copenhagen: Technology, Monograph Series, no. 1. Cleveland, Rosenkilde and Bagger, 1980. 1961. Wapnish, Manufacture of Bone Artifacts: Paula Wapnish, The Wulff, Bildwerke: O.K. Wulff, Altchristliche und mittelalterliche Manufacture of Bone Artifacts at Ashkelon. Unpublished byzantinische und italienische Bildwerke, Vol. 3, pt. 1. manuscript. Altchristliche Bildwerke. Berlin: Reimer, 1909. Warland, R., “Die Kuppelmosaiken von Centcelles als Wulff and Volbach, Bildwerke: O. K. Wulff and W.F. Vol- Bildprogramm spätantiker Privatrepräsentation,” in bach, Die altchristichen und mittelalterlichen, byzantini- Centcelles, El monumento tardorromano 21-35. schen und italienischen Bildwerke, Vol. III. Berlin and Warland, Status und Formular: R. Warland, “Status und Leipzig: W. de Gruyter, 1923. Formular in der Repräsentation der spätantiken Yacoub, Musée du Bardo: M. Yacoub, Le Musée du Bardo Führungsschicht,” RM 101 (1994) 175-202. (Départements antiques), Tunis(?): Editions de l’Agence Weeks, Roman Carpentry Joints: J. Weeks, “Roman Car- National du Patrimoine, 1993. pentry Joints: Adoption and Adaptation,” in Wood- Zimmerman, Vorkarolingische Miniaturen: E.H. Zimmerman, working Techniques before A.D. 1500, S. McGrail, ed., Vorkarolingische Miniaturen. Berlin: Deutscher Verein BAR International Series , no.129. Oxford: BAR, für Kunstwissenschaft, 1916. 1982; 157-168. Zosimus, New History, translation with Commentary by Weitzmann, Catalogue: K. Weitzmann, Catalogue of the R. T. Ridley, Australian Association for Byzantine Byzantine and Early Medieval Antiquities in the Dumbarton Studies, Byzantina Australiensia, no. 2. Canberra, Oaks Collection, Vol. 3. Ivories and Steatites. Washing- 1982. ton, D.C., 1972. Weitzmann, Late Antique and Early Christian Book Illumina- tion: K. Weitzmann, Late Antique and Early Christian MEASUREMENT ABBREVIATIONS Book Illumination. London: Chatto and Windus, 1977. Whitehorne, The Kellis Writing Tablets: J. Whitehorne, “The All measurements are in cm except as noted. Kellis Writing Tablets, Their Manufacture and Use,” W = Width in Archaeological Research in Roman Egypt, The Proceed- PW = Preserved width ings of the 17th Classical Colloquium of the Department of L = Length Greek and Roman Antiquities, British Museum, D.M. PL = Preserved length Bailey, ed. JRA, Suppl. 19. Ann Arbor, 1996; 240- H = Height 245. PH = Preserved height Whymper, Egyptian Birds: C. Whymper, Egyptian Birds. Th = Thickness (depth) London: A. and C. Black, 1909. PTh = Preserved thickness Wiegand, Altchristliches Hauptportal a.d. Kirche d. hl. Sabina: D = Diameter J. Wiegand, Das altchristliche Hauptportal an der Kirche Var. = Variable abbreviations and bibliography xxxv

PREFACE

The present volume of the finds from Corinthian Kenchreai is the sixth in the series planned to present the results of the collaborative excavation of the site by The University of Chi- cago and Indiana University, Bloomington, from 1963 through 1968. Responsibility for publishing the bone, ivory, and related wood was undertaken by Professor Diether Thimme of Indiana University. He conducted only an initial study of the material prior to his un- timely illness and subsequent death in 1978. It was on his suggestion, later extended by an invitation from Professor Robert Scranton, Director of the Excavation, that Wilma Stern and Danae Thimme undertook to prepare this volume. The first author was to be respon- sible for the organization of the material, the scholarly research, and the writing of the text; the second for the catalogue entries. Mrs. Thimmes’s death in 1998 left the present author to complete both elements of the publication. I appreciate the interest in this project and patience by subsequent directors of the Kenchreai Excavation, Professors Ian Morris, James Redfield, and the present director, Elizabeth Gebhard. Starting in 1980, my study and organization of the material, displayed and stored at the Archaeological Museum at Kyras Vrisi that serves both the excavations at the Isthmian sanctuary of Poseidon and the site of Kenchreai, was followed by an extended period of short seasons for the preparation of the catalogue and the drawings that accompany this publication. The long time it took to complete this project has, on the positive side, meant that I have been able to benefit from the research presented in the preceding Kenchreai volumes and the considerable increase in knowledge of late antique bone and ivory working published by, among others, Margherita Albertoni, Anthony Cutler, Olga Krzyszkowska, Kenneth D.S. Lapatin, Katerina Loverdou- Tsigarida, Lila Marangou, Sonia and Terry O’Connor, David Reese, M. and E. Rodziewicz, and Archer St. Clair since the 1970s. Major publications on sellae curules by Thomas Schäfer and Ole Wanscher have also provided important knowledge of late antique folding seats. In addition to the acknowledgments for the Kenchreai project published in Volume I of the site publications, I would like to add the following. The Indiana University Foundation supported the study season at the Isthmia Museum in 1980 and the preparation of many of the drawings and photographs for this volume, without which this publication could not have begun. Professor Karen D. Vitelli was particularly helpful to me in obtaining funding from the Schrader Fund at Indiana University for photography and drawing of the furniture in 1998 and for the publication. I also acknowledge with gratitude the perennial assistance from the Department of Classics and Ancient Mediterranean Studies, the College of the Liberal Arts, and the University Office of International Programs of The Pennsylvania State Uni- versity for opportunities to work in Greece in 1990-92, 1996-98, and 2000. Colleagues at Penn State have repeatedly been sources of information and ideas. Gary Knoppers provided important encouragement for this project’s completion. Paul Harvey was particularly generous in sharing his encyclopedic knowledge and bibliographic resources. Anthony Cutler was very supportive in the early stages of this work. Anita and Ronald Linker pointed me to the literature on ivory miniature painting. Donald and Susan Redford, Brian Hesse, and xxxvi preface

Paula Wapnish were among many others who cheered me on and helped me in this work. I particularly appreciate the hospitality extended by the directors and staff of the American School of Classical Studies in Athens and by Dr. Elizabeth Gebhard, Director of the Isth- mia excavation, and her staff, especially Jean Perras, who have been accommodating of the need for space to study the Kenchreai materials and archive. Dr. Nancy Winter of the American School of Classical Studies in Athens and Jan Jordan at the Archives of the Athe- nian Agora have provided assistance. I acknowledge the courtesy extended by Professor Werner Gauer of the Archäologisches Institut, Eberhard-Karls-Universität at Tübingen, where an early version of the first two chapters and Appendix 4 of this volume were written, and the collegiality of Dr. Bettina von Freytag. The present volume has benefited from the suggestions of Dr. Judith P. Binder. For assistance in seeing collections of ivory and bone, for commenting on the Kenchreai material, and for providing helpful information over the years I wish to thank J. Michael Padgett, F. Naumann-Steckner, Wolfgang Binsfeld, Friedrich Hamdorf, Mechthild Schulze-Dörrlamm, Jochen Garbsch, Bettina Schmitz; Mohamed Farid Hanfy and Mahmoud Zaki in Alexandria; C.S. Churcher, Allan S. Gilbert, Steven M. Goodman, Timothy Gregory, F.P. Hemans, Richard Rothaus, Elizabeth Simpson, and Heikki Pauts. Dr. Klaus-Peter Goethert was kind enough to show me a plaque at Trier. Dr. Katia Loverdou-Tsigarida generously sent me a copy of her study of bone plaques, and I have benefited from the wide knowledge of this material in that publication. Karim Hanna provided a computer-assisted design of the crossed-leg chair that demonstrated the logic of the proposed reconstructions. Susanne Dreier prepared a helpful drawing as well. Nick Grif- fiths very generously produced several reconstruction drawings for this publication. Brad- ford Johnson of the Scanning Electron Microscope Laboratory at Indiana University prepared the SEM images and microprobe analyses of two samples of bone. While undergraduate students at Penn State, Eve Friedrich was a willing assistant in organizing photographs and Kate Liszka tracked down objects and arranged for photographs and permissions in Cairo. My thanks to Dr. Gudrun Bühl, Dr. Kenneth Lapatin, and an anonymous reviewer for their helpful suggestions and corrections; to Dr. Charles Watkinson, Director of Publications of the American School of Classical Studies, for his help; and to Daniel C. Mack, Head, George and Sherry Middlemas Arts and Humanities Library, The Pennsylvania State University Libraries, and Dr. E. Marianne Stern for sharing their bibliographic knowledge. Dr. San- dra E. Knudsen’s editorial work in preparing the Index and the manuscript for publication contributed many improvements and corrections that are also deeply appreciated. My daughters, Jessica Benjamin and Alison Stern, were wonderful companions during an early stay in Greece. My husband, Robert M. Stern, who had great interest in this project and contributed in many ways to its completion, is due my heartfelt gratitude for his patience and support.

Wilma Olch Stern University Park, 2006 introduction to the site and circumstances of excavation 1

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION TO THE SITE AND CIRCUMSTANCES OF EXCAVATION

Kenchreai, the Saronic Gulf port of ancient Corinth, is located about ten kilometers south- east of the agora of that city and about three and a half kilometers south of the sanctuary of Poseidon that lies near the eastern end of the modern Isthmian Canal (Plan I.1).1 Kenchreai’s harbor primarily served commerce and travel with the eastern Mediterranean, especially the Aegean Sea, Asia Minor, and Egypt as the counterpart to Lechaion, the port of Corinth on the Corinthian Gulf for trade to the west.2 The excavations conducted from 1963 to 1968 by The University of Chicago and Indiana University, Bloomington, under the auspices of the American School of Classical Studies in Athens, were planned to reveal information about the “living and working conditions and facilities of the lowest classes, for the mechanics of operation of the Greek port, and for patterns of trade as well as evidence for the history of religion in Greece.”3 The excavation of Kenchreai, whose remains lie partly under water, was also an opportunity for the application of the newly developing techniques of underwater and shallow-water archaeology. The project was advanced for its time in this regard and in relating all aspects of the site plan to a single grid based on the Greenwich meridian and all elevation points to sea level, indicated by + or -S.L.4 Thus, it is generally possible to recreate a three-dimensional plan of the site with finds positioned in their places of discovery. After excavation was underway, two circumstances significantly changed the character of the project. First, it was soon realized that the ancient Greek harbor town may have been located farther inland, perhaps on the top and upper slopes of a spur of land projecting toward the coast, with the inner harborage in shallow water at its base, an area that had silted up by the end of the Hellenistic period. The areas of the Greek town that were tested proved to have been quarried over and the slopes of the spur had eroded, leaving very little evidence for the early port or the town it had served. The location of the early port may be resolved by future survey or excavation. In the Roman period, harbor installations were built along the new seaside and two large quays that partially enclosed and protected the Roman

1 For a geographical description see Kenchreai I 2-5. additional acknowledgments, please refer to Kenchreai I 2 The distribution of imported lamp sources gives a xvii-xxi. rough estimate of the relative volume of commerce, which 4 To account for tidal changes, at first the sea level is the same as for Corinth generally except for the was measured hourly and the elevation of each find was markedly larger number of lamps imported from Asia calculated in reference to these levels. Subsequently an Minor during the late Empire and the absence of items average sea level was established and used as the con- from Syria or the Near East, see Kenchreai V 2, 91. stant. 3 See Kenchreai I xvii. For excavation participants and 2 chapter i

Plan I.1. Sketch map of Corinthia (Repr. from Kenchreai I, fig. 1) ship basin (Plan I.2). It was on the southwest of these two quays that the second circumstance occurred which affected the major emphasis of the excavation; namely, the discovery, in the closing days of the 1964 season, of a sunken room, then called the fountain court and now apsidal room, in which were found more than one hundred and twenty panels of glass opus sectile for which Kenchreai is famous (Plan I.3).5 The ivory, bone, and wood fragments that are the subject of the present volume were found in the same room as the glass panels. Since these materials may provide significant evidence for the dating and provenance of comparanda from elsewhere, which hitherto have proved difficult to pin down in respect to date and place of manufacture, a detailed account of their deposition is set forth here.6 The landward side of the quay at the southwest end of the harbor was occupied primarily by warehouses built during the Augustan period, although there may have been a shrine

5 See Kenchreai II. caution should be exercised by ceramic archaeologists 6 Contrary to the statement in Kenchreai V xvi that who might have taken some of the Kenchreai material the relevant deposit was sealed and firmly datable to A.D. to be more firmly dated than is justified. 375, the discussion in the present volume indicates that introduction to the site and circumstances of excavation 3

Plan I.2. Schematic restoration of Roman Harbor Area (Repr. from Kenchreai I, fig. 5) 4 chapter i in this area as well.7 Beginning in the first century A.D., an area of this warehouse complex was partly overlaid by new structures of a different character and, following an earthquake of the Flavian period, underwent major remodeling in the Trajanic period.8 The new Trajanic structures included a dromos, or passageway, that led toward the end of the quay. At the seaward end of the dromos was a complex consisting of a possible gateway, a rectangular structure identified as a temple, the so-called fountain court, and a hall. The plan of this complex is difficult to visualize because the various components do not share the same orientation or elevation. The entrance court before the temple was originally entered from the seaward end through a gateway that, judging from the shape of its heavy foundations, may have had the form of an Egyptian pylon. There is little evidence for the cella of the temple but, hypothesizing from the thickness of the foundations at its southeastern end, the excavators proposed a (roughly) square cella preceded by a deep porch with two lateral columns, accessed up a flight of several steps. The temple floor lay about 1.25 m above the entrance court. Enclosed within the foundation walls of the temple was a cellar; its earthen floor was about 2.0 m beneath the level of the temple floor. Adjacent to the northeast side of the temple, and walled in by the two-story height of the temple wall and its cellar, lay an unroofed(?) room, the so-called fountain court, which— unlike the temple—had its entrance facing toward the land (northwest) (Pl. I.1). The pavement of this fountain court lay about 2.0 m lower than the floor of the temple, level with the floor of the temple cellar, with which it communicated by a doorway near the northern end of its southwest wall. The fountain court consisted of a rectangular room, about 7.70 m by 9.90 m, to which was attached an apse, 5.20 m wide, of slightly more than a semicircle in shape. The floor of the rectangular section was paved with well-preserved opus tessellatum, tentatively dated to the second century.9 The apse, whose mixed paving may have been contemporaneous or later, held an octagonal basin fitted with a jet fountain.10 In the basin was found a reused capital, adapted to serve as the pedestal for the pipe supplying the flowing water.11 The two-part fountain court was entered from the landward side down a flight of three steps of concrete rubble faced with marble. Access to the fountain court entrance from the dromos was via a narrow hall that ran across the back of the temple and the front of the fountain court. At some time, the dromos, which was a stoa-like single colonnade, was dou- bled by the addition of a parallel colonnade. It was assumed by the excavators that these structures were those described by Pausanias, “...at the other end of the harbor are sanctu- aries of Asklepios and Isis.”12

7 Kenchreai I 44-5, 53. capital, a common type of the Early Christian period. 8 In Kenchreai I 145, Scranton and Shaw date this earth- 12 Pausanias II, 2, 3. In a paper delivered at the meet- quake to A.D. 77; the later Guidoboni, et al. Catalogue of ings of the Archaeological Institute of America in 1994, Ancient Earthquakes 213-4 gives the broader range of A.D. Richard Rothaus argued that this structure was prob- 69-79 for the earthquake. ably not related to the passage in Pausanias; see R. 9 Kenchreai I 99-102. Rothaus, “The So-called Aphrodision and Isaeum of 10 Kenchreai I 103-5. Kenchreai, Greece,” AJA 99 (1995) 328. 11 See Kenchreai I 58 and n. 1 for a discussion of this introduction to the site and circumstances of excavation 5

Plan I.3. Plan of Apsidal Room 6 chapter i

The temple and fountain court complex was converted to Christian use in the fifth century, and a hall or chapel was constructed on the foundations of the ruined fountain court.13 A floor of hard cement or fine-grained concrete of this structure, built about 0.75-0.90 m above the floor of the fountain court, sealed its contents and protected them, although the subsidence of the ground toward the sea flooded the fill under it, a process that probably began even before the new floor was laid. It was at the time of the construction of this hall that the upper part of the door between the fountain court and the temple cellar was firmly sealed; its lower part had gradually filled up with debris either purposely or casually tossed into the fountain court area. A final catastrophe, possibly at the time of the Avar invasion of ca. 587, brought down even these later structures.14 A mass of burnt material and roof tiles marks the final destruction. In the closing days of the 1964 season, the discovery of the fountain court under the cement floor and of pieces of glass cut to form Nilotic motifs, made excavation of the fountain court and adjacent temple cellar a major priority.15 The first furniture finds, consisting of fragments of veneer and cabriole-style furniture legs, were also recovered. In the 1965 season, the fountain court was sandbagged and pumped dry enough each morning to excavate trenches in the fill. Seven levels of fill were identified and, under the fill and resting directly on the floor of the fountain court, quantities of seaweed, the crated stacks of glass opus sectile panels, and more remains of wood furniture covered with ivory and bone veneer were discovered. Some fragments of veneer were also found between 16 and 20 cm higher in the layers of fill. Toward the end of the 1965 season, a coffer dam was constructed in the fountain court, which was then drained. Then, and in the 1966 season, the fountain court was completely cleared and its remaining contents recovered. Most of the fragments of ivory, bone, and wood were excavated in1965 under difficult conditions, because they were removed from the wet earth with which the room was partly filled. The wood was water-logged and encased in mud. Some of the lighter ivory and bone veneers were retrieved floating in the water, and other fragments may have been floating and then dropped down to the floor as the room was drained each day. These fragments could have settled higher than their original location or on pieces of wood to which they did not belong. Under the circumstances, specific locations could not be assigned to many of the veneer fragments. In the following catalogue, all cases in which a location was identified are noted; however, as is repeatedly stressed in the field records, detachment and movement of the thin veneers was frequent. Many detached fragments were also retrieved from the tanks of water into which the wood from the furniture was placed as it was excavated. Two basic categories of materials were found in the fountain court and temple cellar: materials related to a major renovation and redecoration of some or all of the buildings in the temple complex, and materials that had been—either at that time or subsequently— deposited in the area. (Some items could belong to either category.) The excavators did not

13 Kenchreai I 65ff., 71. sion of the excavation of the glass panels, and an analy- 14 Kenchreai III 4. sis of their date. 15 See Kenchreai II for a complete description, discus- introduction to the site and circumstances of excavation 7 suggest that the materials they thought had been deposited in the area could have been in use in the fountain court. The materials associated with the renovation can be expected to be contemporaneous. Finds of the second category are not necessarily contemporary either with the renovation materials or among themselves.16 Among the supplies assembled for the renovation were the still-crated, stacked panels of glass opus sectile. Consideration of the size and layout of these panels led to the suggestion that they were intended for the decoration of the expanded dromos.17 Other finds related to the renovation were a pile of red miltos (used to mark uneven areas of mosaic or marble inlay for polishing with an abrasive) and, in the temple cellar, heaps of marble tesserae for floor mosaics and blocks of marble from which the tesserae were being or could have been cut, blocks and slabs of marble with saw marks showing where facing slabs had been sawn off them, four grinding stones for polishing marble, and a number of amphorae, crushed, but apparently still in the positions in which they had stood around the walls. In the second category of materials were marble fragments; broken chunks of floor, wall and/or ceiling mosaics; the pieces of wood furniture; and many scattered bits of broken ivory and bone. “Whether these fragments belonged to things of a date appreciably earlier than the catastrophe, or contemporary with it, or later than it, could not be inferred from the evidence.”18 Other finds have a more ambiguous relationship to these two main categories, especially small pieces of intact marble and architectural members with moldings picked out but unfinished, and a substantial amount of wood, including two wood doors found in the cellar together with quantities of carpentered wood.19 Small finds such as lamps and coins may have been in prior use in the fountain court or nearby, or dumped with the fill and subsequently fallen between larger pieces of building material, thus making any single item of limited use for absolute dating of any materials found in the deposit. The one piece of chronological evidence that may point to a time prior to the abandonment of the renovation work is a coin discovered on the threshold between the fountain court and the temple cellar. The coin, quite worn, has been identified as Gratian, Valens, or Valentinian I, with the inscription GLORIA RO-MANORUM (8), A.D. 364-378, issued at one of the eastern mints.20 Analysis of the pottery discovered in the fountain court and temple cellar is of considerable interest, but its direct significance for the ivory, bone, and wood finds must be considered in light of the discussion above. The complete amphorae found in the fountain court and temple cellar were thought to be in use for—or at the time of—the renovation project, but they may not be directly relevant to those materials in the deposit that were not clearly related to the renovation. Ten complete amphorae were recovered, five of which have graf-

16 The following discussion is based on Kenchreai I 57- cate such a degree of certitude for all of the finds. 78 and is at variance with Robert Scranton’s later state- 17 Kenchreai II 259-61. ment, in the Preface to Kenchreai IV xvi, that the foun- 18 Kenchreai I 69. tain court was a closed deposit that could be absolutely 19 Kenchreai I, Appendix B 121-31; Pls. L-LIV B; dated to A.D. 375. Other references to the “sealed room” Scranton and Ramage, Investigations 147-8, fig. 10, Pl. (Index, p. 113) imply a definitively dated context, although 45b. the archaeological circumstances do not seem to indi- 20 Kenchreai I 75 n.15; Kenchreai III 43. 8 chapter i fiti near the neck. These ten amphorae are early examples of a type that was common and widely dispersed from the early fifth to the mid-seventh century.21 One of the kiln sites for this ware has been identified at Kounoupi, on the coast of the Argolid to the east of Porto Cheli (ancient Halieis).22 These amphorae are similar to, among many others, amphorae dated to the fourth through sixth century from tombs excavated at Ballana and Qustul in Lower Nubia, not far south of Abu Simbel. They are of a buff fabric with a creamy slip, and many contained solidified resin.23 They were imports, as were many of the objects discovered in the Ballana and Qustul tombs.24 Three additional amphorae were found in the destruction fill in the doorway to the temple cellar; these are of types dated to the fourth century.25 The fine wares from the fountain court include four rim fragments of a hemispherical bowl, three of which have white painted spiral decoration. This type, whose parallels from the Athenian Agora are identified in the Kenchreai pottery publication as “predominantly of the third century,” is now considered by Hayes to extend into the fifth century.26 Sev- eral lamps and numerous lamp fragments also were recovered from the fill in the fountain court deposit that lay over the wooden furnishings. Those catalogued in the Kenchreai lamp publication, for example numbers 255, 263, 271, 323, 342, and 366, are dated from late third/fourth century to early fifth century.27 The coin and pottery evidence seem to indicate that the materials deposited in the fountain court and temple cellar date from the second half of the fourth century. Nothing definitely points to a date after the early fifth century, so this seems to be a likely date ante quem for the deposit as a whole. The scenario presented by the archaeological evidence suggests, first, a building renovation, although whether as a response to damage cannot be determined. The evidence suggests, second, the abandonment of this elaborate project in mid-course, at a time when valuable panels of opus sectile were temporarily stored in the room. Third, miscellaneous items and fill were deposited in the sunken area of the fountain court. perhaps over quite a long period of time. Several historical events of the second half of the fourth century could be related to both the preparation for a large-scale and expensive renovation and to its being left uncom-

21 Kenchreai IV 113; Peacock and Williams, Amphorae 24 Török, Ballana Culture 87. and the Roman Economy 185-7. 25 Kenchreai IV 113-4, RC 10, 12-14. RC 12-14 ap- 22 The later ranges of the wares produced are dated pear to have parallels from Athens dated from the early by comparison with identical pottery from the late sixth fourth through the late sixth century. RC 12 is a Dressel and early seventh century found at Halieis and with 31 dated to the fourth century; Robinson, Agora V, M pottery found on Chinitsa, about a kilometer off shore 234 and 302; RC 13 is a Dressel 31 with Constantinian from Halieis, which is dated by associated finds to the and Theodosian parallels, Lloris, Las anforas Romanas en early seventh century; see A.H.S. Megaw and R.E. Jones, EspaÕa, 529-30, fig. 212, Nos. 1-3; and RC 14 is Lloris “Byzantine and Allied Pottery: A Contribution by Chemi- form 77 with most similar parallels to the late fourth cal Analysis to the Problems of Origin and Distribution,” century, 385-6. BSA 78 (1983) 246. Information on these amphorae and 26 Kenchreai IV 90-1, LRB 15; Robinson, Agora V, K19- this reference were supplied by Timothy Gregory, whose 28; J.W. Hayes, “Notes on Roman Pottery in Greece help is greatly appreciated. and the Aegean,” Rei Cretariae Romanae Fautorum, Acta V- 23 Kenchreai IV 113; Emery and Kirwan, The Royal VI (1963-4) 35. Tombs 390, Pl. 1, No. 9. 27 Kenchreai V 57, 59, 63-4, and 67. introduction to the site and circumstances of excavation 9 pleted.28 At some point between 361 and June of 363, during the reign of the emperor Julian, a major earthquake caused considerable devastation in the Peloponnesos.29 Subsequently, on the morning of 21 July 365, a very significant earthquake with an epicenter in western Crete caused a huge tidal wave that damaged coastal regions in Sicily, Dalmatia, the south- western Peloponnesos, and Alexandria and may have raised sea-level as well.30 The earlier earthquake might also have been extremely destructive. According to Ammianus Marcelli- nus, wide areas were devastated and accompanying tidal waves hit coastal cities, including the site of Mothone in Laconia.31 The sea-level harbor at Kenchreai could have been vulnerable to the disaster and to the later tidal wave. The discovery of a cracked wall and of seaweed in the fountain court, where expensive mosaic panels were being stored, suggests an earthquake and a sudden inundation, but not necessarily at the same time. The renovation, for which the panels had been delivered, could have been ordered after the earthquake of A.D. 361/3 and underway at the time of the inundation in 365. The project might then have been totally halted because the new water level was too high. If this chronology is correct, the coin discovered on the cellar threshold provides an earliest date post quem of A.D. 364-378 for the depositing of fill and final sealing of the room and its contents by the cement floor. The only other evidence of fourth century destruction is from the structures at the northwest end of the harbor, where a major destruction and subsequent rebuilding appear to have happened at or about the end of the century. It should be noted, however, that there is no evidence for a close dating of this event.32 The chronology of events at Kenchreai in the second third of the fourth century that may have led to a major renovation could have been influenced by other factors. One should, therefore, be cautious about designating the various stages of the archaeological scenario to specific earthquakes, as has been theorized.33 There is at least one additional ancient reference that suggests building activity and civic improvements in the Corinthia at mid-century. Repair of a “harbor of Corinth” (Lechaion or Kenchreai not specified) occurred in the reign of Constantius II in the 350’s, during the Proconsulship of Flavius Hermogenes.34 Even if the assumption that the complex at Kenchreai included a temple to Isis is correct, a later project is also conceivable. Renovations to pagan temples were not limited to the reign of Julian (ruled 361-363) since, for thirty years after his reign, temples were closed only sporadically and cults were not prohibited.35 Julian’s successor Jovian (ruled 363-4) issued

28 Kenchreai I 75-7. 74; Paolo Antonio Pirazzoli, “Sea-Level Changes and 29 Guidoboni et al., Catalogue of Ancient Earthquakes pre- Crustal Movements in the Hellenic Arc (Greece). The sents the testimonia (261-2), discounting evidence for an- Contribution of Archaeological and Historical Data,” other in 375 as described by Zosimus (iv, 18). These Archaeology of Coastal Changes, Avner Raban, ed., BAR comments update the excavators’ chronology for earth- International Series, Vol. 404. London: BAR, 1988; 177. quakes presented in Kenchreai I 145, for which they cited 31 Ammianus Marcellinus xxvi 10, 15-19; Matthews, as evidence for A.D. 365, Ammianus Marcellinus xxvi, The Roman Empire of Ammianus 192. 10, 15-19; also IG IV, 674, B. D. Merritt, Greek Inscrip- 32 Kenchreai I 85, 87. tions 1896-1927, Corinth VIII i, no. 113; J.H. Kent, In- 33 Kenchreai I 71. scriptions 1926-1950, Corinth VIII 3, no. 504 and as evi- 34 Frantz, Agora XXIV 22. dence for A.D. 375, Zosimus iv, 18. 35 CAH XIII 548ff. on the persistence of polytheism 30 Guidoboni et al., Catalogue of Ancient Earthquakes 267- throughout the empire; Jones, LRE 149-50; Jones, So- 10 chapter i a decree of religious toleration that was renewed by Valentinian and Valens and again by Gratian upon the death of Valens in 378.36 Under the first twelve years of the reign of Theodosius, sacrifice was suppressed and some temples were closed, destroyed, or converted to Christian use; but it was not until 391 that all pagan temples were closed to the public.37 Even then, pagan cults continued to function. Enforcement of the edicts of suppression was weak because they lacked specific penalties and because the pagan aristocracy continued to hold substantial power. After the death of Theodosius, the legal situation did not change. “The temples remained closed—officially at any rate—and cults forbidden.”38 But in late 408 or 409, during Alaric’s siege of Rome, there is known to have been an abortive revival of pagan cults in Rome.39 And at Cosa, a shrine of Bacchus was “thriving” for decades after the edicts of Theodosius outlawing paganism.40 Pagan temples were rarely sought out for destruction by Christians, and there was some effort to preserve objects from them for their artistic value.41 Even a century later, under Justinian, there was a renewed drive against pagan cults, which continued to exist, even if on a smaller and more private scale.42 How- ever, the initiation of a major renovation to a pagan temple complex after the year 391 is not likely enough to offset the arguments for an earlier dating of the Kenchreai renovation, if the complex was religious in function.43 Even if the site had not been inundated, the abandonment of an unfinished project at Kenchreai is not surprising considering the unsettled military situation of the last quarter of the fourth century. Greece’s cities were threatened by roving bands of victorious Goths after the Battle of Adrianople in 378. This culminated in the Visigothic invasion under Alaric in 395. Athens may (or may not) have been spared, but according to Claudian there was widespread devastation in the Peloponnesos.44 The area around Corinth was not exempt. “Hilarius, who was staying near Corinth, was captured and beheaded, along with his slaves,” and there is evidence for other deaths.45 Zosimus describes the capture of Corinth and nearby towns in 396, which, although accomplished without battle because the towns were unwalled, was followed by looting by the Roman army of Stilicho of what had not already been carried off by the barbarians.46 It may be to this unsettled time that we should ascribe the deposition of the fill that gradually accumulated in the fountain court. The furniture that is the topic of the present volume seems to have been broken up. Some attempt may have

cial Background of the Struggle Between Paganism and Christianity tian Attitudes Toward Pagan Monuments in Late An- 17-37; St. Clair, Imperial Virtue 156-7, nn. 47-8; A. tiquity and Their Legacy in Later Byzantine Centuries,” Karivieri, “Mythological Subjects on Late Roman Lamps DOP 44 (1990) 50-2. and the Persistence of Classical Tradition,” in Late An- 42 Jones, LRE 296, 938-9. tiquity, Art in Context 194-5. 43 See above n. 12 and Chapter VII for alternative 36 Jones LRE 163. functions of the so-called fountain court. 37 CAH XIII 553; Jones LRE 167-8. 44 In Rufinum II.186-91; see Frantz, Agora XXIV 52- 38 Jones LRE 208. 3, nn. 219-25. 39 Zosimus v, 41; J.F. Matthews, “Olympiodorus of 45 Frantz, Agora XXIV 53, and n. 226; Eunapius Vit. Thebes and the History of the West (A.D. 407-425),” phil., 465. JRS 60 (1970) 84. 46 Zosimus, New History, translation with Commen- 40 J. Collins-Clinton, A Late Antique Shrine of Liber Pater tary by Ronald T. Ridley, Australian Association for Byz- at Cosa (Leiden 1977) 3. antine Studies, Byzantina Australiensia, no. 2.Book V. 41 CAH XIII 553; H. Saradi-Mendelovici, “Chris- 6-7. Canberra, 1982, 101-2. introduction to the site and circumstances of excavation 11 been made to salvage reusable parts, but others, even of considerable value, were left behind.47 The laying of the new cement floor over the fountain court closed the deposit, but the date of its construction cannot be determined with precision, beyond some point in the fifth century. In summary, the wood furniture may have been produced at any reasonable time before the fill began to accumulate; that is, at any time prior to the early fifth century. Further consideration of its dating(s) based on the iconography of the figurative designs and comparison with other works will be found in Chapter VII.

47 The fragmentary nature of the wood preserved also wood may be attacked by bacteria when first buried; might be due to subsequent destruction as the lignin in Hodges, Artifacts 224. 12 chapter i materials and the craftsmanship of late roman ivory, bone, and wood 13

CHAPTER II

NATURE OF THE MATERIALS AND THE CRAFTSMANSHIP OF LATE ROMAN IVORY, BONE, AND WOOD

The objects presented in this publication were made of ivory, bone, and wood. A brief summary of the nature of these materials and of the tools and methods with which they were worked in the Roman period is provided here to assist the reader unfamiliar with them and to facilitate access to specialized literature on these topics. Ivory was probably first used as a medium for art in the late Paleolithic. In the Mediterranean region, since at least the Bronze Age, plaques of ivory carved in relief were used to decorate wood furniture and boxes.1 While the subjects, decorative motifs, and styles of these plaques varies over time and place, many of the tools and procedures for decorating and attaching them changed little over more than two millennia.2 In many periods, animal bone was used in a similar fashion. In the Roman period, bone was commonplace and ivory an import, although neither rare nor expensive by the fourth century, when its price reached an all-time low.3 Ivory was used in large amounts for both functional and decorative objects. For example, some tablets of ivory have a shallow rectangular depression cut into their flat surfaces to hold a layer of wax, to write on and even to exchange correspondence. Ulpian, writing between 211 and 217, lists codices eborei along with codices membranei, codices chartacei, and other materials as possible bequests, suggesting their frequent use for that purpose.4 Supplies do not seem to have diminished, as later, about 390, in a letter to Romanianus, St. Augustine notes that he has written a letter on ivory tablets because of a shortage of papyrus.5 Ivory—or rather, ivory-veneered—chairs

1 Plin. HN 16.233; Barnett, Ancient Ivories in the Middle of India. “The text recounts the arrival of the merchan- East 1; Hegemann, Das Elfenbein in Kunst 27-33, 34-42; dise into one of the Egyptian Red Sea ports whose name Sakellarakis, Ôo åëåöávôüäovôo 16-39; Richter, Furniture is lost, its conveyance by camel across the Eastern Desert 5, 155; DeHoff, Ivory Trade in the Eastern Mediterranean 159- to Coptos, and its loading onto a Nile ship for transport 67; Lapatin, Chryselephantine Statuary 25. to Alexandria”; see S. Sidebotham, “Ports of the Red 2 For the example of Assyrian ivories, see Herr- Sea and the Arabia-India Trade,” in Begley and De mann, Ivories from Fort Shalmaneser 9-60. Puma, Rome and India 30, n. 101; the total lists ca. 4,700 3 Cutler, Prolegomena 432-7 for a full discussion of pounds of ivory as part of the cargo, see Casson, The the cost and availability of ivory. See also Cutler, Craft Periplus Maris Erythraei 35 citing H. Harrauer and P.J. 20-1, 25; Cutler, Five Lessons in Late Roman Ivory 183, 189- Sijpesteijn, “Ein neues Dokument zu Roms Indien- 90. On the decreasing value of ivory in the Hellenistic handel, P. Vindob. G 40822,” AnzWien 122 (1985) 124- period, see D.W.J. Gill, “The Ivory Trade,” in Ivory in 55. Greece and the Eastern Mediterranean 235. For value in all 4 Digest xxxii.5; Roberts and Skeat, The Birth of the periods, see Lapatin, Chryselephantine Statuary 14-5. The Codex 30-1; Cutler points out that he has found no evi- volume of ivory trade was impressive: P. Vindob. G 40822 dence of wax on any consular diptychs; Cutler, First refers to the shipment of crates of Gangetic nard, ivory, Principles 8-9. and bales of cloth from Muziris, on the southwest coast 5 Epistle XV.1; and although he says that parchment 14 chapter ii and stools also were apparently produced in large numbers. Cyril, patriarch of Alexandria, sent thirty-two ivory chairs and stools to the court in Constantinople as part of a gift to influence the proceedings of the Council of Ephesus in 431.6 Bone seems generally to have been used for more utilitarian objects and when the supply of ivory was reduced because of scarcity and/or cost.7 But bone was not always considered an inferior material, as it was exploited for representations of deities and even for imperial images.8 Ivory is a beautiful material with a flesh-like glow under illumination, but bone can also take a high polish. Bone may even have been preferred in some cases for its physical properties.9 Under most circumstances, bone is more resistant to cracking and splitting than ivory, so even at times when the supply of ivory was ample, the two materials were sometimes used together, ivory on the more visible faces and bone on inner surfaces or in places where damage or wear might be more apt to occur.10 Pins were commonly composed of ivory heads on bone shafts because of the latter’s greater bending strength and elasticity.11 Other design factors also played a role in the choice of material. The greater thickness of ivory allowed it to be used for architectural motifs and low reliefs, as presented below, even on objects decorated otherwise of bone. The Kenchreai furniture demonstrates the use of ivory for three-dimensional architectural motifs and low reliefs on furniture largely decorated with bone (see Chapter V),12 and the use of bone where wear may have been an important concern, such as on the inner surfaces of chair arms (see Chapter VI). The two main sources of fresh elephant ivory in the Roman period were Africa and India.13

is abundant, his letter to Romanianus is being written ways a “poor man’s material”; see Nicholls, A Roman on a miserable scrap of it. He also asks that Romanianus Couch passim; Ritchie, Bone and Horn Carving 10; J.C. Béal, return any other of his ivory tablets that he might have “Le mausolée de Cucuron, 2 Le lit funéraire à décor for similar emergency use. d’os de la tombe no. 1,” Gallia 48 (1991) 285-317. Pieces 6 Haas, Alexandria in Late Antiquity 250-1; 451 n. 9; of both ivory and bone were found among the remains St. Clair, Carving as Craft 11, n. 43. from the workshop on the Palatine in Rome and at 7 St. Clair, Carving as Craft 7 provides ancient liter- another of the early sixth century in Alexandria, E. ary references to this practice, esp. Plin. HN 11.87.215. Rodziewicz, “Nouvelles données sur le quartier de 8 Cutler, Five Lessons in Late Roman Ivory 172; Cut- Kopton à Alexandrie,” ÉtTrav 11 (1979) 84. It is pos- ler, First Principles 5; Cutler, On Byzantine Boxes 34; St. sible that bone was preferred for certain subjects, tech- Clair, Carving as Craft 1-2, 15 n. 1, 33 n.106; St. Clair, niques, or functions, and an ethnographic study of bone Imperial Virtue 161. Deities sculptured in relief are com- vs. ivory usage in various periods might reveal such mon, but also occur in the round; see an idealized bone preferences. face 8.9 cm high in London, British Museum, Inv. no. 10 The Kenchreai furniture demonstrates the mix- 1856.12-26.1487, that apparently represents a female ing of bone and ivory on luxury objects in this fashion; divinity; Lapatin, Chryselephantine Statuary 132, 150, Cat. see also Krzyszkowska and Morkot, Ivory and Related no. 50, fig. 248 with refs. Materials 328; St. Clair, Carving as Craft 4. 9 Plin. HN 8.3; Cutler, Prolegomena 461-2; Cutler, Five 11 St. Clair, Carving as Craft 5. Lessons in Late Roman Ivory 174. Both ivory and bone chips 12 See n. 29 below. Ivory and bone were closely in- were recovered from Phidias’ workshop at Olympia, see tegrated in single objects, such as in the three-dimen- Barnett, Ancient Ivories in the Middle East 63, 93 n. 97; sional miniature architectural order of ivory combined Kunze, Olympia 281, figs. 15-33. Bone and glass leaves with the flat veneers with incised decoration of erotes may have been used alternately in decorations produced made of bone, indicating a careful selection of materi- at the workshop at Olympia, see Schiering, Werkstatt des als for their physical properties. Pheidias 2,161. Judging from the elaborate funerary beds 13 Sources of ivory are discussed at length in Cut- of bone that were produced in central Italy in the first ler, Prolegomena 437-43. The Syrian elephant was extinct century B.C. and first century A.D., bone was not al- by the Roman period, and only a small population sur- materials and the craftsmanship of late roman ivory, bone, and wood 15

Elephant ivory from North Africa was still available in the fourth century and elephants may have survived there in small numbers as late as the last quarter of the sixth century.14 As the North African elephant herds became depleted, transport down the Nile supplied the Mediterranean market with ivory from Nubia, East Africa, and India, from where it was transported across the Indian Ocean.15 Juvenal refers to this river transport, which he wit- nessed when he held a post at Syene in Upper Egypt, which was, together with Elephan- tine, an important ivory market center.16 The emporia for raw ivory in Egypt and East Africa also included Ptolemais Theron on the Red Sea and, especially after the third century when objects of foreign manufacture first appear at Axumite sites, Adulis and Rhapta on the Red Sea, Axum, and Koloe (Matara).17 In the first century and surely still in the fourth century, “The route to India ran up the Nile to Koptos, the point where the Nile is closest to the Red Sea, and from there either to Myos Hormos in the North or Berenice in the South, by camel.”18 The reverse trip must have followed the same route. A secondary land route ran from Axum, where ivory processing on a large scale is documented, to the eastern Sahara, providing an alternative to Nile transport.19 Although they are both forms of hydroxyapatite, the chemical composition, physical structure, and working characteristics of elephant ivory and bone are markedly different.20 Ele-

vived in northwest Africa; Cutler, Craft 24; Scullard, 20 The most recent discussion of the morphology of Elephant 30-1. For a review of elephant species and the ivory is now found in Lapatin, Chryselephantine Statuary 7- supply of ivory through the Roman period, see Lapatin, 8. For morphology and identification of ivory and bone, Chryselephantine Statuary 10-12 and refs., Krzyszkowska and see also Penniman, Pictures of Ivory, passim; Cutler, Craft, Morkot, Ivory and Related Materials 322. passim; MacGregor, Bone, Antler, Ivory, & Horn 1-22; 14 Cutler, Craft 24. Hesse and Wapnish, Animal Bone Archaeology, passim; 15 Kollwitz, Alexandrinische Elfenbeine 208; G. Jennison, Krzyszkowska, Ivory and Related Materials, passim; L. Animals for Show and Pleasure in Ancient Rome (Manchester Masschelein-Kleiner and M. Serck-Dewaide, “Ivoire, os, 1937) 258. corne, écaille,” Bulletin Koninklijk Instituut voor het Kunst- 16 Satyres 11.124; Cutler, Craft 23; Emery and patrimonium 21 (1986-87) 110-1; and Archaeological Bone, Kirwan, Survey of Nubia 23; Sakellarakis, Ôo åëåöávôüäovôo Antler, and Ivory, passim. Published estimates of the or- 8. ganic constituents of ivory vary: the chemical analysis 17 Krzyszkowska, Ivory and Related Materials 18; reported in Sakellarakis, Ôo åëåöávôüäovôo 2, is 40-43 Kobishchanov, Axum 25; Casson, The Periplus Maris percent organic with the major inorganic constituents Erythraei 16; Barnett, Ancient Ivories in the Middle East 69. being calcium phosphate, 82 percent; magnesium phos- 18 Casson, The Periplus Maris Erythraei 13. phate, 15 percent; calcium carbonate, 2 percent; and 19 Peripl. 4; Casson, The Periplus Maris Erythraei 53; calcium fluoride, 0.2 percent. Krzyszkowska, Ivory and Kobishchanov, Axum 75. A factory site of the Late Pre- Related Materials 50 n. 1, states that ivory has an organic Aksumite Period (150 B.C.-150 A.D.) at Adi Kerni, west content of ca. 20 percent but otherwise agrees with the of Aksum in Ethiopia, revealed a deposit of numerous percentage figures for calcium phosphate and magne- jasper thumbnail scraper planes (50% of the deposit) and sium phosphate. Harrison summarizes the data and pro- side scrapers (30%), presumably used to process ivory vides references for the composition of ivory and the prior to export by removing the bark-like husk that variability of species, The Palaikastro Kouros 59. Krzysz- covers the proximal end of the tusk. A similar site of the kowska also points out that bone has more collagen than Late Aksumite Period (450-750), has been discovered at ivory and a slightly higher organic content than ivory Ona Nagast, a large town of over 5,000 residents. This of ca. 25 percent and ca.18 percent respectively. deposit consists of tens of thousands of jasper thumb- MacGregor, Bone, Antler, Ivory, & Horn 2 notes that esti- nail scraper planes (40 %), knives (28 %), and other tools, mates for the organic component of bone range from but no organic residues were associated with them; 25 to 60 percent by weight and from 40 to 60 percent Michels, Changing Settlement Patterns x, 105, 120, 181-2, by volume. 189. 16 chapter ii phant tusks, the upper incisor teeth, are formed of layers of dentine laid down as the tusks grow. About a third of each tusk at the proximal end (closest to the head) is hollow and this pulp cavity gradually tapers toward the tip which is solid. The tusk is covered with a hard surface layer up to 5 mm thick that must be removed by grinding, filing, or sandstone abrasion as the initial step in processing.21 Minute tubules that radiate out from the pulp cavity in both clockwise and counterclockwise directions create a pattern of curved diamond shapes, called lines of Retzius, that are sometimes visible on cross sections of tusk.22 The deposition of each layer of dentine that makes up the tusk forms a series of layers, called lamellae, that are often visible as concentric oval rings on the surface of finished ivory. Intermittent growth rings that are slightly darker, called lines of Owen, are spaced about 1 cm apart. Ivory tends to break in flat planes along the lines of Owen.23 The maximum size of single ivory plaques is limited by the dimensions of the tusk.24 While lengths under 25 cm are typical, larger single panels from antiquity are found among the consular diptychs, which are as long as 42.8 cm.25 If narrow or curved to follow the shape of the tusk, considerably longer objects are possible.26 Of course, the width of plaques is much smaller. Plaques of Indian ivory are limited to about 11 cm wide by the diameter of the tusks of Indian elephants; plaques of African ivory are somewhat broader but rarely come from tusks of more than 14 cm in diameter.27 If the plaque is cut from the tusk at an angle, widths up to around 16 cm can be obtained.28 Wider plaques were pieced, although an-

21 Cutler, Justinian Diptychs 83 and 83 n. 40; Cutler, Études, VIe Section, 1952), cited in MacGregor, Bone, Prolegomena 444; Barnett, Ancient Ivories in the Middle East Antler, Ivory, & Horn 42 n. 13. An African (Kilimanjaro) 11. bull elephant is supposed to have had tusks of 228 and 22 All patterns visible on the worked surface of el- 232 pounds and nearly 24 ft. long; DeHoff, Ivory Trade ephant ivory objects are somewhat more complex than in the Eastern Mediterranean 19; however, these data are described here and are different for hippopotamus ivory; erroneous (see Lapatin, Chryselephantine Statuary 10 n. 38, see Penniman, Pictures of Ivory Pl. I, II, VI, VII; Sikes, which provides the correct lengths of 3.11 and 3.18 m African Elephant 83-4; Cutler, Craft 7; Krzyszkowska, Ivory respectively). and Related Materials 33-4. 25 Lapatin, Chryselephantine Statuary 74-5 n. 131; La- 23 Krzyszkowska, Ivory and Related Materials 88. patin, Pheidias Ýëåöávôoõñãüò 671 n. 34; Cutler, Justinian 24 Lapatin Chryselephantine Statuary 10 n. 38; Lapatin, Diptychs 79. According to Cutler, Five Lessons in Late Roman Pheidias Ýëåöávôoõñãüò 669 n. 29; Cutler, Craft 27-9; Ivory 189, the Eucherius diptych (Delbrueck, Consular- Krzyszkowska, Ivory and Related Materials 50 n. 2. Accord- diptychen 242, Cat. no. 63; Volbach, Elfenbeinarbeiten der ing to Aldred, African elephant tusks can reach 10 ft. 9 Spätantike3 55, Cat. no. 63) is the largest overall, the left in. (ca. 3.28 m) in length and 8 in. (20.32 cm) in diam- leaf being 33.0 X 15.8 cm, the right 32.4 X 15.9 cm. eter at the hollow end, and weigh 141 pounds (64 kg); 26 Lapatin, Chryselephantine Statuary 18 cites with ref- Barnett and Aldred, Fine Ivory Work 3-4. A tusk in the erences examples of an eighteenth-century statue of 70 British Museum is 3.12 m long and weighs 102 kg, but cm and a vase of 70.5 cm. a more normal size is 1-1.25 m and about 50 kg, 27 Cutler, Prolegomena 55; Cutler, Craft 39-40. The Sakellarakis, Ôo åëåöávôüäovôo 5-6; Sikes, African Elephant Chiusi situla is 16 cm in diameter; Florence, Museo 80, cites as a record for size a tusk 3.45 m long weigh- Archeologico, from Tumulus I della Pania, late seventh ing 117 kg, and Mas’oudi records in the tenth century century B.C.; for references see P.J. Holliday, “Proces- tusks of 230 kg and more obtained from Zanzibar, sional Imagery in Late Etruscan Funerary Art,” AJA 94 quoted in M. Lombard, “La route de la Meuse et les (1990) 74 n. 4. Engemann, Elfenbeinfunde aus AbuMena, relations lointaines des pays mosans entre le VIIIe et le Ägypten 181 gives the greatest breadth for a consular XIe siècle,” in L’Art Mosan, P. Francastel, ed., (Paris: diptych as 16.2 cm. Bibliothèque General de l’École Pratique des Hautes 28 The Kilimanjaro tusks mentioned above (n. 24) are materials and the craftsmanship of late roman ivory, bone, and wood 17 cient literary references to ivory working suggest that techniques other than piecing were also used to increase the size of panels and/or to give them a three-dimensional form. The purported procedures and the possibility of their use in antiquity, a controversial issue, is discussed in Appendix IV. The Kenchreai furniture does not demonstrate the use of enlarged sheets of ivory, although the size of the furniture would have made such use conve- nient, but it does show both ivory and bone strips that were softened and molded into shapes to fit against curved legs (see Chapter VI). Ivory plaques generally range up to 1.3 cm thick, but sometimes much thicker, permitting them to be carved in deeper relief than bone plaques.29 Unlike ivory, bone suitable for tools and implements, veneers, and inlays was widely available. While bone from a large number of species was used—cattle, equids (horse, don- key, and mule), ungulates (sheep, goats, and camel), and even ostrich—recent excavations of bone-working debris at ancient Egyptian, Greek, and Roman sites indicate that bone from a narrow range of species was used for most implements and that of these cattle bone was the most common.30 This information is important, since at present the identification of bone is based primarily on morphological features that are destroyed when the bone is cut into plaques, and no microscopic or analytical techniques are in standard use for readily iden- tifying species from samples of worked bone that are not found with workshop debris of unworked bone.31 There are two major types of bone in a skeleton: long curved sections of dense cortical, or compact, bone from the shafts of the long bones between the articular ends, and broad pieces of cancellous, or trabecular, bone that have a spongy texture sandwiched between layers of solid bone, such as the scapulae (shoulder blades), ribs, and pelvis.32 The preferred bone for tools, tool handles, and furniture came from the shafts of the lower fore and hind legs (metapodials), but other long bones—the radius, ulna, and tibia—were also used.33 The metapodials are cylindrical shafts with a central cavity filled with marrow or fat in the liv-

60 and 61 cm in circumference (approx. 19.1 and 19.4 Period, ÉtTrav 5 (1971) 77-8. cm in diameter) respectively, but presumably at the 31 De Cupere, Animals at Ancient Sagalassos 147; Mac- proximal end, where they are widest but also hollow and Gregor, Bone, Antler, Ivory, & Horn 9 provides some lim- therefore could not have been cut on the diameter to ited cases in which at least the type of bone can be produce plaques that broad. identified by structure. For example, he states that thin 29 St. Clair, Carving as Craft 5 cites F. Von Bargen, plaques with cancellous bone on the reverse probably “Zur Materialkunde und Form spätantiker Elfenbein- derive from ribs, cancellous bone sandwiched between pyxiden,” JAC 37 (1994) 63; Cutler, Barberiniana IV–330 two thin layers of compact bone from the mandible, and and Justinian Diptychs 83 notes that the central panel of large plates of thin and flat bone with a stripe of can- the Barberini ivory is 3.6 cm deep; a panel of the cellous tissue from the scapula. The recovery of genetic Trajanic frieze from Ephesus (2.1.3) is 4.6 cm deep, material from bone samples and the matching of its DNA Dawid, Die Elfenbeinplastiken aus dem Hanghaus 2 in Ephesos sequences with that of known species will permit iden- 26. tification of species; E. Hagelberg, B. Sykes, and R. 30 St. Clair, Carving as Craft 2; Hutchinson and Reese, Hedges, “Ancient Bone DNA Amplified,” Nature 342, A Worked Bone Industry 552; oxen, horses, and camel 6249 (1989) 485. are said to be the most common species used specifically 32 Krzyszkowska, Ivory and Related Materials 53; Mac- for bone plaques, Loverdou-Tsigarida, ÏóôÝévá ðëáêßäéá Gregor, Bone, Antler, Ivory, & Horn 197, 199; Wapnish, 17. E. Rodziewicz cites the frequent use of camel Manufacture of Bone Artifacts. bone in Egypt in “Greek Ivories of the Hellenistic 33 St. Clair, Carving as Craft 2-3; Hutchinson and 18 chapter ii ing animal. The bone is thickest at mid-shaft and becomes thinner and more porous at the ends.34 The strong curvature of long bones is usually apparent when used for low reliefs for which a relatively thick plaque was required.35 The inner surfaces and ends of the long bones also have a cancellous structure, easily identified by its sponge-like appearance. Nutrients are channeled through bone via tubular nutrient foramina and canaliculi that connect the osteocyte lacunae.36 With a hand lens, the foramina can be seen as thin black lines in longitudinal section and as tiny black dots in transverse section. Viewed under high magnification (X 80), in longitudinal section foramina appear as thin hollows (Pl. II.1).37 Under much higher magnification (X 1500), in transverse section the canaliculi appear as jagged holes (Pl. II.2). The cellular structure of bone gives unpolished surfaces of objects made of it a grainy texture and sharp, jagged edges when broken. The steps used to prepare raw bone for fashioning into finished objects have been well described based on study of the bone recovered from the excavation of the circus at Carthage, the East Palatine excavation, Sagalassos, and elsewhere.38 Ancient boneworking workshop debris is now known from many Mediterranean sites, including Alexandria, Ashkelon, the Athenian Agora, Carthage, Corinth, Ephesus, Knossos, Olympia, Pergamon, and Rome.39 After butchery, which leaves chop and cut marks on unworked bones, the knobby terminals of the hollow long bones were sawn off crosswise, the bones were cleaned to remove any remaining meat and tendons, and the bones were then boiled for several hours to remove all traces of grease. The cleaned bone shafts could be worked directly, often using a lathe, to fashion handles. They could be sawn crosswise into slices for further working into pyxides, rings, or small mounts. Or they could be sawn or split lengthwise into rectangular, trapezoidal, wedge- or rod-shaped blanks, the shapes made most simply from the long leg bones of the animals from which they were cut.40 These blanks could have squared-off or angled ends.41 These were the shapes used for most plaques, but bone inlays and plaques cut into the shape of the represented subject also occur.42 The size of single-panel bone plaques is limited by the size of the available animals, the bones that are suitable for working, and the character of bone. Large plaques made from the pelvic bone or the scapula, a flat, tapering, triangular bone, sometimes retain the irreg-

Reese, A Worked Bone Industry 553-6. Cupere, Animals at Ancient Sagalassos 147-56. 34 Krzyszkowska, Ivory and Related Materials 54. 39 St. Clair, Carving as Craft 13 n. 67; Hutchinson and 35 E.g., numerous strongly curved, decorated bone Reese, A Worked Bone Industry 562 n. 6-10; Reese, Bone pieces in the Ruthven Collection; Ann Arbor, Kelsey Assemblage at Corinth 255-67; Bagnall, Hellenistic and Roman Museum of Archaeology, The University of Michigan. Egypt 230; Rodziewicz, E. Bone and Ivory Carvings 142-58. Also Cutler, Craft 18, Fig. 20. The successive stages of production are demonstrated 36 Ham’s Histology 274. by Wapnish, Manufacture of Bone Artifacts. 37 I am indebted to Terry and Sonia O’Connor, 40 Hutchinson and Reese, A Worked Bone Industry 556- scholars with specialized knowledge of the identification 69; for secondary cutting to length, see St. Clair, Carv- of osseous and keratinaceous materials, for their help, ing as Craft 50. hospitality, and the identification of structures on the 41 Stern, A decorated bone ring 361; St. Clair, Carving electron photomicrographs. as Craft Cat. no. 197, Fig. 12 d, Pl. 19d. 38 Hutchinson and Reese, A Worked Bone Industry 556- 42 N. Crummy, “Bone Working at Colchester,” Bri- 69; St. Clair, Carving as Craft 49-53; St. Clair, Late an- tannia XII (1981) 278; Schiering, Werkstatt des Pheidias 2 tique bone and ivory carving 373; De Cupere, et al., Pl. 52b. Bone-Working Industry in Roman Sagalassos 272-3; De materials and the craftsmanship of late roman ivory, bone, and wood 19 ular thickness of the bone, but they could also be sawn or planed to a uniform thinness of 1 mm or less.43 The scapulae of modern cattle are about 25 cm broad and 35 cm long, but larger bones may sometimes have been used.44 Unlike bone workers in some areas who had access primarily to equids and bovines, Egyptian bone workers had the advantage of access to the bones of larger mammals such as the elephant, camel, hartebeest, and other herbi- vores and ungulates.45 By the Roman period, the improvement by selective breeding of the two camel species, the slender one-humped dromedary indigenous to the Arabian desert and the stockier Bactrian camel, had resulted in animals of increased size.46 Camel scapulae are considerably larger than those of cattle, and thin bone plaques as large as about 30 X 50 cm made from them could be completely flat.47 Elephant, rhinoceros, and hippopotamus scapulae might be even larger, but they were never available on a regular basis close to the time of slaughter.48 Therefore, bone for inlay can be large, but is limited in size. The longest bone from the workshop of Phidias at Olympia is 27 cm.49 At Carthage, the longest pin shaft preserved is 8.1 cm, the longest plaques that could be used for inlays were 11.8 cm long and 0.7 cm thick, and the diameter of the rings ranges from 2.4 to 4.4 cm.50 St. Clair, in summarizing the evidence of size limitations for objects made of bone, notes that objects from Gallo-Roman sites rarely exceed 10 cm in length.51 Both ivory and bone were clev- erly pieced to make much larger panels and thicker blocks.52 Large, very thin veneers and plaques were made up from pieces that were tightly butted against each other. Often the individual pieces making up these large plaques were irregular, polygonal shapes, and decoration, typically incised, was added across and without reference to the thin lines formed by the joins.53 Broad low relief plaques were constructed by mounting a series of narrow

43 Hesse and Wapnish, Animal Bone Archaeology 43, fig. probably introduced into Egypt early in the first millen- 42; Nicholls, A Roman Couch 1, suggests that the largest nium B.C.; P. Rowley-Conwy, “The Camel in the Nile panels from the long sides are from horse scapulae, and Valley,” JEA 74 (1988) 247, although camels were known on p. 27 n. 7 describes the sides of large fulcra covered there earlier; Bulliet, The Camel and the Wheel 57-86. with a single piece of bone, also evidently from scapu- 46 The later hybridization of these two species re- lae. In the collection of the Antiquarium Comunale, sulted in even larger animals; Bulliett, The Camel and the Rome, there are large bone plaques with incised deco- Wheel 43, 167-8. ration that are thought to be from scapulae: Inv. no. 47 Personal communication, Paula Wapnish. 17345, 10.8 X 11.3 cm; Inv. no. 17336, 10 X 11.7 cm; 48 Only fresh bone can be worked, Krzyszkowska Inv. 17342, 9.4 X 14 (est.) cm; Albertoni, Lastrine di and Morkot, Ivory and Related Materials 327; Sikes, Afri- Rivestimento, 342-7, Cat. nos. 1, 2, and 4, figs. 4-7, 9-10. can Elephant fig. 16-17. The Ruthven Collection (see above n. 35) includes some 49 Probably cattle bone; Schiering, Werkstatt des large decorated bone plaques with highly uneven sur- Pheidias 2 161 n. 137. faces, perhaps from scapulae, that were chiseled or 50 Hutchinson and Reese, A Worked Bone Industry 566- planed down to even them out somewhat. The range of 7. thinnest areas is from 0.1 cm (Inv. no. 66.1.152) to 0.2 51 St. Clair, Carving as Craft 3. cm (Inv. no. 66.1.14). The thickness of cancellous bone 52 St. Clair, Carving as Craft 28 describes the composite does not exceed 4 mm, according to Loverdou-Tsigarida, construction of the drumlike and bell-shaped elements ÏóôÝévá ðëáêßäéá 53. Her assertion that it is not avail- on funerary couches; Cutler, Justinian Diptychs 82-4 mea- able in pieces larger than 12 cm is not correct. sured the maximum thickness of ivory reliefs in antiq- 44 Lyman, Faunal Remains 68, fig. 1. uity as 30 mm, and seldom more than 20 mm. 45 Marangou, Bone Carvings from Egypt 22 n. 43, notes 53 For example, Rome, Antiquarium Comunale, Gift that according to Strzygowski, camel, cattle, and horse in 1994 of A. Giuliano; Albertoni, Inediti Frammenti 161, bones were all used in Alexandria (Strzygowski, Koptische fig. 1. Kunst 171). It is thought that camel domestication was 54 Marangou, Bone Carvings from Egypt 16-17; Munich, 20 chapter ii strips next to one another in a row and designing the composition so that the joins were partially hidden by overlapping elements in the decoration that covered them.54 Even when visible, the line formed by joins was not always considered a defect, judging from statuettes constructed of two long, narrow leg bones.55 The large ivory plaques of the Trajanic period from Ephesus were pieced from separate panels in this fashion.56 Greater length and depth were also created by partially overlapping beveled edges to provide enough joining area for an adhesive to hold them securely.57 Both low reliefs and sculptures in the round were carved from blanks made up of layers of bone laminated together to build up thickness, and bone blanks were pegged together to form taller pieces than those obtainable from a single bone.58 While bone inlay plaques normally used flat pieces of material, bone strips can be softened and deformed by soaking in acid to reduce the mineral component and then attached to curved surfaces.59 As described in Appendix IV, ivory also was probably softened by some process and molded into curved shapes. The differentiation between bone and ivory has been, until recent years, imprecise, with many objects of mammoth and hippopotamus ivory, horn, and bone routinely and incorrectly called ivory. Color and degree of polish can vary greatly in both bone and ivory and are not reliable methods of identification. Examination of the reverse of bone plaques at times reveals the characteristic spongy texture of cancellous bone, and even with low magnification it is often possible to see the tiny dots or lines of the nutrient foramina. Scanning electron microscopy permits accurate identification of bone and ivory, but this is not always feasible for large mixed deposits. Confusion also exists with other materials that were used in ways similar to bone and ivory and were also traded from East Africa, such as tortoise shell and rhinoceros horn.60 Initially the bone veneer from Kenchreai was thought to be tortoise shell.61 Tortoise shell can be identified by its translucence and by the dark reddish- brown, mottled areas made up of pigmentation dots in clusters that run through the material and can be seen on both sides of each piece.62 However, as it ages, tortoise shell distorts

Ägyptische Sammlung, Inv. no. 5296; Paris, Louvre, Inv. also appears on a plaque representing an eros in the no. DOA.9059; Lapatin, Chryselephantine Statuary 19. Ruthven Collection; Ann Arbor, Kelsey Museum of 55 Princeton University, The Art Museum, Inv. no. Archaeology, The University of Michigan, Inv. no. y1989-22; St. Clair, Imperial Virtue 148, fig. 1. 66.1.226. 56 Barnett, Ancient Ivories in the Middle East 70 n. 75, 58 Nicholls, A Roman Couch 4; Vermeule, Carved Bones Pl. 72; Lessing and Oberleitner, Ephesos Pl. 9; F. Eichler, from Corinth 272, Pl. 55c, d; the bone face, London, British “Ephesos: Grabungsbericht 1968,” ÖJh (1969) 13-18 ff; Museum, Inv. no. 1856.12-26.1487 was apparently built H. Vetters, “Ephesos, Vorläufiger Grabungsbericht, up from separate pieces in this fashion; Lapatin, 1969,” ÖJh (1970) 16 n. 67, Pl. VIIa-c; M. and P. G. Chryselephantine Statuary 50, Cat. no. 50, fig. 248. Dawid, “Restaurierungsarbeiten von 1965-1970, 59 O’Connor, Identification of Osseous and Keratinaceous ÖJhBeibl 50 (1972-75) 542-50; Dawid, Elfenbeinplastiken Materials 10; MacGregor, Bone, Atler, Ivory, & Horn 64; aus dem Hanghaus 2 in Ephesos 19-29. Ham’s Histology 274; Stern, Ivory and Bone Furniture Ve- 57 The head (now missing) of a half-draped figure of neers 279-80; Rodziewicz, E. Bone and Ivory Carvings 154. Dionysus was added in this fashion on a plaque; sales 60 Kobishchanov, Axum 171-2. catalogue, Sotheby and Company, June 13, 1966, 52, 61 Scranton and Ramage, Investigations 146. no. 54, sold to the Langtry Collection. The top of the 62 O’Connor, Identification of Osseous and Keratinaceous torso was cut in a long, sloping bevel toward the top and Materials 17-8 and personal communication. this surface was carefully smoothed and then scored to 63 S. O’Connor, personal communication. increase the binding surface. Beveling of joining surfaces materials and the craftsmanship of late roman ivory, bone, and wood 21 and breaks up, losing its translucency and turning creamy brown.63 The incisors and lower canines of the hippopotamus are also large enough to provide ivory for working.64 Hippo- potamus ivory is fairly easily identified because, in addition to morphological features and size that differ for the upper and lower teeth, the lamellae of hippopotamus ivory are wavy and discontinuous, and show up well under low magnification.65 Wood in archaeological deposits normally is preserved under conditions that are either exceptionally dry or completely wet: the latter is the case for the wood found at Kenchreai. Numerous pieces of wood and parts of wood objects were preserved under seawater in the apsidal room and the adjoining cellar. These include a set of doors, wood timbers, shipping crates, and furniture parts.66 Much, if not all, of the furniture was overlaid with panels and veneers of ivory and bone. The best preserved wood pieces were those in which the veneer was intact. A variety of woods was exploited in the Mediterranean in classical antiquity for furnishings, but “it is dangerous to rely on ancient literary sources as the sole evidence for the use made of different types of timber.”67 The woods available included sycamore fig (Ficus syco- morus), persea (Minusops scimperi), carob, ebony from Ethiopia, boxwood from Phoenicia and Syria, maple, cedar, cypress, and citrus wood (called thyon in Greek, Callitris quadrivalvis Vent).68 According to Theophrastus, the doum palm was highly valued and used for the feet of couches by the Persians.69 Acacia, despite its curving branches, was widely used for furniture, cof- fins, chests, boxes, and bows.70 Ancient records mention that acacia was obtained from Middle Egypt and Nubia, and Strabo refers to the Thebaic acacia.71 Citrus wood is dark in color and a highly prized luxury wood from North Africa; the Romans used it especially for tables but also for larger furnishings such as armaria and doors.72 It was also used in contrast with ivory and is among the woods Pliny mentions as particularly desirable for veneers along with maple, alder, dark terebinth, box, palm, holly, ilex, and poplar.73 A type of sidder, Z. spina Christi, grew in Egypt and was specifically used for dowels, although it was also used for larger objects.74 The woods used for Egyptian funerary panel painting in the Roman period included cypress, cedar, pine, fir, limewood, and sycamore.75 The wood of the crates used to ship the panels of glass opus sectile excavated at Kenchreai was hard pine.76 Ash, a hardwood mentioned—but rarely—in literary texts and inscriptions, also grows in the mid-

64 Krzyszkowska, Ivory and Related Materials 38-9. 92, 93, 95-100. 65 Krzyszkowska, Ivory and Related Materials 38-47. 71 Lucas and Harris, Ancient Egyptian Materials and In- 66 The door has been published in Scranton and dustries 502, n. 7; Strabo xvii 1, 35. Ramage, Investigations 147, fig. 10, Pl. 45b. The shipping 72 Meiggs, Trees and Timber 287. As noted in Chap- crates are illustrated in Kenchreai II, fig. IV B. ter VI, Seneca mentions the use of citrus wood for ar- 67 Mols, Houten Meubels in Herculaneum 285; some of maria, Tranq. 9.6. the species used for the furniture from Herculaneum are 73 Plin. HN 16.231; Meiggs, Trees and Timber 297. never mentioned in texts in relation to furniture, and 74 Lucas and Harris, Ancient Egyptian Materials and In- hardwood was only selected for special purposes. dustries 506. 68 Meiggs, Trees and Timber 59-61, 279-99. 75 Doxiadis, The Mysterious Fayum Portraits 94, 237 n. 69 Historia plantarum (Enquiry into plants) 4.2.7; Meiggs, 4. Trees and Timber 60. 76 Kenchreai II, 229. 70 G.P. Killen, “Ancient Egyptian Carpentry, Its 77 Plin. HN 16. 219 refers to the toughness of Tools and Techniques,” 13; Ägypten Schätze, Cat. nos. 22 chapter ii dle forest zones around the Mediterranean.77 Several species occur in the Old World: the ordinary ash, Fraxinus excelsior, grows in Europe, Asia Minor, and North Africa. A less common variety, Fraxinus ornus, is found particularly in the Lebanon,78 and a third species, Frax- inus angustifolia, also appears in Europe and in the northern reaches of the Mediterranean.79 Fraxinus Syriaca Boiss., Syrian ash, is restricted to hilly regions from the eastern Mediterra- nean to as far as Iran in moist habitats along rivers and streams.80 All ash wood is resilient to impact, hence its usefulness for spear handles and baseball bats. Fraxinus sp. was used for spindles and carding combs, tools in which flexibility would be an asset.81 Ash was used for a wide array of objects, including furniture, in ancient Egypt.82 These various types of wood were by no means of equal value. Couches of boxwood brought the highest price according to Diocletian’s Maximum Price Edict, issued in 301; those of nut-wood a middle price, and beds in taverns made of cheap wood the lowest.83 In the late Roman period, an extensive range of simple woodworking tools was available.84 Representations of tools, kits of carpenters’ tools and isolated finds, and literary references provide evidence for knives, files, and rasps; saws and frame saws; augers, bits, and bow drills; planes, and compasses.85 The Romans used accurate measuring instruments such as rules, dividers, calipers, squares, and mitre squares, and refinements of earlier tools, such as saws with set teeth, that permitted fine cabinetwork.86 For books and writing tablets of wood, thin slices were sawn in parallel after the cut lines were scribed.87 These leaves were then planed down to about 2.5 to 3 mm thick.88 Roman woodworkers used mallets and chisels for finishing mortises, plane-irons for shooting moldings and cutting rabbets, draw knives for cutting veneers, and both pole lathes with reciprocating motion and continuously rotating lathes for shaping and decorating handles and making pyxides and bowls.89 The origin of the lathe is unknown, but the earliest evidence from a documented excavation for its use is wooden plates from the eighth- century-B.C. Tumulus W at Gordion.90 The use of recip-

ash, and both he and Palladius, De rustica 12.15, that 86 Liversidge, Woodwork 156-7;Weeks, Roman Carpentry it can be bent; Lapatin, Chryselephantine Statuary 72 Joints 166. n. 112. 87 Boards as thin as 5 mm were sawn in this fash- 78 Lucas and Harris, Ancient Egyptian Materials and In- ion, Whitehorne, The Kellis Writing Tablets 241. dustries 431. 88 Whitehorne, The Kellis Writing Tablets 244. 79 W. Schoch, personal communication. 89 Aesch., Frgt. 57; Pl., Phlb. 56,b; Meiggs, Trees 80 Hepper, Timber Trees of Western Asia 7. and Timber 349; Richter, Furniture 124; Aldred, Furniture 81 Rutschowscaya, Catalogue des bois de l’Egypte copte 16- 230-3, figs. 204, 206; L. Robert, “Documents d’Asie 7. Mineur,” BCH 102 (1978) 413 in Meiggs 321 n. 117; 82 Gale, Gasson, Hepper, and Killen, Wood 341. Spätrömische Silberschatz von Kaiseraugst 378; Pirzio Biroli 83 Meiggs, Trees and Timber 296, 365-9. Stefanelli, L’Argento dei Romani 53; Mango and Bennett, 84 Small straight-edged chisels were found with bone The Sevso Treasure 29; R. De Puma, “The Roman and ivory debris in the Palatine East excavations, St. Bronzes from Kolhapur,” in Begley and De Puma, Rome Clair, Carving as Craft 52; Lapatin, Chryselephantine Statu- and India 91-5, figs. 5.17-18; Goodman, Woodworking ary 5; Cutler, Prolegomena 444-5. Tools 43, Table II. On ancient cord-driven, reciprocat- 85 Liversidge, Woodwork 161; MacGregor, Bone, Antler, ing lathes, see Woodbury, History of the Lathe to 1850 Ivory, & Horn 55-62; Gaitzsch, Eiserne römische Werkzeuge 31-5. 256; Goodman, Woodworking Tools 9; N. Crummy, “Bone 90 The Furniture of Western Asia xxvii; Simpson, Early Working at Colchester,” Britannia XII (1981) 283. Evidence for the Use of the Lathe 781-785. An Etruscan materials and the craftsmanship of late roman ivory, bone, and wood 23 rocating lathes for turning wood, ivory, bone, silver, and bronze is well attested from the Greek period on, and there is good evidence for large continuously rotating lathes in the Roman period.91 Mortises were drilled out with a bow drill and finished with a chisel,92 and, like most Roman work, mortise-and-tenon joints did not depend on glue, nails, or clamps to secure them.93 The Kenchreai furniture is particularly valuable for the study of Late Roman carpentry techniques, because most preserved examples of woodworking are from much coarser work from ships, wharfs and docks, well liners, and waterfront revetments.94 For example, mortise-and-tenon joints and excellent examples of complex slanting lap or sad- dle joints, perhaps cut with a bow saw, can be seen on the cross-legged chairs described in Chapter VI. Bone and ivory workers used the same tools as cabinetmakers. Iron saws were used to cut both longitudinal and transverse slices from bone and tusks.95 Fine-toothed saws left a virtually smooth surface, although coarse-toothed saws left distinct striae.96 Straight draw knives, a blade set between two handles, also could have been used to cut thin plaques. Round shavers, curved draw knives, could have been used to cut curved veneer. Double saws could have been used to cut double grooves and very thin plaques.97 Scribing tools could easily have been used to incise dotted circles.98 Small disks could have been produced or holes pierced through larger pieces with a trepanning or crown saw, three examples of which survive from the Roman period.99 Iron files of varying fineness were used for smoothing and must have produced the fine striae on the reverse of many plaques, a feature already characteristic on Mycenaean plaques.100 The surfaces of plaques could be flattened with a file, and extreme-

turned bowl of about 700 B.C. was found in a tomb at 94 Weeks, Roman Carpentry Joints 157. Corneto; Liversidge, Woodwork 162. 95 Lapatin, Chryselephantine Statuary 17. 91 Spannagel, Das Drechslerwerk 14; contrary to ear- 96 St. Clair, Carving as Craft 50-1; MacGregor, Bone, lier statements by the present author and others that Antler, Ivory, & Horn 55; Lyman, Faunal Remains 67-8; D. Roman lathes were limited to a bow-driven model pro- Evely, “Toward an Elucidation of the Ivory-Worker’s ducing reciprocating motion, there is strong evidence Tool Kit in Neo-Palatial Crete,” in Ivory in Greece and the from metal vessels for continuous turning; see Mutz, Die Eastern Mediterranean 8, Pl. 2. Kunst des Metalldrehens 29-30. I appreciate E. Marianne 97 MacGregor, Bone, Antler, Ivory, & Horn 55 suggests Stern’s pointing out this reference to me. See also St. the use of double saws to cut grooves; Hodges, Artifacts Clair, Late Antique Bone and Ivory Carving 373-4 and Carv- 115 discusses draw knives and the round-shaver, a draw ing as Craft 52-3 for examples of turning. For possible knife with curved blade. lathe designs based on the bone and ivory objects at 98 MacGregor, Bone, Antler, Ivory, & Horn 61, fig. 38. Petra, see H.M. Al Walda, “Bone Objects from the Ex- 99 MacGregor, Bone, Antler, Ivory, & Horn 60, fig. 37. cavations at Petra, Jordan,” BIALond 15 (1978) 239 The tool was mainly used by physicians, from which its (1976/7 M.A. thesis, summary). See also Cutler, usefulness for bone working may have derived; Gaitzsch, Prolegomena 444; Reese, Iron Age Boneworking; Aldred, Eiserne römische Werkzeuge 35-6 provides the diameters: 2.5 Furniture 232-3; MacGregor, Bone, Antler, Ivory & Horn 58- cm and 5.5 cm. 9; Schiering, Werkstatt des Pheidias 2 162, Pl. 55a; G. 100 MacGregor, Bone, Antler, Ivory, & Horn 58; these Killen, “Ancient Egyptian Carpentry, Its Tools and lines were called kollan in antiquity, Blümner, Technologie Techniques,” in The Furniture of Western Asia 19. For use 371. The backs of many plaques display these lines in of the lathe for grinding, polishing, and cutting glass, addition to less regular scoring used to key the adhesive, from the Hellenistic period on, see Grose, Early Ancient Sakellarakis, Ôo åëåöávôüäovôo 66. Late Bronze Age files Glass 247, 256-7. exist from Gournia and the Mycenaean hoard on the 92 Weeks, Roman Carpentry Joints 166. Athenian acropolis. There are iron examples from Bo- 93 Weeks, Roman Carpentry Joints 159. logna (eighth century B.C.) and many later sites; 24 chapter ii ly thin plaques could be made, although this procedure did not always produce plaques of uniform thickness. Some of the plain veneers at Kenchreai are only 0.65 mm thick.101 File marks were left on the side to be attached and polished, probably by abrasion, off the surface to be carved. On ivory reliefs, excess material was removed with straight edge chisels, surfaces were smoothed with a rasp, and rasp marks were removed by polishing.102 The images and decorative designs on the Kenchreai objects were made using standard techniques characteristic of ivory and bone working. The architectural elements were carved in the round, two of the plaques and the decorative rings were carved in low relief, and a combination of incision and an excised relief technique were used on the figurative panels.103 Fine lines were typically incised in a manner that produced one edge at approximately a right angle to the surface and the other at an obtuse angle, probably using a knife.104 In other cases, for example the large curved bone panel (see Chapter III), the raised lines were created using a technique reminiscent of carving of a woodcut block; that is, the lines were made by excising the material on either side. The area surrounding the lines was then removed leaving recessed areas. This champlevé-like technique is common among bone reliefs of Egyptian provenance, for example, several plaques in the Benaki Museum, Athens, known to have been purchased in Alexandria and plaques in the Coptic Museum, Cairo.105 Incision and excision were also used on the same pieces, for example, on the erotes arcade (see Chapter V). Recessed areas were intended to be filled in with colored wax.106 Pigment-colored bees- wax was used for encaustic painting in the ancient world, and the same material presumably was used for inlays, perhaps with the addition of hardening agents.107 This composite technique contrasts the pale surfaces of bone or ivory with richly colored inlays. It is a descendant of a venerable Near Eastern tradition.108 The colorful effect that could be achieved

Gaitzsch, Eiserne römische Werkzeuge 48-9. These were used ÏóôÝévá ðëáêßäéá 326, 309-313, 315, Cat. nos. 75, for both metal and woodworking, as well as for work- 25, 28, 30-37, 42, figs. 24, 26, Pls. 4-7, 41; bone disk, ing stone, bone, leather, (and surely ivory). Paris, Louvre, Inv. no. MND 713; Loverdou-Tsigarida, 101 Ivory and bone veneers could be very thin and ÏóôÝévá ðëáêßäéá 319, Cat. no. 55, fig. 38, and many vary somewhat, as it would if cut with a draw knife; for others. example, PV 9, Cat. no. 501, ranges from 0.65 to 1 mm. 106 E.g., extremely fine and remarkably well pre- 102 Coarse fish skin was certainly used for polishing served plaques filled with red and black wax, (Pl. IV.8) in the Roman period; Plin. HN 9.4; MacGregor, Bone, Cairo, Coptic Museum, Inv. no. 9060-9063; Age of Spiri- Antler, Ivory, & Horn 58; Barnett, Ancient Ivories in the Middle tuality, 332-3, Cat. no. 311; Marangou, Bone Carvings from East 14, 76 n. 32; Sakellarakis, Ôo åëåöávôüäovôo 56. Egypt, 26; Randall, Masterpieces of Ivory, 80; Loverdou- 103 Wulff, Bildwerke 103-4, Cat. no. 343, from Cairo, Tsigarida, ÏóôÝévá ðëáêßäéá 57-8. an incised relief of a nude female figure with the drap- 107 Doxiadis, The Mysterious Fayum Portraits 237 n. 13 ery areas excised from the surface displays this technique. suggests that the reference in Plin. HN 35.41.149 refers 104 In contrast, sawn lines have two straight sides; St. to the use of wax inlay after incision. Clair, Carving as Craft 52. 108 Lapatin, Chryselephantine Statuary 40-2 summarizes 105 Athens, Benaki Museum, Inv. nos. 127 47, 18701, the Near Eastern tradition of composite techniques in- and 18703, Loverdou-Tsigarida, ÏóôÝévá ðëáêßäéá 308, volving the inlaying of ivory with colored semiprecious 316, 323-4, Cat. nos. 24, 45, 68, Pls. 28, 33, 40; Balti- stones, glass, and glass paste. The Toledo Museum of more, Walters Art Museum, Inv. nos. 71.25, 71.6, 71.14, Art has in its collection, from its joint expedition with 71.40, Randall, Masterpieces 88, 94-5, 90-1, Cat. nos. 134, The University of Michigan in Iraq of 1928-9, a frag- 151, 152, 135, Colorpl. 43-4; Loverdou-Tsigarida, mentary thin slate relief from Seleucia with incised design materials and the craftsmanship of late roman ivory, bone, and wood 25 when colored wax inlays were painted additionally with fine designs and even gilded can be seen in a stone relief from Thessaloniki, now in the Byzantine Museum, Athens.109 The technique is somewhat similar in its effect to the use of niello inlay decoration on late antique silver in that it provides added coloristic emphasis to the design.110 The surfaces of bone and probably of ivory reliefs were also decorated with color by painting, dying, and heating.111 Cutler at one time argued that color was used on bone but not ivory, which was only enhanced by gilding; however, it has more recently been argued that at least in the Byzantine period ivory was routinely brilliantly colored.112 The plaques of a chest from Tomb 14 at Qustul, said to be ivory, are colored with black and green,113 and red pigment is preserved on three fragments of the ivory veneer of the chair stretchers from Kenchreai, Cat. nos. 557, 567, 576 (see Chapter VI), although the red has not been analyzed and may be a preparatory ground for gilding rather than colored decoration.114 The use of red ground for gilding on wood can be observed on a representation of Serapis in the Kelsey Museum, Ann Arbor.115 Among the bone fragments from Kenchreai, traces of color survive on six fragments, red on Cat. nos. 100, 346, and 349 and blue on Cat. nos. 483 and 504. In addition to low relief plaques, incised relief plaques, and plain veneers, decorated strips of veneer and moldings were produced to decorate the narrow edges of furniture legs or to frame panels on chests and caskets, shelves, cupboards, and doors.116 Veneering was practiced in Egypt as early as the First Dynasty, and it was known in Greece, although not widely used.117 In the Roman period, veneering is first documented at the end of the Republican period, and Pliny the Elder refers to extremely thin wood veneers, as thin as gold leaf.118 The moldings included plain and complex torus moldings, egg and dart, bead and reel, and foliated bands. The production of mitred moldings, which do not appear in post-antique times until the seventeenth century, already existed in Egypt by the second century A.D.,

filled with white and red paint, Excavator’s no. 633, of Ivory in AJA 103 (1999) 174. Negative no. 7567. 113 Emery and Kirwan, The Royal Tombs, 48; Emery, 109 Athens, Museum Inv. no. T. 150; relief of three Nubian Treasure, Pl. 48 text. This fourth-century chest is apostles (James, Philip, and Luke), dated tenth century; discussed in Chapters VI and VII. Glory of Byzantium 43. 114 On the use of bole, a fine red clay, as a substrate 110 Pirzio Biroli Stefanelli, L’Argento dei Romani 33; for gilding, see Lapatin, Chryselephantine Statuary 20 and Mango and Bennett, The Sevso Treasure 32-3. Either the related refs. wax was warmed and poured into the recesses or the 115 Ann Arbor, Kelsey Museum of Archaeology, The wax-inlaid panels may have been warmed to melt and University of Michigan, Inv. no. 4655. level the inlay. 116 A sculpture of Diocletian(?) enthroned, with strips 111 A bone Athena Parthenos in Hildesheim, Peli- of alternating squares and ovals applied to the front and zaeus-Museum, Hildesheim, Inv. no. 5172, possibly from side legs of the throne; Alexandria, Graeco-Roman Mu- Hermopolis (Ashmunein, Middle Egypt), is painted red seum, Inv. no. 5934; Delbrueck, Antike Porphyrwerke 96- according to Dr. Bettina Schmitz (personal communi- 98, Cat. no. 96; Beckwith, Coptic Sculpture Pl. 5. For the cation); Randall, Masterpieces 81, 98-9, Cat. nos. 164 and use of small tondi on armaria, see the chest from Qustul, 165, Colorpl. 47. Eyes were colored on bone statuettes, above n. 113, and Budde, Armarium figs. 1, 2, and 28. St. Clair, Imperial Virtue 149. 117 Gale, Gasson, Hepper, and Killen, Wood 366-7. 112 Cutler, Craft 50; Connor, The Color of Ivory 47-65; 118 Lapatin, Pheidias Ýëåöávôoõñãüò 673; Plin. HN Lapatin, Chryselephantine Statuary 19-20. For further res- 16.84.232. ervations, see P. Barnet, Rev. of C. L. Connor, The Color 26 chapter ii and the bone spiral strips from Kenchreai discussed in Chapter IV are mitred.119 These strips were probably made out of cylindrical blanks from which spiral wound columns were produced using a turning technique, and then the columns were sawn in half and the edges smoothed to produce spiral strips with flat backs.120 Decorative elements of ivory and bone were attached to wooden furnishings in three ways. The entire surfaces could be completely covered by thin sheets of plain or decorated veneer.121 Ivory or bone plaques or pieces cut into geometric, ornamental, or representa- tional shapes could be inlaid into cavities hollowed into the wood.122 Moldings, architectural designs, and sometimes plaques could be attached to and project from the surface.123 These veneers, inlays, and overlays were attached using ivory or bone pegs, small iron or bronze nails, and/or adhesive.124 A mixture of resin and sulfur that formed a strong, dark-brown glue was used at Mycenae.125 Both gelatin glue, made from boiled animal parts, and resins were used in Egypt as adhesives.126 Isinglass, a semitransparent purified gelatin made from the gas bladders of certain fish, was also used as an adhesive for wood furniture, and perhaps for overlays.127 Colloid gum, such as gum arabic from acacia, and bitumen were also used to attach plaques.128 As mentioned above, plaques were reduced and smoothed with a file, which left fine incised lines.129 The lines must have been polished off the front with fish skin or pumice. The lines were left on the reverse surfaces that were to be glued, and were additionally scored to increase the binding surface area (Pl. II.3). Careful examination of the marks on the backs of plaques sometimes provides useful information for restoring breaks; however, the scoring varies in direction and is not reliable as the primary evidence for the reconstruction of large panels.

119 Goodman, Woodworking Tools 53. 124 Loverdou-Tsigarida, ÏóôÝévá ðëáêßäéá 69. 120 Spannagel, Das Drechslerwerk 113-24, figs. 505, 125 Sakellarakis, Ôo åëåöávôüäovôo 66, 84 n. 215. 514, 521. 126 Newman and Serpico, Adhesives and Binders 475- 121 See Chapter VI. 80; Lucas and Harris, Ancient Egyptian Materials and In- 122 For example, an inlaid box in Philadelphia, Uni- dustries 8-14. versity Museum, Inv. no. E7517, Africa in Antiquity II 268- 127 Aldred in Barnett and Aldred, Fine Ivory Work 70, Cat. no. 208; the ivory inlays in the shape of animals 234. from funerary beds found at Kerma, Boston, Museum 128 Barnett, Ancient Ivories in the Middle East 14. For of Fine Arts, Inv. nos. 13.4220c, 20.2027, 13.4219e, use of bitumen as paint on Egyptian artifacts of the 13.4221e, 20.2028, 13.4211, and 13.4222g, Africa in Roman-Byzantine period see, for example, Ann Arbor, Antiquity II 146-9, Cat. nos. 45-51; the chest from Qustul, Kelsey Museum of Archaeology, The University of see above n. 113. The hollowing out of large recesses Michigan, Inv. no. 66.1.113, Maguire et al., Art and Holy for the inlay of plaques is discussed by Loverdou- Powers 228, Cat no. 145, and Inv. no. 8094, a water jug Tsigarida, ÏóôÝévá ðëáêßäéá 69-70. decorated with bitumen, a technique perhaps peculiar 123 Baltimore, Walters Art Museum, Inv. no. 71.40, to the Fayum area; S. Auth in Friedman, Beyond the Randall, Masterpieces 90-1, 107, Cat. no. 135, Colorpl. Pharaohs 96, Cat. no. 4. 44; Philadelphia, University Museum, Inv. no. E7514, 129 Barnett, Ancient Ivories in the Middle East 11, 76 n. Africa in Antiquity II 265, Cat. no. 203; and see Chapter 31; A.R. Williams and R. Maxwell-Hyslop, “Ancient V. Steel from Egypt,” JAS 3 (1976) 283-305; Sakellarakis, materials and the craftsmanship of late roman ivory, bone, and wood 27

Differences in the properties of ivory and bone were probably reflected in workshop organization for the production of objects made from them. Ivory can only be worked after it has been stripped of its bark. Whole tusks were transported to the workshop where the bark was removed and objects produced.130 In other cases, it seems possible that the tusks were given an initial processing to remove the bark and even cut down into stock shapes (cylinders, large and smaller blocks, thin plaques, etc.) before being shipped to workshops specializing in particular types of objects; e.g., miniature architectural motifs, pyxides, relief plaques, veneers, etc.131 There, either the complete tusk would have been cut down into sections or the stock shapes were finished into objects or decorated for attachment as inlay or veneer for wood furnishings.132 There are conflicting views whether ivory is more easily worked fresh while its natural oils make it softer, or after seasoning.133 Bone is most easily worked green, before it dries out, normally within a period of seventy-two hours.134 Older bone can be sawn, but partial decalcification is required to produce extremely thin plaques, incised decoration, or veneers that can be shaped to cover curved surfaces.135 Perhaps for this reason, bone workshops for the production of mundane objects— pins, dice, combs, simple inlays, and other daily implements such as spoons—were local, quite ubiquitous, and most of their workers, whether resident or itinerant, must have produced objects only of bone. Craftsmen making high quality inlays for furniture were probably settled near a steady supply of material,136 although not necessarily at the same location where the animals were either slaughtered or butchered.137 The presence of only four metapodials among the 24.5 kilograms of cattle bone found in the deposit in Building 3 of East Theater Street, Corinth, led Reese to suggest that the missing bones must have been sent elsewhere to the bone workers.138 Camel bone is very white and, since it is reminiscent of ivory, was often used for decorated plaques in Egypt.139 There is evidence for the use of camel bone even for implements,

Ôo åëåöávôüäovôo 66. terials 327, 329; Nicholls, A Roman Couch 1; studies by 130 Cutler, Prolegomena 445-6 argues persuasively for White referenced in R. Lewin, “Ice Age Art Idea the shipment of complete tusks to the workshop before Toppled,” Science 243 (1989) 1435. I wish to thank Paula stripping or cutting down. Wapnish for providing this reference. 131 Burack, Ivory and Its Uses 41 notes that ivory 135 Ham’s Histology 274, fig. 12-1, demonstrates the shrinks by about four percent as it dries out and ages. flexibility of completely demineralized bone. For the segregation of stages of production in the Bronze 136 MacGregor, Bone, Antler, Ivory, & Horn 46. Age, see Krzyszkowska, Aegean Ivory Carving 28. It seems 137 For example, while it is difficult to imagine reasonable that the bark would be removed before the slaughtering on the Palatine in Rome, the bone and ivory tusk was cut into blanks and that shipping blanks workshop there easily could have been supplied with would be far more efficient than moving intact tusks by bone from the nearby Forum Boarium. pack camel; however, Cutler (personal communication) 138 The presence of one roughly shaped bone blank doubts that the bark was removed prior to the end use in the deposit seems insufficient to indicate that large- workshop, as it would have offered some protection scale preliminary working was done at the butchery; during shipping. For processing prior to shipping dur- Reese, Bone Assemblage at Corinth 261-2. Wapnish, Manu- ing the Bronze Age, see Lapatin, Chryselephantine Sta- facture of Bone Artifacts suggests that slaughterhouses were tuary 16. at the outskirts of the city, whence butchers and tanners 132 Cutler, Justinian Diptychs 85-6 demonstrates the obtained a steady supply of meat and hides. Bone practice of cutting down the tusk in the workshop where working shops would have acquired the preferred cor- the finishing work was carried out. tical bone both directly from the abattoirs and from 133 Kenneth Lapatin, personal communication. tanners. 134 Krzyszkowska and Morkot, Ivory and Related Ma- 139 Rodziewicz, E., “Greek Ivories of the Hellenis- 28 chapter ii although this could not have been common since camels were unlikely to have been transported and would have been slaughtered near the emporia or locations such as the termini of trade routes.140 A discussion of the availability of camel bone is included here to determine, if the Kenchreai plaques or veneers were of camel rather than cattle bone, the location of the place where they could have been made. Although camel meat may have been eaten to some extent, the probable reasons for slaughter were old age, injury, or illness.141 Camels were imported into Egypt’s Red Sea ports and were supplied from breeding areas in the eastern desert.142 In the fourth and fifth centuries, the rulers of the Ballana culture in lower Nubia had camels and seem to have exercised some “control of the trans-Saharan trade routes west of the Nile Valley.”143 Among the routes was one that supplied the market at or near Kom Ombo, an area that still serves as a sales point for Nubian camel herd- ers. It is likely that camels were traded around Thebes as well.144 Camels were probably known, if not necessarily common, in the Fayum by the first century A.D.145 As their use generally increased in late antiquity, there were numerous camels even in Alexandria.146 But there may not have been a major market for camels in or around the city. There was very little camel-borne trade from the Delta to the west along the coast, because sea transport was more economical and the terrain was not suitable for camel transport.147 At Carthage, the low percentage of camel bone identified may be a result of its distance from the termini of the trans-Saharan camel trade route as well as the scarcity, or even absence, of camel markets in coastal North Africa.148 It is therefore likely that if workshops in Egypt regularly produced plaques made of camel bone, they would have been located at major market sites near the apex of or further south of the Delta. This issue is explored further in Chapter VII.

tic Period,” ÉtTrav 5 (1971) 77. 143 Bruce G. Trigger, “The Ballana Culture and the 140 A. von den Driesch and J. Boessneck, “Tier- Coming of Christianity,” in Africa in Antiquity I, 115. knochenabfall aus einer spätrömischen Werkstatt in 144 Bulliet, The Camel and the Wheel 116. Pergamon,” AA (1982) 563-74; seventy-three percent of 145 An enthroned male figure dedicated to the the bone was cattle, twenty percent equus, and only five emperor Tiberius, said to be from Dime (Soknopaiou of 691 bones were camel. At the circus excavation at Nesos), carries a representation in low relief of a Carthage, there were 524 sawn bones and forty-four camel on the side of the throne; Cairo, National Mu- pieces of lathing debris. Of the identifiable species, most seum, CG 1191; R.S. Bianchi, “The Cultural Trans- were cattle; there were also horse, sheep and goats, five forma-tion of Egypt as Suggested by a Group of camel, and two ostrich. This distribution is attested else- Enthroned Male Figures from the Faiyum,” Life in a where at Carthage, and the dominance of cattle and Multi-Cultural Society 17, fig. 3.7. Bianchi, n. 6, also re- horse bone is general in other regions as well as the fers to a second-century-A.D. terracotta of a camel from Mediterranean; Hutchinson and Reese, A Worked Bone the Fayum in Berlin, Ägyptisches Museum, Inv. no. Industry 552 and 560-2. 10333. 141 Live camels were exploited for milk in some cul- 146 Haas, Alexandria in Late Antiquity 87 n. 93, 89 n. tures, but they were used primarily for transport and only 98. secondarily as cavalry mounts and for fiber, meat, and 147 Bulliet, The Camel and the Wheel 116, 301 n. 55. bone; Bulliet, The Camel and the Wheel 40, 49, 116, 60, 148 The coastal areas were probably supplied from 78. a Saharan trade route. Today camels are worked in 142 Camels do not breed successfully at locations dis- Tunisia on the coastal plain north of Sfax but not bred tant from their original source; Bulliet, The Camel and the there; Bulliet, The Camel and the Wheel 113-5, 296 n. 1; Wheel 41-42. E. Demougeot, “Le chameau et l’Afrique nord romaine,” materials and the craftsmanship of late roman ivory, bone, and wood 29

Some furnishings are decorated with veneers or plaques of both bone and ivory. If the styles of the two types of plaque are quite different, it is difficult to decide if both materials were worked at the same site, especially as very few sites where both materials were worked have been published; the workshops of Phidias at Olympia, Alexandria, and the East Pa- latine are exceptions.149 It is also uncertain whether the wood furniture and boxes decorated with these plaques were made at the same workshop(s) or if the plaques and attachments were sent to a separate cabinetmaker (joiner) for attachment.150 Some literary and inscrip- tional evidence seems to indicate the former. For example, the father of Demosthenes owned a workshop employing twenty craftsmen who made furniture of ivory with wood or metal.151 In the time of Hadrian, ivory workers and citrus wood workers formed a single collegium in Rome, suggesting that at least at some places (and times) luxury furniture production in ivory and wood was integrated in a single establishment.152 Unlike caskets decorated with small rectangular, triangular, trapezoidal, and/or semicircular plaques set between wood moldings, some of the Kenchreai furnishings are decorated with both bone and ivory veneers that completely cover the wood. In such cases, the veneers and the furniture they decorated must have been produced in a single workshop, close to the bone slaughtering site, since bone must be worked quickly. The ivory tusks were probably shipped whole, because any attempt to prepare very thin ivory veneer at a distant location would have resulted in breakage en route and too much waste. In at least some cases, therefore, ivory, bone, and woodworking were probably practiced in one and the same location. The results of the examination of three samples of bone and wood excavated from the apsidal room/fountain court at Kenchreai are as follows. In 1992, samples were taken from chair legs Cat. no. 524 and 528 and from a tenon on the stretcher, Cat. no. 541, to identify the wood used for the crossed-leg chairs.153 These were analyzed by Werner H. Schoch of the Labor für Quartäre Hölzer, Langnau, Switzerland.154 Although it is a standard practice

Annales: Économies, Sociétés, Civilizations 15 (1960) 209-47. guilds, and workers were trained through apprenticeships 149 Ivory and bone workshop debris was found to- and were restricted to work in specific regions; see T.K. gether at Olympia, Kunze, Olympia 290, fig. 28; Thomas, “An Introduction to the Sculpture of Late Schiering, Werkstatt des Pheidias 2 3. Rodziewicz E., n. 9 Roman and Early Byzantine Egypt,” in Friedman, Be- above; St. Clair, Carving as Craft 38 ff. For additional in- yond the Pharaohs 61-2, n. 21. See also Loverdou-Tsigarida, formation on this issue see Barnett, Ancient Ivories in the ÏóôÝévá ðëáêßäéá 73-4 for ivory and bone objects being Middle East 76 n. 26; Marangou, Bone Carvings from Egypt produced in the same workshops. 24; this holds true at least for late antiquity, Cutler, Five 153 Despite the poor condition of the wood due to Lessons in Late Roman Ivory 176, and the Byzantine period, its long submersion and subsequent treatment with poly- Cutler, Craft 36. For a recent summary of Bronze Age ethylene glycol (PEG), Dr. Werner Schoch, Laboratory ivory workshops see Krzyszkowska, Aegean Ivory Carving for Quarternary Wood Research, Langnau, Switzerland, 30 n. 1, 32 n. 19; Evely, Minoan Crafts. succeeded in determining the species. 150 Rodziewicz E., Bone and Ivory Carvings 136. 154 The wood had been consolidated and is both 151 Dem., Against Aphobus I, 10 and 30; Barnett, An- extremely hard and highly friable, making it very diffi- cient Ivories in the Middle East 93, n. 115. cult to obtain a solid sample. Much of the better pre- 152 There was also a sodalicium of dice and ticket mak- served wood is either too thin, covered with veneer and ers, and so production might have been organized by on display, or filled with so much fibranyl that sampling product rather than craft (medium) specialty, Barnett, is impractical. The risk of further damaging the veneer Ancient Ivories in the Middle East 70-1. In fourth-century seemed too great to remove it to take further samples. Egypt, art and craft production was organized into 30 chapter ii to analyze samples of ancient wood that has been submerged in sea water for extended periods of time, the use of polyethylene glycol (PEG) made identification difficult. Dr. Schoch was able to determine that all three samples were a species of Fraxinus sp., or ash, most likely Fraxinus excelsior.155 Ash is a hardwood native to Mediterranean deciduous forests growing between ca. 500 and ca. 1,200 meters.156 Ash is a strong but flexible wood that withstands the shock of compression well,157 and thus is suitable for crossed-leg chairs that may flex slightly when sat upon. Ash is known to have been transported in the fourth century B.C. via the Corinthia, where it was carted across the Isthmian diolkos, hauled a short distance down to Kenchreai, and ferried up the Saronic Gulf to Eleusis, where it was used as cross- pieces for doors.158 If ash continued to be shipped out of the port of Kenchreai in the Roman period, it could have made up some of the bulk cargo for return trips to Egypt on the ships that were bringing in luxury goods such as the glass opus sectile panels and decorated furniture found there. Ivory’s characteristic oval markings and soft feel made secure identification of most of Kenchreai ivory fragments possible. However, some veneers, and especially decorated plaques, were at first identified as tortoise shell,159 and so scanning electron photomicrographs and spectrographic analyses were made of samples of this material by Bradford Johnson of the Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) Laboratory in the Biology Department at Indiana University, Bloomington. The SEM photomicrographs show the samples to be bone, as they reveal the foramina and canaliculi characteristic of bone (see Pl. II.1-2 ). One sample, not illustrated, also displays an edge surface characteristic of cancellous bone. The electron microprobe analysis (Pl. II.4) shows the normal calcium and phosphorus peaks of bone at left. The metallic peaks of copper (CU) and gold (AU) at the right are components of the coating material used to prepare the samples and should be ignored.160

155 Two other species of ash, Fraxinus ornus and 329/8 B.C.; IG 22.1672, l.155; Meiggs, Trees and Tim- Fraxinus angustifolia, cannot be definitely excluded. ber 110, 433-440. 156 Meiggs, Trees and Timber 42. 159 Scranton and Ramage, Investigations 146. 157 Meiggs, Trees and Timber 110. 160 Allan S. Gilbert, Fordham University, provided 158 Accounts of the Eleusinian Commissioners for comments on the analyses, for which I am most grateful. figurative relief plaques and veneer panels 31

CHAPTER III

CATALOGUE AND ANALYSIS OF FIGURATIVE RELIEF PLAQUES AND VENEER PANELS

The bone and ivory recovered from the apsidal room at Kenchreai included four fairly complete plaques and more than one hundred and forty fragments from thin veneer panels decorated with representations of human, animal, bird, and plant designs. In the catalogue of Chapter III, the plaques and most of these fragments are assigned to ten groups (A-J) on the basis of the material (bone or ivory), thickness, color, and texture; the content, style, and scale of the design; the nature and orientation of striations on the reverse of each fragment; and the technique of workmanship.1 It is completely possible that some fragments assigned to one of these groups come from an additional or alternative panel or plaque, and some cases are noted as the authors perceived them. A fragment’s inclusion in this chapter does not imply that it is from an object different from those discussed in other chapters, such as, for examples, the bone veneer with fragmentary representations of erotes, some still attached to the wooden arcade they decorated, catalogued and discussed with the architectural motifs in Chapter V, and veneer fragments with dolphin and fish designs, some attached to wood, included with the furniture parts in Chapter VI. The best preserved plaques are two rectangular low reliefs of ivory with images of seated philosophers (Group A; Cat. nos.1 and 2) and two rectangular incised reliefs of bone with images of erotes (Group B; Cat. nos. 3 and 4). The remaining fragments, which belong to much more fragmentary scenes, include a large, curved panel with a seated figure flanked by attendants and—as will be proposed—personifications of Rome and Constantinople (Group C; Cat. nos. 5-45); two panels decorated with a variety of animals and birds in landscape settings (Group D; Cat. nos. 46-69 and Group E; Cat. nos. 70-85); fragments of figures from a horizontal panel that may have formed a predella below the curved panel (Group F; Cat. nos. 86-92); fragmentary figures from what is proposed to be a Dionysiac thiasos (Group H; Cat. nos. 98-110); and three other panels that have too few fragments preserved to reconstruct or definitively identify. Other miscellaneous fragments cannot even be assigned to one of these ten groups. The four well-preserved rectangular plaques and the various thin veneer panels almost certainly were used as surface decoration on one or more wooden object(s), probably an elaborate casket, chest, or cupboard.

1 The character and direction of striations on the re- (see Pl. II.3). verses of plaques or veneer often differ from area to area 32 chapter iii

A. IVORY RELIEF PLAQUES

The two low relief plaques of ivory (Pls. III.1,2; Cat. nos. 1 and 2) represent seated figures of philosophers in complementary poses, which would make them suitable for use as a pair on either side of a central axis. There are a number of parallels for these representations on both flat panels and pyxides. A figure of Hygeia from a medicine container in the Dumbarton Oaks Collection sits in the same pose, as does an Apostle or philosopher with a book in the Museo Civico in Bologna.2 The seated Christ on an ivory pyxis in Berlin, dated to the fifth century, is particularly close in pose and treatment of drapery to the younger of the two figures on the Kenchreai plaques (Cat. no. 2), except that on the pyxis the right hand is raised in a speaking gesture and only the left hand grasps the scroll.3 The older man represented on the ivory plaque (Cat. no. 1) displays a hair arrangement somewhat similar to a seated consul(?) in the British Museum.4 The motif changed little through the sixth century, as the doors from the Church of St. Barbara, Old Cairo, each carry at their center a very similar low relief representation of an enthroned figure.5

1 right in a gesture of speech.6 The drapery is stretched horizontally between the spread knees, W = 4.15 with diagonal folds running from the left knee to H = 7.3 the right ankle leaving the lower left leg bare. The Th = 0.3 (var.) Inv. no. SP 237 chair has a rounded back between upright posts surmounted by two superimposed rings. A bor- Ivory der along the upper edge of the plaque may be Rectangular low relief plaque in vertical orien- part of the chair back. The front legs of the chair tation. A mature bearded man is seated on a end at knee-height. They consist of a round foot high-backed chair. The man’s head is turned supporting a small block, a straight shaft, and a slightly toward his proper left shoulder and round finial over a block. A portion of the seat turned downward. The hair is combed forward cushion, decorated with a diamond design, is from the crown in strands over the forehead. visible at right. The level on which the figure’s Despite losses, the features are clearly worked, feet rest is raised higher than the feet of the chair, and include a drooping moustache and pointed perhaps on a footstool or cushion. beard. The figure wears a himation over the left The upper and lower edges of the panel are shoulder, leaving the right shoulder bare. The cut on a bevel, the top sloping down from front man holds a scroll in his left hand and raises his to back and the bottom from back to front. There

2 Hygeia: Washington, D.C., Dumbarton Oaks Col- 4 London, British Museum, Inv. no. 84,6-18,1; lection, Inv. no. 48.15; Weitzmann, Catalogue Cat. no. Dalton, Ivory Carvings 3, Pl. 2; Volbach, Elfenbeinarbeiten 10, Pl. X; Volbach, Elfenbeinarbeiten der Spätantike3 65, Cat. der Spätantike3 56, Cat. no. 65, Pl. 37. no. 84a, Pl. 46; seated philosopher: Bologna, Museo 5 Cairo, Coptic Museum, Inv. no. 738; Age of Spiri- Civico, Volbach, Elfenbeinarbeiten der Spätantike3 65, Cat. tuality 550-1, Cat. no. 495. no. 85a, Pl. 46. 6 Brilliant, Gesture and Rank 207 n. 57; H.P. L’Orange, 3 Berlin, previously Staatliche Museen, Dahlem; Studies on the Iconography of Cosmic Kingship in the Ancient Volbach, Elfenbeinarbeiten der Spätantike3 104, Cat. no. 161, World (Oslo 1953) 172-97. Pl. 82; Delbrueck, Consulardiptychen 159-60, figs. 1-2. figurative relief plaques and veneer panels 33 are random scratches and crossing striations on and he holds a scroll diagonally across his chest the back to key an adhesive. between his hands. The drapery is stretched horizontally between the spread knees, with di- Found at 14552 X 2185 agonal folds running from the left knee to the Pl. III.1 right ankle. The left leg is bare from mid-calf down. The back hem of the himation is indicated 2 between the legs in lower relief. The feet, with the toes clearly indicated, are turned outward. W = 4.2 The chair is similar to Cat. no. 1 above, but only H = 7.3 the left side is preserved. The border of the up- Th = 0.5 (var.) per edge of the plaque appears to be part of the Inv. no. SP 238 chair back and forms a three-tiered finial on the Ivory preserved post. The chair’s front legs are similar to Cat. no. 1. The level on which the man’s Rectangular low relief plaque in vertical orien- feet rest is higher than the feet of the chair, per- tation. A young, beardless man is seated on a haps on a footstool or cushion. high-backed chair. The man’s head is turned The top and bottom edges are cut on a bevel, toward his proper right shoulder and his gaze is the top sloping down from front to back, the turned slightly downward. The hair is curly and bottom from back to front. There are random ends below the ears. The features are well pre- scratches and crossing incised lines on the back served and clearly worked. The pupils of the eyes to key an adhesive. are drilled. The figure wears a himation draped over his left shoulder leaving his entire right side Found near the step at the front edge of the apse and torso nude to below the navel. The drapery at 14551 X 2183 end falls over and obscures the front left leg of the chair. The man’s arms are bent at the elbow Pl. III.2

B. INCISED BONE EROS PLAQUES

The two bone plaques with representations of erotes (Pls. III.3,4; Cat. nos. 3 and 4) are much thinner than the ivory low relief plaques, and their designs are incised into the surface. The eros on each plaque faces left, so this pair does not seem to have been planned to use together as a balanced pair. However, as they may allude to two of the seasons or months, originally there may have been—at a minimum—two more plaques with the erotes facing right, or a total of six or even more. Erotes are a common motif on late Roman bone plaques,7 and the Kenchreai examples are among the finest examples. A combination of techniques—including intaglio for the chlamys

7 For example, Rome, Antiquarium Comunale, Inv. Baltimore, Walters Art Museum, Inv. no. 71.25, Randall, nos. 17345, 17336, 17343, 17342, 18661, Albertoni, Masterpieces 88-9, Cat. no. 134, Colorpl. 43 and Inv. no. Lastrine di Rivestimento 342-349, 352, Cat. nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 71.1115, Randall, Masterpieces 94-5, Cat. no. 153. Other and 11, figs. 4-10 and 17; Ensoli and La Rocca, Aurea examples, mainly incised, include Walters Art Museum, Roma 471-2, Cat. nos. 73-6. Loverdou-Tsigarida, ÏóôÝévá Inv. no. 71.40, Randall, Masterpieces 90-1, Cat. no. 135, ðëáêßäéá 320-326, catalogues twenty-two examples of Colorpl. 44; Inv. no. 71.15, Randall, Masterpieces 86-7, incised bone as nos. 56-77, including, for example, Cat. no. 125; Athens, Benaki Museum, Inv. no. 12739, 34 chapter iii and the hollows within each section of the wings, and incision for the body—is also found on a less well-carved plaque in Baltimore.8 Surviving textiles and representations of clothing in other media present many parallels for the typical late Roman decorations on the tunics. Embroidered additions to fabrics included a horizontal band across the neck opening, two stripes running vertically on either side of the torso on the front of tunics (clavi); ornaments at the end of these stripes in the form of round, oval, or leaf forms (sigilla); square, rectangular, or round ornaments over each knee and on the shoulders (segmenta or orbiculi); epaulets; and edging at the wrists (manicae).9 A Coptic infant’s tunic of the fifth or sixth century demonstrates several of the decorative motifs depicted on the plaques with erotes; namely, orbiculi near the bottom hem, bands at the wrist, clavi ending in points (cf. Cat. no. 3), and circles on the shoulders (cf. Cat. no. 4).10 A hunter on the rim of the Meleager Plate in the Sevso Treasure also displays clavi ending in points and orbiculi on the shoulder and above the bottom hem.11 The Kenchreai erotes represent seasons, as one of the pair, Cat. no. 4, is shown wearing the warm leggings appropriate to winter. It has been suggested that the fill motif of dotted circles was apotropaic in meaning, derived from connection with mirrors and the idea of the mirror as a reflective, and therefore protective, object.12 For additional parallels, see below.

3 falls in straight strands around the face. The features are flattened with a large eye and long W = 8.4 eyebrow. He wears a long-sleeved, belted tunic H = 7.18 with cuffs and shoulder segmenta with straight Th = 0.1 edges. The clavi taper to long points. There are Inv. no. SP 721 orbiculi over each knee. The disproportionately Bone long arms are bent slightly at the elbow and held horizontally outstretched. The proper right hand Rectangular plaque in horizontal orientation. A holds a circular object (wreath ?) incised with ver- winged eros seated on a basketry stool or invert- tical lines. The left hand holds a bowl. Wings ed basket is represented by incision. The head consisting of individual long pointed feathers is in profile, facing proper right. The short hair extend on either side of the head. The body of

Marangou, Bone Carvings from Egypt 110-1, Cat. no. 132; Museum, Inv. no. 68134. Inv. no. 22180, Marangou, Bone Carvings from Egypt 111, 8 Baltimore, Walters Art Museum, Inv. no. 71.1115; Cat. no. 135; Inv. no. 18703, Loverdou-Tsigarida, Randall, Masterpieces 94-5, Cat. no. 153. ÏóôÝévá ðëáêßäéá 323-4, Cat. no. 68, fig. 40; Inv. no. 9 C. Nauerth, Koptische Textilkunst im spätantiken Ägypten: 12746, Loverdou-Tsigarida, ÏóôÝévá ðëáêßäéá 323, Die sammlung Rautenstrauch im Städtischen Museum Simeonstift Cat. no. 67, fig. 39; previously (East) Berlin, Staat- Trier (Trier 1978) 23. liche Museen, Inv. no. 3768 (location not known), 10 Private collection; De boeck, et al., Le monde copte: Wulff, Bildwerke 104, Cat. no. 344; Loverdou-Tsigarida, 45, Cat. no. 72. ÏóôÝévá ðëáêßäéá 321, Cat. no. 60, fig. 35; and previously 11 Mango and Bennett, The Sevso Treasure 135, fig. 2- (East) Berlin, Staatliche Museen, Inv. no. 2868 (loca- 55; Polydeukes (143, fig. 2-63) wears a tunic decorated tion not known), Wulff, Bildwerke 104, Cat. no. 345; with clavi that end in sigilla and the orbiculi have a cross Loverdou-Tsigarida, ÏóôÝévá ðëáêßäéá 321, Cat. no. 59, with dots in each quadrant. fig. 36. An addition to the corpus is Cairo, Coptic 12 Maquire et al., Art and Holy Powers 5-7. figurative relief plaques and veneer panels 35 each feather is excised for a colored inlay, and of the picnic scene on the Hunting Plate; Man- narrowly edged with a flat band. The upper (in- go and Bennett, The Sevso Treasure 134-5, fig. 2- ner) edge of each wing at the base of the feath- 54, -55 and -61 and 65, fig. 1-7 and -11. Simi- ers is further decorated with a flat zigzag, the lar embroidered or tapestry woven clavi ending points of which point in the direction of the feath- in arrow point motifs occur on the left and cen- ers. The end of a cloak, visible beneath the proper tral figures of the relief depicting the Miracle of right arm, billows out behind the eros. To the Cana in the Victoria and Albert Museum, Long- right of the eros is a flaring basket with the grasses hurst, Catalogue of Carvings in Ivory 33, Pl. 10; Vol- or leaves it contains projecting above the rim. bach, Elfenbeinarbeiten der Spätantike3 142, Cat. no. The basket is worked in parallel horizontal bands 247, Pl. 111. A relief in Milan, representing St. of diagonal lines slanting alternatively left to right Menas, from the same series, originally from a and right to left. The basket or stool on which chair said to be that of St. Mark at the Cathe- the eros is seated is worked in the same way. At dral at Grado, now lost, has clavi with heart- the lower left edge of the plaque are two bunch- shaped or leaf-shaped pendant ends and orbiculi es of three leaves. at the knees; Victoria and Albert Museum, Inv. The top, right, and left edges are cut, but the no. A1-1921; E. Maclagan, “An Early Christian lower edge is broken. File marks along the up- Ivory Relief of the Miracle of Cana,” BurlMag 38 per edge suggest the panel was adjusted to fit (1921) 178-95; also see for St. Menas, 181 and under an adjacent edge. The top left corner is Pl. IIIX. These reliefs are believed to have been missing. Joined from seven fragments. made in Alexandria. For an example of an oval Parallels: The absence of decorations at the orbiculus of the third to fourth century in the ends of the clavi may just be a result of the small Musée du Louvre, Inv. no. X4751, see Du Bour- size of the image. A fifth-century child’s tunic in guet, Catalogue des étoffes coptes I 50, Cat. no. A4. the Coptic textile collection of the Musée du A three-zone basket from Karanis, with han- Louvre is decorated with pointed clavi from which dles, provides a simpler example of a similar are suspended ornaments that are so small as to basket, Kelsey Museum of Archaeology, Inv. no. be barely visible; Inv. no. AC 141; Du Bourguet, 3442; Maguire et al., Art and Holy Powers 105, Cat. Catalogue des étoffes coptes I 63, Cat. no. B1. Sim- no. 42 with additional bibliography. ple, pointed clavi appear on several figures among Pl. III.3; Fig. III.1 the mosaics at Piazza Armerina, including a vin- taging eros (Room 42-3) and the dog handler in 4 the departure for the hunt at the upper left (Room 30), the wounded hunter of the boar hunt W = 8.4 (Room 30), and the nearby rider at the lower H = 6.1 right of the Small Hunt mosaic (Room 23); Th = 0.1 Dunbabin, Mosaics of Roman North Africa Pl. 202; Inv. no. SP 722 Daltrop, Jagdmosaiken Pl. 4, Pl. 10; Carandini, et Bone al., Filosofiana Pl. XXIV. A mid-fourth-century silver plate of Constantius II (337-361) in the Rectangular plaque in horizontal orientation. A Hermitage, Inv. no. 1820/79, has clavi with plain winged eros bending from the hips over a bowl pointed ends and oval segmenta placed vertically is represented by incision. The figure is seen in at the bottom of the hem; Kent and Painter, profile facing left. The short hair falls in straight Wealth of the Roman World 25, Cat. no. 11; Del- strands from the crown around the face and over brueck, Consulardiptychen 71, fig. 26. Two figures the forehead. The features are pointed, the eye have pointed clavi without suspended ornaments large, and the eyebrow long and thick. The eros on plates among the Sevso Treasure: a hunter on wears a short tunic with sleeves to below the the Meleager Plate and a dining hunter at the left elbows. Dotted circles on the shoulders represent 36 chapter iii orbiculi, and the end of a clavus shows under the groups of circles with dots at their centers, ar- figure’s left armpit. He appears to wear trousers ranged in triangles. At the lower right edge is or leggings indicated by intaglio as the area de- what appear to be the tips of two leaves. fined by the contour of the leg, leaving a raised The top, right, and left edges are cut and the line along the front of the thigh and shin. A nar- lower edge is broken. Joined from three pieces. row cloak is blown back and curls down behind Parallels: Clusters of three dotted circles, irreg- the figure. The long arms are lightly bent and the ularly spaced, occur on an incised plaque in hands, with fingers extended, touch the rim of a Washington, Dumbarton Oaks Collection, Inv. large bowl. The rim is indicated by a double no. X 293; Weitzmann, Catalogue, Cat. no. 6, Pl. incised oval. The body of the bowl appears to be VII; Loverdou-Tsigarida, ÏóôÝévá ðëáêßäéá 314, worked in a net pattern. Wings consisting of Cat. no. 41, Pl. 31. individual long pointed feathers with smaller ones Pl. III.4; Fig. III.2 at their bases extend on either side of the head. In the upper left and lower right corners are two

C. CURVED PANEL

Forty-one fragments (Cat. no. 5-45) of thin bone veneer, some assembled from more than one piece, appear—on the basis not only of the thinness and appearance of the material but also of the scale and style of the representations—to belong to a single curved panel with a straight lower edge (Pl. III.5; Fig. III.3a). The outlines and inner details of the images are mostly incised, but large areas of drapery were worked by excision. These areas were probably filled with colored wax or resin.13 Enough edge fragments survive to determine that the panel was roughly semicircular and to estimate the length of the straight base at about 60 cm. Only about 28 percent of the panel is preserved. The fragment edges are of four types. Some fragments have, on one or two adjacent edges, finished borders that clearly come from the curved top or straight lower edge of the panel (Cat. nos. 8, 9). Some fragments have edges that either were finished or broke along incised lines, where the bone was thin and vulnerable to damage (Cat. nos. 5, 7). It is not possible to differentiate between these. Some fragments have irregularly broken edges (Cat. no. 18). And, finally, there are some fragments that preserve straight edges that may indicate the location of pieced joins (Cat. no. 5, right edge; Cat. no. 16, bottom edge). The very large size of this panel would have required that it be pieced from four to six pieces of flat bone, probably scapulae or pelvic bones. The striations cut on the reverses support this assumption, as they run in at least three distinctly different directions. The representation as preserved consists of, from left: a palm branch with decorative spiral; two attendants, a youth facing right toward a figure with what seems to be draped hands; a figure with heavy boots approaching toward center from left wearing an elaborate and long paludamentum with tied corners; a central enthroned figure with his proper right hand raised in a speaking gesture; a palm branch projecting from the floor line; a frontal figure

13 Rodziewicz, E. Stylistical and Technical Components 405; and see above, Chapter II, n. 107. figurative relief plaques and veneer panels 37 draped in long woman’s (?) clothing with fine, leather boots; two attendants with frontal bodies facing each other; and a large amphora at lower right. Additional fragments of drapery seem to come from this panel but cannot be securely placed. The high-backed chair of the central figure is covered with a large pillow. A spotted cloth (leopard skin?) is draped across the back and arms of the chair. The preserved foot of this figure is shod in a soft, sock-like covering decorated with a design of crossing bands with a floral ornament at each intersection.14 The foot is placed on a simple footstool with two arches across its front and one along each side. There are four feet preserved in addition to that of the central figure. Two feet wear boots with checked upper parts or stockings. These may be zancae, heavy boots worn by messen- gers and, by the fifth century, by riding attendants of the emperor.15 Two feet are shod with elegant, pointed-toe leather-looking shoes with a moccasin-like curved line of stitching around the toe. These are campagi, low shoes of black leather worn by officials.16 In each case, one foot faces left, one right. One must assume that the figures belonging to these feet were shown frontally with their feet splayed out. The scene appears to represent a seated emperor, consul, and/or agonothetes guarded on either side by two pairs of attendants, consisting of one senior (higher, more central) and one junior individual (Pls. III.6-.8; Figs. III.3a-b).17 The identities of the figures directly on either side of the central figure are not certain. It is possible that they are personifications of Rome (left) and Constantinople (right), or that the figure at left is receiving an honor from the central figure and the figure at the right is either a personification of a city or a court attendant. The identification of the left figure as Roma is based on the position to the left of the seated figure, heavy boots, short belted tunic, and elaborate cloak.18 The identification of the right figure is based on its position and flowing garb; however, representations of Constantinople are normally shown wearing a long chiton and pallium.19 The drapery may represent a pallium but it also appears somewhat like the flowing robe shown in representations of the eunuchs who served as court attendants to the emperor.20 If so, the central scene might represent a victorious gladiator, military figure, or official approaching from the left to the consul/emperor, who is attended by a court official on the right. The identification of these flanking figures, thus, remains uncertain. The standing attendants at the far right of the seated figure face one another. The shorter attendant at the far left also faces center, and the head of the taller figure at left probably faced him.

14 These are apparently the red leather calcei worn 17 Stern, Constantius II 289. by senators, Delbrueck, Consulardiptychen, 53-4. However, 18 For a further discussion of the identification of this a hunting boy from the Large Hunt mosaic at Piazza figure, see Chapter VII. Armerina wears shoes with an overall crisscross pattern 19 Bühl, Constantinopolis und Roma 11. similar to the shoes on this figure; Daltrop, Jagdmosaiken 20 For example, the figure at the lower left in the Pl. 24. The figure of Campania in the Notitia Dignitatum ivory diptych in Munich, Staatsbibliothek; Delbrueck, is shown with pointed shoes decorated with crossing Consulardiptychen 181, N45, fig. 1; Volbach, Elfenbeinarbeiten bands; Berger, Insignia of the Notitia Dignitatum Pl. 103. der Spätantike3 46, Cat. no. 45, Pl. 25; Salomonson Late 15 Delbrueck, Consulardiptychen 38. Roman Earthenware 65, Pl. XIX,2. 16 Delbrueck, Consulardiptychen 37. 38 chapter iii

The proposed reconstruction of the composition (Fig. III.3b) is based on comparisons with similar representations of “tribunal” scenes. These show an enthroned central figure— emperor, consul, and/or agonothetes—often in front of an architectural backdrop, with feet supported on a footstool. Subsidiary attendants, often in pairs, flank the main figure. In late antiquity, circus scenes of race or hunt and related subsidiary elements such as vases and palm branches are common additions.21 This type of official scene can be traced back at least to the first century, when it appears on a silver cup from Boscoreale and on the painted tomb of C. Vestorius Priscus from Pompeii.22 In this painting, Priscus is seated on a sella curulis on a high podium, accompanied by two lictors and ten togati. There is a large lekythos on the right and an arena scene on the left. Sculptured above are erotes and snakes. Tri- bunal scenes became more frequent in the later Roman empire. A version of the composition in a monumental and public context was painted in Egypt in the late third century in the imperial cult room at Luxor.23 Mosaics of the mid-fourth century at Centcelles, Spain, show Constans(?) in scenes of imperial address and investment.24 A similar scene is partially preserved on the fragment of a glass dish, found during excavations in the Roman Forum, that is decorated with a scene representing the vicennalia of an emperor, perhaps Constan- tius II.25 At far right is the upper part of a vase and the tip of a branch, perhaps a palm. The best-known parallel is the silver Missorium of Theodosius in Madrid, which displays an expanded scene of the same type with three enthroned figures.26 As at Kenchreai, the attendants consist of pairs of a taller and a shorter figure; however, on the Missorium they represent armed guards with shields and they face frontally, not toward each other. Variants of this type of scene are frequent among the consular diptychs. These often show personi-

21 Gabelmann, Circusspiele 25. 24 This structure may have served as the tomb of 22 Cup from Boscoreale, now lost, formerly in the Constans I (d. 350); Schlunk, Die Mosaikkuppel von Centcelles Rothschild Collection; R. Bianchi-Bandinelli, Rome: The 71-92, 135-45, 146-57; L. Domènech y Montanor, Center of Power, 500 B.C. to A.D. 200 (New York: George Centcelles (Barcelona 1931); F. Cambrubí Alemany, Braziller, 1970) 204, fig. 223; Gabelmann, Audienz- und RACrist 19 (1942) 87ff.; F. Cambrubí Alemany, El Tribunalszenen 198-9, Cat. no. 45. Gabelmann provides monumento paleocristiano de Centcelles (Barcelona 1953); H. reference to Castrén, Ordo populusque pompeianus 120; J. Schlunk, “Untersuchungen im frühchristlichen Mauso- Clarke, Art in the Lives of Ordinary Romans (Berkeley: Uni- leum von Centcelles,” in Neue deutsche Ausgrabungen im versity of California Press, 2003) 196-8, figs. 109-110. Mittelmeergebiet und im Vorderen Orient (Berlin, 1959) 358, For tomb of C. Vestorius Priscus see G. Spani, “La fig. 11; Irving Lavin, “The Hunting Mosaics of Antioch tomba dell’edile Vestorio Prisco a Pompeii,” MemLinc s. and Their Sources,” DOP 17 (1963) 259 n. 354; dated vii 3, 6 (1943) 237-315. to mid-fourth century by Sear, Roman Wall and Vault 23 Around 300, the Temple of Amon became a le- Mosaics 175-6, fig. 46; dated A.D. 353 by Gabelmann, gionary fortress, a statue of Constantine was subsequently Audienz- und Tribunalszenen 208-210. For alternative erected, and behind the hypostyle hall, in front of what interpretation, see also Warland, Status und Formular 192- was originally the bark shrine of the sanctuary and then 201. a sanctuary of Alexander, a chapel of the imperial cult 25 Rome, Antiquarium Comunale, Inv. no. 7233; was created. In addition to the central scene of the Harden, Glass of the Caesars 223-4, Cat. no. 124. tetrarchs Diocletian, Maximian, Galerius, and Con- 26 Madrid, Real Academia de la Historia; El disco de stantius Chlorus, there was a representation of the two Teodosio; J.R. Mélida, El disco de Teodosio (Madrid 1930); augusti on a double throne; Kalavrezou-Maxeiner, The García y Bellido, Esculturas romanas no. 494; Pirzio Biroli Imperial Chamber at Luxor 225-51; J.G. Deckers, “Die Stefanelli, L’Argento dei Romani, 308, Cat. no. 196, fig. 245; Wandmalerei im Kaiserkultraum von Luxor,” JdI 94 Spätantike und frühes Christentum 645-7, Cat. no. 228; (1979) 628ff.; Spätantike und frühes Christentum 267-71, Toynbee and Painter, Silver Picture Plates 27-8, Cat. no. figs. 97-9, 102, and 103. 16, Pl. Xa. figurative relief plaques and veneer panels 39 fications of Rome and Constantinople holding fasces, sometimes combined with an attached flag, flanking the seated consul.27 The composition also appears on other official presentation objects. The silver Missorium of Ardabur Aspar carries personifications of Rome (left) and Constantinople (right).28 Rome is shown heavily booted, wearing a short, belted chiton, and holding fasces with a flag near its top with her left hand and a globe with her right. This figure appears to be a good parallel for the few fragments that may come from the left of the seated figure on the Kenchreai bone panel.29 Elements of the scene occur on private objects as well; e.g., standing figures holding a flag appear on several simple bone plaques.30 A version with only the seated figure is depicted on a bone tondo in the Vatican Library which shows a poet seated on a chair with its back covered with a spotted cloth.31 An interesting truncated version of the scene, transposed to a Christian theme, is preserved on a fragmentary Coptic textile in the collection of the Indiana University Art Museum.32 It shows Christ enthroned on a heavy cushion on a cross-legged chair with a straight back. Christ’s right arm is extended and the hand gestures in address. A heavily bearded man standing at the left is identified by an inscription as Simon. The same format and gesture of address of the main figure appear on the so-called Murano diptych, an ivory relief of a seated Christ with Peter and Paul and two angels in attendance.33 On the Kenchreai curved panel, the depictions of the hands of the central figure and the attendants may be clues to the subject. The speaking gesture of the central figure’s right hand is common in enthroned figures; for example, it is found on one of the panels of the Probianus diptych.34 On diptychs in which the consul is shown as agonothetes, with palm branches and other symbols of the games, the right hand is normally shown holding the mappa, a cloth thrown out by the presiding official to inaugurate the games, rather than being raised in a speaking gesture.35 Both motifs occur, but the latter is less common. On a terracotta missorium from Ephesus, dated ca. 400, the central figure (emperor initiating games?) holds a mappa in his left hand and raises the right in a speaking gesture.36 The same pose

27 E.g., the Orestes Diptych, London, Victoria and Pl. IV, 2; Albertoni, Lastrine di Rivestimento 371, 376, 379 Albert Museum; Delbrueck, Consulardiptychen Pl. 32. fig. 67, n. 87, n. 127. 28 Florence, Museo Archeologico Nazionale, Inv. no. 32 Bloomington, Indiana University Art Museum, 2588; Delbrueck, Consulardiptychen 156, Pl. 35; Ori e argenti Inv. no. 72.126.3. 71, Cat. no. 235; Bühl, Constantinopolis 131; Baratte, La 33 Ravenna, Museo Nazionale; Martini and Rizzardi, vaiselle d’argent dans l’Afrique romaine et byzantine 126-7; Avori bizantini e medievali 62-5, Cat. no. 2, Pl. II; Volbach, Toynbee and Painter, Silver Picture Plates 28-9, Cat. no. Elfenbeinarbeiten der Spätantike3 87, Cat. no. 125, Pl. 66. 17, Pl. XIa. 34 Berlin, Staatsbibliothek, Ms. theol. lat. fol. 323; 29 In late Roman regalia, the fasces becomes one, or dated ca. 400, Volbach, Elfenbeinarbeiten der Spätantike3 54- at most two long curved rods to which is attached a flag, 5, Cat. no. 62, Pl. 34 (left). Apuleius, Met. 2, 21, describes not an axe, decorated with a laurel wreath and an im- this gesture in use by a guest at a banquet about to speak, age of the consul; Delbrueck, Consulardiptychen 64-5. “Thelyphron ... held out his right hand ... shutting down 30 For attendants bearing a flag, see Princeton Uni- the two smaller fingers and stretching out the other three, versity Art Museum, Inv. no. 52-73, in which the hand and pointing up with his thumb a little... .” carrying the flag is covered; Loverdou-Tsigarida, ÏóôÝévá 35 For example, the mosaic from Centcelles; see ðëáêßäéá 309, Cat. no. 27, fig. 25; and Athens, Benaki Gabelmann, Audienz- und Tribunalszenen 208-10; however, Museum, Inv. no. 12754; Loverdou-Tsigarida, ÏóôÝévá cf. Halberstadt, Domschatz, early fifth century, Volbach, ðëáêßäéá 309, Cat. no. 26, Pl. 29. Elfenbeinarbeiten der Spätantike3 423, Cat. no. 35, Pl. 19. 31 Vatican Library, Inv. no. 6340; Kanzler, Gli avori 36 St. Clair, Imperial Virtue 153, with references. dei musei profano e sacro della Biblioteca Vaticana I, no. 14, 40 chapter iii appears on a relief of an imperial priest.37 At the opposite edge of the Kenchreai fragment showing the seated figure’s left hand is a small incised detail that could represent the edge of a mappa. Another aspect of the Kenchreai panel also may indicate an imperial scene. The hands of the taller attendants on both sides of the relief are draped. There are two possible inter- pretations of this draping; first, that it represents the covering of hands, manus velatae, in the presence of the emperor, or second, that it represents either the giving of elaborately decorated cloth as a prize to combatants in the games or coins held in a cloth.38 The veiling of hands is thought already to have occurred in the second century, and it became a fixed aspect of the ritual in the court of the tetrarchs, signifying submission and the sacral nature of the emperor.39 Its first documented use as part of court ceremonial dates from the time of Julian.40 Even the hands of the erotes holding gifts or produce are covered on the Mis- sorium of Theodosius.41 The hands of the attendants flanking the emperor at Centcelles are covered by large pieces of cloth or clothing. These scenes are the closest to the Kenchreai panel in this aspect of the representation.42 However, debate continues concerning the iconography of the seated figures on the Centcelles mosaics, which may not represent an emperor. However, if this interpretation of the curved panel is correct, the veiled hands are a feature that supports the identification of the seated figure as an emperor.43 Additional details indicate that the panel’s central figure represents an official of consular and/or imperial rank. Decorated orbiculi that may indicate status or office are preserved on several of the fragments of drapery. As not all of these are from the central figure, and there is inadequate evidence to determine to which other figure(s) they belong, the reconstruction places them over the hands of the attendants, as discussed above. Embroidered insignia can represent official status. The sunburst was embroidered with gold thread to decorate the

37 Paris, Musée du Louvre, Inv. no. OA 9062; St. although S. also suggests that the curved cloth may Clair, Imperial Virtue fig. 21; Delbrueck, Consulardiptychen represent a sort of lasso used by venatores, see loc. cit. 221, no. 57, Pl. 57; Volbach, Elfenbeinarbeiten der Spätantike3 60. 53, no. 58, Pl. 31. 39 Gabelmann, Audienz- und Tribunalszenen 205, n. 38 The depiction of the presentation of cloth as a 766; rf. A. Dieterich, Der Ritus der verhüllten Hände (Leipzig, prize in the arena is thought to be represented on an 1911); J.G. Deckers, “Die Huldigung der Magier,” in Die ARS (North African red slip) lanx with a tribunal heiligen drei Könige 20-32. scene; Athens, Benaki Museum, Inv. no. 12427, Age of 40 Kalavrezou-Maxeiner, The Imperial Chamber at Luxor Spirituality 92-3, Cat. no. 83 and on a rectangular 235 n. 33; Alföldi, Monarchische Repräsentation 34; Del- ARS dish in Cairo, Egypt Museum, Inv. no. 86116, brueck, Consulardiptychen 62. Salomonson, Late Roman Earthenware 58, Pl. XIII,1, 41 Noted by Reece, The Myths and Messages of Silver see 59 n. 27 for ancient literary references. How- Plate 145. ever, Salomonson, following Fuhrmann, interprets 42 Schlunk, Die Mosaikkuppel von Centcelles 74-5, Pl. 19a; a similar scene on a lanx from Ephesus, now in 87, Pl. 21a. Vienna, Kunsthistorisches Museum, Inv. no. IV. 2431, 43 J. Arce, “Nuevas reflexiones sobre la iconografía as a distribution of coins or small gifts from a cloth; de la cúpula de Centelles,” in Centcelles, El monumento Salomonson, Late Roman Earthenware 53 n.3, 54, Pl. XI,1; tardorromano 11-20; R. Warland, “Die Kuppelmosaiken XIX,1. The same theme may appear on a dish from von Centcelles als Bildprogramm spätantiker Privat- Athribis in Berlin, Staatliche Museen, Inv. no. 31324; repräsentation,” in Centcelles, El monumento tardorromano 21- Salomonson, Late Roman Earthenware 59, Pl. XIV,1, 35. figurative relief plaques and veneer panels 41 toga picta or toga praetexta, the prerogative of the emperor and of men who celebrated a tri- umph and then provided games.44 It also designates the imperial guards.45 On his grave- stone, Claudius Herculanus, an imperial guard, is shown wearing a cape or tunic decorated with a large sunburst.46 On a panel of a consular diptych in Munich, orbiculi embroidered with an eight-petaled ornament are used as overall decoration on the mantle of the consul and also on the shoulder of the attendant figure.47 Sunbursts, a common shield motif of the Roman army, occur in the Notitia Dignitatum where they signify military units, and are seen elsewhere in imperial imagery.48 On the Missorium of Theodosius, the shields of two attendants, the second from left and second from right, are decorated with sunbursts made up of alternating polished and matt-finished rays, each ending in a concave curve.49 Two decorative roundels with sunbursts appear above the aedicula framing the seated image of Constantius II on the Calendar of 354, a copy of a calendar codex the original of which is dated by the appended lists of consuls and prefects. The panels between the rays end in a concave curve.50 Some of the orthostats in the imperial cult room at Luxor had panels with a radiating pattern, preserved in the copies painted ca. 1856 by J.G. Wilkinson.51 A silver plate in the Mâcon Treasure includes among its many medallions several with a similar radiating pattern, mainly near the central scene of sacrifice.52 The imperial association of this design may explain why the pattern is rare on the numerous preserved orbiculi from private garments, which consist mainly of interlace patterns or figurative scenes.53 There are numerous fourth- and fifth-century parallels for several additional features of the panel. Palm branches refer to victory in the circus games, and are often represented on a predella-like panel beneath the standing or seated consul in tribunal scenes.54 The amphora may refer to the meal that was part of the festivities that accompanied the games that was also referred to by images of drinking horns, loaves of bread, fruits, and vegeta- bles.55 The use of circus imagery may have been a subtle signifier of the paganism of a magistrate during the later fourth century, an extension of the use of the Circus Maximus

44 Delbrueck, Consulardiptychen 53-4; Alföldi, Monar- tuality 78-9, Cat. no. 67 and earlier bibliography. chische Repräsentation 178. 51 Kalavrezou-Maxeiner, The Imperial Chamber at Luxor 45 Elaborately embroidered capes and helmets were fig. 6. produced in state-run workshops for gifts to members 52 London, British Museum, Inv. no. GR 1978.12- of the imperial guard (protectores and candidati) and awards 31.1; Pirzio Biroli Stefanelli, L’Argento dei Romani, 100, for bravery to the regular guard (scutari); Speidel, Late fig. 73; 284-5, fig. 285, Cat. no. 135. Roman Military Decoration 232-3. 53 Kendrick, Catalogue of Textiles passim; Volbach, Late 46 CIL III, 327; Speidel, Late Roman Military Decora- Antique Coptic and Islamic Textiles passim; Du Bourguet, tion 232-3, n. 19. Catalogue des étoffes coptes I 56-60, Cat. nos. A16-18, A23. 47 Munich, Staatsbibliothek; Delbrueck, Consular- 54 L.E. Vaag, “The Stamped Decoration on Pho- diptychen 181, N45, fig. 1; Volbach, Elfenbeinarbeiten der caean Red Slip Ware,” in Late Antiquity, Art in Context 222- Spätantike3 46, Cat. no. 45, Pl. 25. 3; Boethius diptych, Brescia, Museo Civico Cristiano; 48 Berger, Insignia of the Notitia Dignitatum, fig. 53- Volbach, Elfenbeinarbeiten der Spätantike3 32, Cat. no. 6, Pl. 5; 49-50, 229 n. 64. 3; Areobindus diptychs in Besançon, Museum, and Paris, 49 El disco de Teodosio 190, Pl. IV. (2), (3); Strong, Greek Cluny Museum, Volbach, Elfenbeinarbeiten der Spätantike3 and Roman Gold and Silver Plate Pl. 64. 33, Cat. nos. 9 and 10, Pl. 5. 50 Vatican Library, cod. Barb. lat. 2154; Age of Spiri- 55 Delbrueck, Consulardiptychen 72-3. 42 chapter iii setting in Rome on contorniates for pro-pagan propaganda, as Alföldi has noted.56 The proposed iconography and date are discussed further in Chapter VII. Most of the fragments of this panel were found in the area from 14554-14555 X 2180- 2181, mainly near the stack of glass opus sectile mosaics at 14555.8 X 2180. Their thickness ranges from 0.07 to 0.09 cm.

5 6

W = 17 W = 5.3 H = 16.5 H = 4.2 Inv. no. SP 399A + 402 Th = 0.08 Bone Inv. no. SP 399B + 736 + 755 A fragment preserves portions of a rectangular foot- Bone stool, the front legs and rounded cushion of a chair, A fragment with excised drapery folds with one and the left leg of a seated male figure. At the left horizontal and several vertical folds falling to a are excised drapery folds of a standing figure and curved hem. the tip of a foot. At the right is part of the draped A horizontal baseline is incised 0.4 cm above right leg and drapery of a standing figure. Between the straight edge. the chair leg and this figure is a palm branch. The Fig. III.5 foot of the seated figure wears a soft shoe decorated by crossing bands with flowers at their inter- 7 sections. The footstool has arched cutouts at the bottoms of the two visible sides. The chair leg has W = 3.7 a small cylindrical foot, horizontal fillets at top and H = 5.4 bottom, and a shaft of vertical flutes. It supports a Inv. no. SP 403 round cushion decorated with a square-and-dot Bone pattern and bordered with small circles, perhaps pearls. A fragment with excised drapery folds. The folds A horizontal baseline is incised 0.4 cm above fall vertically to a foot pointing to the right and the straight edge. The drapery is excised within horizontally across the top. At the right of the foot the major contours, leaving raised lines to indi- is an incised grass-like tuft. cate folds. A horizontal baseline is incised 0.4 cm above Parallels: In addition to the appearances cit- a part of the straight edge. ed above, a palm branch is shown on the large Fig. III.6 shoulder medallion of a figure, perhaps an emperor, on a fragment of a glass largitio, a present given to commemorate his anniversary of ascen- sion to power, once in the collection of Julien Gréau; Sarasota, Ringling Museum of Art; A. Oliver, “Tapestry in Glass,” JGS (1975) 68-70. Pl. III.6; Fig. III.4

56 Polzer, Circus Pavements 413; Alföldi, Kontorniaten 48ff. figurative relief plaques and veneer panels 43

8 restored, on the ambulatory ceiling mosaic of Sta. Costanza in Rome, the mausoleum of Constan- W = 6.0 tina, the daughter of Constantine, who is general- H = 10.4 ly believed to have been buried here after she Inv. no. SP 409 died in 354; this panel is not illustrated in Wil- Bone pert, Die römischen Mosaiken 272-321; but see H. Stern, “Les mosaiques de l’église de Saint Con- A fragment that preserves the bottom right corner stance à Rome,” DOP 12 (1958) 202-4, Vault VI, of the panel. On it is represented a large metal (sil- fig. 28; J. Rasch, Das Mausoleum der Kaiserin Hele- ver or bronze) amphora with a swing handle. Part na 98. D.J. Stanley has pointed out that the recent of the lip is preserved at the left. The neck curves out to a fillet on the shoulder to which is attached a discovery under the narthex of Sta. Costanza of thin curved handle placed upright. The body curves a martyrium attached to the church of Sant’ inward to the base, which is not preserved. The Agnese, built ca. 340-350, means that Sta. Cos- vessel was excised and the lip, shoulder, and handle tanza must have been built later, perhaps as late are indicated by raised lines. To the right is an in- as the early fifth century; D.J. Stanley, “Sant’ cised grass-like tuft. Agnese, Santa Constanza, and the Mausoleum A horizontal baseline is incised 0.25 cm above of Constantina,” AJA 97 (1993) 308 (abstract). the straight edge; at 0.25 cm from the right edge There is a similar swing handle on the Projecta it meets at approximately a right angle with an casket from the mid- or later fourth century, Age incised line that runs parallel to the curved edge. of Spirituality 331, Cat. no. 310; Shelton, The Parallels: Thus far no actual silver or bronze Esquiline Treasure 69, Cat. no. 1, Pl. 1; A. Cam- example of the vessel represented on this frag- eron, “The Date and the Owners of the Esquiline ment has been identified. The shape is not among Treasure, AJA 89 (1985) 135-45, fig. 1, Pl. 29 and the silver vessels published by F. Drexel, “Alex- K.J. Shelton, “The Esquiline Treasure: The Na- andrinische Silbergefässe der Kaiserzeit,” BJB ture of the Evidence,” AJA 89 (1985)147-55; K.S. 118 (1909) Taf. VI. However, vessels of this Painter, “Il tesoro dell’Esquilino,” in Ensoli and general shape, with elongated, curved bodies, La Rocca, Aurea Roma 140-6. There are also swing were used to hold water; R. Nenova-Merdjano- handles with terminals in the shape of duck’s va, “Bronze Vessels and the Toilette in Roman heads on an object in the Esquiline Treasure, Times,” From the Parts to the Whole 2, JRA Suppl. Shelton, The Esquiline Treasure Cat. no. 57-8, Pl. 39 (2002) 200-1, fig. 1. A large vessel of this type 48. Similar swing handles were attached to a without handles is represented on the gilded sil- fluted bowl in the Mildenhall Treasure; these are ver Projecta casket, London, British Museum, simple, squarish, and undecorated; London, Inv. no. 66.12-29.1, Dalton, Catalogue of Early British Museum Inv. no. 1946.10-7.15 (bowl) and Christian Antiquities 61-4, Cat. no. 304, Pl. XIII- 1946.10-7.16-17 (handles); Kent and Painter, XVIII; Shelton, The Esquiline Treasure Pls. 2-3. A Wealth of the Roman World 36-7, Cat. no. 66/7. large amphora-like container is also shown on a Fig. III.7 silver casket from the Sevso Treasure; Mango and Bennett, The Sevso Treasure fig. 14-27. A bone 9 semicircular plaque was excavated at the Athe- nian Agora from a deposit of the fourth-fifth W = 5.1 century with an incised representation of an of- H = 7.85 ficial flanked by shields (or bundles of cloth?), and Inv. no. SP 404 + 700 + 701 a full-bellied amphora; T.Leslie Shear, “The Bone Campaign of 1936,” Hesperia 6 (1937) 380-1, fig. 46. The closest parallel to the shape of the Ken- A fragment with excised drapery folds falling to a chreai amphora is a representation, if correctly curved hem at top left. Other parallel folds further 44 chapter iii to the right are incised. The drapery corners are 12 tied in knots. At the right edge is the heel of a W = 5.0 heavily booted foot(?), and just above the baseline H = 13.4 are two incised grass-like tufts. Inv. no. SP 405 A horizontal baseline is incised 0.3 cm above the straight edge. Bone Parallels: Among others, the pallia worn by the A fragment preserves the bottom left corner of tetrarchs in the imperial cult room at Luxor have the panel. From the left are represented what may knotted corners; Kalavrezou-Maxeiner, The Im- be a plant tendril, the tip of an upright palm perial Chamber at Luxor fig. 11. The incised drap- branch, and a section of drapery with excised ery visible in front of the figure of Polydeukos on vertical folds. the Meleager Plate of the Sevso Treasure ends The bottom edge is broken off, perhaps along in a knot; Mango and Bennett, The Sevso Treasure the incised baseline. At 0.35 cm from the left edge 122, fig. 2-43. The pallium worn by a heavily an incised line runs parallel to the curving left booted Roma on a gold medallion of Constan- edge, forming an approximate right angle with tius II appears to be knotted; Gnecchi, I Meda- the remaining top edge of the baseline. glioni Romani I 30, Pl. 11,5. Fig. III.10 Fig. III.8 13 10 W = 1.6 W = 2.1 H = 4.3 H = 5.1 Inv. no. SP 406 Inv. no. SP 408 Bone Bone An irregular fragment that preserves a section of A fragment with excised horizontal drapery at the the curved edge of the panel on the left side and its top and falling vertically to a boot. parallel incised margin line. A horizontal baseline is incised 0.3 cm above the straight edge. Fig. III.11

Fig. III.9 14

11 W = 1.8 H = 2.2 W = 1.75 Inv. no. SP 720b H = 0.85 Th = 0.09 Bone Inv. no. SP 409a A fragment with a human face in right profile gaz- Bone ing upward. At the base of the neck is a double line, perhaps the neckline of a garment. This face A small irregular fragment showing the incised must belong to a figure on the left, probably the baseline. figure closest to the seated figure. Fig. III.12 figurative relief plaques and veneer panels 45

15 ject, similar to that in Cat. no. 15. The left figure has long straight hair combed forward over the fore- W = 9.9 head and along the side of the face. The garment H = 3.1 worn by this figure has incised folds over the torso Inv. no. SP 411 + 525a and under the left arm and a diagonally striped Bone band of edging at the neckline. There is a large A fragment that preserves a section of the curved orbiculus, decorated with rays, on the shoulder. The edge on the upper left side of the panel. At left is smaller figure has a similar hair arrangement, and the top of a human head in right profile preserved the garment has a similar neckline. down to the level of the eyebrow. The hair, which A margin line is incised parallel to and 0.4 cm is excised, falls straight from the crown with a from the edge of the panel. fringe-like tuft in front; it appears to be longer in Parallels: See Cat. no. 15. the back and pulled into a knot. To the right is Pl. III.8; Fig. III.14 preserved the right shoulder of a taller figure. Be- tween the figures is a covered hand or object, 17 worked by excision. A margin line is incised parallel to and 0.25 W = 3.7 cm from the edge of the panel. H = 3.2 Parallels: For a figure with its incised hair Inv. no. SP 412 combed forward except for a bun at the nape of Bone the neck and a sort of cowlick over the forehead, see the Cairo Casket, (Pl. IV.8), now Coptic A fragment of the panel that probably should be Museum, Inv. no. 8486 (previously Egypt Mu- placed just below and to the right of the preceding seum, Inv. nos. 9060-9063); in Loverdou-Tsigar- fragment. To the right is the back curve of a hu- ida, ÏóôÝévá ðëáêßäéá 305-7, Cat. nos. 16-20, Pls. man head in profile facing left with a knotted hair 1-3; Age of Spirituality 332-3, Cat. no. 311; Strzy- style similar to the figure on Cat. no. 15. Further gowski, Koptische Kunst nos. 7060-7064, Pl. XI; also to the right is the proper left shoulder of the Athens, Benaki Museum Inv. no. 12754, Lover- small figure, clothed with checked garment. The dou-Tsigarida, ÏóôÝévá ðëáêßäéá 309, Cat. no. 26, checked fabric on the shoulder continues the pat- fig. 29. tern seen at the neck of the right figure on the preceding fragment. At the bottom right edge may be Pl. III.7; Fig. III.13 the top of an object that is too fragmentary to 16 identify. A margin line is incised parallel to and 0.4 cm W = 10.4 from the edge of the panel. H = 8.7 Parallels: A representation of a consul(?) in the Inv. no. SP 410 + 508 + 741 British Museum has a shoulder orbiculus of similar checked fabric; Volbach, Elfenbeinarbeiten der Bone Spätantike3 56, Cat. no. 65, Pl. 37, dated ca. 400(?). A fragment that preserves a section of the curved The figure of Paris on the Meleager Plate of the edge on the upper right side of the panel. At left is Sevso Treasure has shoulder orbiculi of dotted a human figure, the head in profile and the pre- checked fabric; Mango and Bennett, The Sevso served upper left body frontal, looking to the right Treasure 126, fig. 2-45. Theodosius and the Au- in the direction of a shorter human figure in left gustus to his right have large orbiculi and manicae profile. An excised area between the two figures of checked fabric, El disco de Teodosio 189 Pl. III may represent an extended covered hand or ob- (1) and (2). See also an incised bone plaque, lo- 46 chapter iii cation unknown, of a figure carrying a basket and 19 an amphora with a cross-hatched orbiculus on the W = 3.5 shoulder; said to be in the Brooklyn Museum of H = 5.85 Art by Loverdou-Tsigarida, ÏóôÝévá ðëáêßäéá 337, Th = 0.07 Cat. no. 112, fig. 66. Inv. no. SP 400 + 511 Fig. III.15 Bone 18 A fragment with drapery, including an excised area with three folds at the lower right corner, a trian- W = 3.35 gular area with straight edges meeting at a right H = 3.6 angle and decorated with a dotted design similar Th = 0.07 to Cat. no. 18, an area with diagonal lines con- Inv. no. SP 399a verging at the corner of these straight edges, and Bone an undecorated area. Parallels: For dotted fabric over a chair back, A fragment with part of a left forearm and wrist, see Cat. no. 18. probably belonging to the central figure. The sleeve ends in a projecting cuff, a row of circles, Fig. III.17 a thin stripe, an excised smooth area, and two stripes about halfway to the elbow. Below the arm 20 is an area of dotted drapery. A small curved tri- W = 2.6 angle is incised at the left edge of the drapery. H = 2.8 The lower curved edge and right side are Inv. no. SP 401 broken off along incised lines. Parallels: The design of the cuff and sleeve is Bone identical to that worn by Constantius II in the A fragment with drapery, one half excised with Calendar of 354; Age of Spirituality 78-9, Cat. no. possible small folds, and the other half dotted as in 67 and earlier bibliography. For the representa- Cat. nos. 18 and 19 with several incised lines run- tion of dotted fabric over the back of a chair, see ning roughly parallel to one edge. the plaque of the tragic poet in the Vatican Li- brary, Inv. no. 6340; Kanzler, Gli avori dei musei Fig. III.18 profano e sacro della Biblioteca Vaticano I, no. 14, Pl. 21 IV,2; Albertoni, Lastrine di Rivestimento 379, fig. 67. The dotted fabric may represent leopard skin, as W = 2.8 has been proposed for the dotted fabric on the H = 2.7 glass fragment at the Ringling Museum cited Inv. no. SP 415 above, Cat. no. 5; A. Oliver, “Tapestry in Glass,” JGS (1975) 69. Bone Fig. III.16 A fragment with four fingers of a proper right hand. The index and middle fingers are joined and extended. The fourth and fifth fingers are joined and curled below them. Two curving lines of drapery are incised along the lower and right edges, and nearly touching at the bottom right. Parallels: This gesture is very common; for example, the diptych of Rufus Probianus; Ber- lin, Staatsbibliothek, Ms. theol. lat. fol. 323; figurative relief plaques and veneer panels 47

Delbrueck, Consulardiptychen 250, Cat. no. 65, Taf. folds fall diagonally. The drapery below, worked 65; Volbach, Elfenbeinarbeiten der Spätantike3 54-5, by excision, has a section of horizontal folds above Cat. no. 62, Taf. 34; Diptych, Age of Spirituality a major vertical fold. 55-6, Cat. no. 53. Or see the plaque of the trag- Fig. III.22 ic poet in the Vatican Library (see Cat. no. 18). Fig. III.19 25

22 W = 3.3 H = 3.9 W = 5.7 Inv. no. SP 458 H = 8.4 Inv. no. SP 739 + 742 Bone Bone A fragment with drapery, worked by excision, consisting of horizontal and vertical sections. A fragment with portions of two small and one large orbiculi, decorated with a sunburst pattern. Between Fig. III.23 each ray is a pointed petal, the tip of which is cut off by the surrounding double rim. The back- 26 ground is excised leaving two raised lines running W = 1.6 diagonally. The most complete of the designs prob- H = 5.1 ably had sixteen rays. Inv. no. SP 460 + 467 Parallels: See nn. 43-52. Bone Fig. III.20 A fragment with drapery, mostly worked by exci- 23 sion, in vertical folds and one horizontal fold. At two points along one side are undecorated areas. W = 3.8 H = 3.4 Fig. III.24 Inv. no. SP 740 27 Bone A fragment with the background excised leaving W = 2.2 four raised lines, two running parallel to the longer H = 5.3 straight side, the other two lines running laterally Inv. no. SP 461 and diverging. A small orbiculus with a sunburst Bone pattern as in Cat. no. 22 falls on the straighter of the lateral lines. A fragment with drapery, one half worked by excision, in vertical folds and the other half smooth Fig. III.21 with parts of three leaf-like objects excised from the surface, either fillers or drapery ornaments. 24 Fig. III.25 W = 2.6 H = 6.5 Inv. no. SP 457 Bone A fragment with drapery. At the upper right corner, in the orientation illustrated, incised drapery 48 chapter iii 28 32

W = 1.5 W = 1.6 H = 3.8 H = 1.8 Inv. no. SP 462 Inv. no. SP 466 Bone Bone A fragment with drapery worked by excision, in A fragment with drapery, worked by excision, with vertical folds. one diagonal fold that falls between two parallel Fig. III.26 folds that end against one of two slightly converging folds at a right angle to these. 29 Fig. III.30

W = 4.1 33 H = 2.5 Inv. no. SP 463 W = 0.9 Bone H = 1.7 Inv. no. SP 468a A fragment with drapery, worked by excision. Bone Fig. III.27 A fragment with drapery, worked by excision, with 30 two diagonal converging folds.

W = 1.5 Fig. III.31 H = 4.9 34 Inv. no. SP 464 Bone W = 2.52 H = 2.53 A fragment with drapery, worked by excision in Inv. no. SP 468b vertical(?) folds, with two short folds perpendicular at one end. Bone Fig. III.28 A fragment with drapery, worked by excision, with two diagonal curving folds almost converging at one 31 edge. W = 1.0 Fig. III.32 H = 3.1 Inv. no. SP 465 35 Bone W = 1.43 H = 3.07 A fragment with drapery, worked by excision, with Inv. no. SP 468c two curved folds that end against a curving fold running in the opposite direction. Below this curve Bone is an undecorated area with a hook-shaped incised A fragment with drapery, worked by excision, with line running to the edge of the fragment. one fold running diagonally about one third from Fig. III.29 a finished edge. Fig. III.33 figurative relief plaques and veneer panels 49

36 40

W = 1.03 W = 1.0 H = 1.72 H = 2.1 Inv. no. SP 468d Inv. no. SP 407 Bone Bone A fragment with drapery, worked by excision, with A fragment with five equally spaced incised lines two folds falling longitudinally and a third curving running from a finished edge to a broad raised edge between them. at the opposite end. Parallel to the latter is an ex- Fig. III.34 cised band and a second raised band. The striations on the back run parallel to the lines, matching 37 the direction of the fragment with the throne legs (Cat. no. 5). This fragment may belong to the left W = 2.0 leg of the throne, but seems to have too many flutes. H = 3.18 Inv. no. SP 757k Fig. III.38 Bone 41

A fragment with drapery, worked by excision, with W = 1.35 two longitudinal folds at the edge of one side near H = 3.8 an end. Inv. no. SP 515 Fig. III.35 Bone 38 A fragment with an undecorated area along one long side, then a raised band, and then a net pat- W = 1.0 tern formed by evenly crossing diagonal incised H = 3.2 lines. Inv. no. SP 512 Bone Fig. III.39 A fragment with drapery folds indicated by incised 42 lines. One fold curves horizontally at the narrow end, three are vertical below, and two curve hori- W = 2.0 zontally at the wider end. H = 1.2 Inv. no. SP 516 Fig. III.36 Bone 39 A fragment with an area of square-and-dot pat- W = 1.45 tern similar to the cushion on Cat. no. 5, crossed H = 2.2 by two raised lines, and an undecorated area. Inv. no. SP 507 Fig. III.40 Bone A fragment with drapery folds indicated by several short, incised curved lines, facing. At one corner is an excised area with raised lines. Fig. III.37 50 chapter iii

43 side have a raised band. A diagonal line runs from the hypotenuse to the long straight edge. W = 2.2 H = 0.9 Fig. III.42 Inv. no. SP 518 45 Bone W = 1.1 A fragment with a double raised line on two edges H = 1.4 around a square-and-dot pattern similar to Cat. Inv. no. SP 522 no. 42. Bone Fig. III.41 A fragment with plain raised bands and a delicate 44 crisscross pattern incised within. W = 1.5 Fig. III.43 H = 0.7 Inv. no. SP 521 Bone A triangular fragment, worked by excision, on which the (curved) hypotenuse and short straight

D. ANIMAL PANEL I

Approximately 260 cm2 are preserved in twenty-four fragments (Cat. nos. 46-69) that seem to derive either from a single large panel of bone veneer that was pieced or from two or more very similar but smaller panels. One corner fragment (Cat. no. 57) cut at a 115o angle is preserved, suggesting that the panel was either trapezoidal or triangular. The representations on the fragments include a striding lion, birds with spotted bellies and striped wings, a dog with a collar, at least one type of hoofed animal, and a furry animal with long toes or claws, probably a bear (Pls. III.9-10). The animals are represented in a landscape of small mounds of earth surmounted with clumps of grass. There are also tall plants with clusters of round-tipped leaves along their stems. The mixture of animals and birds suggests a hunting scene, although there is no evidence for human figures. A dog faces toward the right (Cat. no. 46); most, if not all, of the other animals appear to face left, which seems appropriate for a hunting scene. In the Roman period there were sheepdogs, guard dogs, hunting hounds, massive fighting dogs and small lapdogs, which were depicted in art and described in the ancient literature, for example by Xenophon.57 The presence on this panel of a slender hound supports the identification of

57 De Cupere, Animals at Ancient Sagalassos 64; D.B. “¹ æùãñáöéêÞ óôßv Üñ÷áéá Ìáêåäovßá,” ArchEph 126 Hull, Hounds and Hunting in Ancient Greece (Chicago and (1987) 369; Keller, Die antike Tierwelt 91; Anderson, London, 1964) 31-3; L.C. Reilly, “The Hunting Frieze Hunting in The Ancient World 122-153. from Vergina,” JHS 113 (1993) 160-2; M. Andronikos, figurative relief plaques and veneer panels 51 the scene as a representation of a hunt. Hunt scenes are not common among preserved incised ivory or bone plaques, but among the exceptions are a round plaque of Artemis in the Louvre,58 a semicircular plaque in the Dumbarton Oaks Collection showing a huntsman on foot spearing a deer,59 a hunter advancing in a landscape on a plaque in St. Petersburg,60 and two plaques in Munich.61 There is also a good parallel for the composition and array of animals and plants on the low relief decoration of an ivory pyxis with a representation of Orpheus and hunters.62 Another close parallel, but in another medium, is provided by a bronze plaque inlaid with silver and copper, decorated with hunters and animals in a landscape.63 Scenes of animal combat in the arena also occur on ivory plaques, but they do not show growing plants.64 The theme of Orpheus surrounded by animals, transformed into Adam in the Garden of Eden as seen on the Carrand Diptych,65 comes close to the broad array of plants, animals, and birds and the absence on the preserved fragments of hunters on the Kenchreai panel. On balance, both Animal Panel I and Animal Panel II may be bucolic scenes, a sort of “Peaceable Kingdom,” of a type found widely in the Roman Empire.66 The two fragmentary images of birds (Cat. nos. 52 and 53) apparently represent the same species. The bird appears to have rather long, slender legs, barred wings, and a spotted belly. A species that fits this description fairly well is the spotted crake, Porzana porzana.67 The scattered arrangement and shape of the plants is paralleled on two of the ambulatory vaults of Sta. Constanza in Rome.68

58 Paris, Musée du Louvre, Inv. no. MND 713; 64 For example, the Areobindus diptychs in Zurich, Loverdou-Tsigarida, ÏóôÝévá ðëáêßäéá 319, Cat. no. 55, Besançon, Paris, and St. Petersburg, Volbach, Elfenbeinar- fig. 38. beiten der Spätantike3 32-4, Cat. nos. 8-11, Pl. 4-5. 59 Washington, D.C., Dumbarton Oaks Collection, 65 Florence, Museo Nazionale del Bargello, Inv. no. Inv. no. 58.5; Weitzmann, Catalogue 27-8, Cat. no. 16, CAR 326; Volbach, Elfenbeinarbeiten der Spätantike3 78, Nr. Pl. XIII; Loverdou-Tsigarida, ÏóôÝévá ðëáêßäéá 301, Cat. 108, Pl. 58; Spätantike und frühes Christentum 344, fig. 158; no. 6, Pl. 22. Age of Spirituality 505-7, Cat. no. 454. See Chapter VI, 60 St. Petersburg, Hermitage Museum, Inv. no. E n. 38. 761, formerly Wistrikov Collection; Loverdou-Tsigarida, 66 Age of Spirituality 247-55. ÏóôÝévá ðëáêßäéá 302, Cat. no. 8, fig. 14. 67 Birds of Africa II 109-10, Pl. 7; S. M. Goodman, 61 Munich, Staatliche Sammlung Ägyptischer Kunst, “A Preliminary checklist to the birds of Egypt (exclud- Inv. no. 4188; a hunter or gladiator attacks a lion on a ing Sinai),” in Houlihan, The Birds of Ancient Egypt 153; semicircular plaque; Loverdou-Tsigarida, ÏóôÝévá Whymper, Egyptian Birds 214, no. 290, lists them as very ðëáêßäéá 301, Cat. no. 7, Pl. 23; and Inv. no. 5351, common. In both males and females, the breast is dull Loverdou-Tsigarida, ÏóôÝévá ðëáêßäéá 303, Cat. no. 11, olive-brown, spotted with white. The spotted crake is fig. 17. There are additional plaques showing one or two somewhat less slender than is typical of members of the animals in a landscape that may be hunting scenes. rail family. At present this bird is a common migrant 62 Florence, Museo Nazionale del Bargello, Inv. no. throughout Egypt where it passes through on its way to CAR 22; Age of Spirituality 182-3, Cat. no. 161; Volbach, its winter range. Birds of Egypt 218. Elfenbeinarbeiten der Spätantike3 70, Cat. no. 92, Pl. 51 and 68 Wilpert, Die römischer Mosaiken 272-321; H. Stern, earlier bibliography. “Les mosaïques de l’église de Saint Constance à Rome,” 63 Paris, Musée du Louvre, Inv. no. BR 3448 (MND DOP XII (1958) 202-6, Vault VI, fig. 28 and Vault 889); dated to the late fourth century with earlier bib- VIII, fig. 38; see above, Cat. no. 8 for dating of liography by Ensoli and La Rocca, Aurea Roma 630-1, S. Constanza. Cat. no. 336. 52 chapter iii 46 48

W = 7.23 W = 5.5 H = 3.8 H = 4.6 Inv. no. SP 446 + 449 Inv. no. SP 450 Bone Bone A fragment with the left side broken along an in- A fragment with the bottom edge finished. At left, cised line. The upper part is incised with two large the left rear hindquarter of a lion(?) facing left, tufts of grass on small mounds of earth. Part of a worked by excision, about to spring, the long, tufted vertical plant is visible along the right edge. At the tail extends downward diagonally. Above and be- lower edge is the top of a hunting dog, in profile low the tail are short incised curved lines in groups facing right, with pointed tail, pointed ears, a sharp of three, perhaps meant to suggest its (or some other muzzle, and well-defined eye. The dog is wearing animal’s) tracks. At right is a plant with trilobed a collar of three stripes. The body of the dog is leaves equally spaced along a vertical stem. Hori- worked by excision. zontal fronds extend along the top. Pl. III.9; Fig. III.44 Fig. III.46

47 49

W = 6.5 W = 5.6 H = 2.9 H = 2.7 Inv. no. SP 447 + 448 Th = 0.07 Inv. no. SP 451 Bone Bone A fragment with a long straight bottom edge broken along an incised line or finished edge. At up- A fragment incised with the left rear hindquarter per right are two furry paws facing left, with long of an animal facing left; part of its tail preserved claws, probably belonging to a bear. At the left edge along the upper edge. Below the tail is a group of is the front of a feathery bird or a hairy animal three short incised curved lines (see Cat no. 48). facing right, with a tuft suggesting a wing or goat’s Fig. III.47 beard. At the lower edge is a large tuft of grass on two small mounds of earth; to its right are two 50 leaves. Parallels: The Hippolytus ewer in the Sevso W = 5.6 Treasure includes a representation of a goat with H =2.7 beard and long hairy coat that is similar, and an Th = 0.07 amphora, also in the Sevso Treasure, is decorated Inv. no. SP 417 with a frieze of wild animals that includes a stag Bone with a beard, Mango and Bennett, The Sevso Treasure 399, fig. 10-51 and 219, fig. 5-28. A fragment broken, at some places along incised lines, on three of the four sides. The only decora- Fig. III.45 tion is a group of three incised curved lines resem- bling blades of grass. Fig. III.48 figurative relief plaques and veneer panels 53

51 53

W = 3.7 W = 3.8 H = 2.2 H = 2.5 Th = 0.07 Inv. no. SP 504 Inv. no. SP 452a Bone Bone A fragment with part of an incised, large striding A fragment broken along an incised curve at the bird; the spotted body is similar to Cat. no. 52. At edge opposite the excised area. Along the broken lower left is the excised head of a second bird(?) edge is an excised area, perhaps a boar’s mane, with a short beak. bounded by curved incised lines. In the center is Fig. III.51 an incised curve. Parallels: A boar on the Carrand diptych, 54 Florence, Museo Nazionale del Bargello, has a short, stiff mane of this type; see n. 65. W = 3.6 H = 0.9 Fig. III.49 Inv. no. SP 501 52 Bone W = 5.3 A fragment with two converging incised curved lines H = 2.7 that come down from the upper edge to a spotted Inv. no. SP 459 horizontal object that might be an animal paw with three claw-like lines at the corner. At the opposite Bone short side, an incised line meets the tip of a pointed A fragment with part of an incised large striding shape. bird facing left. At upper left its wing displays three Fig. III.52 horizontal bars from which three parallel bars extended to the tip (not preserved). The body is 55 marked with widely spaced dots, and the edge feathers are indicated by short parallel lines. Most of W = 4.6 one leg and foot are shown, and the rear claw of H = 3.7 the other. At the edge beneath the bird is a small Inv. no. SP 505 part of a plant broken off along its incised stem. Bone Parallels: The pattern of bars on the wings is typical of representations of birds on bone A fragment with a long straight finished edge and plaques, but the dotted belly on this example is a short straight finished edge; a margin line is in- unusual, if not unique. For a bird with similar cised about 0.4 cm from the edge. Along the long wings and feet, but with banded—not spotted— straight edge are plant leaves in three groups of belly, see Athens, Benaki Museum, Inv. no. two and two cloven hooves, possibly of a boar. The 10329; Loverdou-Tsigarida, ÏóôÝévá ðëáêßäéá third side is broken along a plant stem with two 328, Cat. no. 83, Pl. 46. leaves preserved and a margin edge broken around a curved shape at one end. The long straight edge Pl. III.10; Fig. III.50 is where this fragment was abutted against another to form a large panel. Fig. III.53 54 chapter iii

56 rounded leaf tip is preserved on the broken edge beyond this line, and the tips of three excised leaf W = 1.7 shapes are on the side opposite the long edge. H = 0.5 Inv. no. SP 517 Fig. III.57

Bone 60 A fragment with two rows of leaves. W = 0.6 Fig. III.54 H = 3.15 Inv. no. SP 528 57 Bone W = 1.5 A fragment broken along the incised stem of a plant H = 2.3 with two branches. Inv. no. SP 523 Fig. III.58 Bone A corner fragment (115o) with a margin line 61 incised 0.5 cm from the finished edges and three W = 2.0 leaves of a plant incised along the third side. H = 4.0 Fig. III.55 Inv. no. SP 546

58 Bone A right-angled corner fragment with an incised long W = 2.3 leaf-like object or animal tail that extends through H = 1.1 the entire fragment. The long edge is broken off Inv. no. SP 524 along the incised stem of a plant with two double Bone leaves preserved adjacent to the “tail.” A fragment broken into the shape of a right-angled Found 10 cm above floor at 14558 X 2180. triangle, with an incised margin line 0.5 cm from Fig. III.59 one edge. The edge at a right angle to this side is broken along an incised line. The hypotenuse is 62 broken along an incised curve, with a grass-like tuft incised at the broader end of the fragment. W = 2.2 H = 0.9 Fig. III.56 Inv. no. SP 553 59 Bone W = 2.95 A fragment incised with stylized plant motifs(?). H = 1.72 Fig. III.60 Th = 0.05 Inv. no. SP 439 Bone A fragment incised along the longest curved edge with two parallel lines, from one end of which extends perpendicularly a similar curved line. A figurative relief plaques and veneer panels 55

63 66

W = 3.0 W = 4.2 H = 1.2 H = 2.9 Inv. no. SP 557 Inv. no. SP 637 + 2 fragments of 525 Bone Bone A triangular fragment with the two longer sides An irregular fragment made up of three joining broken along incised lines. Along one side are two pieces. Three edges are broken along incised curved parallel incised lines; along the irregular short side lines. There are several short, curved incised lines are incised a bunch of three leaves and a small circle and three leaf-like objects incised along one edge. with a hole in the center. Fig. III.64 Fig. III.61 67 64 W = 4.6 W = 1.8 H = 1.3 H = 4.0 Inv. no. SP 697 Inv. no. SP 625 + 1 fragment of 525 Bone Bone A fragment with one long edge broken along an A fragment, broken along an incised plant stem on incised curved line; the muzzle of an animal with a the short side. A large leaf-like object similar to Cat large, round eye(?) is incised at one end. At the op- no. 61 is incised on one long side, and three leaves posite edge is an incised tuft of grass. are incised at the opposite end of the other long Found with fragments of the Rectangle Diamond, side. and Oval Border, Cat. nos. 292-331. Fig. III.62 Fig. III.65 65 68 W = 1.4 W = 5.0 H = 2.1 H = 3.6 Inv. no. SP 632 Inv. no. SP 719 Bone Bone A fragment broken along an incised plant stem on A fragment with two edges broken along incised one side and along a curved, incised line on the curved lines, one broken edge, and one edge possi- opposite side. There is a small excised area at the bly finished to abut an adjoining fragment. At cen- corner of the curved side. ter are two leaves forming a “V”. Fig. III.63 Fig. III.66 56 chapter iii

69 served. To the right is an excised oval object. On the opposite edge are incised two leaves; a third W = 2.7 leaf is incised just below the bird’s head. H = 1.0 Inv. no. SP 634 Fig. III.67 Bone A fragment with one edge broken along the curved edge of a bird’s head(?) with the open beak pre-

E. ANIMAL PANEL II

This bone panel seems to have consisted of birds and at least one eros in a landscape setting of plants and flowers (Pl. III.11). Approximately 150 cm2 are preserved in fifteen fragments plus seven small bits (Cat. nos. 70-85), about 60 percent as much as Animal Panel I, yet it is not possible to infer from this fact that there was initially any difference in their sizes. The plants have rounded leaves irregularly placed along a main stem and on downward curving branches. The flowers have eight petals. The birds have rings around their necks and banded bellies. The workmanship is careless in comparison with that of Animal Panel I. The plants are less delicately drawn; have clumsier, fat, round-tipped leaves; and more plants appear in proportion to the other representations on the preserved fragments. Some of the leaves may belong to trees, as on a glass Boar-Hunt Dish from Cologne, which depicts a landscape with trees, small plants or grass, a huntsman, and animals at the edge of a pool.69 There are four fragmentary images of birds preserved from this panel, all of the same species. They have a rounded head and breast; a large circular eye with a band around it; and a ring or band at the neck, the breast, and the lower belly. The bird appears to have been represented as solid color otherwise. Several varieties of plover fit this description fairly well or the birds on this panel might represent a species of dove.70 A patch of parallel lines is characteristic of the turtle dove, Streptopelia turtur, a species abundantly pictured in ancient

69 Cologne, Römisch-Germanisches Museum, Inv. was also common in the Nile Valley in antiquity, al- no. 29.1083; Harden, Glass of the Caesars 226-7, Cat. no. though extinct in this part of its range since the early 126. twentieth century (Birds of Africa II 206-8, Pls. 19, 20). 70 The common winged plover, Charadrius hiaticula, This bird is variably categorized, most recently in the which winters in coastal and Sub-Saharan Africa and family Glariolidae, Subfamily Cursoriinae (Birds of Africa II is a frequent migrant throughout the Nile Delta and 206). It too has a distinctive mask not represented in Valley, has a plump body, rounded head, and a broad these representations. Another species in the family dark band across the upper breast. The little ringed Glariolidae that has very distinctive bands around the plover, Charadrius dubius, is less common in Egypt except body, perhaps as represented in this panel, is the courser; in the Delta. While both birds more or less fit the shape however, Goodman lists only the cream-colored courser of the birds represented on this panel, they have a very as indigenous to Egypt, and this type has no neck ring distinctive mask on the face that is not indicated in the or body band (Houlihan, The Birds of Ancient Egypt 156). representations. The Egyptian plover, Pluvianus aegyptius, figurative relief plaques and veneer panels 57

Egyptian art.71 The African collared dove, Streptopelia roseogrisea, has a black neck ring on a light gray body. Like the turtle dove, its slightly hooked beak and large round eye surrounded by a skin ring are features seen in the representations of birds on this panel.72 A major difference is the shape of the legs. The upper part of a dove’s leg is covered with feathers and the legs are short, quite unlike the long slender legs of the pictured birds. Early representations of doves in Egyptian art capture this feature.73 Therefore, while there are possible candidates among species native to Egypt for the bird represented on this panel, it is uncertain which species the artist meant to represent. The fragment of this panel that includes a representation of part of both a bird and an eros (Cat. no. 70; Pl. III.11; Fig. III.68) provides some evidence for the composition of the scene as a whole. The bird is very large in comparison to the eros, and both seem to be placed in a loose relationship on a plain background. They do not appear to be part of a logical representation of figures in a consistent spatial environment. The development of this type of composition in the third century is seen on North African mosaics, where figures are arranged in registers against a white background or distributed freely over the floor. The composition develops further during the fourth century with figures separated as independent motifs isolated against a plain ground with few or no relationships among them.74 A somewhat similar arrangement can be found on a bone plaque showing an eros and three large birds in a plant-filled landscape.75 Other parallels with representations of an eros and bird(s) include an incised bone plaque in Berlin,76 a large (i.e., 11 X 9 cm) plaque also in Berlin,77 and an even larger plaque (est. ca. 14 X 9.4 cm) in the Antiquarium Comunale, Rome.78

70 the left corner, is incised the face of an eros(?) facing right. A right hand, presumably from the same W = 2.6 figure, holds up a circular wreath. H = 6.0 Parallels: For a bird with similar wings, feet, Inv. no. SP 733 and banded belly, see Athens, Benaki Museum, Bone Inv. no. 10329; Loverdou-Tsigarida, ÏóôÝévá ðëáêßäéá 328, Cat. no. 83, Pl. 46. The bird held A fragment with, at the top, the excised belly of a by a winged eros on a bone plaque in Berlin is bird standing on one leg, the other leg lifted up also similar; see n. 76; the eros is incised and the with only its rear claw preserved. The wing bears drapery and the bird are worked by excision. four horizontal bars. There are double horizontal stripes at the top and base of the belly. Below, at Pl. III.11; Fig. III.68

71 Houlihan, The Birds of Ancient Egypt 103-7. lottenburg, Inv. no. 11878; Loverdou-Tsigarida, ÏóôÝévá 72 Birds of Africa II 486-7; Houlihan, The Birds of ðëáêßäéá 324, Cat. no. 69, fig. 44. Ancient Egypt 159. 77 Previously (East) Berlin, Staatliche Museen, Inv. 73 Birds of Africa II Pl. 31; Houlihan, The Birds of An- no. J. 6673 (location not known); Wulff, Bildwerke 18; cient Egypt figs. 152, 153. Loverdou-Tsigarida, ÏóôÝévá ðëáêßäéá 324, Cat. no. 70, 74 Dunbabin, Mosaics of Roman North Africa 35. fig. 49. 75 Previously Cairo, art market, present location un- 78 Rome, Antiquarium Comunale, Inv. no. 17342; known; Loverdou-Tsigarida, ÏóôÝévá ðëáêßäéá, Pl. 58. BullCom II (1874) 254, n. 4; Albertoni, Lastrine di Rivesti- 76 Berlin, previously Ägyptisches Museum, Char- mento 345-7, Cat. no. 4, 349, fig. 9. 58 chapter iii

71 Parallels: See Cat. no. 70 for a bird with similar feet and banded belly. W = 3.9 H = 4.8 Fig. III.71 Inv. no. SP 493 74 Bone W = 2.15 A fragment joined from two pieces. The excised H = 4.7 head of a bird with open beak, a large round eye, Inv. no. SP 622 and two (or more) bands around its neck. Along the edge above the bird’s head are the tips of four Bone leaves. The broken left edge of the fragment fol- A fragment with leaves and plants at the upper and lows the incised contour of the bird’s body. left edges. At the right are incised two horizontal Parallels: Among a number of similar plaques, lines like insect feelers, and above them is excised see a bird with a similar beak and bands around the head of a bird with a rounded beak and large, the throat on a plaque in Athens, Benaki Muse- round eye. um, Inv. no. 18707; Loverdou-Tsigarida, ÏóôÝévá ðëáêßäéá 328, Cat. no. 82, Pl. 45. The eyes are Fig. III.72 not similar. 75 Fig. III.69 W = 3.8 72 H = 2.7 Inv. no. SP 624 W = 1.4 H = 5.0 Bone Th = 0.05 A fragment with an excised seven-lobed leaf at its Inv. no. SP 550, 556 + 562d center. Above, to the left the edge is broken along Bone an incised curved edge. Above to the right is an excised round shape with a curved raised band A fragment with one side broken along two curved crossing it. At the right and bottom right are ex- incised edges. Opposite are leaves arranged along cised tips of leaves. a stem (broken off). There are tips of two leaves above. Fig. III.73

Fig. III.70 76

73 W = 1.8 H = 7.4 W = 7.7 Inv. no. SP 626 + 629 H = 2.7 Inv. no. SP 555 Bone Bone A fragment with the long left edge broken along the incised stem of a plant. An excised forked leafy A fragment that shows at left an incised flower with branch extends to the right. eight petals, a long stem, and two leaves. At the lower right is part of an excised object with two Fig. III.74 stripes, probably the lower edge of the head and beak, upper body band, and one foot of a bird. figurative relief plaques and veneer panels 59

77 81

W = 2.8 W = 1.9 H = 8.5 H = 1.5 Inv. no. SP 627 Th = 0.08 Bone Inv. no. SP 514 A fragment with two long edges broken along in- Bone cised plant stems, from which project pairs of ex- A small fragment with three curved incised lines cised narrow leaves, four pairs on one side, two on and an excised area at one edge. the other. Fig. III.79 Fig. III.75 82 78 W = 4.2 W = 1.07 H = 1.35 H = 4.60 Inv. no. SP 631 Th = 0.08 Inv. no. SP 702 Bone Bone A fragment with along one long side, one round- A fragment broken at one side along an incised ed leaf tip, a pair of leaf tips, and another pair plant stem, from which project three pairs and of leaf tips. part of fourth pair of leaves. Fig. III.80 Fig. III.76 83 79 W = 3.0 W = 2.4 H = 1.8 H = 1.1 Inv. no. SP 633 Th = 0.08 Bone Inv. no. SP 452b Bone A fragment broken along incised lines on three sides. Pairs of leaf tips are preserved on two sides A small fragment with two tufts of grass incised and two pairs of tips on a third side. near one corner. Fig. III.81 Fig. III.77 84 80 W = 2.4 W = 2.6 H = 1.4 H = 1.8 Inv. no. SP 636 Inv. no. SP 628 Bone Bone A triangular fragment broken along an incised A fragment with one edge broken along an incised curved plant stem on one long side, with three curve. Three leaf tips are preserved on adjacent leaf tips excised along the other long side. edges. Fig. III.78 Fig. III.82 60 chapter iii

85 Inv. no. SP 757j and l Inv. no. SP 638 Bone Bone Two fragments (from a group of twelve) that belong to this panel. Five small fragments with designs of incised leaf tips.

F. OUTSTRETCHED ARM PANEL

Seven fragments (Cat. nos. 86-92) are preserved of a small-scale scene carved in ivory showing tunic-clad figures with outstretched arms (Pl. III.12). The order of the fragments may vary from the illustration shown in Fig. III.83, but it suggests the layout of the scene. The panel may have been framed with a diamond pattern. The details of the figures and their clothing are incised. Only the drapery behind the figures is worked by excision. Two of the fragments (Cat. nos. 86 and 88) include parts of two figures that appear to be aligned in a row. At least two of the figures hold scalloped-edged circles that appear to be wreaths but may be meant to represent paterae.79 Two other figures, who appear either to be sitting or kneeling, may rather be riding on horseback. A third figure (Cat. no. 89) appears to be dressed as a charioteer. One fragment (Cat. no. 90) preserves the feet of a figure standing at the right side of the panel and part of the diamond border that ran up the sides (and perhaps along the top and bottom). The only preserved head (Cat. no. 89) has an unusually heavy browline that droops over the lateral corner of the eye. The tunics have short, pointed clavi sewn or embroidered on the front edge. One tunic, on Cat. no. 86, is decorated with triads of dots on the shoulder and above the hem; the sleeves appear to have cuffs or bands at the wrists. The other tunic (Cat. no. 87) is decorated with a segmentum on the shoulder and diamond-shaped segmenta on the skirt in which crosses are incised.80 The leggings are of checked material. The largest of the fragments includes parts of two figures. A hand holds a wreath behind a kneeling or riding figure. The wreath holder appears to be presenting a patera, but this is unlikely to be a cult scene, because figures attending a sacrifice do not kneel in Roman ritual. Reins or two ropes also seem to be shown hanging below the hand. The same gesture and hand position occur on equestrian hunting figures so they may indicate a procession81 or a

79 The central consul on the ivory diptych in the with a cross over his left knee; Daltrop, Jagdmosaiken Pl. Museum of Liverpool, Inv. no. M10042, holds a patera 24. For a diamond segmentum with a floral cross inserted, with a scalloped edge; Age of Spirituality 93-4, Cat. no. see Paris, Musée du Louvre, Inv. no. AC 153; Du 84; Volbach, Elfenbeinarbeiten der Spätantike3 53, Cat. no. Bourguet, Catalogue des étoffes coptes I, 55, Cat. no. A15, 59. Hunting figures more commonly hold a lasso-like third to fourth century. loop of cord that may look like a wreath; e.g., Maison 81 Tunis, Bardo Museum, Inv. no. A 104; Oudna, des Chevaux, hunting children, Dunbabin, Mosaics of Maison des Laberii, Room 32; Yacoub, Musée du Bardo Roman North Africa, Pl. 75. 112, fig. 66; Dunbabin, Mosaics of Roman North Africa 240- 80 A hunting boy from the Large Hunt mosaic at 1, 266, Pl. 44; pavement dated turn of third to fourth Piazza Armerina wears a tunic decorated with an orbiculus century by Dunbabin. figurative relief plaques and veneer panels 61 figure holding a tether.82 In other examples, triumphant charioteers parade holding a wreath in an outstretched hand; e.g., on an earthenware bowl in Mainz83 and on a gold glass bowl in New York84 ; however, these show the figure in a quadriga, not standing as here. There is a better parallel for this scene in the relief on the northwest side of the base of the Obe- lisk of Theodosius in what was the hippodrome in Constantinople. The top of the lower register shows barbarians, facing center from left and right, kneeling on one knee and prof- fering objects to Theodosius I, Valentinian II, Arcadius, and Honorius. The other leg is bent at the knee and the foot is flat on the ground.85 This type of subsidiary scene is common below the main field on diptychs. The Basilius diptych has a small-scale chariot race at the bottom of the panel with two standing figures at its right.86 On the Barberini diptych, Scythian men present gifts; the man on the left, holding a torque(?), shows the pattern of fingers holding the circular shape and how the hand holding the wreath(?) was represented on the Kenchreai panel.87 A width of about 25 cm is preserved of this panel. If it was placed below the curved panel and if the full scene consisted of two panels showing groups converging at the center, one of which is now entirely missing, an original width of a minimum of 50 cm or more would fit below the panel’s ca. 60 cm base. One fragment was recovered at 14558 X 2180, 10 cm above the floor, the same location as one fragment of Animal Panel I.

86 long sleeves and a short cloak seems to hang down at the back, or the cloak may be from another fig- W = 5.5 ure behind and to the left. The tunic is decorated H = 4.0 Inv. no. SP 494, 495, 525, 730a, + 753 with clusters of three dots on the shoulder and on the skirt. At the wrist are five bands. A pointed cla- Ivory vus is visible under the armpit. The drapery folds A fragment with at the left, a figure, with out- of the tunic are indicated by incised lines on the stretched arms facing left. The head and legs are upper arm, waist, and skirt. The drapery folds that missing. The bent leg suggests the figure is perhaps fall behind and at the back of the figure are indi- kneeling. The figure is dressed in a short tunic with cated by raised lines on an excised surface. The

82 Carthage, Bordj-Djedid hunting scene; Dunbabin, Hippodrom zu Konstantinopel,” IstForsch VII (1935) 40- Mosaics of Roman North Africa 59, 62, 250, Pl. 41; dated 3, figs. 37, 42-3; R. de Angelis Bertolotti, “La residenza fifth or sixth century. This figure holds a line to a cap- imperiale di Massenzio sulla via Appia,” in R. De Angelis tured stag. As on the Kenchreai fragment, the front arm Bertolotti, G. Ioppolo, and G. Pisani Sartorio, La is extended, but not to hold the reins of the horse he is Residenza Imperiale di Massenzio (Rome 1988) 7-21, fig. 6; riding, which are either hanging loose or wrapped Spätantike und frühes Christentum, 262, fig. 90; Bianchi- around his waist. Bandinelli, The Late Empire 354-7, fig. 336. 83 ARS bowl, Mainz, Römisch-Germanisches Zen- 86 Florence, Museo Nazionale del Bargello, Inv. no. tralmuseum, Inv. no. 0.39581; Age of Spirituality 107, Cat. A8; Volbach, Elfenbeinarbeiten der Spätantike3 31, Cat. no. no. 98, dated fourth century. 5, Pl. 3, with earlier bibliography; Age of Spirituality 47- 84 New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art, Inv. no. 8, Cat. nos. 46-7. 28.57.24; Age of Spirituality 104-5, Cat. no. 96, dated sec- 87 Paris, Musée du Louvre, Inv. no. OA.9063; ond half of fourth century. Volbach, Elfenbeinarbeiten der Spätantike3 47-8, Cat. no. 48, 85 Kiilerich, The Obelisk Base in Constantinople 36, fig. Pl. 26; Age of Spirituality 33-5, Cat. no. 28.. 8; Gerda Bruns, “Der Obelisk und seine Basis auf dem 62 chapter iii extended hand appears to be holding something. 89 At right, behind the first figure, appears to be a W = 2.0 standing figure with drapery or a cloak, holding a H = 1.6 scallop-edged circular object. The left upper edge Inv. no. SP 732 of the fragment is broken along an incised line; all other edges are broken. Ivory Pl. III.12; Fig. III.83 (left) A fragment with a figure with outstretched arm facing left. The face is broken off above the eye. 87 The eye is large, the other facial features are flattened. A strand of hair curves forward over the left W = 2.5 cheek. A heavy strap curves over the proper left H = 2.75 shoulder. The garment visible below the armpit

Inv. no. SP 729 + 2 fragments of 553 shows patterned horizontal bands. The upper left Ivory and upper right edges are broken along incised lines; all other edges are broken. A fragment with a figure with outstretched arm(s) facing left. The head, legs, and hand(s) are missing. Fig. III.83 (right) The figure is dressed in a short tunic with long 90 sleeves. Excised drapery falls at left and right as if there is a cloak hanging down at the back or an- W = 9.0 other figure behind. The tunic skirt is decorated H = 0.9 with two diamond segmenta incised with incuse Inv. no. SP 554 + 563 crosses. On the shoulder is the edge of a square Ivory segmentum. A pointed clavus is visible under the arm as in Cat. no. 86. The drapery folds of the tunic A fragment with two feet, the left in profile and the are indicated by incised lines. The drapery folds right foreshortened and pointing down and to the behind and at the back of the figure are indicated right. At left is the tip of an object, perhaps an- by raised lines on an excised surface. The upper other foot. At right is the bottom of a border(?) of edge is broken along an incised line; all other edges raised diamonds on an excised ground, set off by a are broken. horizontal double band below and vertical bands on either side. The left edge is cut. The bottom Fig. III.83 (second from left) edge is cut with a roughened strip ca. 0.3 cm wide along it as if to fit under an adjoining edge. The 88 other two edges are broken. W = 2.6 Found at 14558 X 2180, 10 cm above floor. H = 4.1 Inv. no. SP 729a + 1 fragment of 552 Fig. III.84 Ivory 91 A fragment with, at the left, an edge of drapery W = 2.8 similar to Cat. no. 86, with the surface excised, and H = 1.0 a raised border and hemline. At the right edge is a Inv. no. SP 729b fragment of drapery and a circular object similar to Cat. no. 86, but with no hand. Ivory Fig. III.83 (third from left) A small fragment with all edges broken and traces of incised lines at the upper corners. Fig. III.85 figurative relief plaques and veneer panels 63

W = 1.46 H = 0.42 Inv. no. SP 730b Ivory A very small fragment with traces of vertical incised lines at one side; all edges broken.

G. BEAUTIFUL HEAD PANEL

Very little can be distinguished of the five small fragments preserved of this ivory panel (Cat. nos. 93-97). The style is distinctive and elegant. The facial features of the single preserved figure (Cat. no. 93) are lightly indicated by short, horizontal incised lines (Pl. III.13). The exact style of the drapery and the manner of working the decoration of crosses within squares is not found elsewhere among the Kenchreai fragments, although the Outstretched Arm Panel (see Group F) represents somewhat similar segmenta and their scale is similar. The orbiculi decorating the shoulders are worked in a scale pattern. Except for the face of Cat. no. 93, which is incised, the decoration on the other fragments of this panel is excised. This mixture of techniques is also found on panel H, but the present panel is much finer in design and workmanship.

93 94

W = 6.3 W = 5.2 H = 2.2 H = 1.9 Inv. no. SP 413 + 416 Th = 0.07 Inv. no. SP 414 Ivory Ivory A fragment with a human figure facing right. The face is preserved from below the eyes; the features A fragment with, at the right edge, what appears are scarcely indicated. There is a bit of hair at the to be part of an arm in a long sleeve. The shoulder nape. The figure is dressed in a sleeved garment is decorated with a fringed orbiculus of checked de- with a design of a cross set diagonally in a segmentum sign. At the right edge are two incised lines at a on the shoulder. The drapery is worked by exci- right angle to a horizontal incised line along the sion with folds and decoration left as raised lines. lower edge. All of the edges are broken. There is a curved incised line at lower right. All of Fig. III.87 the edges are broken. Parallels: A large cloth decorated with squares, into alternating squares of which are set diagonally placed crosses, is draped across the lap of Theodosius on the Missorium of Theodosius; El disco de Teodosio 189, Pl. III (1). Pl. III.13; Fig. III.86 64 chapter iii

95 S-shaped edge worked by excision. All of the edges are broken. W = 5.1 H = 1.2 Fig. III.89 Th = 0.055 Inv. no. SP 418 97 Ivory W = 4.1 H = 0.7 A rectangular fragment, plain except for a curved Inv. no. SP 748 area worked by excision, apparently drapery, with a curved raised line on one short side. All Ivory of the edges are broken. A fragment with the surface worked by excision Fig. III.88 and traces of raised lines. There is a raised curved contour line at one end and a plant(?) at the right. 96 All of the edges are broken. W = 3.6 Fig. III.90 H = 1.3 Inv. no. SP 544 Ivory A fragment, plain except for an area with an

H. THIASOS PANEL

Thirteen fragments of incised bone with representations of figures seem to belong to a single horizontal panel that appears to represent a thiasos (Cat. nos. 98-110). A total of about 129.4 cm2 is preserved in the fragments, several of which are reconstructed from two or three pieces. The composition consists of six, or possibly more, figures (Pl. III.14; Fig. III.91). If correctly reconstructed, the surviving parts of the composition consist of, from left, a syrinx- playing satyr, Dionysus leaning against a column, a dancing maenad, a dancing satyr, and two draped or partly draped figures, the furthest to the right possibly an old Silenus.88 The figures are separated by flowers and dotted circle clusters. To the left of Dionysus, the skin of a leopard is shown as if hanging on a wall. As no more than roughly a quarter of any one figure is preserved, the total panel could have been larger than 500 cm2 if these fragments reflect the entire composition. However, judging from the original height of the figures and the width needed for six figures, the panel was more likely to have been about 24 to 30 cm wide and perhaps about 12 cm high, or a total of about 250 cm2. In either case, the panel was probably made from at least two pieces of bone. The straight line on Cat. no. 101 may be where these two pieces abutted.

88 It is uncertain if all of the figures belong to a single varies somewhat, perhaps because they were traced from scene. The workmanship, color, and thickness of the variously sized copy book figures. bone indicate that they do, but the scale of the figures figurative relief plaques and veneer panels 65

There is a close parallel for this scene on a fragmentary floor mosaic, dated to the late fourth century, excavated in the Villa of the Falconer in Argos (Pl. III.15).89 On this mosaic, the lower part of the figure of Dionysus is preserved in the center, a panther seated to the left of his feet. An eros stands to the right of the column. Further to the right are a satyr blowing a pipe with a nebris covering his midsection, a dancing maenad with cymbals, and a satyr with a pedum. To the left of the seated panther are the lower part of Silenus, shown wearing a short chiton and holding a staff, and a foot and bit of drapery from another dancing maenad. A more complete example of this type of scene is found in a joining sequence of low relief plaques in the Musée du Louvre that shows the overall effect and composition, including various accouterments such as a spiral fluted column, thyrsoi, torches, etc.90 A cylindrical two-handled glass jar in the Landesmuseum Mainz is engraved with a complex thiasos scene that includes Dionysus, a satyr, panther, Pan, and other figures.91 Similar- ities to the pose and details of individual figures on the Kenchreai panel are noted below. On the Kenchreai panel, the body of the kicking figure is worked by excision as is all of the drapery. The drapery folds make sweeping curves that double back abruptly and have an extruded character as if modeled in clay. The plain background around the hair on Cat. no. 103 is cut back to make the head stand out slightly, and its face, quite striking in its coarse vigor, is worked in sunk relief. The same technique is used along the curving edge of the drapery on the left side of Cat. no. 100.

98 body and bent up sharply to bring the hand to chest level. The figure may be playing an aulos W = 3.9 or a syrinx held in front of the chest. At the right H = 6.4 is an object hanging as if on a wall, decorated Inv. no. SP 731 with dots and dotted circles; it probably repre- Bone sents an animal (leopard) pelt. Parallel: Athens, Benaki Museum, Inv. no. 18967; A fragment that probably belongs to this panel, Marangou, Bone Carvings from Egypt 107, Cat. no. although the scale is slightly larger than the oth- 111, Pl. 35a; a low relief bone plaque in reverse er figures. The style of the face is somewhat sim- pose, showing a satyr holding a broad set of pipes, ilar to Cat. no. 101, and the dotted circle pat- was the basis for the reconstruction. tern is very similar. At the left edge is a frontal human figure with the face in profile facing right Pl. III.14; Fig. III.92 and gazing downward, perhaps looking back over the proper left shoulder. Much of the face is broken away. The left arm is held against the

89 Åkerström-Hougen, The Calendar and Hunting Mo- with, Coptic Sculpture 12, 48, fig. 25. saics of the Villa of the Falconer 14, 110-6, fig. 7:1, 68, Pl. 91 Mainz, Landesmuseum, Inv. no. R 6111; Harter, VII. Römische Gläser 258-9, Cat. no. 827, Pls. E, F, 36, 99 90 Paris, Musée du Louvre, Inv. no. DOA 9059; (1). Marangou, Bone Carvings from Egypt 33-9, Pl. 17a; Beck- 66 chapter iii

99 Cat. no. 16, Pl. 7d. Leg coverings decorated with numerous horizontal stripes occur on several fig- W = 2.55 ures on a mosaic from the Esquiline in Rome; J. H = 7.2 Aymard, “Quelques scènes de chasse sur une Inv. no. SP 500 + 735 mosaïque de l’Antiquarium,” MEFR 54 (1937) Bone 42-66; Dunbabin, Mosaics of Roman North Africa 213, Pl. 204, dated to the period of Constantine. A fragment with, at the left, a human proper left The figure of Dionysus on the cylindrical glass leg wearing horizontally striped leggings and foot jar in Mainz has horizontal stripes on the entire wearing a banded shoe, pointing right. The drap- leg up to the groin; Mainz, Landesmuseum, Inv. ery falls behind the leg and billows out at the no. R 6111; Harter, Römische Gläser 258-9, Cat. right. At ankle level is a small rectangular form, no. 827, Pls. E, F, 36, 99 (1). possibly part of a torch or the bottom of a container (basket?). At the right is a spiral fluted Pl. III.14; Fig. III.93 column on an annular base of two tori. All of the edges are broken except for the bottom, which 100 has a horizontal baseline and incised horizontal W = 5.1 lines parallel to the cut bottom edge, possibly to H = 7.0 fit under an adjacent panel or molding, similar Inv. no. SP 482 + 698 + 734 to Cat. nos. 100-102 below. Parallels: Late antique objects use two typical Bone poses to depict Dionysus, a crossed-leg pose and A fragment with, at the left, billowing drapery an upright pose with the figure’s left leg extend- with a corner tied in a tail and below it a foot(?) ed to its left in an open position. Both may show pointing right. At the center, drapery falls in three a column next to the figure. In an example sim- V-shaped folds and at the right in vertical folds. ilar in pose to this plaque, Dionysus is represented At the right are zigzag ends of drapery folds. The next to a column on a low relief bone plaque in patterns at center and right appear to represent Oxford, Ashmolean Museum, Inv. nos. 1912.603 the thighs, possibly nude, of a standing figure with + 610 + 613, and several plaques in Athens, the proper right leg supporting the weight. Be- Benaki Museum, Inv. nos. 18904, 18920, 18840, tween the figures are a flower with ten petals 18798, 18807; Marangou, Bone Carvings from Egypt arranged around a dotted circle and below, a 87-91, Cat. no. 2-5, Pl. 2a-d, 3b. A parallel for cluster of three dotted circles. There are possibe the spiral fluted column shaft occurs on the Cairo traces of red pigment in the folds of the drapery Casket, now Coptic Museum, Inv. no. 8486 (pre- at center. The bottom edge has a horizontal viously Egypt Museum, Inv. nos. 9060-9063); in baseline and incised lines parallel to the cut ÏóôÝévá ðëáêßäéá Loverdou-Tsigarida, 305-7, Cat. bottom edge, like Cat. no. 99. All other edges are nos. 16-20, Pls. 1-3; Age of Spirituality 332-3, Cat. broken. no. 311; Strzygowski, Koptische Kunst nos. 7060- 7064. Pl. III.14; Fig. III.94 The leg covering may seem unlikely in a thi- 101 asos, but there are parallels on a plaque in Bal- timore, a nude representation of Apollo, Walters W = 3.5 Art Museum, Inv. no. 71.43; Randall, Masterpieces H = 5.6 84-5, Cat. no. 121, and another in Athens, Benaki Inv. no. SP 489 Museum, Inv. no. 18921, that show Dionysus, otherwise nude except for a himation, with hunt- Bone er’s boots; Marangou, Bone Carvings from Egypt 90, A fragment with, at the left, billowing drapery figurative relief plaques and veneer panels 67 and below, a profile foot with heel raised as if similar to the bottom edges of Cat. nos. 99-102. walking to the left. At the right is the back of a Parallels: This pose is characteristic of the nude calf and the heel of a foot moving to the dancers shown in representations of Dionysiac right. At center, between the figures, are two thiasoi (see Marangou, Bone Carvings from Egypt 33). triangular clusters of three dotted circles. All of The dotted fabric represents an animal pelt, sim- the edges are broken except the bottom, which ilar to Athens, Benaki Museum, Inv. no. 18966; has a horizontal baseline and incised lines par- Marangou, Bone Carvings from Egypt 96, Cat. no. allel to the cut bottom edge, like Cat. nos. 99 and 52, Pl. 15a and the animal pelts represented on 100. the Mainz glass jar, Mainz, Landesmuseum, Inv. no. R 6111; Harter, Römische Gläser 258-9, Cat. Pl. III.14; Fig. III.95 no. 827, Pls. E, F, 36, 99 (1). The face is similar 102 to the male at left on a bone plaque in Vienna, Kunsthistorisches Museum, Inv. no. X 293; W = 2.55 Marangou, Bone Carvings from Egypt 42, 115, Pl. H = 7.2 47a; Loverdou-Tsigarida, ÏóôÝévá ðëáêßäéá 318, Inv. no. SP 502 + 718 + 720 Cat. no. 53, Pl. 36. Bone Pl. III.14; Fig. III.97

A fragment with, at the left, an excised bare foot 104 pointing to the right and raised as if kicking. At the lower right is excised drapery with raised lines W = 2.0 indicating folds. At the upper center, between the H = 3.5 figures, are five petals of a flower similar to Cat. Inv. no. SP 490 no. 100 and, below, a triangular cluster of three Bone dotted circles. All the edges are broken except the bottom which has a horizontal baseline and in- An irregular fragment with incised dots and dot- cised lines parallel to the cut bottom edge, like ted circles similar to Cat. nos. 98 and 103. It may Cat. nos. 99-101 above. be from a representation of a panther head or pelt. The incised edge of the shape has two projecting Pl. III.14; Fig. III.96 points (ears?) opposite a side with a Y-shaped fold 103 or crease. All the edges are broken, the longer breaks along incised lines. W = 2.4 Parallel: The body of the panther represent- H = 5.8 ed on the mosaic of a Dionysiac thiasos at Argos Inv. no. SP 728 referred to above has a similar shape and pattern of circles. Bone Pl. III.14; Fig. III.98 A fragment with a human figure, dressed in a loose tunic or draped with an animal pelt decorated with 105 dots and dotted circles. The proper left arm is raised and bent back toward the head. The tips of two W = 2.5 fingers are preserved above and to the right of the H = 0.75 head. The head faces right and has an aquiline nose Inv. no. SP 491 and heavy-lidded eyes. The hair is combed forward Bone in even strands and falls over the forehead in raised bangs, somewhat similar to Cat. nos. 15 and 16. A fragment with incised dots and dotted circles simi- All of the edges are broken except the top, which is lar to Cat. nos. 98, 103, and 104. Two parallel 68 chapter iii curved lines run along one short end, and at the 108 other corner of the adjacent long end is the tip of W = 2.85 a curved line. All of the edges are broken. H = 1.7 Fig. III.99 Th = 0.9 Inv. no. SP 756b + 525 (one fragment in group) 106 Bone W = 2.1 A roughly triangular fragment, reconstructed from H = 4.3 two pieces. Three edges are broken along incised Inv. no. SP 506 + 513 lines; one is curved. On the surface toward one edge Bone are two incised lines that join at the top and then divide and curve toward the right. A fragment with a curved area of excised drapery, the folds indicated by relief lines, along one side. 109 On a second long side of the fragment is a curved excised area, possibly from a nude figure. On the W = 1.9 third long side is an excised area with an undulat- H = 2.3 ing edge. The fourth side is shorter and broken Inv. no. SP 715 along an incised line. All of the other edges are Bone broken. A fragment of incised billowing drapery. The up- Fig. III.100 per and lower edges are broken along incised lines. 107 The other edges are irregularly broken.

W = 1.2 110 H = 1.3 W = 5.3 Inv. no. SP 666 H = 1.6 Bone Inv. no. SP 737 A small fragment with two curved double raised Bone lines edging excised areas that form a “V.” All of A fragment with two straight right-angle edges the edges are broken. broken along incised lines; the opposite edges are irregularly broken. Adjacent to the short straight edge is a rectangular object with one curved edge, the central area excised to leave small squares in relief to form a check pattern. At the opposite end a curved area is filled with a similar pattern.

I. HUNTING SCENE

This scene is more miniature in scale and style than any of the other panels. Only two fragments survive (Cat. nos. 111 and 112). Two tiny figures move vigorously with outstretched arms (Pl. III.16). They are clad in long-sleeved tunics and a paludamentum that flares out behind. Although they might seem to be involved in an orgiastic dance, a scene of hunting is more likely because they are fully clothed and because there appear to be plants, indicating a landscape setting. There are no filler ornaments. The technique differs from most of the figurative relief plaques and veneer panels 69 other panels in that the faces and hands as well as the detached drapery are worked by excision; only the tunics are incised. The Thiasos Panel is the closest to this in technique, but is much larger in scale. The scene might be an expanded version of, or similar to, a semicircular panel in the Dumbarton Oaks Collection that shows a single hunter attacking a stag with a spear.92 The hunters on the Hippolytus situla in the Sevso Treasure are among many representations of hunters that provide parallels for the clothing and outstretched arms.93

111 tufts of grass with the tallest blade in the center and the side blades graduated in height. The top W = 10.5 and right edges are broken along incised lines; H = 3.3 the bottom edge and bottom of the left side are Inv. no. SP 727 broken; the upper left side may be a finished Bone edge. A fragment with, at left, a human figure facing Pl. III.16; Fig. III.101 left. The face is broken away below the bridge of the nose but the eye and eyebrow are pre- 112 served. The hair is combed forward into a roll over the forehead. The figure wears a long- W = 2.0 sleeved garment with diamond-shaped segmentum, H = 1.05 and a long cloak billows out horizontally behind. Th = 0.08 At right, a second figure is seen obliquely with Inv. no. SP 481 the head facing right. His right arm is extended Bone horizontally with the hand open and the thumb pointing up. The head, shoulders, and the right A fragment with two incised lines in the form of edge of the torso are preserved. The figure wears a V and excised drapery with reserved lines form- a long-sleeved tunic with a fringed orbiculus on the ing a W-shaped fold. Three edges are broken. shoulder and four parallel bands at the cuff. A The edge of the open end of the V is broken long cloak falls over the figure’s chest and billows along an incised line. out behind diagonally to the left under the ex- Fig. III.102 tended arm. The faces, hand, and cloaks are worked by excision with folds and details reserved. Between the figures are the tops of two

J. DIAMOND-BORDERED PANEL

This rectangular ivory panel, found still partly attached to a wood backing but in three fragments (Cat. nos. 113-115; Pl. III.17), was decorated with an inset circle with one or more draped figures set in a floral landscape. A circular border of alternating diamonds and double billets surrounds the scene. The spandrels between the circle and the straight outer edges of

92 Washington, D.C., Dumbarton Oaks Collection, ÏóôÝévá ðëáêßäéá 301, Cat. no. 6, fig. 22. Inv. no. 58.5, P. Mallon Collection; Weitzmann, Cata- 93 Mango and Bennett, The Sevso Treasure 348, fig. logue 27-8, Cat. no. 16, Pl. XIII; Loverdou-Tsigarida, 8-44, -45. 70 chapter iii the panel were decorated with a spiral motif of plant tendril-like form. The circle, including the border, was approximately 12 cm in diameter.94 There are minor differences in the spacing of the billets and the design of the inner circumference of the border that may indicate that the fragments were originally from two panels. There are parallels for a circle bordered with alternating diamonds and double billets in the Victoria and Albert Museum,95 and a plaque with an image of Christ in the Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana.96 A circular plaque in Paris with a representation of a hunting Arte- mis provides a parallel for the landscape setting, although the theme on the Kenchreai panels is probably not the same.97

113 The fragment was found in silt at the bottom of a water tank after cleaning of pieces of wood. Veneer W = 3.5 Pl. III.17; Fig. III.103 H = 4.0 Wood 114 W = 9.45 W = 3.7 H = 5.3 H = 2.3 Inv. no. SP 436 Th = 0.07 Ivory, wood Inv. no. SP 484 + 581 A fragment of figured veneer, framed by a curved Ivory border of alternating diamonds and double bil- A fragment with a curved border of alternating lets with no space between, is edged on its inner diamonds and double billets with no space between circumference by two raised border lines. The is edged by a raised border line. The fragment is fragment was found attached to a piece of wood broken, and there may have been a second raised to which it may not have originally belonged. The border line. A portion of the panel beyond the outer scene shows two flowers on curving stems. The circumference of this border is decorated with a flower at the left has a hollow center from which spiral and, to its left, additional curled lines. Be- radiate alternating long and short spikes and six yond the spirals is a straight margin line incised ca. leaves placed in a group of three opposed pairs 0.5 cm parallel to the cut edge; all the other edges along the stem. The shorter flower at the right are broken. The radius of the outer edge of the has eight teardrop-shaped petals and four spikes circle is ca. 6.5 cm; i.e., about the same as the outer radiating in a cross-shape. The radius of the in- edge of the circle in Cat. no. 113 must have been, ner edge of the circle is approximately 5.5 cm. as the width of the border is ca. 1 cm. Fig. III.104

94 The circular panel with a representation of a tragic oggetti di avorio e di osso 57, A57(71), Pl. VI; Albertoni, poet in the Vatican Library, Inv. no. 6340, is 10.8 cm Lastrine di Rivestimento 378, 391, fig. 65, n. 124; Loverdou- in diameter; Albertoni, Lastrine di Rivestimento 379, fig. 67, Tsigarida, ÏóôÝévá ðëáêßäéá 339, Cat. no. 119, fig. 52; 390 n. 87. Volbach, Elfenbeinarbeiten der Spätantike3 125, Cat. no. 209, 95 London, Victoria and Albert Museum, Inv. no. Pl. 100. 623-1884; Longhurst, Catalogue of Carvings in Ivory 20, Pl. 97 Paris, Musée du Louvre, Inv. no. MND 713; 4. Loverdou-Tsigarida, ÏóôÝévá ðëáêßäéá 319, Cat. no. 55, 96 From the Catacomb of San Callisto; Morey, Gli sketch 38. figurative relief plaques and veneer panels 71

115 ery folds abut the inner circumference of the border. All of the edges are broken. Based on the draw- W = 4.6 ings which may not be precisely accurate, the radius H = 2.4 of the inner circle is approximately 5.5 cm; i.e., Inv. no. SP 437 probably about the same as Cat. nos. 113 and 114. Ivory Found 20 to 30 cm above the floor at 14552 X A fragment with a curved border of alternating 2183. diamonds and double billets, spaced ca. 0.2 cm Fig. III.105 apart, is edged by a single raised border line. Drap-

K. MISCELLANEOUS FRAGMENTS

116 118

W = 2.2 W = 2.3 H = 0.9 H = 2.95 Th = 0.08 Th = 0.08 Inv. no. SP 432 Inv. no. SP 470 + 525 (one frag.) Ivory Ivory A right-angled triangular fragment with a design A fragment with a flower with eight rounded of four parallel incised lines perpendicular to an petals worked by excision near a short edge. Two incised line parallel to and ca. 0.2 cm from the short curved incised lines at the opposite edge. These straight edge. The sides that join at a right angle two edges are broken; the longer sides are bro- appear to be broken along incised lines; the diago- ken along incised lines. nal side appears broken. Fig. III.108 Fig. III.106 119 117 W = 2.6 W = 4.6 H = 1.6 H = 0.7 Th = 0.08 Th = 0.07 Inv. no. SP 471 Inv. no. SP 456 Ivory Ivory An irregular fragment with one straight edge, A fragment with a shape possibly representing a next to which is a flower with eight rounded bird with an open beak, worked by excision at petals worked by excision. Along the opposite, one end. A narrow strip extends from the oppo- irregular edge is an excised area with a rectan- site end. The short end, near the bird, is broken gle in relief. All of the edges are broken. along an incised line; all of the other edges are Fig. III.109 broken. Fig. III.107 72 chapter iii

120 curved lines run diagonally across the fragment, the inner of which has three scallops in relief curv- W = 4.8 ing inward from the inner edge. At the narrow end H = 0.7 of the fragment is another dotted circle. All of the Th = 0.095 other edges are broken. Inv. no. SP 477 Fig. III.112 Ivory A fragment with three sets of double curved lines, 123 two of which have leaves along the inner curve. W = 3.3 One has leaves projecting from its outer curve; H = 0.6 this curve also has some incised shapes inside it. Th = 0.1 All of the edges are broken. Inv. no. SP 498 The shapes are similar to the foliated spirals catalogued in Chapter VI, but narrower and less Ivory regular in size. A fragment with a margin line incised parallel to Fig. III.110 one of the two longer edges, which is a cut edge. Several curved lines rise above the opposite long 121 edge; this and the other edges are broken.

W = 1.5 124 H = 1.2 Th = 0.09 W = 2.6 Inv. no. SP 479 H = 1.3 Th = 0.1 Ivory Inv. no. SP 499 A fragment with a curved line with leaves project- Ivory ing from its inner edge, similar to Cat. no. 120. Parallel to the outer edge of this curve is an ex- A fragment with two almost parallel lines incised cised tapered curved band that is widest at the apo- along the short cut edge. A curved line runs from gee of the curve; a curved line projects from this the inner of these lines to the adjacent edge, where band. The fragment is broken along the edge of it is broken off. A curved shape decorated with dots the extension of this line; all of the other edges are is broken off at the opposite side. Three curved broken. spines, possibly meant to represent a fin, project from the curve. A curved shape, possibly a gill open- Fig. III.111 ing, projects from the broken edge into the curved 122 shape. Fig. III.113 W = 6.2 H = 1.2 Th = 0.09 Inv. no. SP 492 + 525 (2 frags.) Ivory A long, narrow fragment with a broad excised band parallel to and near the cut, short edge. Near one end of this band is a dotted circle. Two parallel figurative relief plaques and veneer panels 73

125 crouching animal, including one forepaw with three claws and a back claw also with three claws, W = 4.1 possibly from a crocodile, visible below one of the H = 1.3 long sides. Below it are the tips of two leaves Th = 0.07 above the opposite long broken edge. At the short Inv. no. SP 503 side behind the animal is an excised rectangular Ivory shape with a curved line around its base. All of the edges are broken. A fragment with an incised tube-shaped object that extends across half of the longest edge. Three Fig. III.116 angled incised lines cut across it. The end of the “tube” flares out and is closed with an incised 128 line. Inside this flaring end is a rectangle, roughly W = 2.8 parallel to the end of the flared section. Two H = 3.8 incised curved lines protrude from the flared end Inv. no. SP 738 and run along the edge of the fragment to where the piece is broken off. The fragment is broken Ivory along the outer of the incised lines; all of the other A fragment with a fluted vase, its conical base set edges are broken. off by a flat molding. Four horizontal rings mark Fig. III.114 the shoulder. The top and bottom of the vertically fluted neck are set off by paired horizontal bands. 126 At the left edge near the neck is a dotted circle, possibly part of the handle. To the left of the belly W = 2.0 of the vase is a cluster of three leaves. Beneath the H= 1.25 base is a curved line, below which the surface is Th = 0.055 excised. The lower edge may be finished; all other Inv. no. SP 509 edges are broken. Ivory Parallels: Among many, Berlin, Staatliche Museen, Inv. no. 3594, Wulff, Bildwerke 87, Cat. A fragment with a hand seen in outline from the no. 263, a fragment of a wood relief frieze from back with the thumb slightly separated from the Giza, and Berlin, Staatliche Museen, Inv. no. other fingers at one edge. Three incised curved 3305, Wulff, Bildwerke 103, Cat. no. 342, Pl. XIV, lines project from a curved edge. The edges along a bone relief of a draped figure suspending a the thumb and at the wrist of the hand are bro- similar vessel in her right hand. The Muse cas- ken along incised lines; all of the other sides are ket from the Esquiline Treasure is decorated with broken. similar vases from which emerge birds and flo- Fig. III.115 ral ornaments; London, British Museum, Inv. no. 66.12-29.2; Shelton, The Esquiline Treasure, Cat. 127 no. 2, Pl. 15; Kent and Painter, Wealth of the Roman World 45, Cat. no. 89. One of the reliefs W = 6.4 from the casket decorated with bone inlays in H = 0.7 Baltimore, Walters Art Museum, Inv. no. 71.40, Th = 0.07 shows a similar vase with an isolated floral or- Inv. no. SP 548 nament next to it on a panel of a dancing female Ivory figure; Randall, Masterpieces 90, Cat. no. 135. A fragment with the lower part of the body of a Fig. III.117 74 chapter iii 129 133

W = 3.5 W = 1.0 H = 1.3 H = 2.1 Inv. no. SP 510 Th = 0.05 Inv. no. SP 486 Ivory Bone A right-angled corner fragment with a cylindrical striped object incised at the opposite corner. An irregular fragment with the surface mostly excised. At one edge is a raised triangular form. Two Fig. III.118 incised concentric lines curve across the middle. 130 At the other edge is a small plain area. The long irregular edge opposite the triangle is broken along W = 3.1 an incised line; the other edges are broken. H = 0.66 Fig. III.120 Th = 0.08 Inv. no. SP547a 134 Ivory W = 1.9 A plain fragment with three broken sides; half of H = 1.0 one long side is broken along an incised line. Th = 0.08 Inv. no. SP 487 131 Bone W = 2.2 A fragment with five tapered segments and part of H = 1.0 a sixth spread between parallel bands, possibly the Th = 0.04 body of a vase similar to Cat. no. 128. Diverging Inv. no. SP 419 slightly from the longer band is a second band, with Ivory (?) the space between excised. A plain fragment with a curved incised line along Fig. III.121 one edge. 135 132 W = 1.2 W = 2.3 H = 2.8 Th = 0.06 H = 2.5 Inv. no. SP 496 Th = 0.075 Inv. no. SP 469 Bone Bone A fragment with one end filled with an excised design, which narrows to a ribbon that curves into an A fragment with four incised tapered segments that oval shape. There are two dotted circles above the form a fan shape, next to a rectangular shape. The oval, one of which is joined to the oval with a short side along the tapered segments is broken along incised line. At one corner within the excised area the edge of a segment; the other three sides are is a raised curved line. The short straight edge next roughly broken. to the dotted circles appears to be cut; all of the Fig. III.119 other edges are broken. Fig. III.122 figurative relief plaques and veneer panels 75

136 139

W = 1.2 W = 3.5 H = 2.2 H = 1.2 Th = 0.05 Inv. no. SP 752 Inv. no. SP 497 Bone Bone A small fragment with an incised spiral at one edge. A fragment with an excised flower-like design, con- At the opposite corner is an incised curved line, sisting of petals arranged around a circle with a perhaps the top of another spiral. All of the edges hole in its center. Between two petals is a dotted are broken. circle. At the edge near this dotted circle are two lines incised parallel to the edge. This edge is bro- 140 ken along an incised line; all of the other edges are W = 2.2 broken. H = 2.6 Fig. III.123 Th = 0.07 Inv. no. SP 478 137 Bone W = 1.7 An irregular fragment with part of an oval design H = 0.8 filled with cross-hatching next to an incised circu- Th = 0.065 lar shape with a floriated or fringed edge. One edge Inv. no. SP 520 is cut; all of the others are broken. Bone Fig. III.126 A fragment with a series of five or more parallel lines that end at a wider incised line with a serrated 141 edge on the side facing the lines. One edge parallel W = 2.2 to the lines is broken along an incised line; all of H = 0.70 the other edges are broken irregularly. Inv. no. SP 519 Fig. III.124 Bone 138 A very small fragment with diagonal lines; from the left, four lines slant to the right, then two to the W = 4.0 left, enclosing a small triangle. To the right, three H = 1.0 lines slant to the right. The lines are perpendicular Th = 0.09 to a margin line along which the lower edge is bro- Inv. no. SP 561 ken. Bone A fragment with a margin line that runs parallel to and ca. 0.2 cm from one of the long cut edges. Two dotted circles are at either end of a curved line along the opposite edge. The circles are closer together than the circles on the Rectangle- Diamond-Oval Border (see Chapter IV.) Fig. III.125 76 chapter iii 142 144

W = 1.76 W = 1.5 H = 1.21 H = 2.19 Th = 0.06 Th = 0.08 Inv. no. SP 420 Inv. no. SP 485 Bone Bone An irregular fragment with a raised flat curve on A triangular fragment with an incised margin line the top edge and two other curves parallel to it, 0.4 cm from the short edge. Along the hypote- with the area in between excised. Beneath the in- nuse is a curved shape with the area inside ex- ner curve a row of four straight lines runs radially cised except for a raised line running from the to the curve. There is a raised curved area at the curved edge to the hypotenuse. The two straight lower left. The back is scored horizontal to the edges are cut or broken along incised lines; the curves. The top edge is broken along an incised hypotenuse edge is broken. curve; all of the other edges are irregularly broken. Fig. III.129 Fig. III.127 145 143 W = 1.6 W = 4.40 H = 0.98 H = 1.36 Th = 0.05 Th = 0.08 Inv. no. SP 635 Inv. no. SP 483 Bone Bone A fragment with all of the edges broken, in some An irregular fragment with two raised lines meet- areas along incised lines. Two leaf tips are incised ing at a right angle, with the area inside the lines at the edge of one long side. excised; a third line angles off to the opposite side. Reconstructed from two pieces. This fragment may 146 belong to the Curved Panel (see above, Group C) W = 2.53 because of a slight similarity to the angular drap- H = 1.0 ery folds of the attendant at the far left. Th = 0.08 Fig. III.128 Inv. no. SP 659 Bone A triangular fragment with a curved line incised parallel to and 0.3 cm from the curved edge, which is broken along an incised line; all of the other edges are irregularly broken. Fig. III.130 figurative relief plaques and veneer panels 77

Fig. III.1. Eros Plaque, Cat. no. 3

Fig. III.2. Eros Plaque, Cat. no. 4 78 chapter iii Fig. III.3a. Curved Panel, preserved fragments

(Fig. III.3b: follows p. 38) figurative relief plaques and veneer panels 79

Fig. III.4. Curved Panel, Cat. no. 5 80 chapter iii

Fig. III.5. Curved Panel, Cat. no. 6

Fig. III.6. Curved Panel, Cat. no. 7 Fig. III.7. Curved Panel, Cat. no. 8

Fig. III.8. Curved Panel, Cat. no. 9 Fig. III.9. Curved Panel, Cat. no. 10 figurative relief plaques and veneer panels 81

Fig. III.11. Curved Panel, Cat. no. 13

Fig. III.10. Curved Panel, Cat. no. 12 Fig. III.12. Curved Panel, Cat. no. 14

Fig. III.13. Curved Panel, Cat. no. 15 82 chapter iii

Fig. III.14. Curved Panel, Cat. no. 16

Fig. III.15. Curved Panel, Cat. no. 17

Fig. III.16. Curved Panel, Cat. no. 18

Fig. III.17. Curved Panel, Cat. no. 19 Fig. III.18. Curved Panel, Cat. no. 20 figurative relief plaques and veneer panels 83

Fig. III.19. Curved Panel, Cat. no. 21

Fig. III.20. Curved Panel, Cat. no. 22

Fig. III.21. Curved Panel, Cat. no. 23

Fig. III.22. Curved Panel, Cat. no. 24

Fig. III.24. Curved Panel, Fig. III.23. Curved Panel, Cat. no. 25 Cat. no. 26 84 chapter iii

Fig. III.26. Curved Panel, Cat. no. 28

Fig. III.25. Curved Panel, Cat. no. 27

Fig. III.27. Curved Panel, Cat. no. 29 Fig. III.28. Curved Panel, Cat. no. 30

Fig. III.29. Curved Panel, Cat. no. 31 Fig. III.30. Curved Panel, Cat. no. 32

Fig. III.31. Curved Panel, Cat. no. 33 Fig. III.32. Curved Panel, Cat. no. 34 figurative relief plaques and veneer panels 85

Fig. III.33. Curved Panel, Fig. III.34. Curved Fig. III.35. Curved Cat. no. 35 Panel, Cat. no. 36 Panel, Cat. no. 37

Fig. III.36. Curved Fig. III.37. Curved Fig. III.38. Curved Fig. III.39. Curved Panel, Cat. no. 38 Panel, Cat. no. 39 Panel, Cat. no. 40 Panel, Cat. no. 41

Fig. III.40. Curved Fig. III.41. Curved Fig. III.42. Curved Fig. III.43. Curved Panel, Cat. no. 42 Panel, Cat. no. 43 Panel, Cat. no. 44 Panel, Cat. no. 45

Fig. III.44. Animal Panel I, Cat. no. 46 Fig. III.45. Animal Panel I, Cat. no. 47 86 chapter iii

Fig. III.47. Animal Panel I, Cat. no. 49

Fig. III.46. Animal Panel I, Cat. no. 48

Fig. III.49. Animal Panel I, Cat. no. 51

Fig. III.48. Animal Panel I, Cat. no. 50

Fig. III.51. Animal Panel I, Cat. no. 53

Fig. III.50. Animal Panel I, Cat. no. 52

Fig. III.52. Animal Panel I, Cat. no. 54 Fig. III.53. Animal Panel I, Cat. no. 55 figurative relief plaques and veneer panels 87

Fig. III.54. Animal Fig. III.55. Animal Fig. III.56. Animal Fig. III.57. Animal Panel I, Cat. no. 56 Panel I, Cat. no. 57 Panel I, Cat. no. 58 Panel I, Cat. no. 59

Fig. III.58. Animal Fig. III.59. Animal Fig. III.60. Animal Fig. III.61. Animal Panel I, Cat. no. 60 Panel I, Cat. no. 61 Panel I, Cat. no. 62 Panel I, Cat. no. 63

Fig. III.62. Animal Fig. III.63. Animal Fig. III.64. Animal Panel I, Cat. no. 66 Panel I, Cat. no. 64 Panel I, Cat. no. 65

Fig. III.65. Animal Panel I, Fig. III.66. Animal Panel I, Fig. III.67. Animal Cat. no. 67 Cat. no. 68 Panel I, Cat. no. 69 88 chapter iii

Fig. III.68. Animal Fig. III.69. Animal Fig. III.70. Animal Panel II, Cat. no. 70 Panel II, Cat. no. 71 Panel II, Cat. no. 72

Fig. III.71. Animal Panel II, Cat. no. 73

Fig. III.72. Animal Fig. III.73. Animal Panel II, Cat. no. 74 Panel II, Cat. no. 75

Fig. III.74. Animal Fig. III.75. Animal Fig. III.76. Animal Fig. III.77. Animal Panel II, Cat. no. 76 Panel II, Cat. no. 77 Panel II, Cat. no. 78 Panel II, Cat. no. 79 figurative relief plaques and veneer panels 89

Fig. III.78. Animal Fig. III.79. Animal Fig. III.80. Animal Panel II, Cat. no. 82 Panel II, Cat. no. 80 Panel II, Cat. no. 81

Fig. III.81. Animal Panel II, Cat. no. 83 Fig. III.82. Animal Panel II, Cat. no. 84

Fig. III.83. Outstretched Arm Panel, Cat. nos. 86-89

Fig. III.84. Outstretched Arm Panel, Cat. no. 90 Fig. III.85. Outstretched Arm Panel, Cat. no. 91 90 chapter iii

Fig. III.86. Beautiful Head Panel, Cat. no. 93

Fig. III.87. Beautiful Head Panel, Cat. no. 94 Fig. III.88. Beautiful Head Panel, Cat. no. 95

Fig. III.89. Beautiful Head Panel, Cat. no. 96 Fig. III.90. Beautiful Head Panel, Cat. no. 97

(Fig. III.91: follows p. 90)

Fig. III.92. Thiasos Panel, Cat. no. 98 Fig. III.93. Thiasos Panel, Cat. no. 99 figurative relief plaques and veneer panels 91

Fig. III.94. Thiasos Panel, Cat. no. 100 Fig. III.95. Thiasos Panel, Cat. no. 101

Fig. III.97. Thiasos Panel, Cat. no. 103

Fig. III.96. Thiasos Panel, Cat. no. 102

Fig. III.98. Thiasos Fig. III.99. Thiasos Fig. III.100. Thiasos Panel, Cat. no. 104 Panel, Cat. no. 105 Panel, Cat. no. 106 92 chapter iii

Fig. III.102. Hunting Fig. III.101. Hunting Scene, Cat. no. 111 Scene, Cat. no. 112

Fig. III.103. Diamond-Bordered Panel, Cat. no. 113

Fig. III.104. Diamond-Bordered Panel, Fig. III.105. Diamond-Bordered Panel, Cat. no. 114 Cat. no. 115 figurative relief plaques and veneer panels 93

Fig. III.106. Cat. no. 116 Fig. III.107. Cat. no. 117

Fig. III.108. Cat. no. 118 Fig. III.109. Cat. no. 119

Fig. III.110. Cat. no. 120 Fig. III.111. Cat. no. 121

Fig. III.112. Cat. no. 122 Fig. III.113. Cat. no. 124

Fig. III.114. Cat. no. 125 Fig. III.115. Cat. no. 126 94 chapter iii

Panel

Fig. III.116. Cat. no. 127 Fig. III.117. Fig. III.118. Cat. no. 128 Cat. no. 129

Fig. III.119. Fig. III.120. Fig. III.121. Fig. III.122. Cat. no. 132 Cat. no. 133 Cat. no. 134 Cat. no. 135

Fig. III.123. Fig. III.124. Fig. III.125. Fig. III.126. Cat. no. 136 Cat. no. 137 Cat. no. 138 Cat. no. 140

Fig. III.127. Fig. III.128. Fig. III.129. Fig. III.130. Cat. no. 142 Cat. no. 143 Cat. no. 144 Cat. no. 146 decorative plaques and veneer 95

CHAPTER IV

CATALOGUE AND ANALYSIS OF DECORATIVE PLAQUES AND VENEER

This chapter includes segments of ornamented rings, strips cut in a spiral design, and plaques and flat strips decorated with floral and geometric patterns. Figurative elements, where they occur at all, are minor elements within a decorative scheme.

A. DECORATED RINGS

Forty-four richly decorated curved bone segments from rings are preserved. Most of these segments can be placed with enough others of similar design, sometimes adjoining, to reconstruct the rings. The reconstructions suggested below for one almost fully preserved ring and portions of at least nine others appear to account for most of the fragments. There may have been more rings than proposed here. There are two basic decorative schemes: an interlaced swastika pattern (Pl. IV.1) and a leaf pattern (Pl. IV.2). Continuous grooves are cut parallel to the outer and inner circumferences on the rings with swastika patterns, and convex moldings are cut along the outer and inner circumferences on the leaf-pattern rings. The swastika pattern encloses alternating 8-petal and 4-petal flowers. The leaf pattern rings are enriched with flowers, fruits, and human heads. The preservation of one almost complete ring suggests a possible system of production.1 The first step was the standard process of removing the ends of whatever long bones were used and then sawing them into flat longitudinal strips of roughly trapezoidal shape.2 The next step was likely the fitting and gluing tightly together of a number of these trapezoids, possibly on a wooden support, to form a flat solid blank. Ring 1, the most completely preserved, was made up from four such trapezoidal pieces, glued together along angled joins (Figs. IV.1, IV.12).3 Using a lathe, the outer circumference of the blank was reduced from an irregular polygon to a circle, the outer and inner continuous grooves were cut, and finally the inner circumference was cut and the ring removed from the spindle of the lathe. Evidence for this method of production is that the angled joins must have been made before the designs were carved, because the pattern is continuous in each case where adjacent strips with angled ends are preserved. Most of these ends also carry score marks to key the adhesive for the preliminary fitting.

1 Stern, A decorated bone ring 359-64. made later as described below, resulting in the six pieces 2 For the preliminary steps in bone working and the preserved of this ring. St. Clair, Carving as Craft 53 sup- use of standard pre-shaped blanks, see Chapter II. ports the use of wood matrices to hold pieces for turn- 3 Two additional cuts, along a single diameter, were ing. 96 chapter iv

The difficult task of cutting annular designs or regular leaf patterns on a ring made up of several small pieces (Fig. IV.5) was thereby simplified by the procedure of cutting at least some of the geometric portions of the decoration on the blank while it was turning on a lathe. As discussed above in Chapter II, the use of lathes for turning wood, ivory and bone, glass, silver, and bronze is well attested from the Greek period on.4 The moldings along the edge and other continuous patterns could have been cut fairly rapidly on the end of a turning blank. The leaf pattern could have been produced while the blank rotated on a lathe, and the reciprocating motion of some Roman lathes also would have lent itself to the carving of alternating clockwise and counter-clockwise leaf patterns. Variety was achieved after the ring was removed from the lathe by the addition of different subsidiary elements, including human heads, flowers, grapes, and pomegranates. Of the ten rings, two have exterior diameters of 19 cm and interior diameters of just over 14 cms (Nos. 4 and 5) with some evidence for a third. Seven share an exterior diameter of just under 15 cm and an interior diameter of about 10 cm (Nos. 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 9, and 10). One has a smaller diameter of ca. 12 cm (No. 8). Of the two large Rings, 4 and 5, one is decorated with the leaf pattern and one with the swastika pattern. Of the seven middle-sized Rings, 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 9, and 10, four are decorated with the leaf pattern and three are decorated with the swastika pattern. The single smaller example, Ring 8, is poorly preserved, and its possible twin may be represented only by some minuscule fragments, among those in Cat. no. 191, that could not be identified with certainty as belonging to this group of curved strips. There are mainly two sizes of rings as reconstructed, the smaller of which almost fits inside the larger. The bone blanks must thus have been cut into standard sizes in the same workshop. In addition to the angled cuts at the ends of most of the strips, there are also radial cuts at the ends of some strips, e.g., on Cat. nos. 146, 147, 149, and 150, that are perpendicular to the diameter or vertical, not angled. There is clear evidence for these vertical cuts only on Rings 1 through 4 (see below). In the best-preserved example, Ring 1, a narrow portion of the design is missing at the vertical cuts, unlike at the angled cuts where the design is complete. These vertical cuts, of which no more than two occur on a single ring and which fall on opposite ends of the same diameter, must have been made after the decoration of the ring was complete. There are several possible causes for this sequence in production. As is known for mosaic emblemata and silver tondos, the rings might have been shipped elsewhere to a furniture producer for attachment. Subsequently, a ring might have been sawn in half to be fitted around a large, projecting boss, as an escutcheon. Or, before or after the ring was mounted along the center closure of a cabinet and divided between two single- leaved doors, or along the hinged adjoining leaves of double-leaved doors, or along the body and lid of a chest, it might have been cut so that half of the ring could move separately. Throughout antiquity, rings are a common design on chests and caskets.5 A spectacular example of inlaid decoration with multiple rings occurs on a flat-topped chest excavated at

4 For use of lathe, see Chapter II, esp. nn. 90-91. (and bone), and/or were painted; Pliny, HN 16, 232; 5 Typically, cupboards were inlaid with woods, ivory Sulp. Sev., Dial. 1, 21, 4. decorative plaques and veneer 97

Qustul in Lower Nubia, datable to the fourth century (Pl. V.2).6 On the front of the chest, two rows of five rings alternate with three rows of aediculae. The rings, said to be of ivory, are inlaid with a zigzag pattern of ebony. Two South Italian sets of ivory doors from cupboards are similar to the Qustul chest in having vertical posts at the four corners and flat tops, and in a distinctive feature that is similar to the rings of the Qustul chest, each door has rows of rings, three above the top panel, three in a row on the wood between the panels, and three below the lower panel.7 The sides also have three rows of three rings. The use of rows of circular decorations on the front (and possibly sides) of chests is also demonstrated on a lead cult cabinet from Hadrumentum (Sousse).8 Each door has three horizontal rows of three rings—across the top, on the band between the two recessed panels, and across the bottom. A small, well-preserved chest from Akhmin(?) is painted on all four sides and the lid with rings—double pairs of small rings on the box, and a single large ring on the lid.9 A set of wood cabinet doors in the Walters Art Museum, Baltimore, carries a design of concentric pairs of decorated rings, although the rings are carved in relief rather than being applied to or inlaid into the surface.10 A scribe writing on a chest decorated with two large rings is depicted on a fifth-century funerary mosaic from Tabarka, suggesting that texts were stored within.11 The practice of decorating chests and cabinets with rings lived on into the Byzantine, medieval, and later periods as well.12 Therefore, it is presumed that this and the other less well-preserved rings from Kenchreai decorated the doors or the body and lid of a fairly large cabinet or chest, and the radial cuts fell at the division between the upper and lower or two door panels of the object. It has been proposed as an alternative that these rings were used on the crossed-leg chairs found at Kenchreai, discussed below in Chapter VI. Bronze dowel-like fittings with decorative circular ends that permit chair legs to be folded were used to fasten the legs of sellae curules.13 These bosses are amply documented in representations of chairs on sarcophagi from

6 Aswan, Nubia Museum (?) (at one time, Cairo, Coptic 12 Among numerous examples, the painted chest Museum, Inv. no. JE71191); Emery and Kirwan, The Royal from Akhmin(?), see n. 9; an early ninth-century reli- Tombs 48-9, 178-9, 383-4, 388-9, Cat. no. 881, Pl. 109A quary of St. Liudger, 40 cm by 22 cm by 21 cm, cov- and B; Emery, Nubian Treasure 50-53, Pl. 48; Africa in An- ered with decorated bone plaques, has rings inset with tiquity II 104-6, fig. 80. a flower at the corners of the main fields of the design, 7 From Rosarno Medma, Museo Reggio Calabria; Werden, Propsteikirche; Elbern, St. Liudger und die Abtei Budde, Armarium 10, Cat. no. 14-15, fig. 2; P. Orsi, NSc Werden 77-88, fig. 12; and an early thirteenth-century Suppl. (1913) 137, fig. 181. Italian Romanesque wooden cassone panel in the Fogg 8 Algiers, Musée des Antiquités et Arts; Budde, Ar- Museum of Art, Inv. no. 1936.129, decorated with rings marium 38, Kultschränke Cat. no. 14, fig. 28a-b. with leaf patterns and three vertical floriated spirals at 9 Berlin, Staatliche Museen, previously Frühchrist- the sides and center, reminiscent of the vertical vines lich-Byzantinischen Sammlung, Inv. no. 6113; Ägypten between the rings and aediculae on the Qustul chest, Schätze 147, Cat. no. 109; Effenberger, Koptische Kunst 98, E.B. Smith, Medieval Art in America: Patterns of Collecting 100, 211, fig. 100; Das Museum für spätantike und 1800-1940 (University Park, 1996) 214, Cat. no. 52 with byzantinische Kunst 168-9, Cat. no. 83. earlier bibliography, esp. W. Cahn and L. Seidel, Ro- 10 Baltimore, Walters Art Museum, Inv. no. 61.303; manesque Sculpture in American Collections I (New York, 1979) Early Christian and Byzantine Art Cat. no. 85; Friedman, 191, Cat. no. 42, fig. 200, and C.V. Bernstein and P.P. Beyond the Pharaohs 20, 234, Cat. no. 147. Soucek, The Meeting of Two Worlds: The Crusades and the 11 Tunis, Bardo Museum, Inv. no. A308; Yacoub, Mediterranean Context (Ann Arbor, 1981) 72-3, Cat. no. 47. Musée du Bardo 41, fig. 34. 13 E.g., a bronze sella from Herculaneum (?) in 98 chapter iv the second century on.14 Decorative circles also adorned the front seat rail.15 But there is no evidence on the Kenchreai chairs in the form of cuttings in the veneer or of attachment holes in the wood legs that these rings decorated the crossings of the preserved chair legs, and there would have been no need for radial cuts, as the legs on the Kenchreai chairs did not fold.16 The rings also seem too large for chair attachments, and the number of rings and differences in their sizes (see Ring 4 below) are difficult to explain if the rings were used in pairs to decorate the legs of the chairs preserved in this deposit.

RING 1

In order clockwise from upper left, Catalogue numbers 147, 148, 149, 150, 151, and 152 Exterior diameter 14.8 cm Interior diameter 10 cm Pl. IV.1; Figs. IV.1, IV.11-IV.13 Six curved segments fit together precisely to form a complete ring. The pattern consists of sixteen interlaced swastikas, the arms of which are extended to form fields. These small fields, decorated with either eight- (Type A) or four-petaled (Type B) flowers, open alternately to the outer circumference or inner circumference of the ring. The Type A flowers decorate the panels that open to the outer circumference except on Cat. no. 148, which has two Type A flowers in adjacent fields. This variation in the pattern is not unusual in the decoration of these rings, and other anomalies occur. Flat moldings set off by grooves border the decorative pattern on the inner and outer circumferences of the ring. A small portion of the upper right petal at the right edge of Cat. no. 150 is carried over onto the left edge of Cat. no. 151. Examination of the backs of these two segments shows a quite different cellular structure of cancellous bone, which indicates that they were joined before the design was worked. Radial cuts fall between Cat. nos. 148 and 149 on one side of the ring and between Cat. nos. 151 and 152 on the other. The cuts bisect the ring exactly. In both cases, the cuts run through the center of a flower. The backs of the pieces adjacent to the radial cuts are not identical. Therefore, either this ring has been reconstructed from halves of two separate rings, or it was common practice to assemble halves that were cut from different blanks. In that case, workshop procedure must have been highly standardized and repetitive enough for a sort of assembly-line production. The half-ring formed by Cat. nos. 152, 147, and 148 is about 0.02 cm larger than an exact half, but it fits precisely against the half-ring formed by Cat. nos. 149, 150, and 151. It is assumed that the halves were used to form a full circle because none of the strips has beveled ends or any other evidence of attachment in a different format.

Naples, Museo Archaeologico Nazionale, Inv. no. 73152, 15 Funerary relief of M. Virtius Ceraunus, from illustrated in Wanscher, Sella Curulis 139; see also Schäfer Nuceria Alfaterna, Naples, Museo Archaeologico Imperii insignia Pl. 2, 14. Nazionale; Schäfer, Imperii insignia 282ff., Taf. 46, 3. 14 See below Chapter VI, n. 23. 16 See below Chapter VI. decorative plaques and veneer 99

One slightly curved segment, possibly not from a ring, with a very similar decoration of interlaced swastikas forming panels opening alternatively toward the inner and outer circumference, decorated with a four-petaled flower, was found at Helwan.17

Fig. IV.1. Ring 1 Reconstruction, Cat. nos. 147-152, in Fig. IV.2. Ring 2 Reconstruction, Cat. nos. 154 and 155, order clockwise from upper left (1:2) in order clockwise at top and 153 at lower left (1:2)

RING 2

Catalogue numbers 153, 154, and 155 Exterior diameter 14.8 cm Interior diameter 10.4 cm Figs. IV.2, IV.11, IV.14-IV.16

Three segments are preserved. The ring is similar to Ring 1, but differs in that the Type B flowers fall in fields that open to the outer circumference, and Type A flowers in the fields that open to the inner circumference, the reverse arrangement of Ring 1. Cat. nos. 154 and 155 abut, separated by a radial cut. The third preserved piece, Cat. no. 153, is not adjacent to either of these, but there are two possible locations for it within the full circle, one of which is shown.

17 Berlin, Staatliche Museen, Inv. no. 3858; Wulff, Bildwerke 122, Cat. no. 445, Pl. XX. 100 chapter iv

RING 3

Catalogue numbers 156, 157, 158, and 159 Exterior diameter 14.9 cm Interior diameter 10.2 cm Figs. IV.3, IV.11, IV.17-IV.21 Four segments are preserved of a ring similar to Rings 1 and 2. The workmanship is less precise, however, and there is one sorry point on Cat. no. 157, where the field ended up too small for its floral decoration and the flower was omitted.18 The arms of the swastikas tilt, and the edge moldings vary from flat to half-round in section, even on a single segment (see Fig. IV.18). Three adjacent pieces, Cat. nos. 156, 157, and 158, are separated by angled cuts. The left edge of Cat. no. 156 and the right edge of Cat. no. 158 are radial cuts, marking the point where the ring was cut in half along its diameter. Cat. no. 159 falls on the opposite half, not adjacent to the better-preserved half, but judged to belong because the floral ornaments are the same. The flowers are Types B, C, D, E, and F.

Fig. IV.3. Ring 3 Reconstruction, Cat. nos. 156-158, in Fig. IV.4. Ring 4 Reconstruction, Cat. nos. 163, 161, order clockwise from upper left and 159 at lower left (1:2) 162, 164-166, in order clockwise from upper left (1:2)

18 Errors of this type are seen even on major com- Museum of Art, New York, Inv. no. 17.190.52-.53; missions such as the ivory panel at the Metropolitan Cutler, Justinian Diptychs 89-90. decorative plaques and veneer 101

RING 4 Catalogue numbers 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, and 166 Exterior diameter 19 cm Interior diameter 14.2 cm Figs. IV.4, IV.11, IV.23-IV.28 Six segments are preserved, some fragmentary, of a ring of the same type as Rings 1, 2, and 3. Because each flower is different, there is no proof that all belong on this ring; but, by following the alternating pattern of the panels, all pieces can be placed and about 175o of the ring reconstructed. The flowers preserved are Types B, C, E, F, G, and H. The workmanship is somewhat careless, with the swastikas in several cases tilted (Cat. nos. 162 and 165). Vertical cuts are preserved at one side each of Cat. nos. 163 and 164. Three segments from this half of the ring were recovered. This ring is larger than the preceding three examples. Its estimated interior diameter of 14.2 cm is close to the exterior diameter of Rings 1, 2, and 3, but it is slightly too small to have been cut concentric with any of these. Cat. no. 164 has an attachment hole and the piece falling almost opposite, Cat. no. 161, also has a rounded cutting from part of an attachment hole. These holes were probably from a repair to reattach the ring, as the preceding rings have none, and because on Cat. no. 164 the hole defaces the floral ornament.

RING 5

Catalogue numbers 167, 168, 169, 170, 171, and 172 Exterior diameter 19.2 cm Interior diameter 14.2 cm Pl. IV.2; Figs. IV.5, IV.11, IV.29-IV.34 Six segments are preserved. This ring, unlike the four above, is decorated with a pattern of leaves, probably meant to represent laurel, and is ornamented with heads and flowers. The flowers preserved are Types I and K. The moldings along the inner and outer circumferences of the ring are semicircular in section. The reconstruction is based on the join of Cat. nos. 168 and 169. The decoration consists of alternating heads and flowers, and there is a further alternation of the heads between frontal and right profile views. The leaf pattern changes direction at each ornament, pointing toward each head and away from each flower. The result is particularly handsome. The leaf pattern is very beautifully and regularly worked. When the preserved fragments are arranged as suggested here, with the pattern alternately diverging and converging, there does not appear to be a cutting along a diameter. A fragment of a bronze nail is preserved on Cat. no. 170, and there is a partly preserved nail hole on Cat. no. 172 at the opposite side of the circle. As in Ring 4, the idiosyncratic placement of these holes with respect to the fine decoration suggests repair, re-attachment, or reuse of the rings rather than an initial means of attachment. 102 chapter iv

The heads facing right on this ring appear to be young males with the pointed ears of satyrs. The frontal heads appear to be mature females.19 Representations of isolated heads and masks, particularly in sets of four, are a very common late Roman motif.20 They have been identified as representations of the seasons or mythological figures and often appear in facing pairs in circular arrangements, such as on the rims of basins and plates. The lid of the covered bowl in the Mildenhall Treasure has isolated heads included in an animal frieze, and the lid of a casket from the Sevso Treasure has four isolated heads included in a design of erotes holding garlands.21 The Meleager plate and the Achilles plate in the Sevso Trea- sure also have isolated heads spaced around their circular rims, six heads on the former and four on the latter.22 The motif of isolated heads is also common on the edges of the numerous round and sigma-shaped marble “Tischplatten,” tables used with stibadium dining couches in the late antique period. The head types include Dionysiac themes of satyrs, Silenoi, and maenads; helmeted goddesses and Tyches with mural crowns; personifications of the seasons and months; and others.23 The specific arrangement seen on Ring 5, of pairs of opposed male and opposed female heads, occurs on the flat rim of a number of silver basins or flanged bowls from the third and fourth centuries. These include four from the Mildenhall Treasure, two from the treasure found at Carthage, one basin from the Thil Treasure, one from ’abac, Slavonia, one, now lost, from Viminacium, south-east of Belgrade, and a fragment of a basin from the Treasure of Traprain Law.24 Two of the Mildenhall basins with central tondos—one of which depicts a hunter spearing a bear and the other a helmeted male head—have on the rim a bearded male head opposite a youthful satyr.25 The bearded male heads may represent winter,

19 Only one example of an isolated female head nia(?): Vienna, Kunsthistorisches Museum, Inv. no. AS shown in frontal view is preserved among the numer- VII A 5; Dalton, Catalogue of Early Christian Antiquities 79, ous examples on “Tischplatten”: Athens, Kanellopoulos Cat. nos. 356 and 357; Pirzio Biroli Stefanelli, L’Argento Museum, Dresken-Weiland, Reliefierte Tischplatten Cat No. dei Romani Cat. nos. 150-151, 134, 143, and 190-1. For 18, 355, 239. the Mildenhall basins see J.W. Brailsford, The Mildenhall 20 Cutler, Five Lessons in Late Roman Ivory 168 n. 9, for Treasure: A Provisional Handbook (London 1947, 2nd. ed. M. Bonfioli, “Su un piccolo frammento di tarda 1955); Painter, Mildenhall Treasure 27-8, nos. 5, 6, 7, and antichità,” in Studi in memoria di Giuseppe Bovini, Vol. 1, 8, Pls. 15-22; Kent and Painter, Wealth of the Roman World Biblioteca di “Felix Ravenna,” 6. Ravenna, 1989; 93- 35, Cat. nos. 60 and 61; Baratte et al., Le trésor de Carthage 106. 23-6, figs. 10-16. For the Carthage basins see Dalton, 21 London, British Museum, Inv. no. 1946.10-7.11 Catalogue of Early Christian Antiquities 79-86, Cat. nos. 356- and -7.12; Painter, Mildenhall Treasure 29, Cat. no. 11, 7; Baratte et al., Le trésor de Carthage 14-21, Cat. nos. 1.1 12, fig. 26-8; Mango and Bennett, The Sevso Treasure 459- and 1.2, figs. 4-9. For the basin from Thil see Feugère, 63, figs. 14-17 to 14-24. Le trésor de Thil 66, Pl. I, 3. For the basin in Vienna, see 22 Mango and Bennett, The Sevso Treasure 148-51, figs. Ibid. 26, fig. 17 and n. 32 for earlier biblio.; for the 2-68 to 2-73; 179-80, figs. 3-29 to 3-32. example from Viminacium, see Ibid. 27, fig. 18, n. 38; 23 Dresken-Weiland, Reliefierte Tischplatten 233-49. and for the fragment from Traprain Law, see Ibid. 27 24 Mildenhall Treasure: London, British Museum, and Curle, Treasure of Traprain 45-6, Pl. XXIII. Inv. nos. 1946.10-7.5, -7.6, -7.7, and -7.8; Basins from 25 London, British Museum, Inv. no. 1946.10-7.5 Carthage: London, British Museum, Inv. nos. AF 3275 and -7.8; Bianchi-Bandinelli, The Late Empire 206-8, 432, and 3276; Basin from Thil: London, British Museum, fig. 196. The helmeted male head may represent the Inv. no. GR 1824.4-89.12; Basin from ’abac, Slavo- month of March; see Åkerström-Hougen, The Calendar decorative plaques and veneer 103 the satyrs autumn, the time of the grape vintage.26 On the basin in the Mildenhall Treasure with the bear hunt medallion, one of the female heads is more youthful, with hair pulled back into a knot as in images of Venus, and opposite is an older female with hair arranged in the so-called Scheitelzopf motif.27 The more youthful female head could represent spring and the heavy-featured, more mature female head, summer. A third basin from the Mil- denhall Treasure with a female head in the center medallion has four heads on the rim, in clockwise sequence: a coarse-featured, beardless male; a finely featured female with hair pulled back; a youthful male with a spear, whose hair is rolled up like an athlete’s; and a full-featured female.28 Variations on this general arrangement have a long history. The exterior rim of a bronze basin in Speyer, dated second to third century, has an animal frieze interrupted by four heads, alternately opposed and addorsed.29 Although described by Menzel as tragic masks, these heads appear to represent a typical group of four seasons; namely, a satyr with pedum, a young female, a bearded elderly male, and an older female head. Between the heads are animal groups and attributes. This basin belongs to a small group of so-called Hemmoorer basins, dated to ca. 150-250, all decorated with heads in a similar fashion.30 Another parallel for the entire composition of Ring 5 occurs on a silver platter, previously in the Joseph Brum- mer Collection, its edge decorated by a flat band with feather ornament interrupted by four heads representing, in clockwise order, a young woman, a young man with short hair, a woman(?) with hair rolled up like a fillet around the crown, and a bearded man.31 The genders of these heads are difficult to determine, and the opposing pair facing right seem almost identical and equally feminine. The opposing male (perhaps) heads face left. The feather pattern runs clockwise in the quadrant to the right of one of the female heads, and counterclockwise in the other three quadrants. The flat rim of a platter or shallow dish in New York from first- or early second-century Italy has the same pattern of opposed female heads facing in one direction (in this case left) and opposed male heads (in this case facing right).32 Not all of these heads seem to represent seasons, and their mythological identities, if any, are not clear. Isolated heads that could represent Pan or satyrs, maenads, and Silenus probably refer to the Dionysiac thiasos, although the other elements on the same object often represent generalized pastoral scenes.33

and Hunting Mosaics of the Villa of the Falconer 25, fig. 9:2. 30 H. Menzel, Die römischen Bronzen aus Deutschland I, 26 Parrish, Season Mosaics 23, 39-40. Speyer (Mainz, 1960) 41 n. 3. 27 The hair is parted in the center and combed down 31 Metzger Family Collection, formerly Collections from the crown. The hair along the face is pulled back Demotte, Nasli Heeramaneck, and J. Brummer; Oliver, horizontally and the ends braided. The end of the braid Silver for the Gods, 174-5, Cat. no. 119; Sale Catalogue is pulled up from the nape over the crown and pinned Parke-Bernet, Joseph Brummer Collection, April 20-23, in place over the part. 1949, First Season, 35 lot 142, with illustration. Oliver 28 London, British Museum, Inv. no. 1946.10-7.6; dates this platter to the fourth century. Kent and Painter, Wealth of the Roman World 35, Cat. no. 32 New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art, Inv. no. 61. 18.145.37; Oliver, Silver for the Gods 150-1. 29 Inv. no. 1941/10, from Angelhof; H. Menzel, Die 33 Baratte et al., Le trésor de Carthage 21-30 examines römischen Bronzen aus Deutschland I, Speyer (Mainz, 1960) the iconography of these representations. 40-1, Cat. no. 70, Pl. 48-9. 104 chapter iv

On mosaics, the motif of male figures of the seasons appears to be a development of the second century, and most of the extant examples from Roman North Africa date from the early third through the fifth or sixth centuries.34 Although they already occur in the second century, laurel frames, wreaths, and garlands and their combination with seasonal images are particularly popular motifs on North African mosaics of the later third and, especially, the fourth century, as the following selection of examples reveals. A pattern of intersecting laurel wreaths with busts of the seasons occurs on a floor from the Maison de la Procession dionysiaque at El Djem, dated A.D. 140-160.35 Two other examples of laurel wreaths with seasonal imagery of animals and of plants were found at El Djem and date from the second half of the second and the first half of the third centuries respectively.36 Room 2 of the Maison des Océans at Sfax is decorated with an elaborate floor of intertwined laurel wreaths surrounding Muses and a poet with Clio; the seasons are relegated to the corners of the floor.37 One of the earlier examples of laurel wreath medallions surrounding female busts of the seasons is a floor preserved in Room 10 of House A (from Terrain Jilani Guirat) at El Djem, dated to the mid-third century.38 A related motif of square panels framed with laurel garlands surrounding representations of the seasons occurs on a late third-century mosaic from the Maison des Muses at El Djem.39 Perhaps somewhat later is a laurel wreath with the fruits of the seasons from the Maison du Paon, Carthage, Dermech, dated to the late third or early fourth century.40 From a nearby location is a floor from the Antonine Baths at Carthage, Dermech, with busts of the seasons in the corners at the end of laurel garlands, dated to the second half of the fourth century.41 Laurel wreaths containing busts of the seasons occur on the mosaic floor of the triclinium (?) attached to the Maison des Chevaux at Carthage, dated to the first third of the fourth century.42 Plain laurel rings also appear in a mosaic floor from the Maison de la Chasse at Utica, provided with a date post quem of 355-361 by a coin of Constantius II,43 and in a panel at the entrance to an oecus at the Mai- son à Trifolium at Dougga, dated probably to the end of the fourth century.44 The association of these motifs is not limited to mosaics and penetrated even to remote corners of the empire. The ceiling of a house west of the forum at Roman Gorsium/Herculia, in Hunga- ry, is covered with laurel (or olive) wreaths and has heads representing the seasons in the corners.45 In fact, laurel and images of the seasons appear together so frequently that they

34 Parrish, Season Mosaics 23. man North Africa 104, 168-9, 252, Pl. 92. 35 Dunbabin, Mosaics of Roman North Africa 110-1, 160, 41 London, British Museum, Inv. Tun. 666; 260, Cat. no. 27 (a), Pl. 160. Dunbabin, Mosaics of Roman North Africa 121, 251, Pl. 110; 36 Tunis, Bardo Museum, Inv. no. 2751; Yacoub, Hinks, British Museum Catalogue 29, 89-96, figs. 98-105, Musée du Bardo 273, fig. 201; Dunbabin, Mosaics of Pl. XXIX. Roman North Africa 261, Cat. no. 31; Ibid. Cat. no. 42 Carthage, Antiquarium; Dunbabin, Mosaics of Ro- 32. man North Africa 159, 165-6, 253, Pl. 166-7 with earlier 37 Sfax, Museum; mid to late 3rd century, Dunbabin, bibliography. Mosaics of Roman North Africa 132, 268, Cat. no. 2(b), 43 Mosaiques de Tunisie I, Utique 68-9, 89, Pl. XXXIX; Pl. 132. Dunbabin, Mosaics of Roman North Africa 31. 38 Dunbabin, Mosaics of Roman North Africa 259, Cat. 44 Tunis, Bardo Museum; Dunbabin, Mosaics of Ro- no. 18(b). man North Africa 99, 257, Pl. 87. 39 Sousse, Museum; Dunbabin, Mosaics of Roman North 45 J. Fitz and J. Fedak, “From Roman Gorsium to Africa 157, 170, 258, Cat. no. 8(a), Pl. 153. late-antique Herculia: Recent Work at Tác,” JRA 6 40 Tunis, Bardo Museum; Dunbabin, Mosaics of Ro- (1993) 268-9, figs. 5a-b. decorative plaques and veneer 105

Fig. IV.5. Ring 5 Reconstruction, Cat. nos. 167-172, in Fig. IV.6. Ring 6 Reconstruction, Cat. nos. 173 at order clockwise from upper left (1:2) lower left and 174 at upper left (1:2) constitute an example of iconographically related imagery. There are also cases of satyrs paired with Horae as seasonal figures, but it is not a common motif in most media.46 It therefore seems likely that the leaf pattern on Ring 5 is meant to represent laurel leaves and the heads, the four seasons.

RING 6 Catalogue numbers 173 and 174 Exterior diameter ca. 14.5 cm Interior diameter ca. 10.2 cm Figs. IV.6, IV.11, IV.35-IV.36 The three fragments constituting Cat. no. 174, one of the two preserved segments of this ring, join. They are decorated with a fairly large, even leaf pattern worked in rows, pointing right. Three flowers are preserved, two of Type D and one a variant of Type B. The placement of the two adjacent flowers is only slightly more than 60o, and therefore the ring must have been decorated with six flowers. It appears that the leaf pattern ran clockwise

46 Parrish, Season Mosaics 22-3 nn. 35, 36, 43 and 101- as late third to early fourth century, and considers it to 3, Cat. no. 5, Pl. 8. Parrish dates a mosaic with a satyr represent winter. from Aumale, Musée National des Antiquités, Algiers, 106 chapter iv around the entire ring. Cat. no. 173 has a divider band at one end. This represents a fillet tying the garland of leaves, as seen, for example, on a silver cup at the Getty Museum.47

RING 7 Catalogue numbers 175, 176, 177, and 178 Exterior diameter 14.9 cm Interior diameter 10.2 cm Figs. IV.7, IV.11, IV.37-IV.40 Four adjoining segments from this ring are preserved. The decoration consists of a left-pointing leaf pattern decorated with flowers spaced approximately 90o apart. If Cat. no. 175 is placed to the left of Cat. no. 176, the flowers are separated by 92o. The cross sections of these pieces vary from convex to flat. The edge moldings are mainly semicircular in section, but those of Cat. no. 175 are flattened either from wear or cutting error. A portion of leaf pattern on Cat. no. 177 points right, but this is probably another example of the common decorative anomalies seen on these rings. There is no clear evidence of a cut along a diameter through the ring.

Fig. IV.7. Ring 7 Reconstruction, Cat. nos. 175, 176, 178, Fig. IV.8. Ring 8 Reconstruction, Cat. nos. 179, 180, 181, and 177, clockwise from lower left (1:2) and 182, clockwise from upper left and 183 at lower left (1:2)

47 The motif of bound garlands is discussed in represented by Malibu, J. Paul Getty Museum, Inv. no. Pfrommer, Metalwork from the Hellenized East 36-39 and 81.AM.84.23; Ibid. 151, Cat. no. 24. decorative plaques and veneer 107

RING 8

Catalogue numbers 179, 180, 181, 182, and 183 Exterior diameter ca. 12 cm Interior diameter ca. 8.5 cm Figs. IV.8, IV.11, IV.41-IV.45 The reconstruction suggested for this group of five fragments is uncertain, and these pieces may be segments of more than one ring. The pattern is similar to that of Ring 5, consisting of alternating sections of converging and diverging leaf pattern. However, whereas in Ring 5 the direction changes at eight points, in the reconstruction suggested for this ring it changes only at four points, converging on each of two flowers placed opposite one another on the ring. In the spaces between the flowers there are a bunch of grapes and a pomegranate. The flower preserved is Type M. The decoration of Cat. no. 183 permits its placement in this ring, but it is narrower than the other segments. A considerably earlier parallel for the decoration of this ring can be found in an elaborate wreath decorated with grapes, flowers, pomegranates, and fruits surrounding the Ge- nius of the Year on a mosaic from the Maison de la Procession dionysiaque at El Djem.48

RING 9

Catalogue numbers 184, 185, 186, and 187 Exterior diameter 14.6 cm Interior diameter 10.2 cm Figs. IV.9, IV.11, IV.46-IV.48 This ring is decorated with a flat leaf pattern that, as in Ring 8, converges on two flowers placed opposite one another. Cat. no. 186 preserves a flower and shows the convergence of the leaf pattern. The flower preserved is Type B. Between the flowers on one side are a pair of pomegranates with long stems, with the fruits closer to the flowers. On the opposite side between the flowers are bunches of grapes, one of which is preserved on Cat. no. 187. The leaf pattern changes direction between the two pomegranates and apparently between the two bunches of grapes along a divider line, perhaps meant to represent a ribbon, that separates the segments along their angled ends.

48 See n. 35. 108 chapter iv

Fig. IV.9. Ring 9 Reconstruction, Cat. nos. 184, 185, and Fig. IV.10. Ring 10 Reconstruction, Cat. nos. 188 and 186, clockwise from lower left and 187 at lower right 189 at top (1:2), Cat. no. 190 location on ring uncertain (1:2) and thus not illustrated.

RING 10

Catalogue numbers 188, 189, and 190? Exterior diameter ca. 14 cm Interior diameter ca. 10 cm Figs. IV.10, IV.11, IV.49-IV.51 Two adjoining segments and possibly one additional segment of this ring are preserved. All are decorated with a leaf pattern running clockwise. The larger carries a coarsely worked flower, Type L. If the ring carried six flowers, this segment would have a second flower as well; in its absence, we may assume that the ring had only four flowers. The careless workmanship and lack of decoration may point to its use on the side or back of the object it decorated. The following segments are described as viewed clockwise, with the inner circumference of each at the bottom. Length refers to measurement from inner to outer curve.

147 metric grooves that cross to form alternating swastikas and flower-enclosing rectangles that L = 2.3, 2.2 Th = 0.25 open alternately to the inner and outer circum- Inv. no. SP 213a, 213b ference. The designs are, in order: half swastika, rect- Bone angle open to outer circumference with eight- Curved segment with smooth inner and outer petaled flower consisting of four large pointed borders. Decorated with two interlocking geo- petals alternating with four smaller pointed pet- decorative plaques and veneer 109 als around a circular center (Type A), swastika, open to inner circumference with flower Type B, rectangle open to inner circumference with squar- and one-third of a swastika cut diagonally. ish four-petaled flower with circular center (Type Pl. IV.1; Figs. IV.1, IV.12 B), swastika, rectangle open to outer circumference with flower Type A, and swastika cut in half 150 diagonally. A segment reassembled from two fragments. L = 2.25 The lower left corner is worn and a small frag- Th = 0.25 ment is missing. Inv. no. SP 211 Pl. IV.1; Figs. IV.1, IV.12 Bone, possibly of a rib Curved segment with the same decorative scheme 148 as Cat. no. 147. The designs are, in order: L = 2.25 two-thirds of a swastika cut diagonally joining Th = 0.25 Cat. no. 149, rectangle open to outer circumfer- Inv. no. SP 207 ence with flower Type A, swastika, rectangle open to inner circumference with flower Type B, Bone swastika, and rectangle open to outer circumfer- Curved segment with the same decorative scheme ence with flower Type A with right edge of rectangle cut along diameter. as Cat. no. 147. The designs are, in order: diago- A fragment is missing at the top left corner; nally cut swastika joining Cat. no. 147, rectangle the back shows the cellular structure of cancel- open to inner circumference with flower Type A, lous bone.49 swastika, rectangle open to outer circumference with flower Type A, swastika, rectangle open to Pl. IV.1; Figs. IV.1, IV.12 inner circumference with flower Type B, swastika, and rectangle open to outer circumference with 151 flower Type A cut in half along diameter. L = 2.25 Pl. IV.1; Figs. IV.1, IV.12 Th = 0.25 Inv. no. SP 206 149 Bone, possibly of a rib L = 2.3 Curved segment with the same decorative scheme Th = 0.25 as Cat. no. 147. The designs are, in order: right Inv. no. SP 212 edge of rectangle joining Cat. no. 150, swastika, Bone rectangle open to inner circumference with flower Type B, swastika, rectangle open to outer circum- Curved segment with the same decorative scheme ference with flower Type A, swastika, rectangle as Cat. no. 147. The designs are, in order: half open to inner circumference with flower Type B, rectangle joining Cat. no. 148 open to outer cir- swastika, rectangle open to outer circumference cumference with flower Type A, swastika, rectangle with flower Type A cut in half along diameter.

49 MacGregor, Bone, Antler, Ivory & Horn 9, observes probably derive from the ribs of cattle-sized animals; see that flat plaques with cancellous bone on the reverse Chapter II, n. 31. 110 chapter iv

The back shows the cellular structure of can- angle open to outer circumference with flower cellous bone. Type B cut along angle at right of center, swastika, rectangle open to inner circumference with Pl. IV.1; Figs. IV.1, IV.12 flower Type A, swastika, rectangle open to out- 152 er circumference with flower Type B, swastika, and rectangle open to inner circumference with W = 2.5 flower Type A cut along diameter at left of cen- Th = 0.25 ter. Inv. no. SP 214 Figs. IV.2, IV.15 Bone 155 Curved segment with the same decorative scheme as Cat. no. 147. The designs are, in order: half L = 2.2 rectangle joining Cat. no. 151 open to outer cir- Th = 0.19 cumference with flower Type A, swastika, rect- Inv. no. SP 216 angle open to inner circumference with flower Bone Type B, and swastika cut in half along diameter. Curved segment with the same decorative scheme as Cat. no. 147. The designs are, in order: rect- Pl. IV.1; Figs. IV.1, IV.12, IV.13 angle open to inner circumference with flower 153 Type A cut along angle at left of center, swastika, and two-thirds of a rectangle open to outer L = 2.2 circumference with flower Type B cut along di- Th = 0.27 ameter. Inv. no. SP 221 Figs. IV.2, IV.16 Bone 156 Curved segment with the same decorative scheme as Cat. no. 147; however, flower Types A and B L = 2.2 are in fields open to inner and outer circumfer- Th = 0.25 ences respectively. The designs are, in order: Inv. no. SP 220 swastika cut diagonally in half, rectangle open Bone toward inner circumference with flower Type A, swastika, and rectangle open to outer circumfer- Curved segment with the same basic decorative ence with flower Type B cut along diameter at scheme as Cat. no. 147; however, some of the right of center. flower designs are different. The designs are, in order: rectangle with left border cut off opening Figs. IV.2, IV.14 to inner circumference with flower consisting of 154 four rounded petals with a circular center and the whole enclosed in a circle (flower Type C), L = 2.3 swastika, rectangle open to outer circumference Th = 0.25 with flower Type B, and swastika cut along di- Inv. no. SP 215 agonal to right of center. Bone Figs. IV.3, IV.17, IV.18 Curved segment with the same decorative scheme as Cat. no. 147. The designs are, in order: rect- decorative plaques and veneer 111

157 159

L = 1.9 L = 2.2 Th = 0.35 Th = 0.25 Inv. no. SP 218 Inv. no. SP 219 Bone Bone Curved segment with the same basic decorative Curved segment with the same decorative scheme scheme as Cat. no. 147. The designs are, in order: as Cat. no. 156, but not adjacent; however, flower narrow rectangle open to inner circumference Type E is in a field opening to the outer circum- without a flower joining Cat. no. 156, swastika, ference. The designs are, in order: swastika, rect- rectangle open to outer circumference with flower angle open to outer circumference with flower consisting of three pinwheel-like petals around a Type E, swastika, rectangle open to inner circum- circular center (flower Type D), swastika, rect- ference with flower Type B, and part of the fol- angle open to inner circumference with flower lowing swastika. consisting of a circle containing an indented The outer border is broken diagonally at the square with a circular center (flower Type E), left corner. swastika, and left border of following rectan- Figs. IV.3, IV.21 gle. The outer border is missing. 160 Figs. IV.3, IV.19 L = 1.9 158 Th = 0.33 Inv. no. SP 223 L = 1.9 Bone Th = 0.36 Inv. no. SP 217 Fragment of a curved segment similar to Cat. no. 156. The pattern and size are similar to Ring 3, Bone but the design does not fit with the other frag- Curved segment with the same decorative scheme ments. The design consists of a rectangle open as Cat. no. 156 and adjacent to Cat. no. 157. to inner circumference with flower Type C Flower Type C is in a field opening to the outer The outer border and left edge are missing. circumference and flower Type D is in a field Fig. IV.22 opening to the inner circumference. The designs are, in order: right part of rectangle open to outer 161 circumference with flower consisting of four diagonally opposed pointed petals and circular L = 2.0 center (flower Type F), swastika, rectangle open Th = 0.31 to inner circumference with flower Type D, swas- Inv. no. SP 224 + 225 tika, rectangle open to outer circumference with Bone flower Type C, swastika, and the left edge of following rectangle. Curved segment with the same basic decorative The left half of the outer border and the left scheme as Cat. no. 156. The designs are, in order: edge are missing. part of a swastika, rectangle open to outer circumference with flower similar to Type D except Figs. IV.3, IV.20 that it has six swirls (flower Type G), and a swastika. 112 chapter iv

The inner border is missing, the fragment is Nail hole through flower. broken at the left and right sides. There is part Figs. IV.4, IV.26 of the edge of a nail hole at the lower left. Figs. IV.4, IV.23 165

162 L = 2.35 Th = 0.4 L = 2.35 Inv. no. SP 208 Th = 0.3 Bone Inv. no. SP 209 Curved segment with the same decorative scheme Bone as Cat. no. 156. The designs are, in order: rect- Curved segment with the same decorative scheme angle open to inner circumference with flower as Cat. no. 156. The designs are, in order: swas- Type F, swastika, rectangle open to outer circum- tika, rectangle open to inner circumference with ference with flower Type B, swastika, and rect- flower Type E, swastika, and rectangle open to angle open to inner circumference with flower outer circumference with flower similar to Type Type B cut through its center. C except with five petals instead of four (flower Figs. IV.4, IV.27 Type H). Figs. IV.4, IV.24 166

163 L = 2.2 Th = 0.35 L = 2.35 Inv. no. SP 225a Th = 0.29 Bone Inv. no. SP 210 Curved segment with the same decorative scheme Bone as Cat. no. 156. This fragment belongs next to Curved segment with the same decorative scheme Cat. no. 165, but does not fit precisely. The as Cat. no. 156. The designs are, in order: swas- design is a rectangle open to inner circumference tika and part of the left border of following rect- with flower Type B with missing fragment to left angle. of the flower’s center. The left border is missing. Figs. IV.4, IV.25 Figs. IV.4, IV.28 164 167 L = 2.3 Th = 0.3 L = 1.9 Inv. no. SP 222 Th = 2.3 Inv. no SP 194 Bone Bone Curved segment with the same decorative scheme as Cat. no. 156. The designs are, in order: part Curved segment, with rounded border along the of rectangle open to outer circumference with outer and inner circumference, decorated with unidentifiable flower, swastika, rectangle open to a background leaf pattern. The designs are, in inner circumference with flower Type C, and order: part of a flower consisting of two swastika. wedge-shaped petals with rounded tips separat- decorative plaques and veneer 113 ed from the rest of the petal by a horizontal line, 170 surrounding a circular center (flower Type I), leaf L = 2.5 pattern pointing right. Th = 0.36 Border along inner circumference missing. Inv. no. SP 183 Pl. IV.2; Figs. IV.5, IV.29 Bone 168 Curved segment with the same decorative scheme as Cat. no. 167. The designs are, in order: wom- L = 2.6 an’s head in three-quarter view, hair parted in Th = 0.35 the center and falling in waves away from the Inv. no. SP 186 face, the features not strongly marked; leaf pat- Bone tern pointing left. A diagonal line below the chin and across the neck seems to represent either the Curved segment with the same decorative scheme shoulder or a collar. To the right of the head is as Cat. no. 167. The designs are, in order: leaf a nail hole with the corroded remains of a bronze pattern pointing right; profile head of young nail. At the right is leaf pattern pointing to the beardless man facing right; leaf pattern pointing left. left. The man’s features are sharply defined, Right third of border along inner circumfer- somewhat blunt; short hair is swept up and back ence missing. from the face behind a large, pointed ear to fall Found at the north side of the apse, but this on nape of neck. piece may have been washed in from the south Pl. IV.2; Figs. IV.5, IV.30 side. Pl. IV.2; Figs. IV.5, IV.32 169 171 L = 2.4 Th = 0.32 L = 2.4 Inv. no. SP 192, 193 Th = 0.3 Bone Inv. no. SP 185 Curved segment with the same decorative scheme Bone as Cat. no. 167. The designs are, in order: leaf Curved segment with the same decorative scheme pattern pointing left; flower consisting of three as Cat. no. 167. The designs are, in order: pro- uneven rounded petals with borders placed file head of a young, beardless man facing right; around a circular center with dot in the middle leaf pattern facing left; flower consisting of sev- (flower Type J); leaf pattern pointing right. en asymmetrical petals around a circular center The segment is assembled from two fragments. (flower Type K), leaf pattern pointing right. The There is a triangular break at lower right of flow- man’s features are blunt, with his hair falling in er and the border is broken at the right edge of bangs over the forehead and over the nape. inner circumference. Parallels: There is a fairly close parallel for this Pl. IV.2; Figs. IV.5, IV.31 profile head on a plaque of Egyptian provenance (site unknown) at Trier, Original- und Ab- gußsammlung der Universität Trier Bibliothekszentrale, Inv. no. OL 1986.10. The heads do not, however, seem to be by the same hand. Pl. IV.2; Figs. IV.5, IV.33 114 chapter iv

172 leaf pattern pointing right; flower with four square petals around a circular center somewhat L = 2.25 like flower Type B; leaf pattern pointing right; Th = 0.37 flower Type D; leaf pattern pointing right. Inv. no. SP 184 The segment is assembled from three frag- Bone ments. Border along outer circumference miss- Curved segment with the same decorative scheme ing. as Cat. no. 167. The designs are, in order: leaf Figs. IV.6, IV.36 pattern pointing right; head of a woman viewed almost full-face; nail hole; leaf pattern pointing 175 left. The head is turned slightly to proper right, with shoulder-length hair parted in the center L = 2.2 falling away in waves from the heavy, rounded Th = 0.31 face. Inv. no. SP 189 Border of inner circumference is missing at left Bone side. Some of the same border is loose at right side. Curved segment with the same decorative scheme Parallels: A rectangular plaque with a heavy- as Cat. no. 167. The designs are, in order: leaf set frontal head (and a mask) sculptured in low pattern pointing left; flower similar to Type I relief, Athens, Benaki Museum Inv. no. 18776; except that the petals are separated from each Marangou, Bone Carvings from Egypt 125, Cat. no. other and from the center by a space; leaf pat- 214. tern pointing left. Pl. IV.2; Figs. IV.5, IV.34 Figs. IV.7, IV.37

173 176

L = 2.2 L = 2.2 Th = 0.27 Th = 0.33 Inv. no. SP 188 Inv. no. SP 190 Bone Bone Curved segment with the same basic decorative Curved segment with the same decorative scheme scheme as Cat. no. 167. The designs are, in order: as Cat. no. 167. The designs are, in order: leaf leaf pattern pointing right; flower Type D; leaf pattern pointing left; flower with four rounded pattern pointing right; vertical edge or divider petals evenly spaced around a circular center and line. contained within a circle, a slender version of flower Type C; leaf pattern pointing left. Figs. IV.6, IV.35 Left end broken along a diagonal. 174 Figs. IV.7, IV.38

L = 1.8 Th = 0.3 Inv. no. SP 198 + 2 fragments of SP 225 Bone Curved segment with the same basic decorative scheme as Cat. no. 167. The designs are, in order: decorative plaques and veneer 115

177 180

L = 2.25 L = 1.9 Th = 0.33 Th = 0.31 Inv. no. SP 195 Inv. no. SP 200 Bone Bone Curved segment with the same decorative scheme Curved segment with the same decorative scheme as Cat. no. 167. It is decorated with vertical as Cat. no. 167. The designs are, in order: leaf borders or divider lines at left and right ends of pattern pointing right; flower consisting of four segment. The designs are, in order: leaf pattern rounded petals equally spaced around a circular pointing right; flower Type B; leaf pattern point- center similar to flower Type C but with added ing left. elements between the petals that create a rose-like effect (flower Type M). Figs. IV.7, IV.39 Figs. IV.8, IV.42 178 181 L = 2.25 Th = 0.23 PL = 1.8 Inv. no. SP 196 Th = 0.24 Inv. no. SP 225f Bone Bone Curved segment with the same decorative scheme as Cat. no. 167. The designs are, in order: leaf Curved segment with the same decorative pat- pattern pointing left; at right side a diagonal line tern as Cat. no. 167. The designs are, in order: ending in a tendril-like curl. leaf pattern pointing left; pomegranate with curved stem. Figs. IV.7, IV.40 The border along the inner circumference is 179 missing, and the edge along the inner circumference is uneven. Segment is joined from two frag- L = 1.9 ments. Th = 0.32 Figs. IV. 8, IV.43 Inv. no. SP 201 Bone 182 Curved segment with the same decorative scheme L = 1.9 as Cat. no. 167. The designs are, in order: leaf Th = 0.24 pattern pointing right; bunch of grapes with a Inv. no. SP 202 long stem. The border along the inner circum- Bone ference is narrower than the border along the outer circumference. Curved segment with the same decorative scheme as Cat. no. 167. The designs are, in order: hor- Figs. IV.8, IV.41 izontal line, possibly the end of a stem; leaf pattern pointing left; vertical border or divider line. Figs. IV.8, IV.44 116 chapter iv 183 186

L = 1.65 L = 1.8 Th = 0.29 Th = 0.18 Inv. no. SP 203 Inv. no. SP 204 Bone Bone Curved segment with the same decorative scheme Curved segment with the same decorative scheme as Cat. no. 167. The designs are, in order: leaf as Cat. no. 167. The designs are, in order: leaf pattern pointing left; pomegranate with short pattern pointing to the right; flower Type B; leaf stem; leaf pattern pointing left. pattern pointing left. The segment is joined from two fragments. A Figs. IV.8, IV.45 small piece is missing from the right end of the 184 border of the inner circumference. Figs. IV.9, IV.47 L = 2.15 Th = 0.35, 0.28 187 Inv. no. SP 187a L = 1.7 Bone Th = 0.17 Curved segment with the same decorative scheme Inv. no. SP 205 as Cat. no. 167. The designs are, in order: ver- Bone tical border or divider line; leaf pattern pointing left decorated with a pomegranate with long, Curved segment with the same decorative scheme curved stem extending to the right and branch- as Cat. no. 167. The designs are, in order: border ing into a “V”. or divider line with a tendril-like curl coming out from it and a stem supporting a bunch of grapes Figs. IV. 9, IV.46 (left) at the upper end of the tendril; leaf pattern point- 185 ing right. The grapes are oriented horizontally. L = 2.15 The border of the outer circumference is Th = 0.28 missing. Inv. no. SP 187b Parallels: Laurel wreaths with divider lines appear on a mosaic from Oecus XIII of the Bone Maison des Animaux liés at Thurburbo Majus, Curved segment with the same decorative scheme now Tunis, Bardo Museum, Inv. no. 1393; Mo- as Cat. no. 167. The designs are, in order: leaf saïques de Tunisie II, Fasc. 1, 102-6, Cat. no. 83, pattern pointing right decorated with a pomegran- Pl. LXXII. ate with a long, curved stem extending left branch- Figs. IV.9, IV.48 ing into a “V”; vertical border or divider line at the right edge. Figs. IV.9, IV.46 (right) decorative plaques and veneer 117

188 190

L = 1.95 L = 2.2 Th = 0.22 Th = 0.11 Inv. no. SP 199 Inv. no. SP 191 Bone Bone Curved segment with the same decorative scheme Curved segment with the same decorative scheme as Cat. no. 167. The design is a leaf pattern point- as Cat. no. 167. The designs are, in order: leaf ing right. pattern pointing right; circular four-petaled flow- The border of the inner circumference is miss- er with round center (flower Type N); leaf pat- ing. tern pointing left. The fragment was part of a circle about 19 cm in diameter, but the leaf points Figs. IV.10, IV.49 to the flower, not away, and hence is not from 189 Ring 5. A piece is missing from right end of the edge L = 2.25 of the outer circumference. Th = 0.29 Figs. IV.10, IV.51 Inv. no. SP 197 Bone 191 Curved segment with the same decorative scheme Inv. no. SP 225 as Cat. no. 167. The designs are, in order: leaf Bone pattern pointing right; flower consisting of a circle with uneven petals within the circumference These are additional fragments too small to be and a raised circular center (Type L); leaf pat- assigned to a definite decorative scheme that were tern pointing right. Right edge is cut on a diag- grouped together under a single inventory num- onal. ber. Segment assembled from two fragments. Figs. IV.10, IV.50

B. SPIRAL STRIPS

More than ninety pieces of bone spiral molding with rounded cross section are preserved (Pl. IV.3). Their decoration consists of parallel shallow grooves cut on the diagonal that give the effect of a spiral pattern that rises either to the right or to the left side of the strip. The spirals were cut in a very regular pattern that suggests that a jig was used to achieve consistency. In most cases, the ends of each small strip were cut at an angle parallel to the grooves. Because none of the fully preserved pieces is trapezoidal, the molding was probably not used as a rectangular framing device. Striations were incised into the flat back of the strips to key the adhesive used to attach the finished pieces of molding to the object(s?) they decorated. The strips are in two size ranges, a narrow width of from 0.65 cm to 0.95 cm and a broad width of from 1.09 to 1.15 cm wide. Catalogue numbers 192 to 224 are pieces of the wide spiral molding. In every case these spirals rise to the right. The striations on the backs of 118 chapter iv all of these strips run parallel to the length. The length of the pieces with both ends preserved varies between 6.15 and 15.8 cm. On a number of pieces it is difficult to determine if the ends are broken or purposely cut, especially where the end is cut on a bevel perpendicular to the length. Five pieces appear to have one end cut on a bevel to abut another molding (Cat. nos. 195, 198, 207, 211, and 229), suggesting that this molding was used along a single edge, interrupted at a minimum of three places where a pair of beveled ends would have fallen. On Cat. nos. 217, 219, and possibly 196, one end preserves part of a circular cutting, either from an attachment nail or to fit against a small, round projection. All other pieces with preserved ends are cut at an angle parallel to the direction of the grooves. Catalogue numbers 225 to 282 are pieces of the narrow spiral molding. The shallow striations on the backs of all of these pieces are cut at an angle rising from right to left. The ends of thirty-three strips have the spirals rising from left to right (Cat. nos. 225 to 258); these are finished at an angle parallel to the grooving, except for two cases (Cat. nos. 242 and 247). These strips have one end finished at an angle 180o opposite the direction of the spiral grooves, and these may have been attached at places where the direction of the spirals was reversed. Twenty-three pieces of narrow molding have the spirals rising from right to left (Cat. nos. 259 to 282). Five are notable: four have one end cut perpendicular to the length (Cat. nos. 261, 269, 273, and 276). These pieces may have abutted a straight edge where the molding was interrupted or terminated. One piece (Cat. no. 270) has both ends cut at angles opposite the direction of the spirals and is the only piece of molding recovered that was finished in this way. This piece could have been used as a “riser” in a step pattern of basically horizontal arrangement or as part of a vertical termination at the end of a row (or, of course, vice versa with the dominant direction being vertical). It should be noted that the preserved total length of the wide molding, on all of which the spirals rise from left to right, is approximately equal to the total length of the narrow molding, 2.44 and 2.28 m respectively. And of the narrow molding, on Cat. nos. 225 to 258 the spirals rise from left to right and constitute about 1.21 m total length. Cat. nos. 259 through 282 rise from right to left and total approximately 1.07 m in total length. Judging from the random( ?) collection of preserved pieces, the object they decorated had wide molding in three sections, and narrow molding of the same length, half with matching spirals and half with spirals running in the opposite direction, right to left. The narrower molding probably was mounted parallel to and against the wider. The length of the fully preserved pieces varies from 1.4 to 15.8 cm; the wide molding from 6.15 to 15.8 cm and the narrow from 1.4 to 8.5 cm. Generally, the narrow molding was cut in much shorter lengths than the wide, with sixteen strips of the narrow molding between 1.4 and 2.5 cm in length. There is a parallel for these bone strips found in Egypt, and now in the Benaki Museum. It is 1.7 cm wide and 7.8 cm long, with one end broken and one end perhaps cut horizontally.50 The grooves rise from right to left. This strip is a little wider than any of the Kenchreai

50 Marangou, Bone Carving from Egypt 264, Cat no. 265, Pl. 67a. Marangou cites no other parallels. decorative plaques and veneer 119 strips, and it has six interspaces, the grooves between the projecting diagonal ridges. There are fewer grooves because the projecting ridges between them are much broader than on the Kenchreai strips. Spiral strips were recovered from the Palatine East excavations in Rome.51 The pieces of spiral strips were found widely scattered over the fountain court and apse area. Two pieces were specifically found at 14555.5 X 2185.7, many were found in the apse, and single pieces were found at 14553 X 2183, 14552 X 2184, and 14551 X 2185.

192 195

W = 1.15 W = 1.1 L = 14.6 L = 4.6 Th = 0.37 Th = 0.54 Inv. no. SP 120 Inv. no. SP 123 Bone Bone Spiral strip with seventeen interspaces. Spirals rise Spiral strip with four interspaces. Spirals rise from from left to right; both ends are finished. There left to right; one end is beveled, one broken. is no flattening. 196 193 W = 1.1 W = 1.0 L = 3.3 L = 5.7 Th = 0.46 Th = 0.49 Inv. no. SP 124 Inv. no. SP 121 Bone Bone Spiral strip with three interspaces. Spirals rise Spiral strip with six interspaces. Spirals rise from from left to right; both ends are broken. left to right; one end is finished, one broken. 197 194 W = 1.1 W = 1.05 L = 3.3 L = 4.7 Th = 0.48 Th = 0.43 Inv. no. SP 125 Inv. no. SP 122 Bone Bone Spiral strip with two interspaces. Spirals rise from Spiral strip with five interspaces. Spirals rise from left to right; one end is finished, one broken. left to right; one end is finished, one broken.

51 St. Clair, Carving as Craft 73, Cat. no. 196, fig. 12a, 24a; none is identical to the Kenchreai bone spiral Pl. 24d; 75, Cat. no. 209, fig. 13e, Pl. 24b; 75, Cat. no. strips. 210, fig. 13c, Pl. 25b; and 76, Cat. no. 219, fig. 14f, Pl. 120 chapter iv 198 202

W = 1.15 W = 1.1 L = 1.5 L = 10.4 Th = 0.4 Th = 0.5 Inv. no. SP 127 Inv. no. SP 315 Bone Bone Spiral strip with two interspaces. Spirals rise from Spiral strip with eleven interspaces. Spirals rise left to right; one end is broken (or finished) di- from left to right; both ends are finished. The agonally, one end beveled. strip is flattened along one side.

199 203

W = 1.15 W = 1.1 L = 15.8 L = 10.3 Th = 0.36 Th = 0.45 Inv. no. SP 312 Inv. no. SP 316 Bone Bone Spiral strip with seventeen interspaces. Spirals rise Spiral strip with ten interspaces. Spirals rise from from left to right; both ends are finished. left to right; one end is finished, one broken. The strip is flattened along one side. 200 204 W = 1.1 L = 15.8 W = 1.0 Th = 0.4 L = 10.4 Inv. no. SP 313 Th = 0.5 Inv. no. SP 317 Bone Bone Spiral strip with seventeen interspaces. Spirals rise from left to right; both ends are finished. Spiral strip with ten interspaces. Spirals rise from left to right; one end is finished, one broken. The 201 strip is flattened along one side.

W = 1.15 205 L = 11.4 Th = 0.7 W = 1.1 Inv. no. SP 314 L = 10.3 Th = 0.5 Bone Inv. no. SP 318 Spiral strip with thirteen interspaces. Spirals rise Bone from left to right; both ends are finished diagonally. The strip is flattened along one side. Spiral strip with nine interspaces. Spirals rise from left to right; both ends are finished. The strip is flattened along one side. decorative plaques and veneer 121

206 210

W = 1.1 W = 1.15 L = 9.35 L = 7.8 Th = 0.5 Th 0.65 Inv. no. SP 319 Inv. no. SP 323 Bone Bone Spiral strip with ten interspaces. Spirals rise from Spiral strip with nine interspaces. Spirals rise from left to right; both ends are finished. The strip is left to right; one end is finished, one broken. The flattened along one side. strip is flattened along one side.

207 211

W = 1.1 W = 1.1 L = 9.7 L = 7.9 Th = 0.55 Th = 0.5 Inv. no. SP 320 Inv. no. SP 324 Bone Bone Spiral strip with ten interspaces. Spirals rise from Spiral strip with nine interspaces. Spirals rise from left to right; one end is beveled, one end broken. left to right; one end is finished, one beveled. The strip is flattened along one side. Fig. IV.52 208 212 W = 1.09 W = 1.0 L = 8.55 L = 7.1 Th = 0.5 Th = 0.5 Inv. no. SP 321 Inv. no. SP 325 Bone Bone Spiral strip with eight interspaces. Spirals rise Spiral strip with eight and a half interspaces. from left to right; both ends are broken. The strip Spirals rise from left to right; one end is finished, is flattened along one side. one broken. The strip is slightly flattened along 209 one side.

W = 1.1 213 L = 8.05 W = 1.0 Th = 0.45 L = 7.15 Inv. no. SP 322 Th = 0.5 Bone Inv. no. SP 326 Spiral strip with nine interspaces. Spirals rise from Bone left to right. Spiral strip with eight interspaces. Spirals rise from left to right; both ends are broken. The strip is slightly flattened along one side. 122 chapter iv 214 218

W = 1.05 W = 1.1 L = 6.5 L = 6.15 Th = 0.5 Th = 0.6 Inv. no. SP 327 Inv. no. SP 331 Bone Bone Spiral strip with six interspaces. Spirals rise from Spiral strip with seven and a half interspaces. left to right; one end is finished, one broken. The Spirals rise from left to right; both ends are fin- strip is slightly flattened along one side. ished. The strip is flattened along one side.

215 219

W = 1.15 W = 1.0 L = 6.7 L = 6.4 Th = 0.5 Th = 0.5 Inv. no. SP 328 Inv. no. SP 332 Bone Bone Spiral strip with eight interspaces. Spirals rise Spiral strip with seven interspaces. Spirals rise from left to right; both ends are finished. The from left to right; one end is finished, one bro- strip is slightly flattened along one side. ken with a curve on one edge. The strip is slightly flattened along one side. 216 220 W = 1.09 L = 7.0 W = 1.05 Th = 0.5 L = 5.0 Inv. no. SP 329 Th = 0.5 Inv. no. SP 333 Bone Bone Spiral strip with seven interspaces. Spirals rise from left to right; both ends are finished. The Spiral strip with six interspaces. Spirals rise from strip is slightly flattened along one side. left to right; one end is finished, one broken. The strip is slightly flattened along one side. 217 221 W = 1.1 L = 7.2 W = 1.0 Th = 0.5 L = 3.7 Inv. no. SP 330 Th = 0.5 Inv. no. SP 334 Bone Bone Spiral strip with six interspaces. Spirals rise from left to right; both ends are finished. One end is cut Spiral strip with three interspaces. Spirals rise through the thick portion of the last interspace and from left to right; both ends are broken. The strip has a curved break on the cut end. The strip is is slightly flattened along one side. slightly flattened along one side. decorative plaques and veneer 123

222 226

W = 1.1 W = 0.7 L = 2.9 L = 8.4 Th = 0.5 Th = 0.18 Inv. no. SP 335 Inv. no. SP 129 Bone Bone Spiral strip with three interspaces. Spirals rise Spiral strip with nine interspaces. Spirals rise from from left to right; one end is finished diagonal- left to right; both ends are finished. The strip is ly, one broken. The strip is slightly flattened along flattened along one side. one side. 227 223 W = 0.8 W = 1.0 L = 7.6 L = 2.5 Th = 0.21 Th = 0.5 Inv. no. SP 130 Inv. no. SP 336 Bone Bone Spiral strip with nine interspaces. Spirals rise from Spiral strip with two interspaces. Spirals rise from left to right; both ends are finished. The strip is left to right; one end is finished, one broken. The flattened along both sides. strip is slightly flattened along one side. 228 224 W = 0.8 W = 1.0 L = 6.3 L = 2.4 Th = 0.3 Th = 0.5 Inv. no. SP 135 Inv. no. SP 337 Bone Bone Spiral strip with six and a half interspaces. Spi- Spiral strip with two and a half interspaces. rals rise from left to right; one end is finished Spirals rise from left to right; one end is finished diagonally, one broken. The strip is flattened diagonally, one broken. The strip is slightly flat- along both sides. tened along one side. 229 225 W = 0.75 W = 0.8 L = 5.4 L = 8.5 Th = 0.18 Th = 0.2 Inv. no. SP 140 Inv. no. SP 128 Bone Bone Spiral strip with six and a half interspaces. Spi- Spiral strip with nine interspaces. Spirals rise from rals rise from left to right; one end is beveled on left to right; both ends are finished. The strip is a slight diagonal. The strip is flattened along one flattened along one side. side. 124 chapter iv 230 234

W = 0.7 W = 0.75 L = 5.5 L = 4.5 Th = 0.11 Th = 0.14 Inv. no. SP 141 Inv. no. SP 149 Bone Bone Spiral strip with six interspaces. Spirals rise from Spiral strip with four interspaces. Spirals rise from left to right; both ends are finished. The strip is left to right; one end is finished, one broken. The slightly flattened along one side. strip is slightly flattened along one side.

231 235

W = 0.75 W = 0.75 L = 4.35 L = 3.8 Th = 0.105 Th = 0.22 Inv. no. SP 145 Inv. no. SP 150 Bone Bone Spiral strip with four complete and two partial Spiral strip with four interspaces. Spirals rise from interspaces. Spirals rise from left to right; both left to right; one end is finished diagonally, one ends are finished. The ridges of two spirals are broken. The strip is flattened along one side. broken off. 236 232 W = 0.8 W = 0.7 L = 3.45 L = 4.6 Th = 0.24 Th = 0.22 Inv. no. SP 155 Inv. no. SP 146 Bone Bone Spiral strip with three interspaces. Spirals rise Spiral strip with six interspaces. Spirals rise from from left to right; one end is finished diagonal- left to right; one end is finished (beveled ?), one ly, one broken. The strip is flattened along one broken. side.

233 237

W = 0.75 W = 0.8 L = 4.0 L = 3.35 Th = 0.2 Th = 0.2 Inv. no. SP 148 Inv. no. SP 157 Bone Bone Spiral strip with four interspaces. Spirals rise from Spiral strip with three interspaces. Spirals rise left to right; one end is finished, one broken. from left to right; one end is finished diagonally, one broken. The strip is flattened along one side. decorative plaques and veneer 125

238 242

W = 0.72 W = 0.75 L = 2.5 L = 2.8 Th = 0.22 Th = 0.22 Inv. no. SP 158 Inv. no. SP 163 Bone Bone Spiral strip with three interspaces. Spirals rise Spiral strip with three interspaces. Spirals rise from left to right; both ends are finished diago- from left to right; one end is broken, one finished nally. The strip is flattened along one side. diagonally, the diagonal cut running opposite to the angle of the spirals. The strip is flattened 239 along one side.

W = 0.8 243 L = 2.4 Th = 0.25 W = 0.85 Inv. no. SP 159 L = 2.1 Th = 0.22 Bone Inv. no. SP 165 Spiral strip with two and a half interspaces. Bone Spirals rise from left to right; both ends are finished. The strip is flattened along one side. Spiral strip with two interspaces. Spirals rise from left to right; both ends are finished. 240 244 W = 0.8 L = 2.3 W = 0.8 Th = 0.21 L = 2.2 Inv. no. SP 161 Th = 0.15 Inv. no. SP 166 Bone Bone Spiral strip with two and a half interspaces. Spirals rise from left to right; both ends are fin- Spiral strip with two interspaces. Spirals rise from ished diagonally. The strip is flattened along one left to right; both ends are finished. side. 245 241 W = 0.8 W = 0.75 L = 2.2 L = 2.2 Inv. no. SP 167 Th = 0.17 Bone Inv. no. SP 162 Spiral strip with three interspaces. Spirals rise Bone from left to right; one end is finished diagonal- Spiral strip with three interspaces. Spirals rise ly, one broken. The strip is flattened along one from left to right; both ends are finished. The side. strip is flattened along one side. 126 chapter iv 246 250

W = 0.7 W = 0.8 L = 1.9 L = 1.4 Th = 0.25 Th = 0.21 Inv. no. SP 168 Inv. no. SP 172 Bone Bone Spiral strip with two interspaces. Spirals rise from Spiral strip with two interspaces. Spirals rise from left to right; both ends are finished. The strip is left to right; both ends are finished. The strip is flattened along one side. flattened along one side.

247 251

W = 0.75 W = 0.75 L = 3.0 L = 1.5 Th = 0.20 Th = 0.28 Inv. no. SP 169 Inv. no. SP 173 Bone Bone Spiral strip with three interspaces. Spirals rise Spiral strip with two interspaces. Spirals rise from from left to right; one end is broken, one finished left to right; both ends are finished. The strip is diagonally, the diagonal cut running opposite to flattened along one side. the angle of the spirals. The strip is flattened along one side. 252

248 W = 0.8 L = 1.5 W = 0.8 Th = 0.24 L = 1.5 Inv. no. SP 174 Th = 0.16 Bone Inv. no. SP 170 Spiral strip with two interspaces. Spirals rise from Bone left to right; both ends are finished. The strip is Spiral strip with one interspace. Spirals rise from flattened along one side. left to right; both ends are finished. The strip is flattened along one side. 253

249 W = 0.7 L = 1.8 W = 0.8 Th = 0.11 L = 1.5 Inv. no. SP 181 Th = 0.25 Bone Inv. no. SP 171 Spiral strip with two and a half interspaces. Bone Spirals rise from left to right; both ends are fin- Spiral strip with two interspaces. Spirals rise from ished. The strip is flattened along one side. left to right; both ends are finished diagonally. The strip is flattened along one side. decorative plaques and veneer 127

254 258 W = 0.75 Bone L = 2.2 Th = 0.12 Inv. no. SP 182 Inv. no. SP 338 This is a group of five (?) fragments. Spirals rise Bone from left to right. The fragments are too poorly Spiral strip with two and a half interspaces. preserved to catalog separately. The thicknesses Spirals rise from left to right; one end is finished of the fragments are: 0.23, 0.13, 0.08, 0.13, and diagonally, one broken. The strip is slightly flat- 0.24. tened along one side. 259 255

W = 0.65 Bone L = 5.7 Inv. no. SP 182 Th = 0.16 Inv. no. SP 175 This is a group of three fragments. Spirals rise Bone from right to left. The fragments are too poorly preserved to catalog separately. One additional Spiral strip with eight interspaces. Spirals rise fragment is too poorly preserved to catego- from left to right; both ends are finished diago- rize. nally. The thicknesses of the fragments are: 0.11, 0.07, and 0.21. 256

W = 0.65 260 L = 5.6 W = 0.95 Th = 0.13 L = 2.35 Inv. no. SP 176 Th = 0.26 Bone Inv. no. SP 126 Spiral strip with eight interspaces. Spirals rise from Bone left to right; one end is finished, one broken. The Spiral strip with three interspaces. Spirals rise from strip is flattened along one side. right to left; both ends are finished diagonally. 257 261 W = 0.65 W = 0.8 L = 4.7 L = 8.0 Th = 0.11 Th = 0.18 Inv. no. SP 178 Inv. no. SP 131 Bone Bone Spiral strip with five interspaces. Spirals rise from left to right; both ends are finished. The strip is Spiral strip with seven interspaces. Spirals rise flattened along one side. from right to left; one end is finished diagonally, one end cut horizontally. There is an un- 128 chapter iv worked area between end of the last spiral and Spiral strip with six and a half interspaces. Spi- the horizontal end. rals rise from right to left; one end is finished Fig. IV.53 diagonally, one broken. The strip is flattened along both sides and assembled from two 262 pieces. W = 0.88 266 L = 7.7 Th = 0.18 W = 0.7 Inv. no. SP 132 L = 5.85 Th = 0.15 Bone Inv. no. SP 137 Spiral strip with eight interspaces. Spirals rise Bone from right to left; one end is finished diagonally, one end broken. Spiral strip with five interspaces. Spirals rise from right to left; one end is finished diagonally, one 263 broken.

W = 0.8 267 L = 7.1 Th = 0.27 W = 0.7 Inv. no. SP 133 L = 5.65 Bone Th = 0.25 Inv. no. SP 138 Spiral strip with seven interspaces. Spirals rise from right to left; one end is finished, one bro- Bone ken. Spiral strip with six interspaces. Spirals rise from right to left; one end is finished diagonally, the 264 other end perhaps the same. The strip is flattened W = 0.8 along one side. L = 6.3 Fig. IV.54 Th = 0.17 Inv. no. SP 134 268 Bone W = 0.75 Spiral strip with six interspaces. Spirals rise from L = 5.4 right to left; both ends are probably finished Th = 0.15 diagonally but are very worn. Inv. no. SP 139 Bone 265 Spiral strip with six and a half interspaces. Spi- W = 0.8 rals rise from right to left; both ends are finished L = 6.4 diagonally. Th = 0.28 Inv. no. SP 136 Bone decorative plaques and veneer 129

269 273 W = 0.8 W = 0.75 L = 5.3 L = 4.2 Th = 0.23 Th = 0.25 Inv. no. SP 142 Inv. no. SP 151 Bone Bone Spiral strip with five interspaces. Spirals rise from Spiral strip with four and a half interspaces. Spi- right to left; one end is cut horizontally, one rals rise from right to left; one end is finished hori- broken. The strip is flattened on one side. zontally, one broken. The strip is flattened on both sides. 270 274 W = 0.7 L = 4.7 W = 0.75 Th = 0.2 L = 4.2 Inv. no. SP 143 Th = 0.17 Inv. no. SP 152 Bone Bone Spiral strip with five interspaces. Spirals rise from right to left; both ends are finished diagonally at Spiral strip with four interspaces. Spirals rise from an angle opposite the direction of the spirals. right to left; one end is finished diagonally, one broken. The strip is very worn. 271 275 W = 0.8 L = 4.5 W = 0.7 Th = 0.18 L = 3.5 Inv. no. SP 144 Th = 0.18 Inv. no. SP 153 Bone Bone Spiral strip with six interspaces. Spirals rise from right to left; one end is finished, one broken. The Spiral strip with three and a half interspaces. strip is very worn. Spirals rise from right to left; one end is finished diagonally, one end broken (?). The strip is very 272 worn.

W = 0.7 276 L = 4.2 Th = 0.16 W = 0.75 Inv. no. SP 147 L = 3.5 Th = 0.28 Bone Inv. no. SP 154 Spiral strip with four and a half interspaces. Bone Spirals rise from right to left; one end is finished diagonally, one broken. Spiral strip with four interspaces. Spirals rise from right to left; one end is finished horizontally, one end broken or cut in a curve. The strip is flattened on one side. 130 chapter iv 277 280

W = 0.7 W = 0.6 L = 2.6 L = 5.7 Th = 0.2 Th = 0.1 Inv. no. SP 156 Inv. no. SP 177 Bone Bone Spiral strip with three interspaces. Spirals rise Spiral strip with seven interspaces. Spirals rise from right to left; both ends are finished diago- from right to left; both ends are finished but dam- nally. aged. The strip is flattened on one side.

278 281

W = 0.75 W = 0.65 L = 2.4 L = 3.3 Th = 0.45 Th = 0.16 Inv. no. SP 160 Inv. no. SP 179 Bone Bone Spiral strip with two complete and two partial Spiral strip with four interspaces. Spirals rise from interspaces. Spirals rise from right to left; both right to left; one end is finished, one broken. The ends are finished. The strip is flattened on one strip is flattened on one side. side. 282 279 W = 0.65 W = 0.85 L = 2.2 L = 1.9 Th = 0.12 Th = 0.28 Inv. no. SP 180 Inv. no. SP 164 Bone Bone Spiral strip with two and a half interspaces. Spiral strip with two interspaces. Spirals rise from Spirals rise from right to left; both ends are fin- right to left; both ends are finished diagonally. ished. The strip is flattened on one side.

C. TONDO PLAQUE

Circular plaques of bone and ivory were commonly used as applied and inlaid decorations on wood chests, a practice reflected in the design cut into the wood of a small chest from Karanis that consists of circles arranged three to a row on its body and lid.52 An example of such inlay can be found on the chest from Qustul, which has projecting round designs

52 Ann Arbor, MI, Kelsey Museum of Archaeology, Cat. no. 31; the designs are cut into the surface. Inv. no. 24760; Maguire et al., Art and Holy Powers 95, decorative plaques and veneer 131 set against square plaques that alternate with flat square plaques on rows across the front.53 There is a similar square plaque with a tondo design in the Coptic Museum, Cairo.54 Some representations of sellae curules depict circular motifs that appear similar to the plaque catalogued below.55

283 straight edges of the plaque, leaving the corners undecorated. The back is scored with crossing W = 8.2 incised lines, probably to key an adhesive. H = 8.3 Found at 14549 X 2185 Inv. no. SP 236 Parallels: A rectangular bone plaque showing Th = 0.25 (at edge) two erotes holding a ring (wreath ?) has a flower Th = 0.46 (at center) cluster with cross arms that is analogous, although Ivory it differs in having sprig-like endings on the straight arms; Cambridge, Fitzwilliam Museum, A square plaque decorated with a design of con- from El Shurafa, Loverdou-Tsigarida, ÏóôÝévá centric circles and eight-petaled flowers. At the ðëáêßäéá 326, Cat. no. 76, fig. 42; Albertoni, center is a small round hole or pip, probably the Lastrine di Rivestimento 373, fig. 58. A cruder but centering point for working on the lathe. Around similar motif occurs on three of the bone plaques this are two raised rings, the inner of these wid- of the Antiquarium Comunale in Rome, Inv. nos. er and higher than the outer. Surrounding these 17345, 17336, and 17343; Albertoni, Lastrine di is a third raised ring, 2 cm wide, with an Rivestimento 342-8, Cat. nos. 1-3, figs. 4, 6, and eight-petaled flower incised at each of the four 8. A plain bone plaque with an undecorated cardinal points. The petals are arranged in pairs tondo was among the bone debris from the Pa- separated by vertical and horizontal lines that latine East excavation; St. Clair, Carving as Craft pass through the center of each flower and form 77, Cat. no. 223, fig. 14h, Pl. 21b; St. Clair, Late a cross. At the outer circumference of this third antique bone and ivory carving fig. 4. ring are four concentric circles, diminishing in thickness to the outer circumference, the outer- Pl. IV.4; Fig. IV.55 most of which is tangential at four points to the

D. FLOWER CIRCLES

Only small fragments of this decoration made of ivory are preserved (Pl. IV.5). The delicately incised central flower is surrounded by circles, some toothed, others plain. The motif of a single flower surrounded by a toothed or zigzag circle is found on the Animal Ewer of the Sevso Treasure.56 The Qustul chest, mentioned above, has as part of its decoration, circles with zigzag edges. Floral patterns of this nature are also represented on the draperies on some consular diptychs of the fifth century; but this exact pattern, including the toothed circles, is apparently not common.

53 See above n. 6. a flamen, especially one of the seviri augustales; Schäfer, 54 No inventory number; seen by Danae Thimme. Imperii insignia 162-4, Pl. 58 ff. 55 These circles may sometimes have been meant to 56 Mango and Bennett, The Sevso Treasure 291, fig. 7- represent paterae, as sellae curules were often decorated with 30; 295, fig. 7-33 symbols of sacrifice in cases where the seat was used by 132 chapter iv 284 287

W = 2.75 W = 1.2 H = 3.25 H = 3.4 Th = 0.08 Th = 0.1 Inv. no. SP 472 Inv. no. SP 474 Ivory Ivory A flower formed of eight petals, alternating dia- Tips of three petals and segments of several sur- mond and oval shapes and surrounding a circu- rounding rings of a circle are preserved. Concen- lar center, is enclosed in a circle. Concentric to tric to the inner circle is a circle with a toothed the circumference is a second circle with toothed inner edge, a circle with toothed outer edge, and inner edge, a larger concentric circle with toothed a plain circle. The curved edge is broken along outer edge, and a plain circle. One edge of the the incision of the circle; the other edges are fragment is broken along the incised edge of the broken. central circle; the other edges are broken. Pl. IV.5 (second from right); Fig. IV.58 Pl. IV.5 (left); Fig. IV.56 288 285 W = 1.8 W = 0.4 H = 3.3 H = 2.1 Th = 0.06 Th = 0.09 Inv. no. SP 473a Inv. no. SP 475 + 551 Ivory Ivory Part of a circle is decorated with the tip of a Approximately a quarter of a circle and of the diamond-shaped petal. Concentric to this circle flower decorating it are preserved. The flower is part of a surrounding circle with a toothed originally consisted of four pairs of rounded petals inner edge. Concentric to these is part of anoth- separated by straight vertical or horizontal lines er circle with toothed inner edge. One edge is separating each pair and forming a cross. The broken along the rim of the inner circle; the other flower design is similar but not identical to the edges are broken. flower crosses on the plaque above, Cat. no. 283. A circle at the center of the flower is dotted as if Pl. IV.5 (second from left) by a compass point. Concentric to the circle is a 286 circle with toothed inner rim. The curved edge is broken along the outer edge of the circle; the W = 0.9 other edges are broken. H = 2.7 Th = 0.06 Pl. IV.5 (right); Fig. IV.59 Inv. no. SP 473b Ivory Part of a circle with center and five petals of an eight-petaled flower are preserved. Surrounding the circle is a circle with toothed inner edge. The curved edges are broken along incised lines; the other edges are broken. Pl. IV.5 (center); Fig. IV.57 decorative plaques and veneer 133

289 Ivory W = 3.2 Part of a flower with circular center and three H = 1.7 petals is preserved. The flower appears to be en- Th = 0.11 closed by concentric ellipses, the first two plain, Inv. no. SP 476 the third with a toothed inner edge, and the fourth plain. The curved edge is broken along the Ivory outermost circle; the other edges are broken. Part of a circle is preserved, similar to Cat. nos. Fig. IV.61 284-288, except with a larger diameter. Parallel to the broken straight edge is an incised line that 291 touches a bit of a diagonal(?) line at the rim of the circle. Concentric to the circle is a plain circle, W = 3.28 a circle with toothed inner edge, an excised band H = 2.83 with decoration, and a plain area. All edges are Inv. no. SP 660, 661 broken. Ivory Fig. IV.60 Fragment with parts of three concentric compass 290 drawn circles; radius of innermost circle 1.38 cm, outermost circle radius 1.89 cm; distance between W = 0.65 circles ca. 0.2 cm; outer edge broken, in some H = 1.3 places along incised circle; joined from nine frag- Th = 0.07 ments. Inv. no. SP 488

E. RECTANGLE, DIAMOND, AND OVAL BORDER

This broad decorative bone molding consists of a band of rectangles alternating first with an oval and then with a diamond, set between narrow borders of running spirals (Pl. IV.6). Within the central band, each geometric shape is cut in intaglio, and within each is a reserved ridge of the same shape as the outer edge. The rectangles have three scallops along the edges of the long sides and two along the short sides. Some corners have an incised line extending from them. The diamond shape has three scallops along each side and a spiral protruding from the central scallop. Each oval has seven scallops around its edge and is flanked at both ends, above and below, by a dotted circle—four for each oval. The running spirals, also in intaglio, run from right to left when viewed from their ground line, but appear to run in opposite directions when viewed in position on either side of the central band. The full width of the molding is ca. 4.6 cm. A total length of ca. 1.93 m is preserved, mostly in small, non-joining fragments. Because the molding is symmetrical top to bottom, the original total length of the preserved fragments may have been only about half as long. Paired running spirals of glass for attachment to a box or other type of furniture were recovered from the excavation of Seleucia-on-the-Tigris in Iraq (Tel Umar).57

57 Grose, Early Ancient Glass 350, 372, Cat. no. 677. 134 chapter iv 292 295

W = 12.6 W = 9.1 H = 4.6 H = 1.9 Inv. no. SP 564, 576, 579, 591, 600, + 603 Inv. no. SP 567 (4 fragments) Bone Bone Fragment of a strip preserving parts of a diamond A strip preserving most of an oval, a rectangle, with two spirals, a rectangle, and an oval with a diamond, and another rectangle. The top bor- one dotted circle. The border has six spirals. The der preserves seven, and parts of three more, outer edge of the spiral border is cut; all other spirals. The bottom border preserves ten spirals. edges are broken. All outer edges are cut. The strip is assembled from nine frag- 296 ments. W = 7.1 Pl. IV.6; Fig. IV.62 H = 2.1 Inv. no. SP 568 293 Bone W = 8.1 H = 2.25 Fragment of a strip preserving parts of a diamond Inv. no. SP 565 with one spiral, a rectangle, and an oval with one dotted circle. Bone The rectangle is narrower than in Cat. nos. Fragment of a strip preserving part of an oval 292-295 above. The border, broken diagonally with two adjacent dotted circles, a rectangle with along its entire length, has six spirals. its scallops, and one spiral of the adjacent diamond. Along one edge are seven spirals. The 297 outer side of this edge is cut; all other edges are W = 9.0 broken. H = 1.8 294 Inv. no. SP 569 Bone W = 10.5 H = 2.05 Fragment of a strip preserving parts of a rectan- Inv. no. SP 566 gle, an oval with one dotted circle, and another rectangle. The border has six complete, and part Bone of a seventh, spirals. The outer edge of the bor- Fragment of a strip preserving parts of a rectan- der is cut; all other edges are broken. gle, a diamond with two spirals, a rectangle, and Fig. IV.64 an oval with two dotted circles. The diamond is more sharply pointed and narrower than in Cat. no. 292 above. The border has nine spirals. Both short ends and the outer edge of the running spirals are cut; the fourth side is broken. Fig. IV.63 decorative plaques and veneer 135

298 301

W = 11.5 W = 11.6 H = 3.3 H = 1.9 Inv. no. SP 570, 578, 600, + 603 (one fragment) Inv. no. SP 573, 574 + 603 (2 fragments) Bone Bone Fragment of a strip preserving the outline of Fragment of a strip preserving parts of a rectan- two-thirds of an oval and three of its dotted cir- gle, an oval with two dotted circles, and the cles, a rectangle, and the point of a diamond with corner of the adjacent rectangle. The border has two spirals. The border has eight complete, and nine complete, and part of a tenth spirals. The part of two more flanking spirals. The outer edge outer edge of this border is cut; all other edges of the border and the short end next to the di- are broken. amond are cut; the other two edges are bro- The strip is assembled from four fragments. ken. Fig. IV.67 The strip is assembled from four fragments. Fig. IV.65 302

299 W = 4.55 H = 1.2 W = 7.6 Inv. no. SP 575 H = 2.1 Bone Inv. no. SP 571 + 577 Fragment of a strip preserving a quarter of an Bone oval with one dotted circle and part of a rectan- Fragment of a strip preserving parts of a diamond gle. with two spirals, a rectangle, and an oval with one dotted circle. The rectangle is narrow as in 303 Cat. no. 296. A small portion of the border of W = 6.7 running spirals is preserved. H = 1.0 The strip is assembled from two fragments. Inv. no. SP 580 Fig. IV.66 Bone 300 Fragment of a strip preserving one corner of a rectangle, a third of an oval with two dotted W = 3.3 circles, and most of the edge of the adjacent H = 3.0 rectangle. No borders are preserved. Inv. no. SP 572 Fig. IV.68 Bone Fragment of a strip preserving a corner of a rectangle broken diagonally. The border has two spirals. The edge of this border and the edge adjacent to the long side of the rectangle are cut; the third edge is broken. 136 chapter iv 304 308

W = 3.7 W = 3.6 H = 1.1 H = 1.6 Inv. no. SP 582 Inv. no. SP 586 Bone Bone Fragment of a strip preserving a diamond and a Fragment of a strip preserving the inner rectan- corner of an adjacent rectangle. No border is gle and part of the area outside of the border line preserved. with the lateral tip of the adjoining diamond and part of its upper and lower spirals. 305 Fig. IV.70 W = 2.1 H = 1.2 309 Inv. no. SP 583 W = 4.15 Bone H = 0.75 Inv. no. SP 587 Fragment of a strip preserving the inner diamond of a diamond and part of the area outside the Bone raised border line. Fragment of a strip preserving part of a rectan- 306 gle and its scallops and part of the spiral of a diamond. W = 3.5 H = 1.35 310 Inv. no. SP 584 W = 3.7 Bone H = 0.92 Inv. no. SP 588 Fragment of a strip preserving one corner of a rectangle and part of the edge of a diamond with Bone one spiral. Fragment of a strip preserving part of the scal- 307 loped edge of an oval with two circles.

W = 3.3 311 H = 1.6 W = 2.1 Inv. no. SP 585 H = 0.7 Bone Inv. no. SP 589 Fragment of a strip preserving the oval center of Bone an oval with some of the area outside of the Fragment of a strip preserving half of the border line. diamond-shaped center of a diamond with some Fig. IV.69 of the area outside of the border line. decorative plaques and veneer 137

312 316

W = 3.5 W = 5.0 H = 0.6 H = 0.92 Inv. no. SP 590 Inv. no. SP 596 Bone Bone Fragment of a strip preserving part of the rect- Fragment of a strip preserving a section of bor- angular center of a rectangle with some of the der with three spirals and part of a fourth. The area outside of the border line and scallops from outer edge of the border is cut. the edge of the adjacent diamond. 317 313 W = 4.4 W = 9.7 H = 1.1 H = 1.1 Inv. no. SP 597 Inv. no. SP 592 Bone Bone Fragment of a strip preserving a section of bor- Fragment of a strip preserving a section of border with three spirals. The outer edge of the der with two spirals and parts of four additional border and the right end are cut. spirals. The outer edge of the border is cut; all other edges are broken. 318

314 W = 4.0 H = 1.0 W = 8.5 Inv. no. SP 598 H = 0.95 Bone Inv. no. SP 593 Fragment of a strip preserving a section of bor- Bone der with three spirals. The outer edge of the Fragment of a strip preserving a section of bor- border is cut. der with four spirals and parts of two additional spirals. The outer edge of the border is cut. 319 W = 3.55 315 H = 1.3 W = 5.6 Inv. no. SP 599 H = 1.22 Bone Inv. no. SP 595 Fragment of a strip preserving a section of border Bone with two spirals and part of a third. The outer edge Fragment of a strip preserving a section of bor- of the border is cut. der with four spirals adjoining an area with three scallops from the edge of a rectangle. The outer edge of the border and the left end are cut; the other long and short edges are broken. 138 chapter iv 324 320 W = 3.5 W = 4.5 H = 1.1 H = 0.9 Inv. no. SP 751 Inv. no. SP 601 Bone Bone Fragment of a strip preserving part of the long Fragment of a strip preserving a section of bor- side of a rectangle, a dotted circle, and possibly der with two spirals. the beginning of an oval. One long edge may be cut. The design is similar to Cat. no. 323 in not 321 having scallops around the motifs. W = 3.3 Fig. IV.72 H = 0.8 Inv. no. SP 602 325

Bone W = 3.4 Fragment of a strip preserving a section of bor- H = 1.0 der with two spirals. The outer edge is cut. Inv. no. SP 549

322 Bone Fragment of a strip preserving what could be por- W = 3.7 H = 2.1 tions of two spirals belonging to a diamond motif. Inv. no. SP 749 Parallel to one long and one short edge are incised border lines forming a right angle at the corner. Bone 326 Fragment of a strip preserving half of a rectangle and two scallops and a spiral from the adja- W = 2.35 cent diamond. The border has one spiral and H = 1.48 part of two others. The left edge is cut. Th = 0.08 Inv. no. SP 480 323 Bone W = 2.8 Fragment of a strip with all edges irregularly H = 1.8 broken. From a pointed corner extend two ex- Inv. no. SP 750 cised areas and the opposite side is also excised. Bone Curved lines run along each straight side of the excised areas. Fragment of a strip preserving the corner of a Assembled from two pieces. rectangle and its inner rectangle and a spiral from an adjacent diamond, part of whose edge is preserved. On a long edge parallel to the decorative motifs, and ca. 0.5 cm from the cut edge, is an incised border line. The design differs from the other examples in this group in that there are no scallops around the edges of the motifs. Fig. IV.71 decorative plaques and veneer 139

327 Inv. no. SP 594 W = 2.39 Bone H = 0.53 Fragment of a strip preserving parts of five spi- Th = 0.07 rals. One long edge is cut or broken along an Inv. no. SP 547b incised line; all other edges broken. Bone Assembled from two pieces.

Fragment of a strip with three curved arcs incised 330 along one long edge. All sides broken. Inv. no. SP 603 328 W = 2.33 This group of forty-seven small fragments con- H = 0.52 sists largely of pieces from the diamond, oval, Th = 0.07 rectangle border. Some fragments originally in- Inv. no. SP 547c ventoried under this number have been attached to larger fragments in this group, and a few have Bone been extracted and inventoried separately. Fragment of a strip preserving two arcs and part 331 of a third arc incised along one long edge. All edges broken. Inv. no. SP 757e, f 329 This group includes two additional small frag- W = 6.64 ments belonging to the rectangle, diamond, and H = 0.87 oval border that were inventoried together with Th = 0.075 ten other fragments not belonging.

F. QUATREFOIL BORDER

Only one fairly good-sized fragment is preserved of this handsome bone molding decorated with a double quatrefoil (Pl. IV.7). The second fragment of similar design is only about half the scale of this larger piece. The most relevant parallel for its use occurs on a bone casket in Cairo, which has horizontal strips of single quatrefoil design beneath each aedicula on the lid and a larger vertical strip separating the two aediculae on one of the sides (Pl. IV.8a- b).58 This casket also includes a smaller version of the same design, with bars separating the motif, along the edge of the lid.59 There are five strips of double quatrefoil molding among the veneers in the Antiquarium Comunale, Rome, also with plain borders on the long sides, but they are narrower and not as fine.60 Quatrefoil patterns commonly appear

58 Cairo, Coptic Museum, Inv. no. 9060-9063; Strzy- 59 Loverdou-Tsigarida, ÏóôÝévá ðëáêßäéá Pl. 1-3. gowski, Koptische Kunst Cat. nos. 7060-64; Age of Spiritu- 60 Rome, Antiquarium Comunale, Inv. no. 18505; ality 332-3, Cat. no. 311; Loverdou-Tsigarida, ÏóôÝévá Albertoni, Lastrine di Rivestimento 357-8, fig. 38, Cat. no. ðëáêßäéá 305-7, Cat. nos. 16-20; Albertoni, Lastrine di 20. Rivestimento 368-9, figs. 50-1. 140 chapter iv on late Roman silver work. There is a quatrefoil pattern enclosed in circles on the hinge of the Muse casket of the Esquiline Treasure;61 on several pieces from the Treasure of Tra- prain Law;62 and on both geometric ewers in the Sevso Treasure.63 The lid and two sides of a silver box possibly from the Hama Treasure are decorated with panels of quatrefoils.64 In ivory work, the motif occurs on a curved band on the Areobindus diptych in the Cluny Museum, Paris, dated 506.65 Quatrefoil patterns also are common in mosaics, for example, the border of the triclinium mosaic representing Dionysiac scenes from Saint-Leu, with interspersed crosses, probably of the fourth century.66 Another example from Sousse, Tu- nisia, is preserved.67 As on the Cairo casket, the double quatrefoil pattern may have been attached beneath the aediculae formed by the Corinthian order and the Erotes Arcade (see below, Chapters V and VII).

332 333

W = 9.6 W = 3.3 H = 3.8 H = 1.3 Inv. no. SP 604 Inv. no. SP 606 Bone Bone Fragment of a strip preserving two rows of qua- Fragment of a strip preserving two complete trefoils with the background worked in intaglio quatrefoils and half of a third. leaving the petals in relief. There are plain bor- Fig. IV.74 ders at the two longitudinal edges that appear to have been cut or finished. 334 Pl. IV.7; Fig. IV.73 W = 1.85 H = 1.1 Inv. no. SP 605 Bone Fragment preserving two petals of a quatrefoil with a small area of the plain border preserved.

61 Shelton, The Esquiline Treasure, Cat. no. 2, Pl. 16; 63 Mango and Bennett, The Sevso Treasure 410-1, figs. Cat. no. 4, Pl. 23; and Pl. 23, respectively. 11-14 and -15. 62 These include a square panel on the bottom of a 64 Mango, Silver from Early Byzantium 114-7, Cat. no. fluted bowl, Curle, Treasure of Traprain 40, Cat. no. 32, 17, figs. 17.3, 17.4, and 17.8. Pl. XIX; the corner of a lanx, Curle, Treasure of Traprain 65 Volbach, Elfenbeinarbeiten der Spätantike3 33, No. 10, 60, Cat. no. 87, fig. 39; the end of a casket mount, Curle, Pl. 5. Treasure of Traprain 75, Cat. no. 110, fig. 58; and a frag- 66 Dunbabin, Mosaics of Roman North Africa 41-2, 176- ment of a medallion from a dish, Curle, Treasure of 7, 267-8; Pl. 14. Traprain 83, Cat. no. 137, fig. 63. 67 OMRL 45 (1964) Pl. XVI, 2; Le décor géométrique, Pl. 239, c. decorative plaques and veneer 141

G. SCALE BORDER

This bone border, decorated with a scale-like pattern, is about the same width as the quatrefoil border above (Pl. IV.9). The individual shapes are complex in form, somewhat in the form of spades. There is one very close parallel among the bone plaques in the Antiquar- ium Comunale, Rome, except that the latter is narrower with only three rows of pattern rather than four.68 Among other parallels in mosaic are a multicolor feather pattern, in which each segment is similar in shape to the individual forms on this strip, from a mosaic in Room 11 of the Villa at Piazza Armerina69 and a mosaic from Thina, Tunisia.70 The pattern also decorated a panel on the neck of a flask in the Treasure of Traprain Law.71

335 of the leaves. The outer side of the plain border appears to have broken along an incised W = 12.8 line. H = 3.5 Inv. no. SP 610 Pl. IV.9 (left); Fig. IV.76

Bone 337 Fragment of a strip decorated with a diagonal W = 4.36 scale-like pattern consisting of four rows of leaves H = 1.49 worked in intaglio between plain borders about Inv. no. SP 608a 0.5 cm wide. The long edges appear to have been broken along incised lines. Bone Pl. IV.9 (right); Fig. IV.75 Fragment of a strip preserving a scale pattern with scale from one row and part of a scale from 336 the second row. The outer edge of the plain border is finished. W = 4.6 H = 3.2 Pl. IV.9a Inv. no. SP 610a 338 Bone W = 6.0 Fragment of a strip apparently preserves a H = 2.4 scale-like pattern as above with one plain bor- Inv. no. SP 611 der preserved. There is an undecorated area Bone between the short finished end and the beginning of the pattern that shows the horizontal incised Fragment of a strip preserving three rows of scale lines that were used as a guide for the carving pattern and part of the plain border.

68 Rome, Antiquarium Comunale, Inv. no. 18507; 70 CahTun 45-46 (1964) 48, fig. 11; Le décor géométrique, Albertoni, Lastrine di Rivestimento 358-9, Cat. no. 22, fig. Pl. 218c. 40. 71 Curle, Treasure of Traprain 25, Cat. no. 6, Pl. X. 69 Carandini, et al., Filosofiana, Pl. IV, Room 11, fig. 19. 142 chapter iv 339 342

W = 3.5 W = 5.9 H = 2.1 H = 1.0 Inv. no. SP 612 Inv. no. SP 617 + 1 fragment of 618 Bone Bone Fragment of a strip preserving two rows of scale Fragment of a strip preserving one row of scale pattern and plain border. One short end is irreg- pattern and plain border with outer edge finished. ularly broken; the other is broken along an in- The short finished end is cut diagonally across cised line that cuts diagonally across the corner the corner at about a 135o angle. at about a 135o angle. 343 340 W = 1.7 W = 10.2 H = 0.65 H = 1.1 Th = 0.06 Inv. no. SP 613 Inv. no. SP 754 Bone Bone Fragment of a strip preserving one row of scale Fragment of a strip of scale pattern with one long pattern and plain border with outer edge finished. straight edge; at one corner of opposite long side is a curved area with curved line. 341 344 W = 20.55 H = 1.0 Inv. no. SP 618 Inv. no. SP 614, 615 + 616 Bone Bone This group of small fragments belongs to the scale Fragment of a strip preserving one row of scale pattern molding. One piece from this group was pattern and plain border with outer edge finished. removed and joined to Cat. no. 328.

H. FOLIATED SPIRAL BORDER

These straight strips of bone molding are decorated with spirals that alternately curve up and down (Pl. IV.10). The tendrils are about 0.2 cm at their widest end, and taper down to a point at their center, each of which is decorated with a floral ornament or ends in a spiral line. At the points where the spirals are joined there is a bud on a straight stem, alternately pointing up or down toward the edges of the strip. Opposite each of these buds is a horizontal tendril. The large spirals have leaves pointing inward along their inner edges. Foliated spiral ornament appears in various late Roman contexts. There are close parallels among the incised bone in the Antiquarium Comunale, Rome.72 The latter strips have

72 See Albertoni, Lastrine di Rivestimento, 352-6, figs. 19-31. decorative plaques and veneer 143 a similar pattern of spirals with leaves on the inner curves, each centered with a floral ornament and alternating projecting small spirals; however, in place of the upright buds found on the outer edges of the Kenchreai veneer, these have three small leaves in a row. At about 2.5 cm, they are considerably narrower than the Kenchreai strips. Foliated spirals are a common decoration on sellae curules, where they were used on the front of the seat and to decorate struts.73 They are also represented decorating architraves.74 As an isolated motif, a spiral appears on a fragment of a tondo at Tübingen that preserves the upper quarter of a male(?) head with a foliated spiral emerging from behind it.75 The leaves on the main spiral are on the inner curve and a small linear spiral projects from the outer curve of the spiral not far from its tip. Although used on a curved plaque, this pattern is quite similar to the foliated spirals below except that the small spiral is much closer to the tip of the main spiral. This border has about the same height as the two preceding moldings.

345 346

W = 13.0 W = 13.6 H = 3.5 H = 3.4 Inv. no. SP 607 + 609 (1 fragment) Inv. no. SP 608 Bone Bone This straight strip is decorated with incised fo- This strip is decorated with incised foliated spi- liated spirals in the form of fronds, with leaves rals. The spiral at one end is broken away, and on the inside of the curve only. The spirals curve appears to be larger than the others. A curved up or down alternately; and at the point where object within the spiral may represent a pome- the tail of one spiral touches the curve of the granate. The spiral at the other short end is also adjacent spiral, there is a bud on a short stem. broken, but appears to have had a cluster of three In between the buds at each edge of the strip are leaves at its center. Adjacent to the latter is a plain small spirals that project from the large spiral with a bud, then a spiral with a plain spi- spirals and curve outward toward the edges. A ral inside that has traces of red pigment, and then floral motif decorates the interior end of each a spiral with a bud at its center. A plain border large spiral. The motifs are a lotus pod, a bud, about 0.03 cm wide with its outer edge cut runs a cluster of three leaves, and another bud. The along each long side. fifth spiral is broken. Along both long edges is Pl. IV.10; Fig. IV.78 a plain border, about 0.4 cm wide, with its outer edge cut. Fig. IV.77

73 Schäfer, Imperii insignia Pls. 36, 37(5), 46(3)*, 48(1); 43-4, Cat. no. 38, Pl. 21; Cutler, ‘Roma’ and ‘Constan- and see Chapter VI. tinopolis’ 43-64 argues for an early ninth century date. 74 Vienna, Kunsthistorisches Museum, Antiken- 75 Tübingen, Universität Sammlung, Inv. no. S/13 sammlung, Inv. nos. X37, X38, Roma and Constan- 3761. tinopolis diptych; Volbach, Elfenbeinarbeiten der Spätantike3 144 chapter iv

347 shapes. Opposite edge cut, all other edges broken. W = 3.19 H = 1.42 Fig. IV.79

W = 3.8 349 H = 1.6 W = 4.9 Th = 0.08 H = 1.4 Inv. no. SP 744 W = 1.84 H = 0.5 Bone Inv. no. SP 609 Fragment of veneer with curved line from which Bone a curling tendril extends toward corner; similar to foliated spiral borders but without leaves in- Of three fragments of foliated spiral border orig- side curve. Red pigment in tendril. inally inventoried together, the first is joined at lower right to Cat. no. 345. 350

348 Too fragmentary to measure separately. Inv. no. SP 449 W = 1.85 H = 2.30 Bone Th = 0.07 A group of eight small related fragments, one of Inv. no. SP 558 which belongs to the foliated spiral border group. Bone Fragment of foliated spiral strip; curve incised along one edge, outside of which project five leaf decorative plaques and veneer 145

Flower Type A Flower Type B Flower Type C

Flower Type D Flower Type E Flower Type F

Flower Type G Flower Type H Flower Type I

Flower Type J Flower Type K Flower Type L

Flower Type M Flower Type N

Fig. IV.11. Flower Design Types A-N 146 chapter iv

Fig. IV.12. Ring 1, Cat. nos. 147-152, in order clockwise from upper left decorative plaques and veneer 147

Fig. IV.13. Cat. no 152, section

Fig. IV.14. Cat. no. 153

Fig. IV.15. Cat. no. 154 Fig. IV.16. Cat. no. 155

Fig. IV.18. Cat. no. 156, section Fig. IV.17. Cat. no. 156

Fig. IV.19. Cat. no. 157 Fig. IV.20. Cat. no. 158

Fig. IV.21. Cat. no. 159 Fig. IV.22. Cat. no. 160 148 chapter iv

Fig. IV.23. Cat. no. 161

Fig. IV.24. Cat. no. 162

Fig. IV.25. Cat. no. 163 Fig. IV.26. Cat. no. 164

Fig. IV.28. Cat. no. 166 Fig. IV.27. Cat. no. 165

Fig. IV.29. Cat. no. 167 Fig. IV.30. Cat. no. 168

Fig. IV.31. Cat. no. 169 Fig. IV.32. Cat. no. 170 decorative plaques and veneer 149

Fig. IV.33. Cat. no. 171 Fig. IV.34. Cat. no. 172

Fig. IV.35. Cat. no. 173 Fig. IV.36. Cat. no. 174

Fig. IV.37. Cat. no. 175 Fig. IV.38. Cat. no. 176

Fig. IV.39. Cat. no. 177 Fig. IV.40. Cat. no. 178

Fig. IV.41. Cat. no. 179 Fig. IV.42. Cat. no. 180 150 chapter iv

Fig. IV.43. Cat. no. 181 Fig. IV.44. Cat. no. 182

Fig. IV.45. Cat. no. 183

Fig. IV.46. Cat. nos. 184 (left) and 185 (right)

Fig. IV.47. Cat. nos. 186 Fig. IV.48. Cat. nos. 187 decorative plaques and veneer 151

Fig. IV.49. Cat. no. 188

Fig. IV.50. Cat. no. 189

Fig. IV.51. Cat. no. 190

Fig. IV.52. Cat. no. 211 Fig. IV.53. Cat. no. 261 Fig. IV.54. Cat. no. 267 152 chapter iv

Fig. IV.55. Cat. no. 283

Fig. IV.56. Cat. no. 284 Fig. IV.57. Cat. no. 286

Fig. IV.58. Cat. no. 287 Fig. IV.59. Cat. no. 288

Fig. IV.60. Cat. no. 289 Fig. IV.61. Cat. no. 290 decorative plaques and veneer 153

Fig. IV.62. Cat. no. 292

Fig. IV.63. Cat. no. 294

Fig. IV.64. Cat. no. 297

Fig. IV.65. Cat. no. 298 154 chapter iv

Fig. IV.66. Cat. no. 299

Fig. IV.67. Cat. no. 301

Fig. IV.68. Cat. no. 303

Fig. IV.69. Cat. no. 307 Fig. IV.70. Cat. no. 308

Fig. IV.71. Cat. no. 323 Fig. IV.72. Cat. no. 324 decorative plaques and veneer 155

Fig. IV.74. Cat. no. 333

Fig. IV.73. Cat. no. 332

Fig. IV.75. Cat. no. 335

Fig. IV.76. Cat. no. 336

Fig. IV.77. Cat. no. 345 156 chapter iv

Fig. IV.78. Cat. no. 346

Fig. IV.79. Cat. no. 348 ivory, bone, and wood architectural elements 157

CHAPTER V

CATALOGUE AND ANALYSIS OF IVORY, BONE, AND WOOD ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENTS

Among the materials recovered from the apsidal room are various miniature architectural elements. These include a curved sequence of finely worked ivory egg-and-dart ornament (Cat. nos. 351-378); fragments of a wood arcade covered with bone veneer decorated with erotes (Cat. nos. 479-505); ivory capitals (Cat. nos. 379-401), columns (Cat. nos. 426-430), and bases (Cat. nos. 402-425) that made up a Corinthian order; and ivory architectural moldings and bone blocks in various shapes and sizes that probably belonged with the above (Cat. nos. 506-518). The Corinthian order and the arcade, which it almost certainly supported, constitute part of the decoration of what must have been an extremely fine and elegant piece of furniture (Pl. V.1, Fig. V.22 a, b). Architectural elements of this type, forming either rows of aediculae or continuous arcades, were used to subdivide the surface of elaborate cupboards, or armaria, and chests, such as the chest from Qustul (Pl. V.2). Architectural elements were also inserted as parts of beds and of chairs—either across the back, under the arms, and/or under the seat between the legs.1 The miniature architecture from Kenchreai is similar in concept to a wood balustrade from Egypt in Berlin2 and a fine bone balustrade excavated at Kom el-Dikka, in Alexandria.3 Architectural elements of bone, including semicircular arcades, balustrades, and capitals, have also been recovered from a villa in Salinae (modern Droitwich, Worcestershire) destroyed at the end of the third century.4 Although architectural motifs were sometimes inlaid, often they were attached so that they projected from the surface.5

1 For a colonnade-like insert in the back of a chair 4v; Spatharakis, Corpus of Dated Illuminated Greek Manu- see the relief of Peter and Mark, Victoria and Albert scripts 43, Cat. no. 146, fig. 272; and a painting of John Museum, London, Inv. no. 270-1867; Longhurst, Cata- in Paris, Bibliothèque Nationale, Inv. no. Suppl. Gr 612, logue of Carvings in Ivory 32, Pl. 10; Volbach, Elfenbeinarbeiten 297r, dated 1164; Spatharakis, Corpus of Dated Illuminated der Spätantike3 141, Cat. no. 243, Pl. 111. For an arcade Greek Manuscripts 45, Cat. no. 154, fig. 296. across the back and supporting the seat, see the cathe- 2 Berlin, Staatliche Museen, Inv. nos. 3596 and 3597, dra of St. Peter, Rome; Volbach, Elfenbeinarbeiten der Wulff, Bildwerke 91-2, Cat. no. N 281. Also see Strzy- Spätantike3 147, Cat. no. 260, Pl. 116. In considerably gowski, Koptische Kunst, Cat. gen. 8795. later manuscripts, but possibly reflecting older types of 3 Rodziewicz, M. Alexandrie 245. elaborate throne-like chairs, there are superimposed 4 Lawrence Barfield, “Exhibits at Ballots, 5 May arcades; e.g., a painting of Michael VII Ducas flanked 1977: 2. Roman bone inlay from Bays Meadow, Droit- by officials, Paris, Bibliothèque Nationale Inv. no. Coislin wich,” AntJ 57 (1977) 332-3, Pl. LX. 79, 2r, dated 1074-78, has five rows of arcades fitted into 5 For example, the wood aediculae that surround bone the broad back; Spatharakis, Corpus of Dated Illuminated plaques on the casket in Baltimore, Walters Art Museum, Greek Manuscripts 30-1, Cat. no. 94, fig. 173; a represen- Inv. no. 71.40; Randall, Masterpieces 90-1, 107, Cat. no. tation of Gregory in a church, in a manuscript dated to 135, Colorpl. 44. ca. 1150 at the Monastery of St. Catherine, Gr. 339, fol. 158 chapter v

Although none of the columns is preserved in its entirety, an approximation of the height can be calculated from the height of the capitals and the diameter of the preserved fragments of shafts. In his discussion of proportion, Vitruvius defined column height (shaft plus capital) as 9.5 times the column diameter.6 A recent study of the proportions of the Roman Corinthian elevation in monumental architecture confirms that the diameter of the body of the column shaft is generally one-tenth of the overall height of the column plus capital and one-eighth of the height of the shaft.7 The height of Kenchreai bases that have plinths is usually one-half or five-ninths of the column diameter, and the capital height is usually between nine-eighths and eleven-tenths of the lower diameter. Since the largest diameter of the columns in this miniature order is 1.9 cm, applying this system of proportions yields a shaft height of ca.15 cm. The capitals are ca. 2 cm in height, not too far removed from eleven-tenths in ratio to the column diameter. The height of the bases, ca.1 cm, is about one-half of the column diameter of 1.9 cm, a typical proportion for monumental orders. The elevation was com- pleted by a series of blocks that fitted under the column bases. The total height—including the blocks at 2 cm, a column base of 1.0 cm, a column shaft of 15 cm, and the capital of 2 cm—yields a total height of the miniature order of ca. 20 cm, just a little more than ten times the column diameter. This calculation indicates a ratio of the complete capital to the overall order that is typical of full-size examples of the Corinthian order.8 The combined height of the Corinthian order and the Erotes Arcade it supported, of 4.5 cm, was therefore ca. 25 cm. There is considerable variation in the height of the capitals and the bases; however, the range of variation is about the same—ca. 0.55 cm and 0.6 cm, respectively. The workshop practice apparently was to cut these small elements freehand and fit them on the finished object by matching up a slightly shorter capital with a slightly higher base. Both this procedure and added upstands above the capitals were used in monumental architecture to adjust for minor deviations in height.9 Adjustments were necessary because, at least in some cases, the component architectural elements were made as stock and later shipped to fulfill con- tracts, a practice that persisted at least until the sixth century.10 In this miniature order, shims might also have been inserted beneath or in-between the blocks under the column bases to adjust the height further. The Corinthian columns must have supported the wood arcade, which was veneered in bone carved with pairs of flying erotes. There are too many capitals and bases for the section of arcade that is preserved, but the diameter of the capitals, ca. 2.0 cm at the base, is not too different from the thickness of the arcade, ca. 1.6 cm. The diameter of the dowel holes in the capitals is 0.95 cm, and the diameter of the dowel holes preserved on the arcade is ca. 1.0 cm, that is, virtually the same size. Also, there are dowels at the center of the spandrels of the arcade to which the capitals could have been fitted. The transition from the capitals to the arcade is somewhat awkward but possible. On the miniature arcade from Kenchreai, one dowel ran down from the spandrel of the erotes arcade through the capital

6 Vitruvius, De arch. III, 7. 9 Ibid., 40-1. 7 M.W. Jones, “Designing the Roman Corinthian 10 A. Terry, “The Sculpture at the Cathedral of Order,” JRA 2 (1989) 41. Eufrasius in Pore´,” DOP 42 (1988) 57. 8 Ibid., 41. ivory, bone, and wood architectural elements 159 to the column, and another ran down from the column into the column base. Although no blocks with holes for dowels were found that could have served this function, there may have been impost blocks above the capitals. An awkward transition in the arcade of Sta. Costan- za, Rome, is resolved via a cushion frieze that bridges the size difference between the capitals and the springing of the vault.11 Among various similar elevations, there are inverted stepped impost blocks in a projecting Corinthian elevation on a column sarcophagus in Arles, dated to the last decade of the fourth century.12 On a monumental scale, this elevation is seen on two columns of the fifth century(?), now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, from Notre Dame de la Daurade in Toulouse.13 The same arrangement is found in sixth-century Egypt in a simple geometric engaged order at the Delta site of Kellia (modern Kôm Qouçoûr ‘Isâ).14 Beneath the column bases, the Kenchreai order probably was supported by a pair of bone blocks consisting of, above, a decorative block with scallop-and-point edging, and below, a beveled block. The inexact fit could be a result of the workshop’s production practice. The column bases, column veneer, and capitals are ivory; the arcade veneer and blocks are bone. The components could have been mass-produced in stock sizes and combined later by the cabinetmaker. The small coarsely edged blocks, beveled blocks, and rectangular blocks catalogued below (Section E, Cat. nos. 461-478) may have been used as spacers or shims to compensate for irregularities in height and depth. Several of the architectural fragments and two bone spiral strips were recovered from the first trench excavated on the north side of the apse of the fountain court in 1964, including a column capital, a column base, beveled blocks, scallop-and-point blocks, and a fragment of a pilaster capital.15 One capital was found in a trench at 14553 X 2180. Most were found in the apse at 14552 X 2187.

A. EGG-AND-DART MOLDING

Twenty-eight segments of a handsome ivory egg-and-dart molding were found (Cat. nos. 351-378). A curved sequence of seven abutting wedge-shaped segments was retrieved together near the opening of the apse, Cat. nos. 351-357 (Pl. V.3). The thickness of the segments increases clockwise from 1.39 to 1.65 cm. An additional twelve segments of similar

11 See especially Age of Spirituality 266, Cat. no. 246. also 330, fig. 149, fragment of a column sarcophagus in A straight impost block above a Corinthian capital oc- Rome, Museo di S. Sebastiano, Rep. I No. 200; curs, e.g., on the diptych in Florence, Bargello Museum, Stutzinger, Die frühchristlichen Sarkophagreliefs 163ff., 166- Delbrueck, Consulardiptychen 201, Cat. no. 51, Pl. 51; 7ff. Volbach, Elfenbeinarbeiten der Spätantike3 49, Cat. no. 51, 13 New York, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Inv. Pl. 27. See also a stepped block on the Asklepios and no. 21.172.1-2; Age of Spirituality 668, Cat. no. 595. Hygeia reliefs in Liverpool, Merseyside County Muse- 14 G. Descoeudres, “L’architecture des Kellia,” Re- ums, Inv. no. M 10044; Volbach, Elfenbeinarbeiten der vue de la Culture Copte 14/15 (1988) 88, fig. 12. Spätantike3 52-3, Cat. no. 57, Pl. 30; Age of Spirituality 155- 15 Located at the north side of the apse, the coordi- 8, Cat. no. 133. nates of this trench were 14554 X 2185, 14556.5 X 12 Arles, Musée Lapidaire d’Art Chrétien, Inv. no. 2183.5, 14558 X 2185, 14556.5 X 2186.7; Notebook V 17; Spätantike und frühes Christentum 654-6, Cat. no. 232; 36, 184 (#1069 = Inv. nos. SP 1, 15, 44-55, and 67-71.) 160 chapter v design were found scattered nearby, but do not abut. All of the catalogued segments of egg- and-dart molding were cut back in an oblique angled curve at the top (Fig. V.2), and the reverse surface was scored as a key to hold the attachment adhesive: Cat. nos. 351-371 are scored with deep crisscross lines and Cat. nos. 372-378 with parallel lines. These last seven segments are worked in much lower relief, and the molding surrounding each egg is flattened rather than convex, unlike the other segments (Pl. V.6). The oblique cutting at the back is cut at a lower angle. At least two sections of this flatter egg-and-dart molding were found with the rectangular plaque decorated with a representation of a seated philosopher (Cat. no. 1). Twenty-nine eggs are preserved wholly or in part on the higher relief fragments (Cat. nos. 351-371). Calculating each egg at ca. 2.5 cm in maximum width, the total circumference of a semicircular egg-and-dart molding for which there is existing evidence is ca. 72.5 cm. From this can be calculated the diameter of the arched sequence, measured between the intrados and extrados, of ca. 46 cm. This figure can be checked by calculating the diameter of the base of the arched sequence found together. Although a precise calculation is not possible, a diameter of ca. 44 cm has been estimated for the same midpoint between the intrados and extrados. The correspondence of these two estimates suggests that almost all of the original molding has been preserved. Catalogue numbers 372 through 378 preserve all or part of seven eggs, or about 17.5 cm of length. This molding may have run horizontally for a length of at least ca. 8.75 cm on either side of the arched sequence, aligned with the base of the arched panel, or along the lower edge of the arch (see Fig. VII.1). There are a number of parallels for egg-and-dart molding, including several of bone in the Antiquarium Comunale, Rome, but none approach the Kenchreai examples in quality of workmanship or luxury of material.16 A representation of the use of an arched egg-and- dart molding with horizontal continuations on either side to form an architectural frame for a seated figure can be seen on the diptych of the Lampadii.17 An undecorated arch with horizontal architrave on the sides is found on the consular diptych in the Walters Art Museum.18 For a throne with arched back and extended sides, see the Probianus diptych.19 The use of egg-and-dart molding on a tribune in a gabled design framing a consul on a sella curulis is also common; e.g., the Anthemius and the Anastasius diptychs.20 In the latter case,

16 Inv. no.18500; Albertoni, Lastrine di Rivestimento tike3 54-5, Cat. no. 62. 358-9, Cat. no. 21, fig. 39; Athens, Benaki Museum, Inv. 20 Anthemius diptych, now lost, dated 515; Volbach, nos. 22178, 22177, 18731, 18721, 18722, 18723, 18724; Elfenbeinarbeiten der Spätantike3 35, Cat. no. 16; the Marangou, Bone Carvings from Egypt 131-2, Cat. nos. 257- Anastasius diptychs, dated 517, one previously in Ber- 63, Pl. 67 f, g, h; Tübingen, Antikensammlung, Pagen- lin, Volbach, Elfenbeinarbeiten der Spätantike3 35, Cat. no. stecker, Sieglin Collection II, 3, 168. 17; one in London, Victoria and Albert Museum, Vol- 17 Brescia, Museo Civico Christiani; Volbach, Elfen- bach, Elfenbeinarbeiten der Spätantike3 36, Cat. no. 18, Pl. beinarbeiten der Spätantike3 50-1, Cat. no. 54, first half of 8; one in Verona, Kapitelbibliothek, Volbach, Elfenbein- the fifth century. arbeiten der Spätantike3 36, Cat. no. 20, Pl. 9; and one in 18 Baltimore, Walters Art Museum, Inv. no. 71.304; Paris, Bibliothèque Nationale, Volbach, Elfenbeinarbeiten Randall, Masterpieces 115, Cat. no. 181, Colorpl. 51. der Spätantike3 36-7, Cat. no. 21, Pl.9. 19 Ca. 400; Volbach, Elfenbeinarbeiten der Spätan- ivory, bone, and wood architectural elements 161 it appears to show a higher relief egg-and-dart on the raking edges and a lower relief egg- and-dart on the bottom, horizontal edge of the gable.21 One can imagine the Kenchreai egg- and-dart molding forming a similar, but arched arrangement. Some of the egg-and-dart molding was found at 14558 X 2180 in the apse of the apsidal room, some at 14549 X 2185, and some at 14552 X 2185.

351 353

W (top) = 4.9 W (top) = 2.2 W (bottom) = 4.5 W (bottom) = 2.15 H = 3.0 H = 2.7 Th = 1.39 Th = 1.4 Inv. no. SP 92 Inv. no. SP 94 Ivory Ivory From left, segment with the edge of the molding From left, segment with one egg, with part of the around an egg, part of a dart, two eggs separated molding at left cut away, and the lower part of by a dart, and part of the tip of a dart. a dart. Found at 14552 X 2185 Fig. V.1

Fig. V.1 354

352 W (top) = 4.9 W (bottom) = 4.3 W (top) = 5.1 H = 2.7 W (bottom) = 4.5 Th = 1.65 H = 2.8 Inv. no. SP 95 Th = 1.35 Ivory Inv. no. SP 93 From left, segment with two eggs separated by a Ivory dart, with part of the molding at left cut away, From left, segment with part of the tip of a dart, and half a dart. two eggs separated by a dart, a dart, and the edge Fig. V.1 of the molding around an egg. Fig. V.1

21 Most clearly in the Anastasius diptych previously in Berlin; Volbach, Elfenbeinarbeiten der Spätantike3 35, Cat. no. 17, Pl. 8. 162 chapter v 355 358

W (top) = 4.9 W (top) = 5.1 W (bottom) = 4.5 W (bottom) = 4.6 H = 3.1 H = 2.7 Th = 1.65 Th = 1.45 Inv. no. SP 96 Inv. no. SP 99 Ivory Ivory From left, segment with half a dart, two eggs From left, segment with half a dart, two eggs sepa- separated by a dart, and half of the tip of a dart. rated by a dart, and half a dart. Part of the molding at right is cut away. Found at 14552 X 2185 Fig. V.1 Fig. V.2 356 359 W (top) = 4.85 W (bottom) = 4.3 W (top) = 5.1 H = 2.8 W (bottom) = 4.7 Th = 1.55 H = 2.7 Inv. no. SP 97 Th = 1.4 Inv. no. SP 100 Ivory Ivory From left, segment with half a dart, two eggs separated by a dart, and part of the tip of a dart. From left, segment with two eggs separated by a Part of the molding at right is cut away. dart, and half a dart. Fig. V.1 360

357 W (top) = 2.55 W (bottom) = 2.2 W (top) = 2.5 H = 2.7 W (bottom) = damaged Th = 1.45 H = 2.7 Inv. no. SP 101 Th = 1.6 Inv. no. SP 98 Ivory Ivory From left, segment with half a dart, one egg, and half of the tip of a dart. From left, segment with half a dart, one egg, and part of the shaft of a dart. The lower side is 361 damaged. W (top) = 2.28 Fig. V.1 W (bottom) = 2.1 H = 2.7 Th = 1.16 Inv. no. SP 102 Ivory From left, segment with one egg, and part of the ivory, bone, and wood architectural elements 163 shaft of a dart. The molding surrounding the egg 365 is cut away. There is a notch in the lower side. W (top) = 2.7 362 W (bottom) = 2.2 H = 2.69 W (top) = 2.44 Th = 1.2 W (bottom) = 1.95 Inv. no. SP 106 H = 2.58 Ivory Th = 1.2 Inv. no. SP 103 From left, segment with a dart and one egg. Part of the molding is damaged. Ivory From left, segment with part of the shaft of a dart, 366 one egg, and a dart. The left side is damaged. W (top) = 2.81 363 W (bottom) = 2.56 H = 2.89 W (top) = 2.72 Th = 1.27 W (bottom) = 1.73 Inv. no. SP 107 H = 2.82 Ivory Th = 1.29 Inv. no. SP 104 From left, segment with a dart, one egg, and a dart.

Ivory 367 From left, segment with a dart, an egg leaning W (top) = 2.26 to the left, and part of a dart. W (bottom) = 2.8 Fig. V.3 H = 3.0 P Th = 1.0 364 Inv. no. SP 108 W (top) = 2.67 Ivory W (bottom) = broken From left, segment with an egg leaning to the left H = 3.3 and a dart leaning to the right. The top half of the Th = 1.67 egg is damaged and the right side is broken off Inv. no. SP 105 diagonally. Ivory 368 From left, segment with edge of the molding around an egg, part of a dart shaft, one egg, and W (top) = 2.29 part of the molding around an egg. The bottom W (bottom) = 2.3 and right sides are damaged. H = 3.0 Th = 1.17 Inv. no. SP 109 Ivory From left, segment with an egg leaning to the right. The left side is broken diagonally, and the 164 chapter v molding around the egg is missing at the upper 372 left and upper right sides. W (top) = 2.69 Fig. V.4 W (bottom) = 2.71 H = 2.19 369 Th = 0.93 Inv. no. SP 113 W (top) = 3.12 W (bottom) = 3.69 Ivory H = 2.8 From left, segment with half a dart, one egg, and Th = 1.55 half a dart. Inv. no. SP 110 Found at 14452 X 2185 Ivory Pl. V.4 From left, segment with half a dart, one egg, and a damaged motif that does not resemble an egg with 373 no dart. This segment is possibly one end of a molding strip. W (top) = 2.59 W (bottom) = 2.42 370 H = 2.15 Th = 0.75 W (top) = 2.3 Inv. no. SP 114 W (bottom) = 2.9 H = 2.98 Ivory Th = 1.15 From left, segment with half a dart, one egg, and Inv. no. SP 112 half a dart. Ivory Pl. V.4; Fig. V.6 From left, segment with an egg, a dart, and a fragment of the molding around an egg. The left side 374 is damaged. W (top) = 2.54 371 W (bottom) = 2.6 H = 2.2 W (top) = 4.7 Th = 0.77 W (bottom) = 5.59 Inv. no. SP 115 H = 2.8 Ivory Th = 0.83 Inv. no. SP 111 From left, segment with half a dart, one egg, and half a dart. Part of the molding around left side of Ivory egg is damaged. From left, segment with an egg, a dart, and an egg with its upper right and edge filed away. Below is an egg in low relief (Th = 0.4). This segment is possibly the end of a strip of molding. The back is flat. Found at 14458 X 2180 Fig. V.5 ivory, bone, and wood architectural elements 165

375 377

W (top) = 2.35 W (top) = 2.5 W (bottom) = 2.33 W (bottom) = 2.7 H = 2.3 H = 2.2 Th = 0.79 Th = 0.71 Inv. no. SP 116 Inv. no. SP 118 Ivory Ivory From left, segment with half a dart, one egg, and The segment preserves one egg. The sides con- half a dart. verge at the lower side. This segment possibly joins Cat. no. 378. 376 378 W (top) = 2.52 W (bottom) = 2.42 W (top) = 1.68 H = 2.1 W (bottom) = 1.28 Th = 0.69 H = 2.0 Inv. no. SP 117 Th = 0.58 Inv. no. SP 119 Ivory Ivory From left, segment with half a dart, one egg, and half a dart. The surface is very worn. The segment preserves one egg, incomplete at both sides. This segment possibly joins Cat. no. 377.

B. CORINTHIAN CAPITALS

Nineteen substantially complete capitals were recovered (Pls. V.1, V.5, and V.6). There are fragments of at least one, or even several, more (Cat. nos. 379-401).22 Three capitals (Cat. nos. 379-381) have a dowel hole drilled into the base that does not extend through the full height. These capitals range in height from 2.45 to 3.1 cm. Catalogue no. 379 is clearly taller than all the others, but it is not larger than a number of others in diameter. All of the capitals other than these three are drilled through. These range in height from 2.0 cm to 2.45 cm. Except for the single larger capital, the variability in height of the others is within the range of 0.55 cm. All of the capitals except one have one side flat, either unfinished when first made or coarsely cut to fit at the time of assembly. The single exception has one corner unfinished (Cat. no. 382). Cat. nos. 388 and 392 may be corner capitals. The primary face of each capital has a fleshy acanthus leaf rising from the base. Tendril volutes rise diagonally from the top of each of these leaves to the top corners of the bell of the capital. There are no helices. A second tier of acanthus leaves is placed on an interme-

22 One of the capitals is missing. 166 chapter v diate level at each corner. A four-petaled flower decorates the center of the abacus and gives further emphasis to the vertical axis formed by the main leaf and the springing of the volutes on each face of the capital. The leaves are rendered naturalistically and have a full- ness resulting from the simplicity of the arrangement and the small number of leaves. There are numerous parallels for these capitals but none of such outstanding quality. A bone example of similar size in the Walters Art Museum has two full rows of leaves rising from the base and eight leaves worked on each primary face.23 The details are incised rather than plastically worked, and the overall effect is miniaturist rather than truly architectural as in the Kenchreai capitals. A bone Corinthian capital 2.5 cm high and a fragment of a larger capital, 4 cm high, now in the Victoria and Albert Museum, were found at Beh- nesa (Oxyrhynchus) during the excavations of 1903-04.24 There are two bone capitals at the Benaki Museum, one 4 cm and one 5.3 cm tall.25 E. Rodziewicz published an unfinished Corinthian capital, ca. 3.3 cm high, from a bone carving workshop in Alexandria dated to the fifth to early seventh century.26 There is a much larger fragment of a capital, 7.1 cm tall, that may be from a flat pilaster, in the Graeco-Roman Museum, Alexandria.27 Other unfinished Corinthian capitals from datable contexts in Alexandria as late as the ninth century, also published by E. Rodziewicz, indicate the duration of this tradition of boneworking in Alexandria.28 Because of the absence of helices, the design of the Kenchreai capitals is not consistent with monumental Corinthian capitals in Roman Egypt; however, further research may yield results relevant to their provenance.29

379 380

H = 3.1 H = 2.45 PW (abacus) = 3.3 PW (abacus) = 2.3 W (base) = 2.2 W (base) = 1.95 D (dowel hole) = 0.85 D (dowel hole) = 0.96 Inv. no. SP 1 Inv. no. SP 2 Ivory Ivory Capital with one unfinished side. Dowel hole in Capital with one unfinished side. Dowel hole in base extends 1.75 cm into the capital and not base extends 1.45 cm into the capital. There is a through the entire height. The tips of some acan- small cone-shaped depression at the center of the thus leaves are broken off. Capital is reconstruct- abacus. The tips of some acanthus leaves are bro- ed from several fragments. ken off. Capital is reconstructed from five fragments. Fig. V.7

23 Baltimore, Walters Art Museum, Inv. no. 71.558, 26 Rodziewicz, E. Bone and Ivory Carvings 143-6, 3.5 cm; Randall, Masterpieces 68-9, Cat. no. 70. fig. 3. 24 London, Victoria and Albert Museum, Inv. nos. 27 Alexandria, Graeco-Roman Museum, Reg. No. 1920-1897, 1920a-1897; Longhurst, Catalogue of Carvings 12348, Inv. no. 1255, from Moharem Bey. in Ivory 18. 28 Rodziewicz, E. Bone and Ivory Carvings 155, fig. 25 Marangou, Bone Carvings from Egypt 130, Cat. nos. 31-2. 244, 245, Pl. 70c, 70d. 29 McKenzie, Architectural Style 130-2. ivory, bone, and wood architectural elements 167

381 384

H = 2.55 H = 2.2 PW (abacus) = 2.55 PW (abacus) = 2.3 W (base) = 2.0 W (base) = 1.7 D (dowel hole) = 0.9 D (dowel hole) = 0.95 Inv. no. SP 3 Inv. no. SP 7 Ivory Ivory Capital with one unfinished side. Dowel hole in Capital with one unfinished side. Dowel hole is base extends 1.85 cm into the capital. The tips of drilled through. The tips of some acanthus leaves some acanthus leaves are broken off. Capital is re- are broken. Capital is reconstructed from seven constructed from several fragments. fragments.

382 385

H = 2.3 H = 2.2 PW (abacus) = 2.8 PW (abacus) = 2.2 W (base) = 1.9 W (base) = 1.25 D (dowel hole) = 0.9 D (dowel hole) = 0.95 Inv. no. SP 4 Inv. no. SP 8 Ivory Ivory Capital with one unfinished corner. Dowel hole is Capital with one unfinished side. Dowel hole is drilled through. The tips of some acanthus leaves drilled through. Capital is reconstructed from two are broken off. Capital is reconstructed from six fragments and is broken in half to the base of the fragments. acanthus leaves on one side.

383 386

H = 2.0 H = 2.3 PW (abacus) = 1.9 PW (abacus) = 2.2 W (base) = 1.8 W (base) = 1.8 D (dowel hole) = 0.9 D (dowel hole) = 0.95 Inv. no. SP 6 L (dowel) = 2.55 D (dowel) = 0.8 Ivory Inv. no. SP 9 Capital with one unfinished side. Dowel hole is Ivory and wood drilled through. Capital is reconstructed from three fragments. Capital with one unfinished side and part of a wood dowel intact in the dowel hole. Dowel hole is drilled through. The tips of some acanthus leaves are broken. Capital is reconstructed from two fragments. The base is damaged. Fig. V.8 168 chapter v

387 Dowel hole is drilled through. Capital is reconstructed from two fragments. H = 2.45 PW (abacus) = 1.85 391 PW (base) = 1.5 D (dowel hole) = not preserved H = 2.0 Inv. no. SP 10 PW (abacus) = 2.30 PW (base) = 1.4 Ivory D (dowel hole) = not preserved Fragment of a capital with one unfinished side. Inv. no. SP 14 Dowel hole is drilled through. The tips of some Ivory acanthus leaves are broken. Capital is reconstructed from three fragments. Fragment of a capital with one unfinished side. Dowel hole is drilled through. The tips of some 388 acanthus leaves are broken. Capital is reconstructed from two fragments. H = 2.2 PW (abacus) = 1.1 Most if not all of these fragments were found PW (base) = 1.7 in fill of apse at 14552 X 2187. D (dowel hole) = not preserved Inv. no. SP 11 392 Ivory H = 2.08 PW (abacus) = 2.1 Fragment of a capital with one unfinished side. D (base) = 1.69 389 D (dowel hole) = 1.0 Inv. no. SP 374 H = 2.0 Ivory PW (abacus) = 1.17 W (base) = 1.4 Capital with one unfinished side. The dowel hole D (dowel hole) = not preserved is drilled through. The unfinished side projects at Inv. no. SP 12 an angle, and this may be a corner capital.

Ivory 393 Fragment of a capital with one unfinished side. H = 2.21 Dowel hole is drilled through. Capital is recon- PW (abacus) = 2.0 structed from two fragments. D (base) = 1.55 390 D (dowel hole) = 1.0 Inv. no. SP 375 H = 2.2 Ivory PW (abacus) = 1.41 PW (base) = 1.5 Capital with one unfinished side. Dowel hole is D (dowel hole) = not preserved drilled through. The tips of some of the acanthus Inv. no. SP 13 leaves are broken. Ivory Fragment of a capital with one unfinished side. ivory, bone, and wood architectural elements 169

394 398

H = 2.2 H = 1.3 PW (abacus) = 2.2 D = 0.3 D (base) = 1.8 Inv. no. SP 384 D (dowel hole) = 0.9 Ivory Inv. no. SP 376 Fragment worked with a curved relief line, possi- Ivory bly part of a capital. Capital partly (about five-eighths) preserved. The acanthus leaves are damaged. Capital is recon- 399 structed from six fragments. H = 1.0 395 D = 0.36 Inv. no. SP 385 H = 2.45 Ivory PW (abacus) = 1.45 D (base) = 2.0 Fragment with a straight relief line on one side D (dowel hole) = 1.1 and a joining curved relief line, possibly part of Inv. no. SP 377 a capital.

Ivory 400 Fragment of a capital. Dowel hole is drilled H = 0.6 through. Capital is reconstructed from four frag- D = 0.3 ments. Inv. no. SP 386 396 Ivory H = 2.1 Fragment with a curved relief line, possibly part PW (abacus) = 1.3 of a capital. D (base) = 0.93 D (dowel hole) = 0.9 401 Inv. no. SP 378 H = 2.1 Ivory PW (abacus) = 2.1 D (base) = 1.85 Fragment of a capital. Dowel hole is drilled D (dowel hole) = 0.95 through. Capital is reconstructed from four frag- Inv. no. SP 5 ments. Ivory 397 Capital with one unfinished side. Dowel hole H = 2.35, 2.2, 2.1, 2.15, 2.2 drilled through. This capital is listed in the exca- Inv. no. SP 379 vation inventory but is now missing. Ivory Five fragments of capitals with the full height preserved, plus three small fragments from unfinished sides. 170 chapter v

C. COLUMN BASES

There are twenty-two substantially complete Attic-type column bases, consisting of upper and lower tori separated by a scotia, on a square plinth (Cat. nos. 402-425; Pls. V.1, V.5, V.7). Each complete base is cut from a single piece of ivory. All of the column bases are drilled completely through, but in some cases the dowel hole tapers to the base, as if to hold the bottom of a dowel in place. The similarity to the capitals in the number preserved, the material, and the fine workmanship indicates that these bases were part of the same elaborate miniature architectural decoration. The lower torus on thirteen of the bases is flattened on one side, as if fitted against a flat surface. Four of the bases are also flattened on the opposite side, as if to align them to a horizontal edge. Two bases are flattened on three sides; these may have been at the two ends or at corners where it was necessary to fit them at the attachment side and along the two adjacent edges of the corner. These two probably belong with the two corner capitals, Cat. nos. 388 and 392. No single base is significantly larger than the others. The greatest variation in height of the bases is 0.6 cm. In 1964, a base—the first to be found—was recovered from the apse side (west of the marble step) of the apsidal room. One entire base and two fragments of another were found in the fill of the apse at 14556 X 2183 and 14555 X 2182.

402 Column base with lower torus flattened on two opposite sides. Two corners of the plinth are H = 1.5 broken. Base is reconstructed from five fragments. D (torus) = 2.0 W (plinth) = 2.4 404 D (dowel hole) = 0.8 L (dowel) = 1.2 H = 1.4 Inv. no. SP 35 D (torus) = 2.4 W = 3.3 Ivory and wood D (dowel hole) = 0.85 (upper), 0.75 (lower) Column base with lower torus flattened on one Inv. no. SP 15 side. A piece of wood dowel is preserved inside Ivory the dowel hole. One corner of the plinth is broken. Column base with lower torus flattened on one side. There are file marks on the underside of the plinth. Fig. V.9 All corners of the plinth are broken. Base is re- 403 constructed from four fragments. Found at 14555-56 X 2182-3 H = 1.45 D (torus) = 2.15 Fig. V.10 W = 2.9 x 3.2 D (dowel hole) = 0.9 (upper), 0.8 (lower) Inv. no. SP 16 Ivory ivory, bone, and wood architectural elements 171

405 408

H = 1.4 H = 1.35 D (torus) = 2.6 D (torus) = 2.1 W = 2.95 x 3.2 W = 2.6 D (dowel hole) = 0.9 (upper), 0.4 (lower) D (dowel hole) = 0.9 Inv. no. SP 17 Inv. no. SP 24 Ivory Ivory Column base with lower torus flattened on one Complete column base. One end of the plinth is side. Three corners of the plinth are broken. Base filed, and all four corners of the plinth are bro- is reconstructed from two fragments. ken. Base is reconstructed from three fragments.

406 409

H = 1.4 H = 1.35 D (torus) = 2.1 D (torus) = 2.3 W = 2.5 W = 2.3 x 2.5 D (dowel hole) = 0.9 D (dowel hole) = 0.9 Inv. no. SP 25 Inv. no. SP 33 + SP 380 Ivory Ivory Column base with lower torus flattened on one Column base with lower torus flattened on two side. All corners of the plinth are broken. Base opposite sides. One corner of the plinth is bro- is reconstructed from two fragments. ken. Base is reconstructed from several fragments.

407 410

H = 1.4 H = 1.3 D (torus) = 2.0 D (torus) = 2.3 W = 2.5 x 2.7 W = 2.8 D (dowel hole) = 0.9 D (dowel hole) = 0.9 (upper), 0.35 (lower) L (dowel) = 1.25 Inv. no. SP 19 Inv. no. SP 36a Ivory Ivory and wood Column base with lower torus flattened on two Column base with lower torus flattened on three opposite sides. Two corners of the plinth are sides. Three corners of the plinth are broken. A broken, the surface very abraded. Base is recon- fragment of a wood dowel remains in the dowel structed from three fragments. hole. Fig. V.12 Pl. V.7 (left); Fig. V.11 172 chapter v 411 414

H = 1.3 H = 1.2 D (torus) = 2.1 D (torus) = 2.5 W = 2.6 W = 2.5 D (dowel hole) = 0.9 D (dowel hole) = 0.9 (upper), 0.85 (lower) Inv. no. SP 26 Inv. no. SP 27 Ivory Ivory Column base with lower torus flattened on one Column base with lower torus flattened on one side and file marks extending to the edge of the side and file marks extending to the edge of the plinth. Three corners of the plinth are broken. plinth. All corners of the plinth are broken. Base is reconstructed from several fragments. 415 412 H = 1.2 H = 1.2 D (torus) = 2.0 D (torus) = 2.2 W = 2.4 x 2.4 W = 2.9 D (dowel hole) = 0.9 D (dowel hole) = 0.9 (upper), 0.7 (lower) Inv. no. SP 28 Inv. no. SP 20 Ivory Ivory Column base with lower torus flattened on one Column base with lower torus flattened on three side. Two corners of the plinth are broken. Base sides. Three corners of the plinth are broken and is reconstructed from several fragments. the upper torus damaged. Base is reconstructed from three fragments. 416

413 H = 1.2 D (torus) = 2.0 H = 1.2 W = 2.4 D (torus) = 2.1 D (dowel hole) = 0.9 W = 2.5 Inv. no. SP 29 D (dowel hole) = 0.9 Ivory Inv. no. SP 22 Column base with lower torus flattened on one Ivory side. Three corners of the plinth are broken. Base Complete column base. File marks on the under- is reconstructed from three fragments. side of the plinth. Three corners of the plinth are Fig. V.13 broken. ivory, bone, and wood architectural elements 173

417 420

H = 1.4 H = 1.1 D (torus) = 2.4 D (torus) = 2.1 W = 2.4 W = 2.7 D (dowel hole) = 0.85 (upper), 0.75 (lower) D (dowel hole) = 0.9 L (wood dowel) = 2.3 Inv. no. SP 31 Inv. no. SP 37 Ivory Ivory and wood Column base with lower torus flattened on one Column base with lower torus flattened on two side. Three corners of the plinth are broken. Base opposite sides. A fragment of a wood dowel re- is reconstructed from two fragments. mains in the dowel hole. Base is reconstructed from two fragments. 421 Fig. V.14 H = 1.05 D (torus) = 2.4 418 W = 2.9 D (dowel hole) = 0.9 (upper), 0.3 (lower) H = 1.15 Inv. no. SP 21 D (torus) = 2.25 W = 3.5 Ivory D (dowel hole) = 0.9 (upper), 0.4 (lower) Column base with lower torus flattened on one Inv. no. SP 18 side and file marks across the torus. The under- Ivory side of the plinth is filed down obliquely. Base is reconstructed from three fragments. Column base with lower torus flattened on one side. Three corners of the plinth are broken. Base Fig. V.15 is reconstructed from two fragments. 422 419 H = 0.9 H = 1.1 D (torus) = 2.1 D (torus) = 2.1 W = 2.5 W = 2.5 x 2.7 D (dowel hole) = 0.9 D (dowel hole) = 0.9 Inv. no. SP 30 Inv. no. SP 23 Ivory Ivory Column base with lower torus flattened on one Column base with lower torus flattened on one side. All four corners of the plinth are broken. side. The adjacent side of the plinth has been filed Base is reconstructed from two fragments. to a point. One side of the plinth is broken. Base is reconstructed from four fragments. 174 chapter v 423 424

H = 0.78 H = 0.4 D (torus) = 2.58 D (torus) = 2.0 W = 2.5 W = not preserved D (dowel hole) = 0.9 D (dowel hole) = 0.9 (upper) Inv. no. SP 32 Inv. no. SP 34 Ivory Ivory Column base with lower torus flattened on one Upper torus from a column base reconstructed side and a sloping break on one side of the up- from two fragments. per torus. Three corners of the plinth are broken. 425 H = 0.45 D (torus) = 2.35 D (dowel hole) = 0.75 Inv. no. SP 381 Ivory Fragment of a torus from a column base.

D. COLUMNS

Five fragments of wood column shafts were found with the ivory capitals at 14552 X 2186 (Pl. V.1). Two of the columns had traces of ivory veneer adhering to them.

426 427

L = 13.0 L = 17.0 D (end) = 1.6 D (end) = 1.7 Inv. no. SP 38 Inv. no. SP 39 Wood and ivory Wood and ivory Fragment of a wood column shaft with several Fragment of a wood column shaft with two small small fragments of ivory veneer adhered to the fragments of ivory veneer adhered to the surface. surface. 428 Found at 14552 X 2186 L = 7.3 Pl. V.1 (left); Fig. V.16 D (end) = 1.8 Inv. no. SP 40 Wood Fragment of a column shaft. Pl. V.1 (right); Fig. V.17 ivory, bone, and wood architectural elements 175

429 430

L = 6.2 L = 6.8 D (end) = 1.9 D (end) = 1.9 Inv. no. SP 41 Inv. no. SP 42 Wood Wood Fragment of a column shaft. Fragment of a column shaft.

E. ARCHITECTURAL BLOCKS

Varying quantities of six types of bone blocks were recovered. The first type, of which twelve examples are preserved (Cat. nos. 431-442), is beveled on three sides and cut vertically on the fourth side (Pl. V.5, second row, right). They are 0.4 cm thick, about 3.1 X 3.1 cm square on the larger surface, and taper to about 2.5 cm wide and 2.8 cm long on the smaller surface. The second type, of which nine examples are preserved (Cat. nos. 443-451), is decorated with alternating scallops and points on three sides and one side is cut flush (Pl. V.5, second row, second, third and fourth from left). These blocks are about 0.3 cm thick, 2.5 cm wide, and 2.8 cm long. The third type, of which nine examples are also preserved (Cat. nos. 452-460), has three steps on three sides and one side cut flush (Pl. V.5, two blocks at top). These blocks are either 0.4 or 0.5 cm thick, the base is ca. 1.8 cm wide and 2.5 cm long, and the top step is ca.1.4 cm wide and 2.1 cm long. The fourth type, of which eight examples are preserved (Cat. nos. 461-468), is a small rectangular block, 0.8 cm high, ca. 1.2 cm wide and 1.6 to 2.0 cm long. The long sides of these blocks have file marks along their length. The fifth type, of which eight examples are preserved (Cat. no. 469-476), is marked with a toothed edge on three sides and one cut flush (Pl. V.5, second row, left). These are ca. 2.4 X 2.1 cm and 0.4 cm thick. The cuttings on these blocks are very coarse, and they may have served as spacers where the cuts would not be too visible. At least three have a round stain, probably from an adhesive. The sixth type, of which two examples survive (Cat. nos. 477 and 478), is a simple square block, ca. 2.8 cm on each side, and 0.3 and 0.45 cm thick. These blocks are coarser in workmanship and have saw or file marks on the vertical sides. The horizontal surfaces are scored to key an adhesive. These blocks were probably used as spacers, but the exact location is uncertain. The length would fit on the smaller surface of the beveled blocks, but the width would overlap on either side. It is not certain—although likely—that these architectural elements were part of the Corin- thian elevation. If they were, some of them would have been placed under the column bases. The arrangement probably would have consisted of the blocks beveled on three sides and flush at the rear at the bottom of the elevation. The scallop-and-point blocks fit on top of these blocks, and the column bases on top of them. All vary somewhat in size, but there are sizes that seem to correspond at both extremes of the range. The bottoms of the column bases range from 2.4 cm to 3.3 cm wide; most are between ca. 2.4 and 3.0 cm wide. These fit fairly well on most of the scallop-and-point blocks, which are ca. 2.5 cm wide and 2.8 cm long. The top surfaces of the beveled blocks also are ca. 2.5 cm wide X 2.8 cm long. The location of the remaining blocks is uncertain. The rectangular blocks are considerably smaller, 176 chapter v

2.0 cm wide and 1.2 cm long, just slightly smaller than the top step of the stepped blocks, upon which they fit nicely. The coarsely notched blocks might have been used as spacers directly above or below the scallop-and-point blocks, as they fit on top of these but would not have been very visible.

431 433

Top Top L = 2.8 L = 2.7 W = 2.5 W = 2.28

Bottom Bottom L = 3.1 L = 3.1 W = 3.1 W = 3.1 Th = 0.4 Th = 0.4 Inv. no. SP 44 Inv. no. SP 46 Bone Bone Block with three beveled and one vertical side. Block with three beveled and one vertical side. There are dark stains in the shape of a rounded There are stains on the top and on the underside, blob on the top and on the underside, possibly from as on Cat. no. 431. A chip is missing from one edge bitumen or other adhesive. of the upper side. Found at 14555.5 X 2185.7 Found at 14555.5 X 2185.7

Fig. V.18 434

432 Top L = 2.8 Top W = 2.5 L = 2.8 W = 2.4 Bottom L = 3.1 Bottom W = 3.0 L = 3.1 Th = 0.4 W = 2.9 Inv. no. SP 47 Th = 0.4 Inv. no. SP 45 Bone Bone Block with three beveled and one vertical side. Block with three beveled and one vertical side. Found at 14555.5 X 2185.7 Found at 14555.5 X 2185.7 ivory, bone, and wood architectural elements 177

435 Bone Top Block with three beveled and one vertical side. L = 2.8 Stain on top. W = 2.4 Found at 14555.5 X 2185.7

Bottom 438 L = 3.1 W = 3.0 Top Th = 0.4 L = 2.7 Inv. no. SP 48 W = 2.2 Bone Bottom Block with three beveled and one vertical side. L = 3.0 There is an area of damage, perhaps from wear, W = 2.9 on the upper edge of one side. Th = 0.5 Inv. no. SP 51 Found at 14555.5 X 2185.7 Bone 436 Block with three beveled and one vertical side. It is Top worn on the lower edges of the beveled sides and L = 2.8 on all of the vertical sides and is chipped on top. W = 2.3 Found at 14555.5 X 2185.7

Bottom 439 L = 3.1 W = 2.9 Top Th = 0.4 L = 2.8 Inv. no. SP 49 W = 2.45 Bone Bottom Block with three beveled and one vertical side. The L = 3.1 top surface and the top and bottom edges of one W = 3.0 corner are damaged. Th = 0.4 Found at 14555.5 X 2185.7 Inv. no. SP 52 Bone 437 Block with three beveled and one vertical side. Top L = 2.8 Found at 14555.5 X 2185.7 W = 2.4

Bottom L = 3.1 W = 3.0 Th = 0.45 Inv. no. SP 50 178 chapter v

440 Bottom L = 3.05 Top W = 2.8 L = 2.7 Th = 0.4 W = 2.4 Inv. no. SP 55 Bottom Bone L = 3.0 Block with three beveled and one vertical side. W = 2.95 Extensive damage on top and bottom surfaces and Th = 0.4 sides. Inv. no. SP 53 Found at 14555.5 X 2185.7 Bone 443 Block with three beveled and one vertical side. Stain on top. L = 2.8 Found at 14555.5 X 2185.7 W = 2.6 Th = 0.3 441 Inv. no. SP 67

Top Bone L = 2.8 Decorative block with three sides of alternating W = 2.5 scallops and points and the fourth side cut vertically. File marks between the straight side and the Bottom opposite scalloped side on both upper and lower L = 3.1 surfaces. Stain on one side. W = 3.05 Found at 14555.5 X 2185.7 Th = 0.4 Inv. no. SP 54 Fig. V.19 Bone 444 Block with three beveled and one vertical side. Dark L = 2.8 stains on top and on underside. Damaged on one W = 2.5 side. Th = 0.3 Found at 14555.5 X 2185.7 Inv. no. SP 68

442 Bone Decorative block with three sides of alternating Top scallops and points and the fourth side cut verti- L = 2.8 cally. File marks as on Cat. no. 443. W = 2.8 Found at 14555.5 X 2185.7 ivory, bone, and wood architectural elements 179

445 448

L = 2.9 L = 2.6 W = 2.6 W = 2.5 Th = 0.3 Th = 0.25 Inv. no. SP 69 Inv. no. SP 72 Bone Bone Decorative block with three sides of alternating Decorative block with three sides of alternating scallops and points and the fourth side cut verti- scallops and points and the fourth side cut ver- cally. File marks as on Cat. no. 443. Traces of dark tically. File marks as on Cat. no. 443. Traces of stain on the upper surface, possibly from adhesive. stain on one flat surface, possibly from adhesive.

Found at 14555.5 X 2185.7 449

446 L = 2.7 W = 2.5 L = 2.8 Th = 0.3 W = 2.5 Inv. no. SP 73 Th = 0.3 Inv. no. SP 70 Bone Bone Decorative block with three sides of alternating scallops and points and the fourth side cut ver- Decorative block with three sides of alternating tically. File marks as on Cat. no. 443. scallops and points and the fourth side cut vertically. File marks as on Cat. no. 443. 450 Found at 14555.5 X 2185.7 L = 2.6 447 W = 2.4 Th = 0.3 L = 2.7 Inv. no. SP 74 W = 2.5 Bone Th = 0.3 Inv. no. SP 71 Decorative block with three sides of alternating scallops and points and the fourth side cut ver- Bone tically. File marks as on Cat. no. 443. Decorative block with three sides of alternating scallops and points and the fourth side cut vertically. File marks as on Cat. no. 443. Stain on one side, possibly from adhesive. Found at 14555.5 X 2185.7 180 chapter v

451 Block with three stepped and one vertical side. File marks as on Cat. no. 452. Traces of stain on L = 2.6 lower surface, possibly from adhesive. Extensive W = 2.3 surface damage and some chipping of the lower Th = 0.3 edges of the sides. Inv. no. SP 75 Bone 454 Decorative block with three sides of alternating Top scallops and points and the fourth side cut ver- L = 2.1 tically. File marks as on Cat. no. 443. Stains on W = 1.4 top and bottom surfaces, possibly from adhesive. Bottom 452 L = 2.4 W = 1.8 Top Th = 0.4 L = 2.2 Inv. no. SP 60 W = 1.4 Bone Bottom Block with three stepped and one vertical side. L = 2.5 File marks as on Cat. no. 452 on upper surface W = 1.8 and between the two opposite stepped sides on Th = 0.4 the lower surface. One corner missing. Recon- Inv. no. SP 58 structed from two fragments. Bone 455 Block with three stepped and one vertical side. File marks between the vertical side and the opposite Top side on the upper and lower surfaces. Traces of L = 2.1 dark stain on upper surface, possibly from adhe- W = 1.4 sive. Bottom Fig. V.20 L = 2.4 W = 1.8 453 Th = 0.4 Inv. no. SP 61 Top L = 2.1 Bone W = 1.4 Block with three stepped and one vertical side. Bottom File marks as on Cat. no. 452. Upper surface and L = 2.3 upper edges of two sides damaged. W = 1.9 Th = 0.5 Inv. no. SP 59 Bone ivory, bone, and wood architectural elements 181

456 459

Top Top L = 2.0 L = 2.0 W = 1.3 W = 1.4

Bottom Bottom L = 2.1 L = 2.3 W = 1.8 W = 1.8 Th = 0.5 Th = 0.5 Inv. no. SP 62 Inv. no. SP 65 Bone Bone Block with three stepped and one vertical side. Block with three stepped and one vertical side. File marks as on Cat. no. 452. File marks as on Cat. no. 452. Upper surface damaged. 457 460 Top L = 1.9 Top W = 1.4 L = 1.9 W = 1.2 Bottom L = 2.1 Bottom W = 1.8 L = 2.1 Th = 0.4 W = 1.6 Inv. no. SP 63 Th = 0.5 Bone Inv. no. SP 66 Block with three stepped and one vertical side. Bone File marks as on Cat. no. 452. Block with three stepped and one vertical side. File marks as on Cat. no. 452. Lower edge of 458 stepped side adjacent to vertical side damaged.

Top 461 L = 2.0 W = 1.4 L = 1.8 W = 1.2 Bottom Th = 0.7 L = 2.2 Inv. no. SP 84 W = 1.8 Bone Th = 0.45 Inv. no. SP 64 Rectangular block. File marks parallel to the long sides on upper and lower surfaces and long sides. Bone Block with three stepped and one vertical side. File marks as on Cat. no. 452. Stepped side adjacent to vertical side damaged. 182 chapter v 462 467

L = 1.9 L = 1.9 W = 1.2 W = 1.2 Th = 0.8 Th = 0.8 Inv. no. SP 85 Inv. no. SP 90 Bone Bone Rectangular block. File marks as on Cat. no. 461. Rectangular block. File marks as on Cat. no. 461.

463 468

L = 1.6 L = 2.0 W = 1.1 W = 1.2 Th = 0.8 Th = 0.8 Inv. no. SP 86 Inv. no. SP 91 Bone Bone Rectangular block. File marks as on Cat. no. 461. Rectangular block. File marks as on Cat. no. 461. Traces of dark stain on one surface. 464 469 L = 1.8 W = 1.3 L = 2.4 Th = 0.8 W = 2.1 Inv. no. SP 87 Th = 0.4 Inv. no. SP 81 Bone Bone Rectangular block. File marks as on Cat. no. 461. Block with three notched and one vertical side. File 465 marks between the vertical side and the opposite notched side. Dark stain in the shape of a round- L = 2.0 ish blob on one flat surface. W = 1.25 Th = 0.8 Fig. V.21 Inv. no. SP 88 470 Bone L = 2.7 Rectangular block. File marks as on Cat. no. 461. W = 2.3 Traces of dark staining. Th = 0.35 466 Inv. no. SP 76 Bone L = 1.8 W = 1.2 Block with three notched and one vertical side. Th = 0.7 File marks as on Cat. no. 469. Stain on one Inv. no. SP 89 surface. Bone Rectangular block. File marks as on Cat. no. 461. ivory, bone, and wood architectural elements 183

471 475

L = 2.68 L = 2.4 W = 2.26 W = 2.0 Th = 0.3 Th = 0.35 Inv. no. SP 77 Inv. no. SP 82 Bone Bone Block with three notched and one vertical side. Block with three notched and one vertical side. File marks as on Cat. no. 469. File marks as on Cat. no. 469.

472 476

L = 2.65 L = 2.4 W = 2.27 W = 1.9 Th = 0.3 Th = 0.3 Inv. no. SP 78 Inv. no. SP 83 Bone Bone Block with three notched and one vertical side. Block with three notched and one vertical side. File marks as on Cat. no. 469. A shallow groove File marks as on Cat. no. 469. runs parallel to the vertical side on one surface. 477 473 L = 2.9 L = 2.5 W = 2.8 W = 2.2 Th = 0.3 Th = 0.3 Inv. no. SP 56 Inv. no. SP 79 Bone Bone Flat, square block with diagonal file or saw marks Block with three notched and one vertical side. on all of the vertical sides and file marks paral- File marks as on Cat. no. 469. lel or perpendicular to the sides on the upper and lower surfaces. 474 478 L = 2.5 W = 2.2 L = 2.8 Th = 0.3 W = 2.8 Inv. no. SP 80 Th = 0.45 Inv. no. SP 57 Bone Bone Block with three notched and one vertical side. File marks as on Cat. no. 469. Dark stain in the Flat, square block with file marks as on Cat. no. shape of a roundish blob on one surface. 477. One side has the beginning of a stepped cut with a wedge-shaped section. 184 chapter v

F. EROTES ARCADE

The erotes arcade consists of a series of wood arches covered with bone veneer. It is decorated on the top edge with a narrow band of alternating diamonds and billets with a plain margin. There are also fragments of a similar band of roughly the same size with the double billets spaced more widely than on the other diamond borders of the erotes arcade (Cat. nos. 501-503), and of a much smaller band (Cat. nos. 504-505). On the front surface the arcade is decorated with an elaborate figurative design (Fig. V.22 a, b) that consists of pairs of erotes with outstretched arms, joined by garlands of palm or olive branches that they hold alternately by the stem or touch at the tip with their hands.30 A ribbon dangles from the point where the hand either grasps the end or touches the tip of a garland. The erotes are arranged in pairs of alternating poses, either leaning toward each other and looking back and away, or leaning away and looking back and toward each other. The erotes are nude except for a chlamys clasped about the neck. The drapery billows out to frame the body and forms concentric circles of folds that arch behind the shoulders and heads of each eros. There are filler ornaments of three dotted circles arranged in triangles formed by two overlapping circles and a third separate circle. These designs are placed randomly, in one case above a garland, in another under the arm, and in a third instance in front of the feet of an eros. The arcade is drilled for the insertion of irregularly spaced dowels above, along the narrow top surface and below, into the bottoms of the spandrels. The most evenly spaced top dowel holes are ca. 4 cm apart. The arcade shape and the dowels presuppose a system of support for which the capitals, columns, and column bases seem ready candidates. The thickness of the arcade is ca. 1.6 cm, and the diameter of the preserved columns is about 1.9 cm. The abaci of the capitals with dowel holes cut through range from 1.9 to 2.8 cm in width, which would be rather large to fit. Fillers may have been inserted behind the arcade so that the front surface aligned better with the Corinthian elevation. At least seven eros torsos are preserved (and possibly as many as nine), four leaning toward the right, two leaning toward the left, and one of uncertain direction. There is one eros on each spandrel. This seems to fit the evidence of the preserved wood arcade, which shows at least seven arches (and possibly as many as nine). The distance from the center of one spandrel to the center of the next is ca. 9 cm. As there is one eros on each spandrel, the arcade had a minimum length of ca. 63 cm and conceivably a maximum length of ca. 81 cm. From the bottom of the spandrels to the top edge, the height of the arcade appears to be ca. 4.5 cm. The diameter of the arcade openings, measured at their bases, is ca. 6 cm. A fine representation of a comparable composition, although in unrelated style, appears on a silver casket in the Metropolitan Museum of Art decorated with a frieze of facing erotes holding garlands of leaves from the ends of which flutter ribbons; there are rosettes above

30 The general composition of the erotes was worked out by Diether Thimme. ivory, bone, and wood architectural elements 185 and below the center of each garland.31 Another parallel is seen on the lid of a silver casket from the Sevso Treasure that is decorated with two pairs of erotes holding garlands. Above each of the four garlands are heads, two female and two male, one of which is a satyr and one of which is bearded. They are identified as two maenads, a satyr, and Silenus.32 This motif is also seen on a child’s season sarcophagus in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, on which pairs of erotes holding garlands decorate the central spandrels of an arcade.33 A similar composition, although unlike the Kenchreai arcade in surface decoration, capital type, or size, is the openwork ivory plaque in the British Museum with a representation of Bel- lerophon. It is topped by an arcade of eight arches and provides a parallel for the concept of an arcade incorporated into a plaque that decorated a piece of furniture.34

479 low the right arm and above the left forearm are curved vertical incised lines. Below the edge of the W = 16.0 cloak to the proper left of the figure is a cluster of H = 4.1 three dotted circles. The right and left edges of Th = 1.4 the fragment are cut along curves to fit the arcade D (arch) = ca. 5.6 to which the veneer was found attached; the other Inv. no. SP 706, 758 edges are broken. Wood with bone veneer Pl. V.1; Figs. V.22a, V.23, V.26 (follows p. 200) Part of a wood arcade consisting of one complete 480 arch and part of a second arch, partially covered with fragments of decorated bone veneer. On the W = 19.0 top edge is one fragment, 1.2 cm long and 0.9 cm H = 4.0 wide, of a bone veneer band decorated with a com- Th = 1.6 plete diamond from a pattern of alternating dia- D (arch) = 6.0 monds and billets. Also on the top edge are two Inv. no. SP 760 dowel holes. The center of the first hole is ca. 11.5 Wood with bone veneer cm from the left end, and the second hole is ca. 2.8 cm from the right edge of the first hole. The dowel Part of a wood arcade consisting of one complete holes are ca. 1 cm in diameter. In the spandrel is arch and parts of two more at either end. On the an incised eros with body turned to the right and top edge are fragments of bone veneer decorated head turned to the left, arms outstretched in op- with a pattern of alternating diamonds and billets posite directions. A ribbon dangles from the proper with a plain border beneath. There are three dowel right hand and a ribbon plus palm branch from holes visible on the top edge, one at the left end, the proper left. The eros is nude except for a chlamys one 11 cm from the left end, and one at 15 cm hanging vertically along the left side of the body from the left end. Both dowel holes flanking the and billowing out behind to the proper right. Be- right spandrel appear to be drilled completely

31 New York, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Inv. no. 18.145.51; McCann, Roman Sarcophagi 133-7, Cat. no. no. 47.100.33, from Syria, third century; Spätantike und 23. frühes Christentum 569, Cat. no. 170. 34 London, British Museum, Inv. no. 56,6-23,2; Age 32 Mango and Bennett, The Sevso Treasure 459-63, figs. of Spirituality 165, Cat. no. 143; Volbach, Elfenbeinarbeiten 14-16 to 14-24. der Spätantike3 57, Cat. no. 67, Pl. 39. 33 New York, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Inv. 186 chapter v through. Dowels extend from the bottoms of the 483 spandrels. The bone veneer on the top edge is a W = 9.4 maximum of 1.5 cm wide. There are three lengths H = 4.3 of diamond–and–billet border, 6.8 cm, 3.6 cm, and Inv. no. SP 707 + 711 + 725 + 747 0.6 cm long. The band between the first two dowel holes from left has a cutting for the hole at its right Bone edge with which it coincides. The veneer between the second and third holes may not be correctly Fragment of veneer from parts of two adjacent placed, as the circular cutting at the right end does spandrels and area above an arch. At the left is an not coincide with the second dowel hole. The frag- eros facing right with body turned to left. The fig- ment of veneer between the second and third holes ure is nude except for a short chlamys billowing out is cut at its right end to fit around the hole. behind the proper left side and a band around the neck. Behind the proper left shoulder are four par- Pl. V.1 (bone veneer incorrectly placed); Figs. allel curved incised lines. The proper left arm is V.22a, V.24 extended and the hand holds an end of a leafy garland from which dangles a ribbon. There is a 481 triple cluster of dotted circles under this arm. At W = 3.9 right, a second eros of which only the outstretched H = 7.4 proper right arm and part of the cloak is preserved, PTh = 1.45 holds the other end of the garland from which Inv. no. SP 759 dangles a ribbon. Traces of blue pigment are preserved in the folds of this cloak. To the left of the Wood and bone end of the ribbon is a cluster of three small leaves. Part of a wood arcade consisting of a spandrel and The upper edge and the edge along the arch ap- parts of two arches preserved at left and right. Part pear to be intact; the other edges are broken. Re- of a dowel hole is preserved at left edge. To the constructed from four fragments. right, at 2.8 cm, is a second dowel hole, 3.1 cm Pl. V.1 (veneer incorrectly placed on arcade); Figs. from the right edge. Fragment of diamond-and- V.26, V.27 billet border, from left to right, part of diamond cut away for dowel hole, two billets, one diamond, 484 and part of a billet. The diamond border is 2.5 cm long and 1.1 cm wide. The cutting for the dowel W = 2.6 hole in the veneer coincides with the cutting for H = 2.8 the dowel hole in the wood. Inv. no. SP 712 Figs. V.22a, V.25 Bone

482 Fragment of veneer with torso of an eros with raised left arm. The figure is nude except for a band W = 1.1 around the neck and a short chlamys, a small piece H = 7.8 of which is preserved along the figure’s left side. PTh = 0.9 The fragment is broken along the edge of the curl- Inv. no. SP 761 ing ribbon. The upper right edge is broken along Wood the incised edge of the arm; the other edges are broken. Part of a wood arcade, possibly joining Cat. no. 481 at its right side. The piece is shrunken and Figs. V.26, V.28 twisted. A tiny piece of bone veneer adheres to one side, possibly misplaced. ivory, bone, and wood architectural elements 187

485 top left is one of a triangular cluster of dotted circles and the incised edge of another. Recon- W = 1.5 structed from two fragments. H = 2.0 Inv. no. SP 708 Figs. V.26, V.31

Bone 489 Torso of an eros turned to the left. There are traces W = 4.2 of the drapery of the chlamys excised along the sides H = 3.5 of the body. All of the edges are broken. Inv. no. SP 726 Figs. V.26, V.29 Bone 486 The outstretched proper left arm of an eros ex- W = 1.0 tends to the right. Below it is a branch-like object H = 1.7 consisting of a double row of chevrons. The right Inv. no. SP 525 edge of the fragment has a straight margin, ca. 0.6 cm wide, possibly an edge cut to fit under a Bone molding or another piece of veneer. All of the Torso of an eros turned to the right. The right edges except this margin are broken. and lower edges are broken along the contours of the body. The navel is represented by an in- Figs. V.26, V.32 cised dot. 490 487 W = 1.0 W = 1.4 H = 2.0 H = 0.7 Inv. no. SP 704 Inv. no. SP 714 Bone Bone Proper left hand of an eros, with leaves above and Pectoral portion of the torso of an eros. There is a below it. All of the edges are broken. small bit of drapery visible at right. The left edge Fig. V.33 is broken along the incised line indicating the waist; all of the other edges are broken. 491 Figs. V.26, V.30 Hand 488 W = 0.52 H = 0.84 Arm W = 3.8 W = 0.44 H = 1.43 H = 1.8 Garland Inv. no. SP 709 W = 1.8 H = 0.85 Inv. no. SP 705 (2 fragments) Bone Bone At right is the proper right raised arm of an eros. A small bit of curved vertical lines are visible un- Two eros hands included in a group of 22 small der the arm. Below dangles a curling ribbon, and undecorated fragments. to its left part of a palm(?) garland is visible. At the 188 chapter v 492 496

W = 1.3 W = 2.4 H = 2.3 H = 2.2 Inv. no. SP 713a Inv. no. SP 717 Bone Bone Legs of an eros. Below the knee, at right, is ex- End of a tapered, curling ribbon similar to Cat. cised a fold of drapery. All edges are broken. no. 483. At left, the edges are broken along incised lines, possibly drapery folds. The top edge is bro- Figs. V.26, V.34 ken along an incised line, possibly of an arm. 493 Curved edge at right cut along the edge of an arcade opening. W = 0.9 Figs. V.26, V.38 H = 1.6 Inv. no. SP 713b 497 Bone W = 1.8 Legs of an eros. All edges are broken. H = 0.4 Inv. no. SP 720e Fig. V.35 Bone 494 End of a tapered curling ribbon. The right edge is W = 1.9 broken along an incised line, all other edges are H = 1.7 broken. Inv. no. SP 710 Figs. V.26, V.39 Bone Both feet of an eros, placed side by side, on tiptoe 498 shown in profile, turned to left. Beneath is an in- W = 3.2 cised line. Except at the top, all edges are broken H = 1.5 along incised lines. Inv. no. SP 720d Figs. V.26, V.36 Bone 495 There are two vertical incised lines at the edge, W = 1.8 the tip of a dangling tapered curling ribbon, a tri- H = 1.7 angular cluster of three dotted circles, and a Inv. no. SP 699 small fragment of a palm(?) garland. All edges except the left are broken. Bone Two folds of drapery excised along proper right Figs. V.26, V.40 side of a chlamys. To the left is a cluster of three leaves. All edges are broken. Reconstructed from two fragments. Figs. V.26, V.37 ivory, bone, and wood architectural elements 189

499 spaced more widely than on the other diamond borders of the erotes arcade. All edges are broken. W = 2.5 H = 1.4 Fig. V.43 Inv. no. SP 716 503 Bone W = 4.7 Fragment of a palm(?) garland. All edges are bro- H = 0.9 ken. Inv. no. SP 560 Figs. V.26, V.41 Bone 500 Veneer band consisting of lower edge of a diamond between pairs of billets. At the bottom is W = 2.1 part of a plain border. The billets are spaced more H = 4.5 widely than on the other borders from the erotes Inv. no. SP 562 arcade. The lower edge is broken along an incised Eros facing right. The face is broken away, leav- line. ing only the outer end of the proper right eye- Fig. V.44 brow and corner of the eye. The excised hair is combed forward over the forehead and around 504 the proper right ear. Behind the figure is a fragment of excised drapery. The body appears to W = 7.6 be leaning forward with the proper right arm H = 1.0 extended. The edge at lower left is broken along Inv. no. SP 619 the incised edge of the thigh; all other edges are Bone broken. Reconstructed from two fragments. Veneer band of four diamonds, each separated by Fig. V.42 a double billet. The fifth diamond at the left end is broken off. The right end is cut to fit around a 501 dowel. Traces of blue pigment around the diamond at the right end and around the cutting. The design W = 1.4 is similar to Cat. nos. 501-503, but much smaller. H = 0.9 Inv. no. SP 620 Fig. V.45

Bone 505 Fragment of diamond-and-billet band with one W = 4.4 diamond and a pair of billets. H = 1.0 502 Inv. no. SP 621

W = 2.6 Bone H = 0.7 Veneer band of four diamonds between pairs of Inv. no. SP 559 billets. There are plain borders on the upper and Bone lower edges. The design is similar to Cat. nos. 501- 503, but much smaller. Fragment of diamond-and-billet band with one diamond separating pairs of billets. The billets are Fig. V.46 190 chapter v

G. ARCHITECTURAL MOLDINGS

Ten small fragments of a complex ivory molding are preserved, consisting of, from the top, a torus, scotia, torus, and broad fillet below. The size of each complete segment of molding was probably 3.2 cm wide, 2.6 cm high, and 0.3-0.4 cm thick. As the molding has about the same width as the column bases (Cat. nos. 402-425), it may have served as pilaster bases below them.

506 509

W = 1.45 W = 3.2 H = 2.62 H = 1.8 Th = 0.35 Th = 0.4 Inv. no. SP 230 Inv. no. SP 229 Ivory Ivory Fragment of architectural molding, possibly cut Fragment of architectural molding. Most of fillet along a 45o angle on the front and back of the at bottom and lower torus preserved. The right sides to fit against another piece (or one or both side is cut; the top, bottom, and left side are bro- may be cleanly broken). The top and bottom ken. Similar to Cat. no. 506. surfaces are cut, preserving the full height. 510 Fig. V.47 W = 2.5 507 H = 0.62 Th = 0.29 W = 3.3 Inv. no. SP 231 H = 2.0 Ivory Th = 0.24 Inv. no. SP 227 Small fragment of architectural molding in shape of a block. The front surface is cut back along a Ivory bevel along one long edge; the opposite edge is Fragment of architectural molding. Both sides are cut. Both sides are probably cut. cut, preserving the full width. The top is irregularly broken. Similar to Cat. no. 506. 511

508 W = 2.58 H = 0.66 W = 3.2 Th = 0.28 H = 1.2 Inv. no. SP 232 Th = 0.3 Ivory Inv. no. SP 228 Small fragment of architectural molding in shape Ivory of a block. The top, bottom, and both sides ap- Fragment of architectural molding. Top and left pear to be cut, but may be cleanly broken. Similar side are cut; right side and top edge are broken. to bottom of Cat. no. 514. Similar to Cat. no. 506. ivory, bone, and wood architectural elements 191

512 514

W = 2.38 W = 1.08 H = 0.60 H = 1.26 Th = 0.16 Th = 0.24 Inv. no. SP 233 Inv. no. SP 235a Ivory Ivory Small fragment, possibly of architectural molding Fragment of architectural molding. Bottom and similar to Cat. nos. 510 and 511. Sides possibly sides cut, top broken. Right side cut back along an cut, top and bottom broken, back broken off. angle to fit against an adjacent segment.

513 515

W = 2.44 W = 2.52 H = 0.55 H = 0.61 Th = 0.35 Inv. no. SP 235b Inv. no. SP 234 Ivory Ivory Irregular fragment of architectural molding. All Small fragment of architectural molding in shape edges are broken. of a block, probably similar to Cat. nos. 510 and 511. Sides cut; top and bottom broken. Recon- structed from two fragments.

H. MISCELLANEOUS ARCHITECTURAL FRAGMENTS

Among the architectural elements preserved is a single fragment that appears to be part of a Corinthian pilaster capital. A parallel is an unpublished(?) example at the Coptic Muse- um, Cairo.35

516 Perhaps part of a Corinthian pilaster capital, this fragment is carved with acanthus leaves. The bot- PH = 2.2 tom has a torus molding. It is reconstructed from PW at base = 1.85 two fragments. Inv. no. SP 226 Found at 14555.5 X 2185.7 Ivory Fig. V.48

35 No inventory number recorded when seen and photographed by Danae Thimme. 192 chapter v 517 518

W = 2.53 W = 2.2 H = 0.64 H = 1.0 Th = 0.28 Th = 0.29 Inv. no. SP 382 Inv. no. SP 383 Bone Bone Flat strip, possibly a fragment of architectural Very worn, small, triangular fragment of convex molding. Sides cut, top and bottom broken. Can- architectural molding. Scored on the back with cellous structures on back. shallow parallel lines meeting at right angles. Bro- ken on all edges. ivory, bone, and wood architectural elements 193

Fig. V.1. Cat. nos. 351-357, in order clockwise from bottom left 194 chapter v

Fig. V.2. Cat. no. 358 Fig. V.3. Cat. no. 363

Fig. V.4. Cat. no. 368 Fig. V.5. Cat. no. 371 Fig. V.6. Cat. no. 373

Fig. V.7. Cat. no. 379

Fig. V.8. Cat. no. 386 ivory, bone, and wood architectural elements 195

Fig. V.9. Cat. no. 402

Fig. V.10. Cat. no. 404

Fig. V.11. Cat. no. 407 Fig. V.12. Cat. no. 410

Fig. V.16. Cat. no. 426

Fig. V.13. Cat. no. 416 Fig. V.14. Cat. no. 417

Fig. V.15. Cat. no. 421

Fig. V.17. Cat. no. 428 196 chapter v

Fig. V.18. Cat. no. 431 Fig. V.19. Cat. no. 443

Fig. V.21. Cat. no. 469 Fig. V.20. Cat. no. 452 ivory, bone, and wood architectural elements 197 ) (1:2) Fig. V.22a. Erotes Arcade, preserved fragments on reconstructed Corinthian order; Cat. nos. 479 (left), 480 (center), 481 (right 198 chapter v Fig. V.22b. Erotes Arcade, proposed reconstruction (1:2) ivory, bone, and wood architectural elements 199

Fig. V.23. Cat. no. 479 200 chapter v

Fig. V.25. Cat. no. 481

Fig. V.24. Cat. no. 480 ivory, bone, and wood architectural elements 201

Fig. V.27. Cat. no. 483

Fig. V.29. Cat. no. 485

Fig. V.28. Cat. no. 484

Fig. V.30. Cat. no. 487

Fig. V.31. Cat. no. 488

Fig. V.32. Cat. no. 489 Fig. V.33. Cat. no. 490 Fig. V.34. Cat. no. 492 202 chapter v

Fig. V.35. Cat. no. 493 Fig. V.36. Cat. no. 494 Fig. V.37. Cat. no. 495

Fig. V.38. Cat. no. 496 Fig. V.39. Cat. no. 497 Fig. V.40. Cat. no. 498

Fig. V.41. Cat. no. 499 Fig. V.42. Cat. no. 500 Fig. V.43. Cat. no. 502 ivory, bone, and wood architectural elements 203

Fig. V.44. Cat. no. 503 Fig. V.45. Cat. no. 504

Fig. V.46. Cat. no. 505

Fig. V.47. Cat. no. 506

Fig. V.48. Cat. no. 516 204 chapter v wood furniture and related veneers 205

CHAPTER VI

CATALOGUE AND ANALYSIS OF WOOD FURNITURE AND RELATED VENEERS

In addition to the plaques, miniature architectural elements, and veneers catalogued in previous chapters, parts of the wood furniture that they probably decorated were also recovered from the apsidal room, some with veneer still in place. The furniture parts include legs (Cat. nos. 519-539), stretchers that connected the legs (Cat. nos. 540-578), and arms (Cat. nos. 579-612) of crossed-leg chairs; four cabriole legs in two similar sizes and designs (Cat. nos. 646-661); and moldings, boards, panels, and blocks. Throughout antiquity, ivory and bone plaques, veneers, and sculptured attachments were used to decorate wood furniture: elaborate chairs and beds; small caskets for jewelry or cosmetics; and chests and armaria to hold, among other things, book rolls, codices, instruments, and cult and religious objects such as imagines, lares, and torahs.1 The ivory and/or bone surfaces of such furniture were often enriched by gilding, staining, and inlays of colored wax. As relatively few examples have survived in anywhere near complete form, the evidence for such furniture comes predominantly from literary references, from isolated decorative elements, and from representations on other objects.2 For the third through fifth centuries, illustrations of furniture on silver plate, sarcophagi, and funerary reliefs and in mosaics, ivory reliefs, and manuscript

1 St. Clair, Carving as Craft 15-37 provides a com- Cirta, Numidia, on 19 May 303: government officials prehensive overview and numerous references. For book- searched out texts to confiscate (and burn), but posteaquam cases in private and public libraries and terminology, see in bibliothecis, inventa sunt ibi armaraia inania {afterwards [we Mols, Houten Meubels in Herculaneum 64-5. See Norman, searched] in the libraries [presumably the collection(s) Book Trade 125 and n. 17 re terminology, for example, of a Christian congregation], the armaria found there Libanius and others specifically refer to the use of a were empty}; Migne, PL 43 (1841): cols. 793-800, at col. êéâþôéov, the Greek term for armarium, for books. Paul 794; for translation of the Gesta in part, see A New Eusebius Harvey kindly provided the following comments on ter- 287-9; Frend, Rise of Christianity 458-60. minology: both LSJ 950 and the LSJ Rev. Suppl. 177 These caskets and chests served numerous other func- contrast kibotos and kibotion with kiste, a container for tions. A coffer (cista) of unknown size is carried in a pro- scrolls; kibotos and kibotion are the Septuagint’s terms for cession mentioned by Apuleius, Met. XI, 11: “Another Noah’s ark and the ark of the covenant; Vitruvius, De carried after the secrets of their glorious religion, closed arch.VII, praef. 7, uses the term armarium for bookcase in in a coffer.” From a more implausible rite, see Pseudo- an anecdote about Aristophanes of Byzantium, librar- Lucian, The Ass, 12: “Then she opened a large box ian at the Mouseion in Alexandria ca. 194 B.C., “...certis (êéâþôéov) containing a great number of caskets (ðõîßäáò), armariis infinita volumina eduxit...” ; in his Commentary on one of which she picked up and took out. What it had Matthew, 23.5-7, written in the spring of 398, Jerome in it I don’t know, though from its appearance I thought notes that “their [the Jews’] armaria and arcae hold books, it was olive oil.” yet they have no knowledge of God;” and the Gesta apud 2 DarSag 11, 1877, 432ff.; arca, DNP I col. 976; arma- Zenophilum consularem, a North African martyrological rium, DNP II col. 9-10; scrinium DNP XI col. 306-8; document of 320, contains within in it a report of an Budde, Armarium 3-6; Dinkler-von Schubert, Arca und inquiry from the Diocletianic persecution occurring at Scrinium 153-7. 206 chapter vi illuminations are important sources for the form and decoration of objects mentioned in the literature.3 Furniture types were fairly consistent throughout the Roman empire.4 There were single stools without backs—with four straight legs or with folding legs—and longer benches (bisellia). The throne-like solium, in a simple version or with elaborately turned legs, arm rails, and sometimes a high, openwork back, was frequently represented, as was a late Roman variant with solid sides and a low, curved back. There are many representations of a comfortable basketry chair with a curved back (cathedra) that was considered to be a woman’s chair.5 Although chair seats were not always high enough to require them, footstools were commonly used. Beds (lecti) included a broad couch for dining that accommodated three or more, and in the late Roman period, a large framework was used to support a curved pillow, or stibadium, for dining.6 Many lecti had elaborately decorated, curved headboards and footboards (fulcra). With the addition of a back, such couches could approach the form of the modern settee, or—if padded—even an upholstered sofa. This last type is represented on the interior of a sarcophagus from Simpelveld,7 and on a biographical sarcophagus in the Louvre.8 In most cases the legs of lecti are round and decorated with projecting bell- and disk-shaped ornaments; however, a sculptured example from a second-century tomb in Cologne has rectangular legs and an openwork back, but this type was apparently rare.9 Furniture was frequently decorated with dolphins on arms, legs, fulcra, and the edges of sideboards.10 The sella curulis, an elaborate crossed-leg, folding stool, was the official seat and symbol of authority for magistrates at every level from aedile to consul.11 Sellae curules are represented on reliefs, silverware, and in manuscripts as seats of honor for other persons with elevated

3 For all categories, Richter, Furniture passim; for cas- Ikonographie der Sarkophage 146, Pl. 66(1); and see discus- kets, e.g., a scene depicting a secretarius with a medium- sion of sculptures of seated figures and the chairs de- sized casket used as a scrinium appears on a funerary relief picted from Dion below, n. 35. in Schloss Schwarzau near Neukirchen, Austria; Dinkler- 6 Dunbabin, Triclinium and Stibadium 128-32. von Schubert, Arca und Scrinium Pl. 12d, and on various 7 Leiden, Rijksmuseum van Oudheden, Inv. no. 1 sarcophagi, including a seasons sarcophagus in Tunis, 1930/12.1; Holwerda, J.H. “Der römische Sarkophag Bardo Museum, Inv. No. 1358, Dinkler-von Schubert, von Simpelveld,” AA (1933) 56-75; see Richter, Furni- Arca und Scrinium 155-7, Pl. 13a and additional examples ture 101, n. 28, fig. 554; Mols, Houten Meubels in Hercu- ff. See below and in Chapter VII for additional examples. laneum fig. 10. 4 Richter, Furniture 97; H. Schmitz, The Encyclopedia 8 Paris, Louvre, Inv. no. MA 319, a child’s biographi- of Furniture (New York, 1926) 6-7; Baker, Furniture in the cal sarcophagus of the second century A.D; L. Berczelly, Ancient World passim; Ransom, Couches and Beds passim. “A sepulchral monument from Via Portuense and the 5 Sidonius, Epist. II ix “To Donidius” uses the term origin of the Roman biographical cycle,” ActaAArtHist, cathedra for a chair used by women for reading, and Institutum Romanum Norvegiae 8 (1978) 49-74; subsellia for a bench used by men while reading; how- Kampen, Image and Status 147 for description and bibli- ever in Epist. II, ii “To Domitius” he calls a comfort- ography, fig. 3. able deep chair made of basketry a sede. For examples 9 Richter, Furniture 110 n. 39, fig. 557. of cathedrae, see Richter, Furniture 102; Wiktor A. 10 See below n. 43. Daszewski, “Basket Armchairs in the Western Provinces 11 DNP XI col. 371-2; Schäfer, Paradigma 427-434; of the Roman Empire,” in Mélanges Offerts à Kazimierz Schäfer, Imperii insignia 19; Wanscher, Sella Curulis 121- Michalowski 347-54. Men also are shown seated in 90; Richter, Furniture 103-4; e.g., coin with seated cathedrae; e.g., on a sarcophagus in the Museo Archeo- Octavius, Babelon, Monnaies de la République romaine ii, 65, logico Regionale, Agrigento, a man and a woman, both No. 155. seated in cathedrae, flank a deceased child, Amedick, Zur wood furniture and related veneers 207 status as well, including philosophers.12 From the Etruscan to the late Roman period, ivory was the material most commonly used for all, or at least part, of sellae curules, although bronze was common and even gold was used in special cases.13 The workers in ivory and citrus wood who made such luxury furnishings formed a craftsman’s guild in Rome14 and, according to the Theodosian Code (13, 4), their importance as the producers of official regalia was recognized by exemption from taxes and assessments.15 The official sella curulis included heavy rectangular rails, attached to the tops of the legs, that ran from side to side, one at the front and one at the back. Removable boards, cut to fit over notches in these rails, ran from front to back. A leather seat was attached to the rails, and a heavy cushion provided a comfortable seat above the rectangular framework formed by the rails and boards.16 The seat rails extended out to each side beyond the point where the legs were attached to them. The rails, including these “wings,” were often elaborately decorated. While normal sellae curules had one X-shaped set of legs at each side, there were variations, one of which had multiple sets of legs.17 At their crossing, the legs were joined by a pin, so that the entire stool could fold like a pair of scissors. Simpler crossed-leg stools and chairs were in general use. Light metal folding stools served as sellae castrensis, but also appear in non-military contexts that do not represent people of elevated status; for example, in a representation of dice players on a mosaic from El Djem.18 Even the traditional sella curulis is frequently represented in non-official use, especially on sarcophagi; for example, on a relief of the first decade of the fourth century, two female musicians on a season sarcophagus in the Vatican are seated on a sella curulis and a cathedra, respectively.19 Variants of the sella curulis with an added back were apparently common from the second century on.20 Even with a back, if the joints were not fixed, the legs could be folded for

12 A philosopher is seated on a backless curule chair 15 Schäfer, Imperii Insignia 50 n. 28. on a third-century sarcophagus at Santa Maria Antiqua, 16 There is a sketch of the arrangement of rails, Rome; Grabar, Early Christian Art fig. 131. The Virgin leather seat, and boards in Mathews, The Clash of Gods is seated on a backless curule chair on the third- or 104. fourth-century sarcophagus of Flavius Julius Catervius, 17 Wanscher, Sella Curulis 164 lists the multi-legged Cathedral, Tolentino, loc. cit., fig. 141. The two Apostles type as one of the four variants of the sella curulis. This flanking the seated Christ on the ivory pyxis in Berlin, type of chair appears on the Asturius diptych, Darmstadt, previously Staatliche Museen Preussischer Kulturbesitz, Hessisches Landesmuseum, Volbach, Elfenbeinarbeiten der Frühchristlich-Byzantinische Sammlung, Dahlem, Inv. Spätantike3 30-1, Nr. 3, Pl. 2. For other representations no. 563, are seated on backless curule chairs, although of multi-legged sellae curules, a coin in the Hunterian Christ is seated on a rectangular throne; Volbach, Museum, Glasgow; Richter, Furniture 103 n. 10, fig. 526; Elfenbeinarbeiten der Spätantike3 104, Nr. 161, Pl. 82; Age Aes from Cyrenaica, Wanscher Sella Curulis 131; relief in of Spirituality 597, fig. 86; Das Museum für spätantike und Avignon, Musée Calvet, Richter, Furniture 103 n. 11 and byzantinische Kunst 132-4, Cat. no. 48. See also n. 14 Wanscher, Sella Curulis 163. below. 18 Tunis, Bardo Museum; from the Maison de la 13 Cutler, Prolegomena 437; Schäfer, Imperii Insignia 48- Procession dionysiaque, mid to late third century; 50; e.g., Caesar’s sella aurea and other special cases, pp. Dunbabin, Mosaics of Roman North Africa 125, 170, 260- 114-22, 132. See also Wanscher, Sella Curulis 132 and 1, Pl. 118. 320 n. 25 for ancient literary references to this famous 19 Vatican, Museo Pio Christiano, Inv. no. 128; for sella. bibliography and illustration, see Kranz, Jahreszeiten- 14 Barnett, Ancient Ivories in the Middle East 70-2; Sarkophage 216-7, Cat. No. 127, Pl. 53(4). Schäfer, Imperii Insignia 49, n. 26. 20 For representations of an armless sella curulis with 208 chapter vi mobility or storage. The top edge of the back is curved upward on some examples and is straight on others.21 In the latter type, the back is rectangular with straight supports on the sides and a top rail that crosses or is connected with a joint at the upper corners. An armless version with a low back was represented in the fifth century in the panel representing Jesus before Caiaphas on the wood doors of Sta. Sabina in Rome, perhaps with the intent to show a by-then antique model.22 Two other types of crossed-leg chairs are also represented on the doors of Sta. Sabina on the panel of the Miracle of the Manna: a straight-legged type that resembles a sella castrensis but of wood, not of metal, and another type that appears to consist of sides cut out of a large wood board with the two sides held together by a stretcher attached with a large boss at each end.23 This and other crossed-leg chairs were not intended to be folded, because they had fixed arms, because the seat was rigid, or both. These are quite different from the official sella curulis, and it is more accurate to designate such seats as “crossed-leg chairs”. One design that is shown as a chair for a sophist consists of a crossed- leg stool with a flat seat from which a curved-top back rises. A representation of this type of chair, with heavy curved side rails supporting the back and either a very heavy seat or a seat covered with a cloth that drapes over the sides, is seen on a Severan sarcophagus from Aphrodisias.24 On this chair, the outer sides of the top edge of the back are flat and the center of the back is arched. This arched panel appears to have a frame of some sort. If the illustration accurately depicts a type of chair, tenons protruding from the rails and the base of the back must have been held in mortices cut into the seat. A crossed-leg chair with a high back and curved seat, probably of leather, is represented in profile on a sixth- century Coptic painted wood panel representing King David as a musician.25 By the second century, arms—either straight or curved—were sometimes added to crossed- leg chairs with backs.26 A chair of this type, with solid, curved arms that run down from the

a flat back see, for example, the sculpture of a seated moldings at the top corners of the back, there are no philosopher (Christ?), Rome, Museo Nazionale Romano, arms; Mango and Bennett, The Sevso Treasure 444, fig. Inv. no. 61565; a philosopher seated on a crossed-leg 14-1. chair on a third-century sarcophagus in the cortile of the 21 A contorniate of 395-410 bears an image of Palazzo Sanseverino, Rome; Grabar, Early Christian Art Pythagoras seated on a crossed-leg chair with a back, fig. 128. Projecta on the Projecta casket, dated by the top of which curves upward; Alföldi, Kontorniaten 76- Shelton ca. 330-370, is seated on an armless crossed-leg 7, 184, No. 508, Pl. LIII, 6; Spätantike und frühes Christentum chair with a similar flat back; Shelton, The Esquiline 183, fig. 67. Treasure 69, Cat. no. 1, Pl. 8 (above), Pl. 11 (left). The 22 Jeremias, Die Holztür der Basilika S. Sabina Pl. 48; lower register on the lid of the Brescia Casket, the so- Wiegand, Altchristlichen Hauptportal a.d. Kirche d. hl. Sabina called Lipsanothek, Brescia, Museo Civico, has—at the Pl. X, no. 7; Gerstinger, Die Wiener Genesis Pl. XXIII, fig. lower left—figures of Caiaphas and Hannas seated on 127; Age of Spirituality 488. crossed-leg chairs with simple curved backs, undecorated, 23 Jeremias, Die Holztür der Basilika S. Sabina Pl. 32, with no arms. The interiors of the backs are visible and and also see Pls. 31, 40, and 41. are decorated with a simple scalloped decoration around 24 Aphrodisias, excavation magazines, from south the sides and top; Tkacz, The Key to the Brescia Casket 29, necropolis, 1971; M.J. Mellink, “Archaeology in Asia fig. 3; Volbach, Elfenbeinarbeiten der Spätantike3 107; Minor,” AJA 76 (1972) 185, Pl. 42, fig. 37; for subse- Spätantike und frühes Christentum 364, fig. 162, dated here quent bibliography and illustration, see Kranz, ca. 370. A silver casket in the Sevso Treasure shows a Jahreszeiten-Sarkophage Cat. No. 592, Pl. 128(9). woman seated on a sella curulis with a high straight back 25 Moscow, National Museum of Fine Arts, Pushkin that extends to the nape. The sides and top are finished Museum, Inv. no. Ia 1977; L’art copte en Égypte 223, Cat. with a rounded molding, and cross at the top corners. no. 278. Finials decorate the vertical and horizontal ends of these 26 These crossed-leg chairs with arms and back are wood furniture and related veneers 209 sides of the back to the seat, is represented at right on a biographical sarcophagus of late Antonine date now in the Louvre.27 The nursing mother is shown at left seated in a cathedra. A third-century funerary relief from Palmyra, now in Boston, depicts a male figure seated on a cross-legged chair with arms and what appears to be a curved, leather sling seat.28 All of the joins are shown held together with protruding circular pegs, possibly indicating that the chair could be folded. Even if the seat were of leather, the addition of arms running between the back and the front sides of the legs without pivoting joins made folding impossible and the crossing of the legs was permanently fixed. An early fourth-century sarcophagus relief from Ostia represents this type of chair.29 A similar version, with plain straight arms attached to the front legs, appears in the scene of Jacob’s farewell to Joseph in the Vienna Genesis.30 Jacob’s chair has a high back with a curved top. Below its edge molding, the top of the back of the chair is decorated with a semicircular inlaid panel with a design of rays, important evidence for the surface enrichment of some such chairs. The same type of straight armed chair is also illustrated in the Rabbula Gospels.31 A more decorative version with curved, open arms also existed, such as a chair, with rounded back and plain, open curved arm rails illustrated in the Codex Vindobonensis, a manuscript of Dioscurides’ De materia medica, in an illustration of the personification of discovery, Heuresis, shown with Dioscurides.32 The back and seat are straight and meet at a sharp right angle. The arms curve down from the outer edge of the back to the front of the flat seat. A similar example appears in the Codex Chisianus in a scene showing Galen and a group of followers.33 A flamboyant example, shown being used by Augustine as a reading chair, is represented on a Roman wall painting from the library built for Pope Hilarius in the 460s under the Sancta

distant, indirect descendants of a high-backed folding Gerstinger, Die Wiener Genesis fol. 15, P. 30 and fol. 20. chair that existed in Egypt in the late Bronze Age, a 31 Florence, Biblioteca Laurenziana, cod. Plut. I, 56; famous example of which was found in the tomb of produced in 586 in Mesopotamia, folio 9 v. shows St. Tutankhamon; Cairo, Egyptian Museum, Inv. no. T.T. John sitting on a high-backed crossed-leg chair with 351; Desroches-Noblecourt, Tutankhamen Pl. XII; plain, straight arms that are attached to the top of the Wanscher, Sella Curulis 48-64. front leg. The top of the back is curved and finials, or 27 Paris, Musée du Louvre, Inv. no. MA 659, sar- some type of curved decoration, protrude from the upper cophagus of M. Cornelius Statius; Baratte and Metzger, corners. The back is straight and seems to meet the flat Catalogue des sarcophages 29-31, Cat. no. 3; Amedick, Zur seat at a right angle. The legs on the visible side (the Ikonographie der Sarkophage 144, Pl. 63. proper right side of the chair) cross from left to right as 28 Boston, Museum of Fine Arts, Inv. no. 1970.346; they rise; Maguire et al., Art and Holy Powers 36, Colorpl. Comstock and Vermeule, Sculpture in Stone 259; Antioch, II; also Weitzmann, Late Antique and Early Christian Book The Lost Ancient City 160-1, Cat. no. 45. Illumination 29, X, fig. 34. 29 New York, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Inv. 32 Vienna, Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Cod. no. 48.76.1, formerly Brummer Collection; marble sar- Vind. med. gr. 1, fol. 4; dated to shortly before 512; cophagus found near Ostia showing a chair with solid Gerstinger, Codex Vindobonensis; Age of Spirituality 205-6, curved arms that come down to the side of the seat from Cat. no. 179; C. Capizzi, “Anicia Giuliana (462 ca-530 front to back and a straight back reaching to the nape ca) Ricerche sulla sua famiglia e la sua vita,” Rivista di of a seated physician; McCann, Roman Sarcophagi 138- Studi Bizantie Neoellenici N.S. 5 (XV) (1968) 191-226. 40, Cat. no. 24, figs. 174, 175; Richter, Furniture 116, 33 Vatican Library, Cod. Chisianus Graec. 53, fol. n. 6, figs. 587-8; Kampen, Image and Status 72, 88, fig. 3v; C. Thulin, Corpus Agrimensorum Romanorum I (1923) 66. 157, figs. 113ff; Gerstinger, Codex Vindobonensis 57, n. 55, 30 Vienna, Nationalbibliothek, cod. theol. grec. 31; fig. 32. 210 chapter vi

Sanctorum in the Lateran Basilica.34 The top of the back has a wave-like curve with curved arms attached at its upper corners. The lower ends of the arms are supported by a rectangular block, but the awkward perspective does not accurately depict the relationship of this element to the lower legs. From these examples, it appears that crossed-leg chairs with back and arms generally were reserved for notables, perhaps particularly sophists. Scholars who held imperial appointments to one of the four chairs of rhetoric had special chairs from which they taught and presented orations. At least during the fourth century, the appointment, and possibly the actual physical chair used by the appointee, was called in Greek or Latin, respectively, a thronos or a cathedra.35 In the fourth century, a particularly handsome version of the crossed-leg chair was designed with arms in the form of dolphins. The arms extend from the sides of the back to the front legs. This design may have been created for the fastigium dedicated by Constantine in the Lateran Basilica in Rome. Dolphins would have been considered particularly appropriate in representations of Apostles and Saints because of its association with salvation by rescuing drowning victims, long a theme of mythology and legend. The fastigium consisted of an ensemble of sculptures apparently including an image of Christ seated on a sella flanked by the Apostles.36 The Concordius sarcophagus in Arles (Pl. VI.1a, b), thought possibly to derive from the Lateran fastigium, shows Christ on a curved-back chair flanked by Apostles seated on crossed-leg chairs with dolphin arms, suggesting that the sellae of the Lateran dedication also had this design.37 Thus, the date of the dedication of the first Lateran fastigium, ca. 318-325, may constitute a date post quem for dolphin-armed crossed-leg chairs. The Carrand diptych, an early fifth-century ivory relief in the Museo del Bargello, Florence, with scenes from the life of St. Paul, shows him seated on a crossed-leg chair with dolphin arms, a high back, and paddle-shaped stretchers (Pl. VI.2a, b).38 An even more elaborate

34 Blanck, Das Buch in der Antike 166-7, fig. 85. 36 The dedication is known from a reference in the 35 For example, Libanius, Epist. 103, “To Belaeus,” Liber Pontificalis under the Life of the Pope Sylvester (314- 4 and Orat. V, 48. Philostratos (Vit. soph. I, 23, “Lollianus 335). The first Lateran fastigium was carried off by Alaric of Ephesus”) and Eunapius (“Sopolis” and “Parnasius”) and replaced by Valentinian III with another, weigh- use the term thronos for the municipal and imperial chairs ing—like the first—2,000 pounds. M.T. Smith, “The in rhetoric held by scholars, but it is unclear from these Lateran Fastigium, A Gift of Constantine the Great,” sources if the term extended from the office to the ac- RACrist 46 (1970) 149-65; M.M. Mango, “The Monetary tual seat. Ausonius, Epigrams XIII, describes a rhetori- Value of Silver Revetments and Objects Belonging to cian, Rufus, as sitting in a cathedra, and uses the same Churches, A.D. 300-700,” in Ecclesiastical Silver Plate 123- term to refer to a professorial chair in “Commemoratio 36, fig. 4; Spätantike und frühes Christentum 329-330; DACL Professorum Burdigalensium” V, I, 8; X 21 and 29; III fig. 2917; S. de Blaauw, “Das Fastigium der XXII, 17. In the fifth century, Sidonius uses the term Lateranbasilika: Schöpferische Innovation, Unikat oder cathedra for both a professorial appointment and eccle- Paradigma?” in Innovation in der Spätantike 53-65. siastical position in, “To Perpetuus,” Epist. Book VII, ix. 37 Arles, Musée d’art chrétien, Inv. no. 5; Klauser, The four sculptures of seated philosophers excavated at Frühchristliche Sarkophage 70, pl. 18, 1; Spätantike und frühes the villa with a mosaic of Dionysus in the east of the town Christentum 330, fig. 148. of Dion, show the figures seated in cathedrae; D. 38 Florence, Museo Nazionale del Bargello, Inv. no. Pandermalis, “Ôo ÷ñovéêü ôùv áváóêáöþv,” Áñ÷áéoëo- CAR 326; Volbach, Elfenbeinarbeiten der Spätantike3 78, Nr. ãéá 33 (December, 1989) 8; Mathews, The Clash of Gods 108, Pl. 58; Spätantike und frühes Christentum 344, fig. 158; 110, fig. 84; J. Arce, “Nuevas reflexiones sobre la icono- Age of Spirituality 505-7, Cat. no. 454, dates the diptych grafía de la cúpula de Centcelles,” in Centcelles, El to about 400; Shelton dates it to the 420’s in K.J. monumento tardorromano 13, fig. 2. See also Marrou, Edu- Shelton, “The Diptych of the Young Office Holder,” cation in Antiquity 145, 267. JAC 25 (1982) 170. For additional bibliography, see K.J. wood furniture and related veneers 211

Fig. VI.1. Hypothetical reconstruction of ivory-veneered crossed-leg chair with dolphin arms (1:5) 212 chapter vi example of a crossed-leg chair with dolphin arms appears on an ivory plaque in the Victoria and Albert Museum, probably from Syria, dated to the eleventh century by Volbach, that shows St. Peter dictating the gospels to St. Mark (Pl. VI.3).39 The back of St. Peter’s chair rises higher than his head, and its top has a semicircular panel with flat-topped sections that extend to the tall side rails. The heads of the dolphins end at the top front of the seat, and a zigzag strut runs down from these corners to the curved leg. St. Mark sits on a simpler, crossed-leg chair with no arms. The seat of the backless, official sella curulis was normally of leather. Some representations seem to indicate that the seat was supported by the front-to-back boards fitted into the side-to-side rails.40 But representations of some crossed-leg chairs show the seat curving directly into the back, suggesting one continuous sling of leather. This chair type is known both with and without arms and is sometimes shown with dolphin arms, for example, on the ivory relief in the Museo del Bargello mentioned above (Pl. VI.2b) and on an ivory relief in Dijon with a scene of Christ and the twelve Apostles (Pl.VI.4).41 In some cases, it appears that the leather sling was supported by rungs that ran horizontally between the legs at the top of the back and across the front of the seat, as on a modern, folding beach chair. When the top of the back is curved, it may represent a separate panel of wood that was held in the tops of the legs with tenons, just above the horizontal bar that supported the leather sling back/ seat. Or the leather may have been attached directly to a curved wood stretcher that connected the tops of the legs. Legs and stretchers from at least three crossed-leg chairs, at least two of which probably had a leather sling forming the back/seat and curved arms in the shape of dolphins or fish, were recovered at Kenchreai (Figs. VI.1, 2). These parts of chairs were entirely veneered with ivory or a mixture of ivory and bone; they would have appeared to be made of solid ivory. In addition, three (and evidence for a fourth) heavy, wood furniture legs were recovered of similar but not identical cabriole shape, one type veneered with ivory and the other with both ivory and bone (Pls. VI.31; VI.33). These do not seem to have come from chairs and may have supported a stool, lectus, stibadium, or some other large piece of furniture such as an armarium. Their function is discussed below.

Shelton, “Roman Aristocrats, Christian Commission: gelists on a page of a lectionary in Paris, Bibliothèque The Carrand Diptych,” JAC 29 (1986) 166-80, Pl. 28; nationale, Suppl. Gr. 1096, Spatharakis, Corpus of Dated H. Maguire, “Adam and the Animals: Allegory and the Illuminated Greek Manuscripts 29, Cat. no. 89, fig. 159, top Literal Sense in Early Christian Art,” DOP 41 (1987) 365, left and bottom right. These chairs have shoulder-height n. 2. straight backs with finials at the top corners. The side 39 London, Victoria and Albert Museum, Inv. no. rails of the back are probably pegged down into the tops 270-1867; Age of Spirituality 546, Cat. no. 490; Volbach, of the legs, and further support is provided by a trian- Elfenbeinarbeiten der Spätantike3 141, Nr. 243, Pl. 111. gular piece of wood that fits into a groove on the top of 40 On fol. 3 of the Vienna Dioscurides, Galen is the side rail and into another groove at the bottom of seated on a high, curved back crossed-leg chair with the rail along the side of the back. There are also stretch- curving arms that are attached to the front corners of ers running from front to back on the bottom of each the seat. The side of the seat is straight, and therefore side, but none horizontal are visible. probably there was a rail running from front to back on 41 Dijon, Musée des Beaux–Arts, Inv. no. CA T 326; each side. The back meets the seat at a right angle; see Volbach, Elfenbeinarbeiten der Spätantike3 98, Cat. no. 148, n. 32 above and Spatharakis, Corpus of Dated Greek Manu- Pl. 78; Gallien in der Spätantike 106, 108, Cat. no. 123. scripts 5-6, Cat. no. 1, fig. 1. Another much later (dated Types both with and without arms are shown on the 1070) representation that appears to show rails along the relief of Peter and Mark in London, Victoria and Albert sides, can be seen in the chairs of two of the four evan- Museum, discussed above. wood furniture and related veneers 213

Fig. VI.2. Hypothetical reconstruction of ivory- and bone-veneered crossed-leg chair with arms decorated with fish designs (1:5) 214 chapter vi

Another furniture element, of which two complete examples and veneer from part of a third were found at Kenchreai, may have served as legs and frame for an open, rectangular scrinium or capsa, a lectern, a small cabinet, or parts of shelves (Cat. nos. 631-635). These consist of a half-round rod attached by pegs to a thick board (Pls. VI.26 a, b; 27 a-d). In both of the better preserved examples, one end of the rod extends beyond the board, conceivably forming a short foot. Possible functions for these elements are discussed below.

CROSSED-LEG CHAIRS The partially preserved chairs from Kenchreai consist of two X-shaped sides, each made up from a pair of legs covered with ivory, or ivory and bone, veneer (Pls. VI.5-.12). An oblique cross-lap joint at the point where the legs cross is formed by a parallelogram-shaped cutting in each leg that permits the two legs to fit tightly together to form an X. As viewed from the outer side, each leg curves inward above the crossing and inward again, in the reverse direction, below the crossing. Because the legs interlock where they cross, the joint is fixed and the legs could not fold. With the exception of a nail hole at the crossing point of one of the pairs of legs, there is no evidence of how the cross-lap joints were held together other than by the tightness of the fit, so the joint was probably glued. The bottom of each chair leg has a hole running up inside it for the nail that attached a rectangular block foot with beveled edges. The pairs of X-shaped chair sides placed vertically on either side of the seat were joined near the foot by two horizontal stretchers, one at the front and one at the rear of the chair (Pls. VI.13 a-c, 15 a, b). Tenons on the ends of the stretchers fit into rectangular mortises cut on the inner sides of each leg, near the foot and also the top. The lower mortises are placed further from the foot than the upper ones are from the top. The preserved lower stretchers, completely covered with veneer, are in the shape of double “paddles” placed head to head. The head end of each paddle is rounded, the stretcher then narrows to a waist on each side and flares out again at the ends. The same stretcher design is seen in the representation of a chair on the Carrand diptych described above (Pl. VI.2b). The stretchers that are covered with plain veneer are all of ivory; the front and back surfaces of the stretchers with an elaborate incised floral decoration are veneered with either ivory or bone. The design of the seat and upper portions of the Kenchreai chairs is not certain. The most likely reconstruction is a leather back/seat, with tunnel pockets at each end through which horizontal rungs connected the tops of the back and front of the sets of legs on either side. This is the simplest and most likely design. Another possibility is pockets sewn at each of the four corners that fit over the tops of the legs in the fashion of a “butterfly chair” seat cover; however, the tops are rectangular and would not fit into such pockets very well. Four of the chair-leg pieces that have been identified as coming from the upper part of legs (Cat. Nos. 519, 530, 531, 532) either clearly had or could have had a shallow rectangular groove (rabbet) cut into the back surface, extending from the lower end of the mortise as far as the cutting for the crossing. If the leather that formed the back/seat was slung from a horizontal bar near the top of the back, it could have fitted into this rabbet to give a more finished appearance in the rear. It is also possible that the rabbet held an L-shaped support wood furniture and related veneers 215 for the horizontal bar. Such inserts used as braces or reinforcements were common in ancient Egyptian furniture; however, no pieces of wood seem to have been excavated with the furniture that were appropriately shaped to have served this function. From their find spot and from representations of parallels, it is almost certain that the dolphins—and what is suggested below are similarly shaped elements veneered with fish designs—belonged to these chairs (Pl. VI.19-24). Tenons at the head and tail of each dolphin could have fitted into mortises near the top of the inner curve of the legs. The length of the dolphins, if extended by tenons—which are not preserved—is sufficient to form arms that would reach diagonally from near the top of the front leg to the back of the chair. During conservation, the fragile wood of the legs was heavily restored with fibranyl. In many places it is now impossible to determine accurately the original dimensions, and some elements of the design are obscured. Some pieces of veneer that had become detached from the wood and moved prior to or during recovery are now misplaced and in some cases partially cover and obscure mortices and other cuttings.

A. CHAIR LEGS Originally, each complete leg was cut from a single, large block of wood; but all are now broken at or near the crossing and so are described in terms of the upper and lower parts. There are fourteen substantially complete upper parts and lower parts of legs preserved. Each chair reconstruction requires eight (four pairs of) leg parts: two pairs of upper parts and two pairs of lower parts. The preserved leg parts provide evidence for a minimum of three chairs; however, it is important to keep in mind that each type of chair seems to have been cut from a standard pattern, and so the elements could have come from more individual chairs than indicated here. Only one of the upper parts makes a true join with a lower part (Pls. VI.5, VI.6); some of the others can be paired on the basis of size and the type of veneer but do not actually join. Viewed from the outer side of each chair, taken from its base, the leg that is outermost at the joint either crosses from left to right (Pl. VI.5) or right to left (Pl. VI.8) as it rises. It is possible that each complete chair had one side consisting of a pair of legs with the outermost leg at the crossing rising from left to right and one side with the outermost leg rising from right to left. Viewed from the front, the same leg (either the front or the back) on each side would thereby be outermost (or, if viewed from the side, in front of the other). From representations—which may not be accurate in this detail—there does not seem to be a pattern as to whether the front or rear leg passed in front. Indeed, there is no structural or design reason, considering the camouflage of the joint that the veneer provided, why some chairs may not have had the opposite leg outermost at the joint on both sides. Indeed, from the point of view of economical (and mass) production, it would have been faster to make up chairs from identical sides rather than matched pairs. The following descriptions are made as if the side of the chair were being viewed straight on from the side. The terms right and left refer to the leg that is in that position at the bottom of the side. Thus, a leg part that is at the lower left of the side is termed “the lower part of the left leg.” The leg part that is at the upper right of the side is indicated by the phrase “upper (right) part of left leg. The leg part that is at the upper left of the side is indicated 216 chapter vi by the phrase, “upper (left) part of right leg. The term “back” refers to the inner surface of the side. The terms “inner curve” and “outer curve” refer to the inner and outer edges formed by the thickness of the parts. Catalogue numbers 519, 520, and 521 join to form part of the side of a wood crossed-leg chair veneered with ivory (Pls. VI.5, VI.6). The preserved parts of the side are an almost complete lower part of a left leg, the upper (right) part of the left leg, and the lower part of the right leg. As it rises from the foot, the left leg crosses outermost from left to right. There is a vertical rectangular mortise near the bottom at the back of each leg and near the top of the upper part (right) of the left leg. There is a nail hole in the center of the base of each foot. The distance between the legs at the foot is ca. 42.5 cm and the overall height of the side ca. 50 cm. The pieces comprising this leg were found under the dolphins. Catalogue numbers 522 and 523 constitute the lower part of the side of a crossed-leg chair covered with ivory veneer (Pl. VI.7). These parts were also found under the dolphins near the legs described above. The lower parts of the legs are preserved to just above the oblique cutting for the crossing and each has a vertical rectangular mortise cut into the back surface near the foot. As it rises from the foot, the right leg crosses outermost from right to left. These lower leg parts could constitute the other side of the same chair as the side described above (Cat. nos. 519-521). Both are veneered only with ivory. The length of the outer and inner curves, thickness, and distance from the foot to the mortises of the legs are very similar. Catalogue numbers 524 and 525 could comprise the lower part of the same side of a crossed- leg chair covered with ivory veneer (Pl. VI.8, VI.9). The legs, one of which is broken into two parts, are preserved to just above the oblique cutting for the crossing. Both have vertical rectangular mortises cut in the back near the foot. Viewed from the side, the right leg rises outermost from right to left. Catalogue numbers 526 and 527 could fit to form the lower parts of the side of a chair covered with both ivory and bone veneer (Pls. VI.10, VI.11). The front and outer curves are veneered with ivory, the back and inner curves with bone. The legs are preserved to just above the oblique cutting for the crossing. Both have rectangular vertical mortises cut near the foot on the back surface. Viewed from the side, the left leg crosses outermost from left to right. The distance between the legs at the foot is ca. 53 cm; however, when the joint is connected, the bottoms of both legs do not stand flat on the ground. It appears that the bottom of Cat. no. 527 was cut off. The bottom surface is smooth, unworn, and there is no nail hole. Catalogue numbers 528 (Pl. VI.12 lower left as viewed from the back; Fig. VI.6) and 529 (Pl. VI.12 lower right as viewed from the back) may be from the other side of the same chair, veneered in ivory and bone, although the fragments of bone may conceivably not belong. The lower left leg, Cat. no. 529, was not treated at the time of excavation and is badly shrunken. There is no join or other evidence that these two leg parts necessarily belong together. The legs are preserved to just above the oblique cut at the bottom of the center crossing. Both have vertical rectangular mortises cut into the inner surface near the foot. As it rises from the foot, the left leg crosses outermost from left to right. Bone veneer is used on the back and the inner curve of the lower part of the right leg. The distance between the legs at the foot is ca. 39.5 cm; however, the lower left leg section is so badly shrunken that its measurements are unreliable. wood furniture and related veneers 217

The following four upper parts of legs do not definitely join to any of the lower parts above, but the type of veneer and dimensions allow one to suggest their original locations. The first, Cat. no. 530 (Pl. VI.12, top right), is the upper (left) part of a right leg veneered in ivory on the back and therefore the front surface was surely also veneered with ivory. A shallow rabbet runs from the mortise to the crossing on the back. Since it was found under the dolphins in the same location as Cat. nos. 519-521 and its measurements are very similar to the upper section of that side, it is possible that it belongs to the same chair (see Fig. VI.3). The second, Cat. no. 531 (Pl. VI.12, top left), is the upper (left) part of a right leg, veneered with ivory. A shallow rabbet runs down from the mortise to above the crossing on the back. It may join Cat. nos. 522-523. The third, Cat. no. 532 (Pl. VI.12 top center), is the upper (right) part of a left leg from a side in which the left leg rises outermost. It is veneered with ivory on the front, back, and outer curve, the inner curve is veneered with bone. While there is no join, in theory it could belong either with Cat. nos. 526-527 or with Cat. nos. 528-529, lower legs from a side in which the left leg rises outermost. Cat. no. 533 is a small part of the top of the upper (right) part of a left leg, now badly damaged and warped, from a leg similar to Cat. no. 526, from the side of a chair that, from the foot, crosses outermost from left to right. It has scraps of ivory veneered on the front, back, and outer curve; the inner curve is veneered with bone. There is no physical evidence that this piece joins with any of the other pieces; however, in theory, it could belong with either Cat. nos. 526-527 or with Cat. nos. 528-529, since both of these are lower leg parts of a side rising from left to right veneered with ivory and bone. A shallow rabbet is cut below the mortise on the back. These chair legs appear to derive from a minimum of three chairs, two of which were entirely veneered with ivory and one of which was veneered with a combination of ivory and bone. On this last chair, the legs were veneered in bone on surfaces where it would be least apparent; namely, on the inner curve of the upper parts of the legs and on the inner curve and back of the lower parts.

519 outer curve has no veneer preserved. The back surface near the top is broken away, but one side W = 5.5 of a rectangular mortise at the back near the top Th = 3.1 is preserved in the thickness of the leg. A shal- L (outer curve) = 23.6 + 2.0 of center cutting low, rectangular groove (rabbet) appears to run L (inner curve) = 27.5 down along the back from the mortise to the Dimensions of mortise = not measurable beginning of the oblique cutting for the crossing. Distance of mortise from top = 1.5 Inv. no. SP 272 Found under dolphin arms (below) at 14551 X 2183 Wood veneered with ivory Pls. VI.5, VI.6; Fig. VI.3a and b Chair leg; upper (right) part of a left leg of a crossed-leg chair in which the left leg rises out- 520 ermost, preserved from the top surface down to the cutting for the crossing. Some ivory veneer W = 4.5 is preserved, but damaged, on the front surface Th = 3.0 and in a few fragments on the back. The inner L (outer curve) = 39.7 + 11.0 of center cutting curve is heavily restored with fibranyl, and the L (inner curve) = 38.8 + 5.8 of center cutting 218 chapter vi

Dimensions of mortise: Distance of mortise from foot: Veneer Veneer not preserved L = not preserved W = 1.5 Wood = 5.3 Wood Inv. SP 276 L = 3.7 W = 1.0 Th = 1.0 Wood veneered with ivory Distance of mortise from foot: Veneer not preserved Chair leg; lower part of a right leg on a side in Wood = 7.3 which the left leg rises outermost. It is broken off Inv. no. SP 277 below the cutting, and the broken off part is attached to the left leg, Cat. no. 520 above. Ivo- Wood veneered with ivory ry veneer is preserved almost completely on the Chair leg; lower part of a left leg that rises outer- front from the cut end at the foot to the begin- most, with ivory veneer preserved on front and ning of the oblique cut, which corresponds to the back sides. Veneer on the front is preserved from cutting for the lap joint on the wood leg. The the foot to the top, where it is cut obliquely to veneer is pieced from two sections; the edges of correspond with the oblique cutting on the wood. the cutting are somewhat broken. Veneer is pre- A piece of veneer has been incorrectly restored served in fragments on the back and inner curve, but is missing from the outer curve. The point- along the diagonal on the outer curve. There are ed end of the joint is pieced and may not belong. only fragments of veneer on the inner curve. Veneer is preserved on the back from just above Found under dolphin arms (below) at 14551 X the bottom of the mortise up to the lower edge 2183 of the crossing, where, unlike the oblique cutting Pls. VI.5, VI.6; Fig. VI.3a and b in the wood, it is cut off horizontally. This suggests that it is now wrongly placed and belongs 522 to a leg crossing on the outside from right to left. Part of the upper (right) part of the leg, includ- W = 5.7 ing the oblique cutting for the crossing, is at- Th = 3.7 tached to the top. This part measures 17.2 X 5.0 L (outer curve) = 33.7 + 15.5 of center cutting cm. L (inner curve) = 33.6 + 9.5 of center cutting Dimensions of mortise: Found under dolphin arms (below) at 14551 X Veneer 2183 L = 5.1 W = 1.6 Pls. VI.5, VI.6; Fig. VI.3a and b Wood L = 4.5 W = 1.1 Th = 1.8 521 Distance of mortise from foot: Veneer = 5.0 W = 5.0 Wood = 5.0 Th = 3.5 Inv. no. SP 271 L (outer curve) = 33.5 from foot to edge of cutting for crossing Wood veneered with ivory L (inner curve) = 33.0 from foot to edge of Chair leg; lower part of a left leg on a side in cutting for crossing which the right leg rises outermost. Ivory veneer Dimensions of mortise: is preserved on three sides. On the front surface, Veneer not preserved the veneer is complete in one piece from the cut Wood edge at the foot to the diagonal cutting at the top. L = 4.5 W = 6.0 Th = 1.4 wood furniture and related veneers 219

The veneer is placed so that the diagonal at the Chair leg; lower part of a right leg rising on the top runs at a right angle to the oblique cutting outside from right to left. Ivory veneer is pre- in the wood. This suggests that it was incorrect- served on all four sides. On the front, except for ly restored and belongs to a leg crossing on the a small triangular piece at the inner corner of the outside from left to right. On the back surface, bottom, the veneer is preserved from the cut edge the veneer is complete from the cut edge at the at the foot to the diagonal cutting at the top foot to the diagonal cutting at the top, which runs running parallel to the oblique cutting in the parallel to the oblique cutting in the wood. The wood. The veneer is also almost complete on the mortise is outlined with lightly incised lines, prob- back of the leg. The upper end, at the upper ably as a guide for cutting. A piece of veneer is point of the diagonal cutting, appears to have at the upper end of the leg, covering the entire been pieced. The veneer around the mortise is crossing portion, with a horizontal cut end toward outlined with lightly incised lines, probably as a the diagonally cut end of the main piece of ve- guide for cutting. The veneer along the outer neer; since these two pieces cannot join, this curved edge is complete except for a few small veneer was probably incorrectly restored. On the losses. It was joined from two pieces about two- inner curve, a strip of veneer the same width as thirds of the way up the curve. The veneer on the wood is preserved in a fragmentary condition the inner curved edge was probably pieced out down to a cut edge that may have been for a join of two strips, the lower of which is preserved to about two-thirds of the way up. The remainder its full length. The rest of the inner curve is re- of the inner curve is filled with fibranyl. The stored with fibranyl. The diagonal cutting and wood on the back is preserved beyond the ob- part of the center cutting for the crossing are lique cutting, which exists as a slight indentation. preserved. The opposite end appears to have At this point, the wood appears to have broken broken along the edge of the oblique cutting. off horizontally and only a small piece is pre- There is a nail hole in the center of the base of served beyond this point. the foot. Found under dolphin arms (below) at 14551 X Found under dolphin arms (below) at 14551 X 2183 2183 Pl. VI.7; Fig. VI.4a and b Pl. VI.7; Fig. VI.4a and b

523 524

W = 5.3 W = 5.0 Th = 3.8 Th = 2.7 L (outer curve) = 40.3 + 14.1 of center cutting L (outer curve) = 42.0 + 5.9 of center cutting L (inner curve) = 38.6 + 9.4 of center cutting L (inner curve) = 35.0 + 8.0 of center cutting Dimensions of mortise: Dimensions of mortise: Veneer Veneer L = 5.1 W = 1.3 L = 5.2 W = 1.3 Wood Wood L = 4.7 W = 0.9 Th = 1.7 L = 4.4 W = 0.7 Th = 1.7 Distance of mortise from foot: Distance of mortise from foot: Veneer = 6.8 Veneer = 4.8 Wood = 6.5 Wood = 4.8 Inv. no. SP 270 Inv. no. SP 281, 294 Wood veneered with ivory Wood veneered with ivory 220 chapter vi

Chair leg; lower part of a left leg on a side in 526 which the right leg rises outermost. Ivory veneer W = 4.3 is preserved only on the back from the cut foot Th = 3.2 to the diagonal cutting at the top. The diagonal L (outer curve) = 43.7 + 9 cm of center cutting cutting runs at a right angle to the cutting in the L (inner curve) = 42.0 + 9 cm of center cutting wood and is shorter than the wood, which seems to indicate that the veneer was pieced. The wood Dimensions of mortise: is broken vertically, leaving its original width Veneer preserved only at the foot. The oblique cutting L = 6.0 W = 1.3 on the front is preserved as a notch on the back Wood edge and a curve along the front edge. The leg, L = 5.2 W = 0.9 Th = 2.0 especially its thickness, is badly shrunken. Distance of mortise from foot: Veneer = 7.9 Pls. VI.8, VI.9 Wood = not measurable Inv. no. SP 274 525 Wood veneered with ivory and bone W = 6.0 Th = 3.5 Chair leg; lower part of a left leg rising outermost L (outer curve) = 40.5 + 9.0 of center crossing from left to right. Veneer is partially preserved L (inner curve) = 38.2 + 6.0 of center crossing on all four surfaces. If the veneer on the front Dimensions of mortise: surface is correctly placed, it would have been Veneer pieced along an oblique cutting, 21.9 cm from L = 5.1 W = 1.5 the foot. The back surface is veneered with bone, Wood which appears to have been pieced together from L = ca. 5.4 W = 1.1 three sections; that is, there are two strips plus Distance of mortise from foot: the point of the oblique cutting at the top. The Veneer = 6.8 veneer on the outer and the inner curved edges Wood = ca. 6.0 was probably pieced from two strips in each case, Inv. no. SP 279 the outer curve of ivory and the inner of bone. Above the oblique cutting in the wood, part of Wood veneered with ivory the center cutting is preserved with two notches Chair leg; lower part of a right leg on a side in cut at either side, probably indicating the posi- which the right leg rises outermost. Ivory veneer tion for the oblique cutting on the upper part of is preserved on all four surfaces. The veneer at the leg. Near the oblique cutting, 2.3 cm from the upper end front and back is cut obliquely to the inner edge, a nail hole is pierced in the wood. correspond with the angle of the wood. The This nail hole probably corresponds to the one mortise is outlined at the top and along one side on the right leg but, because of shrinkage, it is on the veneer with a lightly incised line, proba- not possible to be certain. bly a guide for cutting. The veneer on the inner Found at 14551 X 2182 curve is partially preserved from the upper cut edge down; it has been reattached too low down Pls. VI.10, VI.11; Figs. VI.5a and b, VI.7 on the curve. On the outer curve, the veneer is preserved from the upper cut edge to within 11 cm of the foot. Pls. VI.8, VI.9 wood furniture and related veneers 221

527 the front and back surfaces and on the inner curved edge. On the front the veneer is ivory and W = 6.0 mostly preserved from the cut foot to the oblique Th = 4.1 cutting at the upper end, which runs parallel to L (outer curve) = 33 + 1.62 of center cutting the oblique cutting in the wood. The upper end L (inner curve) = 32 + 8.9 of center cutting of the oblique cutting appears to have been Dimensions of mortise: pieced. On the back the veneer is bone and very Veneer fragmentary. The veneer at the lower end of the L = 5.5 W = missing mortise is in position, but the upper piece of Wood veneer is incorrectly placed so that the oblique L = 5.2 W = 1.0 Th = 1.9 cutting falls much lower than the cutting in the Distance of mortise from foot: wood. The veneer on the inner curved edge is Veneer = missing bone and consists of one complete strip. It does Wood = 5.2 not cover the entire curve and so was probably Inv. no. SP 273 pieced. The existing piece appears to be wrong- Wood veneered with ivory and bone ly placed since neither cut end coincides with either of the cut ends in the wood. The oblique Chair leg; lower part of a right leg on a side in cutting on the front is preserved and, above it which the left leg rises outermost. Veneer is pre- extends part of the cut for the crossing, but the served on all four surfaces, with upper diagonal parallel upper oblique cutting is not preserved. cuttings running parallel to the cuttings in the Joined from two pieces across the joint. At the wood. On the back, at the upper end, is a piece edge of the break is a nail hole. of veneer bearing no relationship to the lower piece. The mortise is outlined with lightly incised Pl. VI.12 (lower left); Fig. VI.6 lines, probably a guide for cutting. The left side 529 of the mortise is missing. The bone veneer along the inner curved edge appears to be pieced out W = 5.5 of two strips placed end to end. The outer curved Th = 3.3 edge is veneered with ivory. Above the oblique L (outer curve) = 38.3 cutting in the wood, part of the center cutting is L (inner curve) = 33 preserved, but the opposite oblique cut is not Dimensions of mortise: preserved. Near the oblique cutting, 2.3 cm from Veneer = missing the inner curved edge, is a nail hole. Wood Found at 14551 X 2182 L = 5.5 W = 1.4 Th = 1.3 Distance of mortise from foot: Pls. VI.10, VI.11; Fig. VI.5a and b Veneer = missing Wood = 8.0 528 Inv. no. SP 282 W = 5.4 Wood with no veneer preserved Th = 3.1 Chair leg; poorly preserved lower part of a left L (outer curve) = 31.3 + 4.5 of center cutting leg on a side in which the left leg rises outermost. L (inner curve) = 32.4 + 3.5 of center cutting The wood, left untreated, has shrunk and warped. Inv. no. SP 280 On the upper end of the inner edge only the Wood veneered with ivory and bone point for the end of the oblique cutting is visible. Chair leg; lower right leg on a side in which the left leg rises outermost. Veneer is preserved on Pl. VI.12 (lower right) 222 chapter vi

530 Chair leg; upper (left) part of a right leg. The leg is broken off at the oblique lap-joint cutting. A W = 3.3 Th = 4.9 vertical mortise is cut in the back surface of the L (outer curve) = 24.0 upper end. A rectangular rabbet, shallower than L (inner curve) = 26.5 the mortise, runs along the back to the end point Dimensions of mortise: of the oblique cutting for the lap-joint. Fragments Veneer = missing of ivory veneer are preserved on all four sides. Wood Pl. VI.12 (top left) L = 4.2 W = 1.2 Th = 2.5 Distance of mortise from foot: 532 Veneer = missing Wood = 1.1 W = not measurable Inv. no. SP 278 Th = 3.0 L (outer curve) = ca. 24 + 7.5 of center cutting Wood veneered with ivory L (inner curve) = 26.5 + 5.2 of center cutting Chair leg; upper (left) part of a right leg. Veneer Inv. no. SP 391 is partially preserved only on the back. On the Wood veneered with ivory and bone back there is clear evidence for a rectangular mortise starting 1.1 cm from the top, 0.5 cm deep Chair leg; fragment of upper (right) part of a left and 4.6 cm long, and a rabbet extending from leg on a side in which the left leg rises outermost. its lower edge almost to the crossing. On the It is preserved to just below the oblique cutting veneer, a portion of the lower part of the mor- on the back and has a rectangular mortise cut tise is preserved and there is some evidence for in the back at the upper end. From the level of the cutting at the top, the outer edge, and the and shallower than the mortise, there is a groove edge along the rabbet. The lower end is broken. ca. 1.5 cm deep that may be either a rabbet or The wood is broken off at the oblique cutting for a break in the wood running along the back to the lap-joint. the end of the diagonal cutting. The veneer is Found under dolphin arms (below) at 14551 X only partially preserved in scraps on all four sides. 2183 On the outer curved edge, front, and back, the veneer is ivory; on the inner curved edge, bone. Pl. VI.12 (top right); Fig. VI.3a and b On the back surface, part of the cutting for the 531 crossing is preserved. The piece is damaged and warped. There is too much fibranyl fill to be W = 5.8 certain of the shape and cuttings. Th = 2.7 Pl. VI.12 (top center); Fig. VI.4a and b L (outer curve) = 25.0 L (inner curve) = 27.7 533 Dimensions of mortise: Veneer = missing PW = 3.8 Wood Th = 2.6 L = 4.5 PL = 7.5 Distance of mortise from foot: Inv. no. SP 292 Veneer = missing Wood = 1.5 Wood veneered with bone Inv. no. SP 275 Chair leg; small fragment of top of a leg. The end Wood veneered with ivory is finished on one edge that curves inward. A flat wood furniture and related veneers 223 area on the broken end may indicate the lower Veneer, probably from the back surface of a end of a mortise. Veneer is preserved only on one lower right leg with a cutting for a rectangular side. The veneer has a cut lower edge that coin- vertical mortise. The left and right edges are cut. cides with the finished end on the wood. The left The upper end is cut, indicating that the veneer and right sides of the veneer are also cut; the pre- was pieced. The foot end, below the mortise, is served width is 4.3 cm. There is no nail hole in also cut but at a much more oblique angle than the end, also indicating that this is the top of a the foot ends of the other chair legs. leg. 537 534 W = 5.0 W = 5.1 L = 15.6 L = 32.5 Uninventoried Uninventoried Bone Ivory Veneer, probably from the front surface, foot end, Veneer from the front surface of the lower (left) of a lower right leg. The foot end is cut, as is the part of the leg of a chair on a side in which the lower end of the outer curve. At the upper end right leg rises outermost. The foot is cut horizon- of the inner curve is preserved some cut edge. tally, and the top is cut along a diagonal rising 538 from left to right and broken off before forming the end point of the top of the curve. This piece W = 4.9 may belong to Cat. no. 524, from which the L = 9.0 veneer on the front surface is missing. The width Uninventoried is almost identical. Bone 535 Veneer, probably from the foot end of the back surface of a lower left leg. The foot end is cut, W = 4.7 as is the inner curved edge. Some cutting is vis- L = 41.1 ible along the outer curved edge. The upper end L = 35.7 (without lower piece) is broken. PV 9 Ivory 539 Two pieces of veneer, possibly not joining, from W = 4.8 the front surface of the lower part of a right leg. L = 11.4 The foot end is cut, and parts of its right and left Uninventoried sides are preserved. The upper end is broken. Bone 536 Veneer, probably from the upper end of the lower part of a leg. The upper edge appears cut W = 4.4 and, from it, the end is cut obliquely left to right, L = 21.5 to run parallel to the oblique lap-joint on the Dimension of mortise: W = 1.25 wood. The lower and left edges are broken. L = missing Uninventoried Bone 224 chapter vi

B. CHAIR STRETCHERS Two horizontal stretchers, one placed across the lower front and a second across the lower back, connected and supported the two sides of each crossed-leg chair. Two types are preserved: those covered with plain ivory veneer (Cat. nos. 540-545; Pls. VI.13-14; Fig. VI.8), and those covered with bone or ivory veneer decorated with elaborate floral ornament (Cat. nos. 546-578; Pls. VI.15-18; Figs. VI.9-18). Three complete stretchers and three fragments of stretchers are preserved of the undecorated type. These parts could make up four stretchers, which would be enough for at least two chairs if each chair had two veneered stretchers used only near the bottoms of the legs. If the stretchers with floriated spirals (i.e., embellished with leaves and floral elements), were decorated on both sides, the amount of veneer with floral designs appears to come from no more than two stretchers; that is, the decorated veneer excavated seems to be enough for one chair. The evidence for three chairs given by the stretchers supports the evidence for three chairs provided by the chair legs (see above). The stretchers provide the only evidence for the width of the chairs. Since the tenons at the ends of the stretcher are fitted into mortises cut into the thickness of the leg, the chair width consisted of the length of the stretcher, minus the length of the tenons, plus the thickness of the chair legs. The legs range in thickness from ca. 3 to 4 cm. The length of the veneered surface of the most completely preserved undecorated stretcher is 42.5 cm (not including a tenon measuring ca. 2 cm at either end). The complete half of the most completely preserved stretcher with decorated veneer is 21.9 cm minus its tenon; its total length would be ca. 43.75 cm. Therefore the stretcher plus the total width of the legs on both sides (6-8 cm) yields a complete exterior width for the chairs of between ca. 48.5 and 51.75 cm. While these chairs would be considered somewhat narrow by modern standards, they are sufficiently wide to be functional. The design on the veneer of the decorated stretchers consists of floriated spirals in the form of fronds with leaves only on the inner side of each spiral. The size of the spirals increases and decreases with the height of the stretcher. The design moves left and right from the center, where the curved heads of the two sides of the stretcher meet. At the center, the stems of two large spirals come up vertically and then divide to curve under and away from each other. The two center spirals are large, the following ones diminish in size as the curve straightens out, and the end ones increase in size as the ends of the stretcher flare out. The spirals curve up or down alternately, and, at the point where the tail of one spiral touches the preceding spiral, there is either a small bud on a vertical stem or a tuft of three blades of grass. The buds stand up along the upper edge of the spiral design and hang down along the lower edge. The buds and the grass tufts alternate with small incised spiral lines that curve up along the upper edge or down along the lower edge. On the vertical axes, a bud or grass tuft is always opposite a small spiral. The “bud-type” design (Cat. nos. 546-551; Fig. VI.9), of which there are fragments mainly of bone but at least one of ivory, consisted of twelve spirals with a floral motif in the center of each. These motifs include pomegranates, closed buds, flowers with nine rounded petals, lotus buds or seed pods, and clusters of four leaves. Adjacent spirals always have different motifs. The “grass-tuft” design, also found in both ivory veneer (Cat. nos. 552-557; Pl. VI.17) and bone veneer (Cat. nos. 558-560; Pl. VI.18) includes motifs, in the center of the large spirals, of a triple leaf cluster, a triple dotted circle, a pointed bud, and a lotus bud or seed wood furniture and related veneers 225 pod with three dots (Pl. VI.17, Fig. VI.15). Adjacent spirals may have the same motif at their centers. Cat. nos. 561-578, small fragments of ivory or bone, could be from either of the decorated types. There are traces of red pigment on fragments of both the bone and ivory veneers of the decorated stretchers. Parallels for this type of floriated spiral ornament, used however on much narrower straight molding strips and not on chair stretchers, are found among the incised bone plaques in the Antiquarium Comunale, Rome, discussed above in Chapter IV.42 In place of the upright buds or grass tufts found on the outer edges of the Kenchreai veneer, these have three small leaves in a row.

540 541

Wood: Wood: W = obscured by veneer W = 5.0 (head) = 3.4 (waist) = 5.4 (end) L = 45.6 (with tenons) L = 42.8 (without tenons) = 46.6 (with tenons) Th = 1.9 Th = 1.5 Veneer: Veneer: W = 6.0 (head) = 4.1 (waist) = 5.5 (end) W = 6.0 (head) = 5.9 (waist) = 5.8 (end) L = 42.5 L = 42.5 Inv. no. SP 263 Inv. no. SP 266 + 267 Wood veneered with ivory Wood veneered with ivory Complete undecorated chair stretcher with both Complete undecorated chair stretcher, reas- tenons preserved. The ivory veneer survives on sembled from two pieces, with both tenons pre- both sides with only a few small losses. There is served. The ivory veneer survives on one side a band of missing veneer where two panels could only and is broken where the heads of the two have been pieced. The curved edge strips are “paddles” meet. The wood is broken at this point preserved on the upper and lower edges on one also. At the cut end of the veneer nearest the half of the stretcher, but only partially on the tenon is a lightly incised line, parallel to the end other. At the end of the veneer nearest the ten- and 5 cm from it. on is a lightly incised line, parallel to and 0.5 cm Wood of SP 267 is reassembled from five frag- from the end. ments, the veneer from two fragments. The wood of SP 266 is reassembled from two fragments, the Found at 14549 X 2183 near the step into the veneer from three fragments. apse of the apsidal room. Note that all of the egg Pl. VI.14 (second and third from left) and dart was found nearby, some quite close at 14549 X 2185. Pl. VI.13 a through c; Fig. VI.8

42 See Albertoni, Lastrine di Rivestimento 352-6, figs. 19-31. 226 chapter vi 542 544

Wood: Wood: W = 5.0 (head) = 3.0 (waist) = 5.0 (end) W = head obscured by veneer L = 29.5 (without tenons) = ca. 3.2 (waist) = 31.5 (with one preserved tenon) = ca. 4.6 (end) Th = 1.5 L = 21.0 Veneer: Th = obscured by veneer W = 5.7 (head) = 4.2 (waist) = 5.1 (end) Veneer: L = 17.9 W = 5.7 (head) = 3.6 (waist) = 5.6 (end) Inv. no. SP 268 + 293 L = 21.1 Inv. no. SP 269 Wood veneered with ivory Wood veneered with ivory Undecorated chair stretcher with half of one side and one-third of the other side preserved. One Half of an undecorated chair stretcher. The ivory tenon is preserved. The ivory veneer survives on veneer survives on both sides and along one edge. one side of the complete half and partially on the The tenon is not preserved. There is no join, but broken half. The edge strip is preserved on one this fragment could belong with Cat. no. 543 edge of the unbroken side of the stretcher. The above. whole is reassembled from two fragments. Pl. VI.14 (right) Pl. VI.14 (SP 268 only, fourth from left) 545 543 Wood: Wood: W = 4.2 (end) W = 5.0 (head) = 5.0 (end) = waist ob- L = 14.1 (without tenon) scured by veneer = 16.2 (with tenon) L = 20.5 (without tenon) Th = 1.4 = 22.6 (with tenon) Veneer: Th = 1.8 W = 2.0 Veneer: L = 13.1 W = 5.1 (head) = 3.7 (waist) = 5.5 (end) Inv. no. SP 393 L = 22.0 Wood veneered with ivory Inv. no. SP 265 Undecorated chair stretcher broken horizontal- Wood veneered with ivory ly roughly down the middle, with one end pre- Half of an undecorated chair stretcher. The ivory served. A narrow strip of ivory veneer survives veneer survives on both sides. The tenon is pre- on one side, but it is uncertain if it belongs. One served. There is no join, but this fragment could tenon is preserved. There is no join, but this belong with Cat. no. 544 below. fragment could belong with Cat. no. 544 above. Pl. VI.14 (first at left) wood furniture and related veneers 227

546 the incised border line, the lower edge is cut. The other edges are broken. Reassembled from eight W = 5.5 (complete end) = 3.4 (waist) fragments. L = 39.5 Th = 1.6 Pl. VI.16; Fig. VI.10 Inv. no. SP 264 + one fragment of 670 548 Wood veneered with bone W = 1.3 Stretcher almost complete except for last spiral L = 8.4 and tenon on one end. Bone veneer survives on Inv. no. SP 681 + 688 (one fragment) one side. It is decorated with a floriated spiral design that follows the “bud-type” pattern. As pre- Bone served, the design consists of eleven spirals with Part of the upper or lower border of veneer of a floral motifs in the center of each. From left to stretcher. The top of a bud with a fragment of right these are: pomegranate, bud, flower with spiral on either side survives and the end of a nine rounded petals, bud, lotus pod, bud, flow- small incised spiral appears on one end. The er with nine rounded petals, bud, cluster of four incised border line along the curved upper or leaves, bud, and pomegranate. At the right end, lower edge is preserved. This edge is cut; all the the design terminates with an upright cluster of other edges are broken. Reassembled from two three buds (or bud with two small leaves) and a fragments. small incised spiral curving under below it at the point where the floriated spiral starts to curve up. 549 At the left end, one spiral is probably missing. The upper edge and the right end are cut; the W = 1.4 other edges are broken. L = 5.58 Inv. no. SP 686 Found at 14551 X 2182, the same find spot as Cat. nos. 526 and 527 above, legs from a chair Bone veneered with both ivory and bone. Veneer from upper or lower edge of a stretcher. Pl. VI.15 a and b; Fig. VI.9 (follows p. 234) End of a small incised spiral and a bud on either side of a spiral broken off along its outside incised 547 edge. The incised border line along one curved cut edge is preserved. The other two edges are W = 5.5 broken. L = 15.1 Inv. no. SP 672, 674, 675, 677, 679, 682, 683 + 550 688 (one fragment) W = 1.7 Bone L = 4.4 Veneer from the center part of a stretcher. Part Inv. no. SP 687 of four spirals are preserved with, from left, a Bone lotus pod, bud, pomegranate, and—probably— a bud at their centers. At the upper edge, between Small part of the upper or lower border of ve- the two central spirals, is a small bud on a ver- neer of a stretcher. Bud, followed by the incised tical stem. Along the upper and lower edges is line from the outside incised edge of a spiral. The an incised border line ca. 0.2 cm from the out- incised border line along one edge is preserved. side edge. The upper edge is cut or broken along The other edges are broken. 228 chapter vi

551 grass rise at the joins between spirals. Small spirals project from the large spirals in between the W = 4.7 tufts. The design at the left edge begins with a L = 2.6 small upright spiral at the top corner and a small Inv. no. SP 646 + 688 (one fragment) horizontal spiral at the bottom corner. Along the Ivory left and lower edges is an incised border line ca. Veneer from a stretcher. Part of a floriated spi- 0.4 cm from the outside edge. The left and low- ral with a six-petaled flower at its center and a er edges are cut, the upper and right edges are bud on a straight stem at its outside curve. Two broken. The left edge is curved. There is no join, edges are broken along an incised line. The other but this fragment could belong with Cat. no. 554 edges are broken. This is the only fragment def- and 555 below. initely of the “bud-type” design in ivory. Reas- Pl. VI.17; Fig. VI.12 sembled from two fragments. 554 552 W = 4.0 W = 1.5 L = 8.4 L = 10.6 Inv. no. SP 643, 693, + 688 (one fragment) Inv. no. SP 655 + 657 Ivory Bone Veneer from a stretcher. Two floriated spirals Small veneer fragment from the center portion and fragments of a third and fourth, at right and of a floriated spiral design from a stretcher. The left, are preserved. The complete spirals each upper parts of two spirals are preserved with a have a bud at their centers. Tufts of three blades vertical stem topped by three buds rising between of grass alternate with small spirals. Along the them. At either side of where the two outer curves upper edge is an incised border line ca. 0.4 cm of the top edge meet are clusters of three leaves. from the outside edge. The upper edge, which This fragment differs from Cat. nos. 546-551 curves upwards, is cut; all the other edges are above in that there is more space between the spirals and the top of the veneer, there is fill or- broken. Reassembled from three pieces. There nament, and there is no evidence of a border line. is no join, but this fragment could belong with The upper edge is cut. All other edges are bro- Cat. no. 553 above. ken. Reassembled from two pieces. Fig. VI.13 Fig. VI.11 555 553 W = 3.0 W = 4.5 L = 5.5 L = 13.3 Inv. no. SP 645 + 692 Inv. no. SP 639 Ivory Ivory Veneer from a stretcher. The upper parts of the Veneer from half of a stretcher. Most of five flo- two central spirals are preserved. A vertical stem riated spirals survive; at the centers of spirals are, with a cluster of three leaves rises from the point from left, a triangle of three dotted circles, a lotus where the spirals touch. Above these leaves is the pod, a bud, and another bud. The center of the meeting point of the curved incised border line. fifth spiral is broken off. Tufts of three blades of The left spiral has a lotus pod at its center; the wood furniture and related veneers 229 right, a bud. All edges are broken. Reassembled ters, from left, a lotus pod, a cluster of three from two pieces. There is no join, but this frag- leaves, a bud, a cluster of three leaves, a bud, and ment could belong with Cat. nos. 553 and 554 a lotus pod. Placed alternately pointing up and above. down are tufts of three blades of grass that spring from the joins between spirals. Opposite each is Fig. VI.14 a small spiral. At the left edge is preserved a part 556 of the center spiral. An incised border line, 0.3 cm from the edge, runs along the top, bottom, W = 1.4 and right edges of the veneer. The left ends of L = 3.1 the upper and lower edges are cut, the right ends Inv. no. SP 649 are broken. The left edge is broken, the right is cut. Reassembled from five pieces. Ivory Pl. VI.18; Fig. VI.15 Veneer from a stretcher. Part of a floriated spiral with a tuft of three blades of grass between it and 559 the next spiral is preserved from the upper or W = 0.9 lower border. The cut side preserves part of the L = 6.6 border line. All other edges are broken. Inv. no. SP 685

557 Bone Veneer from a stretcher. The top of a tuft of three W = 1.5 blades of a grass with a fragment of spiral on L = 3.2 either side survives from the upper or lower edge. Inv. no. SP 650 + 668 (one fragment) Part of the incised border line along one edge is Ivory, red pigment cut. All the other edges are broken.

Veneer from a stretcher. Part of two floriated 560 spirals with a tuft of three blades of grass between them and a small incised spiral opposite survive W = 3.55 from the upper or lower border. There are trac- L = 7.2 es of red pigment on the leaves on the spirals. Inv. no. SP 647, 651 + 656 The color is a stain rather than actual substance Bone and has not been analyzed. The cut side preserves part of the border line. All other edges are bro- Veneer from a stretcher. Part of a floriated spi- ken. Reassembled from two fragments. ral with a bud at its center. At one edge is part of a tuft of three blades of grass and below it the 558 stem of a small incised spiral. At the lower edge of the spiral is the tip of a bud. One edge is W = 5.3 broken along an incised line and the side oppo- L = 18.9 site is probably broken along the incised border Inv. no. SP 641, 642, 644, + 688 (two fragments) line. The two other edges are broken. Reassem- Bone bled from three pieces. Veneer from half of a stretcher decorated with floriated design of the “grass-tuft” type. Almost all of six spirals are preserved with, at their cen- 230 chapter vi 561 565

W = 2.4 W = 6.2 L = 2.2 L = 1.0 Inv. no. SP 671 Inv. no. SP 684 Ivory Ivory Veneer from a stretcher. Spiral with a triple Veneer from a stretcher. A large spiral and a dotted circle cluster on a stem at its center. All small incised spiral from the upper or lower edge edges are broken. of the center of a stretcher. The incised border line is preserved along the cut edge. Both other 562 edges are broken.

W = 1.4 566 L = 2.8 Inv. no. SP 654 W = 2.1 L = 7.2 Ivory Inv. no. SP 689 + 688 (one fragment) Veneer from a stretcher. Part of a corner with a Ivory small incised spiral. The incised border line is preserved along two cut sides. The other two sides Veneer from a stretcher. Two spirals, broken are broken. horizontally in half, with a small incised spiral between them from the upper or lower edge of 563 a stretcher. The incised border line is preserved along one cut edge. The other edges are broken. W = 1.5 L = 11.3 Fig. VI.16 Inv. no. SP 640 + 668 (one fragment) 567 Ivory W = 3.7 Veneer from a stretcher. Upper or lower edges L = 2.7 of four floriated spirals. An incised border line Inv. no. SP 743 runs along one edge. One end curves up. The edge with the incised border line is cut. All oth- Ivory, red pigment er edges are broken. Reassembled from two frag- Fragment of the end of the veneer from a stretch- ments. er. From the flame-like points along the outer 564 edge of a foliated spiral emerges a long curved stem with a large bud at its end. Next to the bud, W = 0.8 a small incised spiral curves under. There is a L = 8.0 considerable amount of red pigment preserved Inv. no. SP 658 in the incised lines. The pigment has not been analyzed. A border line is incised ca. 0.2 cm from Ivory the cut edge. The other edges are broken. Veneer from a stretcher. An incised border line Fig. VI.17 runs along one upper or lower cut edge from the center of the stretcher. The opposite edge is decorated with the end of a small incised spiral. The other two sides are broken. wood furniture and related veneers 231

568 572

W = 3.5 W = 3.6 L = 0.9 L = 1.2 Inv. no. SP 745 Inv. no. SP 680 Ivory Ivory Veneer from a stretcher. Part of a floriated spi- Veneer from a stretcher. Part of a floriated spiral with a bud at its center. To one side is the ral. One edge is broken along an incised line. The outer edge of a second spiral. One edge is bro- opposite edge is broken. ken along an incised line. The other edges are broken. 573

569 W = 0.7 L = 6.1 W = 3.6 Inv. no. SP 653 L = 1.4 Ivory Inv. no. SP 648 + 668 (one fragment) Veneer from a stretcher. Part of one floriated Ivory spiral. All edges are broken. Veneer from a stretcher. Small incised spiral. One edge is broken along an incised line. The 574 other edges are broken. Reassembled from two W = 4.8 fragments. L = 1.2 570 Inv. no. SP 652 Bone W = 1.15 L = 3.6 Veneer from a stretcher. Part of a floriated spi- Inv. no. SP 676 ral. One edge is broken along an incised line. The other edges are broken. Ivory Veneer from a stretcher. Part of a floriated spi- 575 ral. At its right, a small incised spiral curls over W = 5.3 and to its right is a fragment of the outer edge L = 2.2 of another spiral. One edge is broken along an Inv. no. SP 673 incised line. The other edges are broken. Bone 571 Fragment of veneer from the center of a stretcher. W = 4.0 A large floriated spiral with a bud at its center; L = 1.3 a blade of grass projects from the outermost curve Inv. no. 678 + 688 (one fragment) of the spiral. One edge is broken along the incised border line. The other edges are broken. Ivory Fig. VI.18 Veneer from a stretcher. Part of a floriated spiral. All edges are broken. Reassembled from two fragments. 232 chapter vi 576 578

W = 2.5 W = 4.77 L = 1.0 L = 0.97 Inv. no. SP 746 Th = 0.08 Inv. no. SP 691 Bone, red pigment Bone Veneer from a stretcher. A bud, probably from the center of a spiral. There are traces of red pig- Arched fragment broken along an incised curved ment in the incised lines. The color is a stain edge. The opposite side is a small segment of a rather than actual substance, and has not been circle and to its side a longer incised curved line. analyzed. All edges are broken.

577

W = 3.8 L = 1.1 Inv. no. SP 690 Bone Veneer from a stretcher. Part of a floriated spiral. One edge is broken off along an incised border line, probably along one of the curves that meet at the center. The other edges are broken.

C. DOLPHINS

One complete and one partially preserved wood dolphin, covered on both sides with ivory veneer, were found lying on some of the wood crossed-leg chair legs (Pls. VI.19 a, b; VI.20 a, b). Dolphins commonly decorated Roman furniture, frequently as fulcra on couches; however, the Kenchreai examples could not have served this function, because they are too large and are decorated on both sides, so must have been free of attachment along their lengths.43 As noted above, by the fourth century crossed-leg chairs with a back existed,

43 Dolphins decorated benches and tables in the another set may join with heads down; Dalton, Ivory Hellenistic period, and the fashion lived on through the Carvings Pl. 1; Volbach, Elfenbeinarbeiten der Spätantike3 52, Roman empire: Délos XVIII 13-14, fig. 13, Pl. X, figs. Cat. no. 56, Pl. 28; Spätantike und frühes Christentum 671- 74-6; Ransom, Couches and Beds 34; sarcophagus with a 3, Cat. no. 248. On the silver plate dated to the mid- representation of a harbor and tavern scene from Os- fourth century from the Kaiseraugst Treasure, with tia, Museo Ostiense, Magazzini, Inv. no. 1340; Kampen, scenes from the life of Achilles, Thetis’ couch has a Image and Status 138-9, fig. 18. See Kampen 46-7 for the headrest decorated with the head of a dolphin; Augst, dolphin-shaped edge on the cupboard in the thermopolium Römermuseum, Inv. no. 62.1; Laur-Belart, Spätrömische on the Via di Diana in Ostia. See also London, British Silberschatz Cat. 2, no. 1; A. Mutz, “Die spätantike Achil- Museum, Inv. no. 57,10-13,1, a diptych with imperial les-Platte von Kaiseraugst, Künstlerische Freiheit und apotheosis of the second quarter of the fifth century, geometrische Ordnung,” Sandoz-Bulletin 32 (1973) 13ff.; showing a seated emperor on a cart pulled by elephants. Age of Spirituality 231-4, Cat. no. 208; J. Garbsch, The legs of the seat are dolphins with the heads up, and “Spätantike Keramik aus Nordafrika in der Prähis- wood furniture and related veneers 233 including a particularly handsome type with angled arm rails in the form of dolphins. This design was a conflation of the backless sella curulis with a type of arm rail that had been used earlier on thrones.44 Among a number of such representations is the chair of St. Paul on the Carrand diptych, discussed above (Pl. VI.2 b).45 Its high rounded back is edged with a semicircular molding that extends horizontally at the sides, where it connects with the long vertical side rails of the back. Another is an ivory relief in Dijon that represents the Apostles seated on crossed-leg chairs with backs and curved arm rails in the form of dolphins (Pl. VI.4)46 The relief of Sts. Peter and Mark in the Victoria and Albert Muse- um, London, shows a handsome example of the same type of chair, with an inset miniature colonnade or balustrade across the back (Pl. VI.3).47 Dolphins appear as elements on surviving rectangular thrones and in representations of thrones in various mediums. Arm rails in the form of dolphins appear in the office or shop scene on a third-century funerary monument from Igel.48 Head-to-head confronted dolphins as the front legs on a throne appear in the apotheosis relief with the monogram of the Symmachorum in the British Museum.49 And dolphins decorated the ends of the synthronon of the sixth-century cathedral of Eufrasius in Pore´.50

579 Tenon: W = 1.2 L = 5.0 W at head (veneer) = 6.4 Inv. no. SP 261 W of body = 4.8 Total L = 51.5 Wood veneered with ivory Flange: A shallow, S-curved wood dolphin covered on all Upper edge = 3.0 and 4.2 Lower edge = 6.5 sides with ivory veneer. The body is narrow and End = 7.0 Th = 1.2 widens to form the head, which terminates in a

torischen Staatssammlung,” Bayerische Vorgeschichtsblätter the death of Deborah (fol. 13, P. 26); see Gerstinger, Die 45 (1980) 158-69, n. 19, Pl. 16; Gallien in der Spätantike Wiener Genesis. Finally, in the scene depicting the rais- 53, 55, Cat. no. 37; Richter, Furniture 140 and fig. 667. ing of Jairus’ daughter on the left side of the Brescia Danaë reclines on a couch with huge dolphin fulcra in a Casket, Brescia, Museo Civico, is a lectus with a large relief in Berlin; Wulff and Volbach, Bildwerke 4, J6672. fulcrum in the shape of a dolphin; Tkacz, The Key to the Dolphin fulcra occur on a plaque representing the Miracle Brescia Casket 44, fig. 7. of Tabitha, one of three plaques from a chest represent- 44 For example, the wall painting of Aphrodite seated ing scenes from the life of St. Peter, London, British on a throne with Eros from the Villa Farnesina has small Museum, Inv. no. 56,6-23,810, dated ca. 430; Volbach, figures supporting the arm-rail; Rome, Museo Nazionale, Elfenbeinarbeiten der Spätantike3 83, Cat. no. 117, Pl. 61; Inv. no. 1128 B5; Richter, Furniture 98, fig. 481. Spätantike und frühes Christentum 692-4, Cat. no. 269; 594, 45 See above n. 38. Cat. no. 188, dolphin fulcrum represented on a contorniate 46 See above n. 41. dated 356-394; A. Alföldi-E. Alföldi, Kontorniaten 1, No. 47 See above n. 39. 3, 1 and 192, 3/2, Pl. 1/4. In 1974, three sarcophagi, 48 H. Dragendorff and E. Krüger, Das Grabmal von dated post 328, were found at Trinquetaille near Arles. Igel (Trier 1924) 78; and also, A. Kolling, Bronzestatuetten On one, to the right of a married couple for whom the aus dem Säulenkeller, Forsch. im römischen Schwarzenacher I elaborate two-zone sarcophagus was created, is a small (Einöd-Saar 1967) 32-3, Pl. 36-40. figure seated on a stool or bed with dolphin fulcra; 49 See above n. 43. Spätantike und frühes Christentum 323-4, fig. 140. Particu- 50 A. Terry, “The Sculpture at the Cathedral of larly handsome examples are illustrated in the Vienna Eufrasius in Pore´,” DOP 42 (1988) 54, fig. 151, 2. Genesis, in a scene of Abraham sleeping (fol. 4, P. 8) and 234 chapter vi four-sided flange with a thin tenon at its end. This 580 flange is inserted in thick fibranyl and may be W at head (veneer) = 8.0 wrongly positioned. The dolphin has an upturned Total PL = 33.3 beak of solid ivory that protrudes above the Flange: flange. Attached under the beak at one end but Upper edge = 7.5 Lower edge = 6.5 not touching the edge of the flange is a small strip End = 7.0 Th = 1.4 of ivory molding (L = 4.6, W = 1.6). This strip Projects 6.8 from head is probably incorrectly positioned and is separate- Tenon: ly catalogued (Cat. no. 619). The dolphin has in- W = 1.9 L = 4.6 cised eyes on either side of its head (obverse: L Inv. no. SP 262 = 2.7, W = 1.5; reverse: L = 2.5, W = 1.5). The eyes are embellished with a row of small point- Wood veneered with ivory ed incised flame-like lashes, pointing away from A shallow, S-curved wood dolphin covered on the beak, along the upper lid. The lid is a half both sides with ivory veneer. The body is nar- oval in shape, with the center excised, leaving a row and widens to form the head which termi- thin raised border around the edge. The eye ball, nates in a three-sided flange with a thin tenon also a half oval, has a smooth surface with tufts at its end. The dolphin has an upturned beak of of short incised lines in the corners. The iris is solid ivory that protrudes above the flange. At- carved out with, at its upper end, a raised oval tached under the beak at one end but not touch- circle, also carved out. A raised dot at the upper ing the edge of the flange is a small strip of ivo- edge represents the pupil. An incised line at the ry molding (L = 3.8, W = 1.9). This strip may bottom edge of the eye delineates the lower lid. be incorrectly positioned and is separately cata- Ivory veneer is preserved on the front and back logued (Cat. no. 620). The dolphin has incised surfaces and on the top and bottom edges. On eyes on either side of its head (obverse: L = 2.5, one side two pieces are preserved; the ivory rings W = 1.6; reverse: L = 2.7, W = 1.6). The eyes on the body piece run in the opposite direction are embellished in the same manner as on Cat. to those on the head piece, thus the body piece no. 579, except that the lashes are more vertical is probably wrongly placed and may belong to and the eyes appear slightly more widely opened. Cat. no. 580 below. Three pieces of veneer are Ivory veneer is preserved on the front and back preserved on the reverse side; two strips, not sides but none along the top or bottom edges. joining are preserved on the top edge, and one strip at the tail end of the lower edge. The re- Found at 14551 X 2183, on top of crossed-leg mainder of the lower edge is completely restored chair legs. with fibranyl. Pl. VI.20 a, b; Fig. VI.21a, b (detail) Found at 14551 X 2183 on top of crossed-leg chair legs. Pl. VI.19 a, b; Figs. VI.19, VI.20

D. FISH DESIGN VENEER Evidence for what may have been two additional chair arms with decorated veneer in a fish design comes from a group of thirty-four closely related fragments, about half of bone and half of ivory. The major motif is an eye bordered by a zigzag line adjacent to a gill slit and a pectoral fin. A rhomboid shape with lines incised across or penetrating into it falls on a straight edge on the other side of the fin. One piece of bone veneer is almost completely wood furniture and related veneers 235 preserved, and a second bone piece preserves the edge of an eye and a bit of the gill. The pieces do not belong as the second fragment is too large to fit into the missing portion of the first. There are four bone rhomboid shapes preserved. More than half of a similar design is preserved in ivory, and there is clear evidence for a second, if the pectoral fin is naturalistically rendered smaller on top than on the bottom. If so, the gills on these two ivory fragments point in opposite directions. An ivory ring is preserved that seems too large for either, but may belong. Three rhomboid shapes are preserved in ivory. Tapering ribbon-like shapes with dots, plants, and straight rays appear on both bone and ivory veneer fragments. There are two large ivory and one bone fragments with representations of fish that seem similar in scale to these groups. The fish patterns on these panels are similar in overall size to the dolphin chair arms. The fact that there appear to be fragments from two ivory and two bone panels of similar size and design suggests that they might have been veneers from two chair arms. The reversed layout of the two ivory gills and fins would be necessary on panels used on the outer surfaces of left and right chair arms. The bone veneer would have been used on the inner surfaces. Fig. VI.2 illustrates the hypothetical reconstruction. Abstract dolphin heads were used as a design for furniture during the fourth century,51 and stylized fish designs occur in other mediums such as a silver oval platter from Kaiser- augst.52 There is a helpful parallel on a heart-shaped platter from the Treasure of Traprain Law;53 in front of the head of this fish is a plant-like form and at least four patterns of undulating lines that may represent waves. On the medallion of another bowl, also from Traprain Law, a dolphin and a fish are shown below a nereid, but only their heads, because their bodies are obscured by a diagonal curve between them that probably represents water.54 The rhomboids with parallel lines on the Kenchreai veneers may be compared to the zigzag lines that appear on many mosaics of fish.55 Most, if not all, of these fragments were found with or near the crossed-leg chairs at 14550 X 2181.

581 Fragment with the straight left end finished with an incised line and, at the top edge, an incised W = 18.1 oblong shape with six diagonal incised lines. The H = 7.1 fragment, mainly plain, is decorated near the Inv. no. SP 421 + 757c center with a vertical crescent containing five Bone concentric curved lines. Projecting horizontally

51 The legs of the sella curulis on the right panel of 54 Ibid., 36-8, Cat. no. 30, fig. 17, Pl. XVII. the Boethius diptych in Brescia, Museo Romano, Room 55 For example, Tunis, Bardo Museum, Inv. no. 487, appear to be decorated with a fish or fish skeleton 2804, from the Maison du Char de Vénus, Thurburbo design; Volbach, Elfenbeinarbeiten der Spätantike3 Cat. no. Majus, Salle XXXI, Mosaïques de Tunisie II, Fasc. 3, 83- 6, Pl. 3; Age of Spirituality 6, fig. 5. 8, Cat. no. 299, Pl. XXXVI-VII, dated fourth to fifth 52 Spätrömische Silberschatz von Kaiseraugst 167ff., Cat. century. no. 54, Pl. 74, 1. 53 Curle, Treasure of Traprain 72-3, Cat. no. 108, fig. 55, Pl. XXVII. 236 chapter vi toward the left from the convex side of the cres- incised along a long side. At the opposite short cent are four pointed fin(?) segments that increase end is the end of a curved incised line. in length from top to bottom. To the right of the Fig. VI.25 crescent, concentric to its concave curve, is a serrated excised circle with a reserved linear band 585 around its inner circumference. A double incised U-shaped line, with one pointed end preserved, W = 3.7 arches around this circle; beyond it to the right H = 0.9 is a dotted curve of plant or drapery. Inv. no. SP 527 Pl. VI.21; Fig. VI.22 Bone

582 Fragment with two incised lines of unequal length projecting from one short end parallel to the W = 5.0 adjacent side. At the opposite end is a rhomboid H = 2.0 shape containing parallel lines, similar to Cat. no. Inv. no. SP 425 583. Bone Fig. VI.26

Fragment with eight incised lines of varying 586 length fanning out from the pointed end. W = 7.0 Fig. VI.23 H = 0.8 583 Inv. no. SP 534 Bone W = 3.6 H = 6.6 Plain fragment with three edges broken along Inv. no. SP 429 incised lines. Along the irregular edge is an incised wavy line. Bone Fig. VI.27 Triangular fragment with an incised line along one edge that curves around a frond-like object 587 with a toothed border, probably a coarsely incised rhomboid shape with parallel lines. W = 1.7 H = 3.5 Fig. VI.24 Inv. no. SP 539 584 Bone W = 8.9 Fragment with one end of a long side broken H = 3.7 along a curved incised double line. The other end Inv. no. SP 526 of the same side has a curved excised shape with a curved line concentric to it and separated from Bone it by a reserved line. Oblong fragment, mostly plain, from one short Fig. VI.28 end of which emerges the upper part of a plant with one long blade projecting from it. Four long blades of grass(?) with the same orientation are wood furniture and related veneers 237

588 592

W = 1.0 W = 0.8 H = 2.1 H = 2.2 Inv. no. SP 543 Inv. no. SP 665b Bone Bone Fragment decorated with five incised parallel Fragment with, at one end, a wavy plant or rib- lines. bon with comma-shaped dots.

589 Fig. VI.31

W = 2.5 593 H = 5.4 W = 1.7 Inv. no. SP 630 H = 2.6 Bone Inv. no. SP 757h Fragment with three edges broken along incised Bone lines. Along the middle edge is a group of three Fragment with two incised parallel lines along leaves and a pair of leaves. one long side. At the opposite side is part of an 590 incised serrated circle, broken along the serra- tions. W = 2.15 Fig. VI.32 H = 2.1 Inv. no. SP 664 594 Bone W = 11.72 Fragment incised with a dotted, tapering, wavy H = 3.32 strip of plant (or drapery?). One edge is broken Inv. no. SP 431, 434, 435, 529, 530, 531, 536, along an S-curved incised line. 537 (one fragment), 662, 663, 668 (five fragments) Fig. VI.29 Ivory

591 Fragment with part of a double circle. At the center is an excised circle, surrounded by two W = 1.3 raised rings with the outermost edge serrated. H = 3.15 Concentric to this circle, a second circle expands Inv. no. SP 665a from a single ring to five rings from which extend, perpendicularly, a fin-like shape with seg- Bone ments that increase in length from top to bottom. Fragment with one end of a long side broken A small excised area extends from the outer ring along an incised line with three curves. Along ad- to the broken edge of the fragment and a sec- jacent edges are parts of wavy, dotted plant or tion of an incised curved line is close to the break snake motifs; the incised dots are comma-shaped. on the other corner of this shorter side of the fragment. All of the outer edges are broken. Fig. VI.30 Pl. VI.22 (top); Fig. VI.33 238 chapter vi 595 598

W = 6.3 W = 7.2 H = 2.3 H = 0.9 Inv. no. SP 532 Inv. no. SP 535 + 537 (one fragment) Ivory Ivory Fragment with an incised line parallel to a Fragment with two segments of the outer dou- straight edge, probably a border. Along it is a ble ring of a double circle. A straight incised line rhomboid shape with four diagonal incised lines cuts across the circle. At one short end are two inside similar to Cat. no. 581. The opposite edge curved incised lines. The opposite short end is is broken along an excised curved shape. All of broken along an incised circle. All of the other the other edges are broken. edges are broken. Fig. VI.34 Fig. VI.37

596 599

W = 6.0 W = 7.0 H = 4.4 H = 1.1 Inv. no. SP 423 + 424 + 705 Inv. no. SP 430 + 537 (one fragment) Ivory Ivory Fragment with part of a vertical crescent of sev- Fragment with two incised curved lines proba- en approximately concentric incised curved lines. bly converging. The adjacent edge is either cut From the outer edge protrude three pointed fin(?) or broken along an incised curve. All of the oth- segments that increase in length from top to er edges are broken. bottom. At one edge of the fragment, the tip of Fig. VI.38 a triangular object is formed by a broad incised line with a narrower line within. All of the edg- 600 es are broken. W = 10.7 Fig. VI.35 H = 2.8 597 Inv. no. SP 427 + 428 Ivory W = 7.7 H = 1.4 Fragment with three incised lines parallel to a Inv. no. 422 long edge. One short end appears to be a border with an incised line parallel to the edge and, Ivory next to the border line, an incised rhomboid Fragment with part of the serrated center of a shape containing four diagonal lines. All of the double circle, excised as in Cat. no. 594, and seg- other edges are broken. ments of an outer double ring. There are incised Fig. VI.39 nicks along one short edge. The long edge cut through the center is possibly broken along an incised line or where two pieces of ivory were joined. All of the other edges are broken. Pl. VI.22 (bottom); Fig. VI.36 wood furniture and related veneers 239

601 604

W = 7.0 W = 4.3 H = 0.8 H = 1.57 Inv. no. SP 533 Inv. no. SP 426 Ivory Ivory Fragment with an incised rhomboid shape con- Fragment incised with seven roughly parallel taining diagonal lines similar to Cat. no. 595 leaves of unequal length, the two tallest in the along a long side. The adjacent short end is center, that project from one short side. All of broken along an incised line. All of the other the edges are broken. edges are broken. Fig. VI.43 Fig. VI.40 605 602 W = 5.0 W = 6.9 H = 2.05 H = 1.7 Inv. no. SP 542 + 545 (two fragments) Inv. no. SP 538, 540, + 541 (one fragment) Ivory Ivory Fragment with two incised sections of pointed, Fragment with an incised rhomboid shape con- dotted wavy plant or drapery-like material(?). All taining lines along a long side. Two curved in- of the edges are broken. cised lines are at the opposite narrow end. All of Fig. VI.44 the other edges are broken. Fig. VI.41 606

603 W = 3.13 H = 1.48 W = 2.5 Inv. no. SP 545 H = 0.7 Ivory Th = 0.05 Inv. no. SP 703 Fragment with dotted plant or drapery-like material, similar to Cat. no. 605. All of the edges Ivory are broken. Fragment with an incised rhomboid shape containing six parallel lines between two parallel 607 lines, one of which is broken and forms the edge W = 2.4 of the piece. From the short end at the opposite H = 0.9 end of the piece project two ray-like straight lines, Inv. no. SP 440b one longer than the other. Similar to Cat. no. 585 (bone) above. Ivory Fig. VI.42 Fragment with dotted wavy plant or drapery-like material, similar to Cat. nos. 605 and 606. All of the edges are broken. Fig. VI.45 240 chapter vi 608 611

W = 2.85 W = 9.6 H = 0.9 H = 1.7 Inv. no. SP 705 Inv. no. SP 442 Ivory Ivory Fragment with dotted wavy plant or drapery-like Curved fragment with one short straight side; material, similar to Cat. nos. 605-607. All of the adjacent to it is a long curved top side and op- edges are broken. posite that a long straight side that meets it at an acute angle opposite the short straight side. Par- Fig. VI.46 allel to the short straight side is incised a rhomboid shape consisting of two parallel lines with 609 diagonal lines running between them. A fish faces W = 2.2 this border along the straight edge. Its mouth is H = 1.5 open, with several incised vertical lines to sug- Inv. no. SP 756a gest teeth. The eye is diamond-shaped with a dot for the pupil. The gill opening is shown by a relief Ivory vertical line, and three incised horizontal lines Fragment with dotted wavy plant or drapery-like suggest the pectoral fin. Five diagonal lines are material. The curved edge is broken along an used to indicate the spiny dorsal fin, that is placed well forward over the head. The body is deco- incised line. All of the other edges are broken. rated with a wide band of three rows of Fig. VI.47 diamond-shaped dots between two relief vertical lines. There is another relief vertical line at the 610 base of the tail. The caudal fin has five projecting finger-like ends. The short straight edge is cut, W = 10.8 the curved edge may have broken along the grain H = 3.4 of the ivory, and the long straight edge is broken. Th = 0.1 Inv. no. SP 441 Pl. VI.24; Fig. VI.49 Ivory 612 Trapezoidal tapering, four-sided fragment incised W = 4.8 with five leaves; three long alternating with two H = 1.3 short, that project from the shortest side, similar Inv. no. SP 438 to Cat. no. 604. At the opposite side is the forked tail of a fish with two horizontal bands above its Bone(?) tail. The body of the fish is decorated with in- Fragment with most of the head of a fish excised cised cross-hatched lines, perhaps intended to with an incised round eye and open mouth show- represent scales. Between the fish tail and the ing the upper teeth. The gill opening, pectoral corner of the fragment are four incised parallel fin, and a curving pattern of squares between two lines similar to Cat. no. 603. All of the edges are lines are reserved in relief. The rest of the frag- broken. ment is covered with incised parallel lines, prob- Pl. VI.23; Fig. VI.48 ably meant to represent water. The upper edge is partly broken along an incised line; all of the other edges are broken. Fig. VI.50 wood furniture and related veneers 241

E. COMPOUND MOLDING

Eight narrow strips of ivory compound molding are preserved. The design consists of two ogee moldings, the smaller about half the height of the larger, separated by a fillet. The end next to the larger is cut back along a slant, probably for insertion under another decorative element. Two of these strips were recovered in place on the flanges in front of the heads of the two dolphins (Cat. nos. 619-620) and the others were found nearby (Pls. VI.25, VI.19, VI.20). Zigzag struts are shown on representations of dolphin-armed chairs, and it is possible that these strips decorated such supports on one or more of the Kenchreai chairs.56 The dolphin arms on the synthronon of the sixth-century cathedral of Eufrasius, Pore´, have two curved lines just below their mouths, possibly a version of the same motif.57 The silver oval fish platter from Kaiseraugst referred to above has zigzag elements that protrude from the mouth of the fish, but these may represent barbels;58 dolphins do not have such “beards.” Fragments of similar molding not found with these strips are catalogued with the miniature architectural elements (Chapter V, Cat. nos. 506-515).

613 Strip of double ogee molding. One end tapers down to the edge; the opposite end is cut at a W = 1.41 slight diagonal from right to left. There is sur- L = 4.8 face damage on the front and random file marks Th = 0.25 on the back. Inv. no. SP 368 Found at 14552 X 2183 Ivory Strip of double ogee molding. One end is cut 615 straight back perpendicular to the front; the op- W = 1.24 posite end tapers down to the edge. There are L = 4.5 random file marks on the back. Th = 0.12 Found at 14552 X 2183 Inv. no. SP 370 Pl. VI.25; Fig. VI.51 Ivory

614 Strip of double ogee molding. One end tapers down to the edge; the opposite end is cut at a W = 1.39 slight diagonal from right to left. There is sur- L = 4.6 face damage on the front and random file marks Th = 0.12 on the back. Inv. no. SP 369 Found at 14552 X 2183 Ivory

56 See n. 39. A triangular plaque in Berlin, Staatliche of the beak; Wulff, Bildwerke 104-5, Cat. no. 348. Museen, Inv. no. 4814, said to be from Cairo, with a 57 See above n. 50. representation of a dolphin excised from the surface 58 Spätrömische Silberschatz von Kaiseraugst 168. shows a beard-like piece curving down from the bottom 242 chapter vi

616 Strip of double ogee molding. One end tapers down to the edge; the opposite end is broken off W = 1.3 at a slight diagonal from right to left. There are L = 4.97 random file marks on the back. Th = 0.16 Inv. no. SP 371 619 Ivory W = 1.5 Strip of double ogee molding. One end tapers L = 4.6 down to the edge; the opposite end is unevenly Th = 0.33 broken on a diagonal, but one corner appears cut. Inv. no. SP 261b There is surface damage on the front and ran- Ivory dom file marks on the back. Strip of double ogee molding. Found attached to Pl. VI. 25 (second from right); Fig. VI.52 a dolphin chair arm, Cat. no. 579. The exposed 617 end tapers down to the edge. There is surface damage and random file marks on the back. W = 1.37 Pl. VI.19; Fig. VI.19 L = 4.57 Th = 0.4 620 Inv. no. SP 372 W = 1.29 Ivory L = 4.2 Strip of double ogee molding. One end tapers Th = 0.19 down to the edge; the opposite end is cut straight Inv. no. SP 262b back perpendicular to the front. There is surface Ivory damage on the front and random file marks on the back. Strip of double ogee molding. Found attached to a dolphin chair arm, Cat. no. 580. The exposed 618 end tapers down to the edge. There is surface damage and random file marks on the back. W = 1.6 L = 4.21 Pl. VI.20; Fig. VI.21a Th = 0.33 Inv. no. SP 373 Ivory

F. WOOD BLOCKS The nail hole centered in the bottom of each lower leg part of the crossed-leg chairs indicates that they were protected by a wood block (Pls. VI.6, VI.7). Ten rectangular wood blocks with beveled edges are preserved, the same number as the lower chair leg parts. When complete, the blocks were ca. 5.4 X 7.1 cm. wood furniture and related veneers 243

621 edges and a nail hole through the center. One long side and one short side are broken. On the W = 5.3 bottom is a shallow circular depression around L = 7.1 the hole. Th = 0.9 Inv. no. SP 290 625 Wood W = 4.0 Rectangular block with beveled edges and a nail PL = 4.4 hole through the center. On the bottom is a cir- Th = 0.8 cular depression around the hole, either from Inv. no. SP 306 hammering in the nail or to countersink the head. Wood Fig. VI.53 Fragment of a rectangular block with beveled edges. Two adjacent sides are broken. The block 622 is reassembled from two pieces. W = 5.4 626 L = 7.0 Th = 0.9 W = 6.6 Inv. no. SP 288 PL = 1.5 Wood Th = 0.9 Inv. no. SP 392 Rectangular block with beveled edges and a nail hole through the center. On the bottom is a cir- Wood cular depression around the hole. Fragment of a rectangular block with beveled edges. On the bottom is preserved part of the nail 623 hole with three and a half sides of a hexagonal cutting around it. Two opposite sides are broken. PW = 4.9 L = 7.1 627 Th = 1.0 Inv. no. SP 289 PW = 1.3 PL = 3.1 Wood Th = 0.9 Rectangular block with beveled edges and a nail Inv. no. SP 311 hole through the center. On the bottom is a cir- Wood cular depression around the hole. One long side is broken off along the ridge of the bevel. The Corner fragment of a rectangular block with block is reassembled from two pieces. beveled edges. Fragments of the bevel are preserved on two adjacent sides; the other sides are 624 broken. PW = 3.5 PL = 5.8 Th = 0.8 Inv. no. SP 291 Wood Fragment of a rectangular block with beveled 244 chapter vi

628 Fragment of a rectangular block with beveled edges. The bevel is preserved on one side; the PW = 1.6 other three sides are broken. PL 4.5 Th = 0.6 630 Inv. no. SP 310 Wood PW = 3.0 PL = 5.7 Fragment of a rectangular block with beveled Th = 1.1 edges. The bevel is preserved on one side; the Inv. no. SP 253 other three sides are broken. Wood 629 Possible fragment of a rectangular block with PW = 2.1 beveled edges. The bevel is preserved on one side; PL = 5.4 the other three sides are broken. Th = 0.7 Inv. no. SP 309 Wood

G. BOARDS WITH ATTACHED RODS AND RELATED VENEERS Catalogue nos. 631-635 are furniture components that consist of a flat board to which a half-round rod is joined along one long side (Pls. VI.26, 27 a-d) and associated loose veneer. Two boards survive, and enough similarly shaped veneer is preserved to suggest that there was originally at least a third board (Pl. VI.28). In the two better preserved examples, one end of the rod extends ca. 4 cm beyond the narrow end of the board. Because of its fragile condition when excavated, the shapes of the rod and boards may have been deformed during recovery. The use of fibranyl to restore these boards obscures the original surface on the long side of the boards opposite the rod. The ivory veneer on the rods was shaped to fit the curvature of the wood. It is promi- nently marked by long oval patterns. The dimensions of the veneer, ca. 43.4 X 8.9 cm, is extraordinary, but possible.59 The even curvature of the ivory along its entire length indicates that the ivory was probably softened and shaped to the rod using the process of partial demineralization discussed in Appendix 4. The width measurements below for the rod and for its half-round veneer are for diameter, not circumference. The function of these boards is uncertain. They may have been the front edges of shelves in a large cupboard or part of the framing for a container or foot stool. A parallel for these boards, although considerably smaller, may be the frame components for what may be the lid of a coffer in the Musée du Louvre.60 This lid is only 9.7 X 8.15 cm, but the edge boards have tenons that extend from the ends in a fashion similar to the Kenchreai boards with attached rods.

59 See Chapter II, n. 26. 60 Rutschowscaya, Catalogue des bois de l’Egypte copte 82, Cat. no. 280. wood furniture and related veneers 245

631 Veneer PL = 12.2 PW = 1.6 Combined PH = ca. 6.9 PL = 42.1 PW = 3.9 Upper section: Inv. no. SP 283 Wood PL = 50.0 PW = 2.2 PTh = 3.2 Wood and ivory veneer Veneer Two-section veneer-covered furniture compo- PL = 47.0 PW = 6.9 nent. A rod with half-round section is joined hor- Lower section: izontally along its flat edge to the narrow edge Wood of one long side of a rectangular board. Similar PL = 45.8 PW = 4.2 PTh = 1.8 to Cat. no. 631 but less well preserved. The Veneer curved veneer on the rod has no finished ends. PL = 43.4 PW = 4.5 On one surface of the rectangular board is a Inv. no. SP 389 + 390 fragment of a veneer border decorated with two Wood and ivory veneer bands, one wider and the other narrower. The piece appears randomly positioned, 1.8 cm from Two-section veneer-covered furniture compo- the cut edge. On the reverse surface of the board nent. A rod with half-round section is joined hor- is a strip of veneer that appears to have had izontally along its flat edge to the narrow edge borders along its two long edges. The short ends of one long side of a rectangular board. The rod are cut, and one corner is cut away diagonally. has two peg holes in its flat edge. The board On the short side adjacent to this cutting are two appears to have an attachment peg on one short lightly incised parallel lines, the outer one mark- end, although it may be simply where the wood ing the end of the strip, which corresponds to the has broken away. A groove may have been cut edge of the wood. The same surface also carries into the long edge of the board opposite the rod. two other fragments of veneer that do not join The cut end of the rod is aligned with one end and appear to have been incorrectly positioned. of the wood, the other end is broken. A strip of veneer on one side of the rectangular board is Found at 14552 X 2183. decorated on one edge with a border, 0.6 cm Pl. VI.27 a-d wide, consisting of two narrow bands followed by a wider one, separated with incised lines. There 633 appears to be another border along the opposite edge; one end is cut on the diagonal; it may have PL = 43.15 been incorrectly placed. PW = 6.8 Not inventoried Pl. VI.26 a, b Ivory 632 Veneer from a rod with half-round section from Combined PH = ca. 7.7 a two-section furniture component similar to Cat. Upper section: nos. 631 and 632. One end is cut, the other Wood broken. Both long sides appear to be cut. PL = 45.4 PW = 2.2 PTh = 1.3 Pl. VI.28 (left) Veneer PL = 29.7 Lower section: Wood PL = 41.5 PW = 5.6 PTh = 3.0 246 chapter vi 634 635

PL = 7.3 Ivory PW = 3.9 Not inventoried Twenty-two small fragments of veneer that have been identified as belonging to the two-section Ivory furniture components similar to Cat. nos. 631 and End piece of veneer from a rod with half-round 632. section from a two-section furniture component similar to Cat. nos. 631 and 632. Pl. VI.28 (right)

H. FLAT PANELS Cat. nos. 636 through 638 are thin, flat wood panels made up of separate boards that were originally covered with ivory veneer (Pl. VI.29a-b; Fig. VI.54). A chamfered edge, ca. 1.7 cm wide, is cut on one surface (Side A) of the two shorter sides of each panel so that they could be fitted into a slot in another furniture component. The reverse surface (Side B) has strips that hold the boards together to make up each panel. The original length of the panels was ca. 45.5 cm; the original width is uncertain, but the best preserved example is 33.4 cm (Cat. no. 636).61 The panels are ca. 0.3 cm thick. There are broken areas along the chamfered edges, perhaps where pegs held the panels in place. The veneer, where it seems to be in its original position, runs across the grain of the boards and would have concealed the joints between adjacent boards. The technical capability in Roman Egypt to saw very thin panels of wood, even thinner than these, is known in funerary panel portraits, which range in minimum thickness from 1.6 to 2.0 millimeters.62 See Chapter VII for a possible reconstruction.

636 The wood is well preserved with only a few minor losses. On Side A, both short edges are cham- L = 45.3 fered to form a tongue 1.7 cm wide. On Side B, PW = 33.4 one fragment of ivory veneer is preserved along PTh = 0.3 one of the short edges, its grain at a right angle Inv. no. SP 396 to that of the wood. Wood with ivory veneer Pl. VI.29 a, b; Fig. VI.54 Wood panel made up of four narrow boards, with a fragment of ivory veneer preserved on one side.

61 The design of the vitrine in which these fragile not possible for this publication. panels have been displayed in the museum has prevented 62 Doxiadis, The Mysterious Fayum Portraits 94. new photographs without a total dismantling that was wood furniture and related veneers 247

637 638

L = 45.6 L = 44.0 PW = 26.7 PW = 28.3 PTh = 0.35 PTh = 0.3 Inv. no. SP 397 Inv. No. SP 398 Wood with ivory veneer Wood with ivory veneer Wood panel made up of three narrow boards, Wood panel made up of three narrow boards with fragments of ivory veneer preserved on both with ivory veneer preserved on both sides. The sides. The wood is well preserved with only a few wood is poorly preserved and fragile. On Side A, minor losses. On Side A, both short sides are both short sides are chamfered to form a tongue chamfered to form a tongue 1.7 cm wide. On 1.5 cm wide. The fragments of veneer, of vary- Side A two strips of ivory veneer are preserved ing shapes and dimensions, some with incised on one of the outer boards, their grain parallel borders, appear to have been reattached in a to that of the wood. On Side B, a strip of wood, completely random fashion, all but three with 1.9 cm wide, is attached along the edge of one their grain at a right angle to that of the wood, of the short sides with its grain at a right angle probably as they were found. It is impossible to to that of the wood. A fragment of ivory incised tell which fragments might be in their original border is attached along this strip. A second piece positions. On Side B, along one short side, a strip of ivory veneer border is attached along the edge of wood, 2.4 cm wide, with an ivory veneer strip of the opposite side. These two pieces of veneer adhered to it, is attached with its grain at a right are possibly in their original positions. angle to that of the wood. Several fragments of ivory veneer are attached to this side; but, as on Side A, they are of varying shapes and dimensions, some with incised borders, and all appear to have been randomly reattached to the surface.

I. VENEER PIECES RELATED TO FURNITURE The following pieces of veneer, some decorated with incised linear borders, were found near the furniture components catalogued above (Pl. VI.30). Catalogue nos. 640 through 644 were found lying in parallel, with Cat. nos. 639 and 645 lying horizontally across each end. Ar- ranged in this way, the veneer that is preserved could have covered a piece of wood approximately 30 cm X 28 cm; however, the accuracy of this estimate is impossible to estab- lish. It was a standard construction practice in ancient Egypt to arrange a vertical row of narrow boards of wood joined at the top and bottom by horizontal boards on chair backs and chests.63 Other furniture components existed in the apse, as indicated by the presence of a quantity of pieces of wood and of many additional fragments of plain veneer that are too frag-

63 Paris, Musée du Louvre, Inv. no. 2950, Egyptian fig. 39; chair with back from tomb of Tutankhamon, New Kingdom chair from Thebes; Richter, Furniture 16, Wanscher, Sella Curulis 49. 248 chapter vi mentary to identify. The pieces whose shapes are judged to be particularly useful for future efforts at reconstruction are catalogued here; the remainder are listed in Appendices 1 and 2 respectively.

639 left to right, this is the second vertical strip in Pl. VI.30. L = 27.3 W = 4.8 Found at 14550 X 2182 Inv. no. SP 339 Pl. VI.30; Fig. VI.55 Ivory 642 Strip of veneer with a double grooved border (Type A) along the upper long side. The right end L = 25.1 is cut obliquely from left to right. The lower long W = 4.1 side and the left end are broken. This is the upper Inv. no. SP 342 horizontal strip in Pl. VI.30. Ivory Found at 14550 X 2182 Strip of veneer cut horizontally. Just below this Pl. VI.30; Fig. VI.55 cut is an incised line; the other three sides are broken. From left to right, this is the third ver- 640 tical strip in Pl. VI.30. L = 24.1 Found at 14550 X 2182 W = 6.9 Inv. no. SP 340 Pl. VI.30 Ivory 643

Strip of veneer, wider at the bottom than at the L = 24.1 top. The top end is cut; the lower end is broken. W = 6.2 From left to right, this is the first vertical strip in Inv. no. SP 343 Pl. VI.30. Ivory Found at 14550 X 2182 Strip of veneer with all edges broken. From left Pl. VI.30 to right, this is the fourth vertical strip in Pl. VI.30. 641 Found at 14550 X 2182 L = 25.3 W = 6.2 Pl. VI.30 Inv. no. SP 341 Ivory Strip of veneer with a double grooved border (Type A) along both long sides. The top end is broken; the lower end is cut. To the right of the cut end is an oblique cut, running left to right across the border on the lower right side. From wood furniture and related veneers 249

644 645

L = 21.9 L = 26.8 W = 0.71 W = 4.65 Inv. no. SP 344 Inv. no. SP 345 Ivory Ivory Strip of veneer, wider at the bottom than at the Strip of veneer with a double grooved border top. The top end is cut horizontally; the other (Type A) along the lower long side. The right end three sides are broken. From left to right, this is is cut obliquely away from the border. The oth- the fifth vertical strip in Pl. VI.30. er long side, which abutted the five vertical strips above, and the left end are broken. This is the Found at 14550 X 2182 lower horizontal strip in Pl. VI.30. Pl. VI.30 Found at 14550 X 2182. Pl. VI.30; Fig. VI.55

J. CABRIOLE LEGS Three cabriole legs and plain veneer associated with them and/or a similar leg are preserved. There are two types of leg, differing slightly in width and curvature. The more elaborate type has a pronounced S-curve that doubles back and then flares out toward the bottom to form the foot (Pl. VI.31 a-c). A vertical extension at the top, into which mortises are cut at right angles, served to attach the leg to the furniture it supported. The simpler type of leg has a more elongated and less pronounced curve and no vertical extension at the top (Pl. VI.33 a-c). Because they are very close in height and because one of each type was found together (Cat. nos. 646 and 648), it is probable that they came from a single piece of furniture, possibly a lectus or stibadium frame or an elaborate cupboard or armarium. The more elaborately curved legs, one of which was preserved entirely veneered with ivory, probably supported the front corners. The single less elaborate leg, which has one flat side and the outer curve veneered in bone, was probably a rear leg. The amount of related ivory veneer that is preserved is equivalent to that needed to have covered about 75 percent of a cabriole leg and might come from the second elaborate front leg that was found without any veneer on it (Cat. no. 647). It is likely that the outer surfaces of the rear legs were veneered with ivory, and the inner surfaces with bone, since one rear leg was not preserved and all of the loose veneer that clearly belongs is ivory. Cabriole legs were most commonly used to support tables. Six tables with cabriole legs and three table legs from Herculaneum include a fine example, 67 cm high, probably from the House of the Mosaic Atrium, with the legs decorated at the top of the curve with lion protomai and at the foot with paws.64 Simpler and cruder cabriole-type legs with a straight

64 Mols, Houten Meubels in Herculaneum 177-8, Cat. no. 14, figs. 94-6. 250 chapter vi extension above the upper curve were used on a wood table found at Karanis. Elaborate versions of cabriole table legs are represented in dining scenes from Pompeii and Hercu- laneum,65 and a round table with four cabriole-type legs is illustrated in the scene showing Nestor’s tent in the Ilias Ambrosiana.66 The height of the fully preserved cabriole legs supporting tables from Herculaneum ranges from 60.5 to 63.5 cm, much taller than those from Kenchreai.67 Therefore, it is unlikely that the legs catalogued here are from tables, as they apparently are too short and the tables were usually supported on three legs, not four. A four-legged stool from Herculaneum may be a more likely parallel for the Kenchreai legs, because at 42.2 cm its legs are in the same height range, but the shape of the legs is not similar: they are identical, straight rectangles.68 Also, the legs of this stool are joined by not one but two ranges of stretchers. The shape of the Kenchreai legs is not typical for Roman beds either; bed legs are round or rectangular in section. Also, all three or four legs on Roman tables and four legs on Roman beds are normally identical, but at Kenchreai two slightly different legs were found, in pairs. The Kenchreai cabriole legs could have supported a good-sized chest. There is at least one representation that demonstrates such use. A slender and elegant example of a wood cabriole leg with a lion’s paw foot and a lion’s head protome near the top, excavated at the Roman fort at Oberaden, is now at the Westfälisches Museum für Archäologie, Münster.69 Its height, 57.5 cm, is greater than the Kenchreai legs, and it has a tenon projecting vertically from the top, unlike the mortices cut into the Kenchreai legs. Armaria or kibotoi were made in various shapes and sizes. They developed from an earlier Greek cabinet, known from representations, from terracotta examples, and from preserved ivory doors. They consisted of four upright posts and a horizontal container with access from the front via two small doors.70 Such cabinets were decorated with inset panels, moldings, in some cases consoles, and rows of rosettes or other circular designs.71 By at least the first century, such furniture had become much larger. Very large wood armaria set into alcoves in the walls of both domestic and public libraries, were used as book cabinets.72 In “On Tranquility of Mind,” Seneca mentions disparagingly the use of books as interior decoration in dining rooms and describes luxurious armaria made of citrus wood and ivory.73 Some

65 Ann Arbor, Kelsey Museum of Archaeology, Inv. 71 Budde, Armarium 11. Byzantine manuscripts with no. 10220; Maguire et al., Art and Holy Powers 114-5, Cat. representations of the evangelists and other writers often no. 44; Gazda, Karanis 24, fig. 39; Richter, Furniture fig. include representations of structures that have been taken 379. for buildings, but bear some resemblance to armaria, 66 Milan, Bibliotheca Ambrosiana, Cod. Ambros. including surface decoration; e.g., Paris, Bibliothèque 1019, F. 205 Inf.; R. Bianchi-Bandinelli, Hellenistic- nationale, Suppl. Gr. 1262, 184v, a representation of St. Byzantine Miniatures of the Iliad (Ilias Ambrosiana) (Olten, Paul writing; Spatharakis, Corpus of Dated Illuminated Greek 1955) 104, fig. 199. Manuscripts 37, Cat. no. 116, fig. 222. 67 Mols, Houten Meubels in Herculaneum 177-8, Cat. no. 72 Fantham, Roman Literary Culture 202; Strocka, Haus 14; 180, Cat. no. 15; and 183, Cat. no. 17. mit Privatbibliothek 323, fig. 1 shows the plan of Pompeii 68 Mols, Houten Meubels in Herculaneum 191-2, Cat. no. VI,17,41 with a library located between a cubiculum and 23, figs. 123-6. a triclinium, with rectangular niches inset in the north wall 69 Fund no. Oa 82. 193/k1; Kaiser Augustus 592-3, for large, wood bookcases. Cat. no. 430, 73 IX, 5-6. 70 Budde, Armarium 9-11. wood furniture and related veneers 251 armaria consisted of two separate components, set one on top of the other, as in the well- preserved wood example found in Herculaneum in the Casa del Sacello in Legno.74 The upper part of this armarium is decorated with two prostyle Corinthian columns; both the top and bottom elements have bifold doors, each faced with two vertical recessed panels, one above the other, the lower panel taller than the upper in a ratio of about 7:4. Not all chests were as large or followed this vertical design. The fourth-century chest from Qustul discussed above (Pl. V.2), possibly used for book rolls, is a rectangular, flat-topped example of medium size, with the case raised on rectangular legs. Other chest or large casket designs have hipped, gabled, or arched tops.75 Illustrations of small chests supported by lion’s-paw cabriole legs occur on reliefs with naval trophies and priestly emblems in the Palazzo dei Con- servatori, Rome.76 The possible use of the cabriole legs from Kenchreai as supports for a chest is discussed further in Chapter VII.

646 On the back, 1.9 cm from the top and 1.9 cm from the left edge, is a second rectangular mor- L = 45.1 Leg: tise, 1.8 X 5 cm. These mortices were probably L = 33.0 at the same level and could have held the ten- PTh = 4.5 ons from two rectangular framing pieces at right PW of upper curve = 6.0 angles to one another. PW of lower curve = 5.0 The ivory veneer is well preserved on all sides, PW of foot = 7.5 with some losses on the left side and back at the Upper vertical piece: foot and on all four sides of the upper vertical L of front = 12.1 extension. The veneer for each face of the leg was L of back = 18.4 cut from a single sheet of ivory, with separate PTh = 6.3 pieces added to cover the back and front of the Inv no. SP 259 vertical extension. Wood with ivory veneer Found at 14555 X 2184 S-curved leg of a large piece of furniture, cov- Pl. VI.31a-c; Fig. VI.56a-d ered with ivory veneer. A vertical extension with two rectangular mortises extends from the top of 647 the S while, at the lower end, the S straightens out into a vertical foot with a pronounced flare L = 39.4 at the base. In the base of the foot, roughly at Leg: the center, is a small nail hole. PW of upper curve = 4.5 The vertical portion at the top is higher at the PW of lower curve = 4.7 back than at the front and forms a narrow, deep PW of foot = 5.1 curve with the S. On the left edge of the top are PTh = 1.0 the lower and right edges of a mortise for a rect- Upper vertical piece: angular tenon. It is 4.3 cm from the right edge. L of front = 12.0

74 Maiuri, Ercolano 41-2, Pl. 23; Budde, Armarium 12- 75 Loverdou-Tsigarida, ÏóôÝévá ðëáêßäéá, 347, 13, 60, fig. 3; Deiss, Herculaneum 91, 108; for full sketches 1-11 of preserved examples. bibliography and discussion see Mols, Houten Meubels in 76 Inv. no. 2426; Kaiser Augustus 364-9, Cat. no. 200, Herculaneum 202-6, Cat. no. 29, figs. 139-45. figs. 166, 166f, 166g, and 166i. 252 chapter vi

L of back = 15.7 the upper and lower curves of the S. The veneer PTh = 1.2 along the outer edge of the curve is preserved Inv no. SP 239 + 240 from the foot to just below the join in the veneer on the flat side. The upper end is cut and the Wood lower end is broken. The veneer along the in- S-curved leg of a large piece of furniture. A ver- ner edge of the curve is of ivory. It is cut at the tical extension with one rectangular mortise ex- foot and broken off 3 cm from the top. It is tends from the top of the S, while, at the lower doubtful whether this piece of veneer belongs. end, the S straightens out into a vertical foot with Found at 14555 X 2184 a pronounced flare at the base. This leg is obviously the same type as Cat. no. 646, but it was Pl. VI.33 a-c; Fig. VI.57 not conserved and is now too warped and shrunk- 649 en to provide much information. The preserved mortise appears to correspond PW = 5.9 to the mortise at the left edge of Cat. no. 646. PL = 15.1 Its preserved dimensions are 1.7 X 4.4 cm. Uninventoried Reassembled from two pieces. Ivory Found at 14556 X 2189 Veneer from the upper part of the S curve from Pl. VI.32 a furniture leg (see Cat. no. 646). The cut edge at the top of the curve in front of the vertical 648 extension is preserved, as is a section of cut edge below the curve. A section of cut edge is also L = 33.1 preserved on the opposite side below the verti- Leg: cal extension. PW of upper curve = 5.5 PW of lower curve = 5.0 650 PW of foot = 5.8 PTh = 3.3 PW = 5.5 Inv no. SP 260 PL = 15.9 Uninventoried Wood with bone and ivory (possibly not belonging) veneer Ivory S-curved leg of a large piece of furniture, cov- Veneer from the foot end of an S-shaped furni- ered with bone veneer on one flat side and the ture leg. The foot end is cut, and the two sides outer curve. This leg has a more elongated shape are broken. The front edge is cut, as is the cor- with less pronounced curves than Cat. no. 646. responding back edge. The upper end of the leg is broken off just after 651 the curve, which appears to have continued horizontally rather than to have curved sharply PW = 54.5 downward as does the lower edge of the exten- PL = 9.5 sion on Cat. no. 646. At the lower end there is Uninventoried a deeper curve at the point where the foot comes down vertically to end in a flared base. In the Ivory bottom of the foot is a nail hole. Veneer from an S-shaped furniture leg. The The preserved veneer is made up of two pieces upper end is cut horizontally, and the lower end of bone joined diagonally at the juncture between is cut obliquely from left to right. Both sides are wood furniture and related veneers 253 broken. The piece appears to curve slightly to the incised line below and parallel to it. The piece right. curves outward. The right side also appears to be cut. It possibly may be the veneer from the 652 top of an S, with the cut end fitting under the veneer on the vertical extension up to the incised PW = 3.6 line. PL = 11.1 Uninventoried 656 Ivory PW = 2.7 Veneer from an S-shaped furniture leg. The PL = 6.5 upper end is cut and may be a left edge. The Inv. no. SP 454 other two sides are broken. At the lower edge is Ivory a tongue-shaped break where the ivory has split away along the edge of a lamella. Veneer from an S-shaped furniture leg. The upper end is cut in a curve rising from left to 653 right. All of the other edges are broken.

PW = 2.8 657 PL = 14.8 Uninventoried PW = 3.9 PL = 11.2 Ivory Uninventoried Veneer from an S-shaped furniture leg. The Ivory upper end is cut and may be a left edge. The other two sides are broken. The piece curves up Veneer from an S-shaped furniture leg. The from the cut end into a shallow S. upper and lower ends on the left side are cut obliquely from left to right and from right to left, 654 respectively. The lower end appears cut, the other two sides are broken. It may be from the outer PW = 1.8 edge of a curve. PL = 9.6 Uninventoried 658 Ivory PW = 5.0 Veneer from an S-curved furniture leg. The PL = 10.12 upper and lower ends are cut obliquely from left Inv. no. SP 454 to right and from right to left, respectively. It is Ivory possibly from the lower curve of a leg. Veneer from an S-shaped furniture leg. The low- 655 er end is cut and to its left is a curved indentation with a cut edge. The upper end and right PW = 3.65 side are broken, with what appears to be the PL = 12.3 beginning of a curved cut at the upper end of the Uninventoried right side. Ivory Veneer from an S-curved furniture leg. The upper end is cut horizontally and has a lightly 254 chapter vi

659 incised line below and parallel to it. All of the other edges are broken. The piece curves out- PW = 2.8 ward. PL = 13.0 Uninventoried 661 Ivory PW = 3.2 Veneer from an S-shaped furniture leg. All of the PL = 15.5 edges are broken, but at about the midpoint on Uninventoried one side is a cut indentation. Ivory 660 Veneer from an S-shaped furniture leg. The upper end is cut horizontally. The left side is also PW = 3.2 cut. The other edges are broken. PL = 16.1 Uninventoried Ivory Veneer from an S-shaped furniture leg. The upper end is cut horizontally and has a lightly

K. STEPPED STRETCHERS Cat. nos. 662 through 665 are rectangular, beveled, strips of wood, with one short end stepped down (Pls. VI.34, VI.35). The top surface of the higher end is veneered in ivory and finished straight across with rounded corners. The veneer was cut to fit the shape of the wood. There is a nail hole through the center of the lower, stepped-down end. On the best preserved example (Cat. no. 662), the top surface of the stepped end is ca. 7.4 cm long and 5.0 cm wide. Both the crossed-leg chair legs and the cabriole legs have a nail hole in their bottoms, indicating that there was a protective piece of some sort attached; but the stepped ends of these strips are too large to fit the crossed-leg chair legs. However, the top surface of the stepped end of Cat. no. 662 closely fits the bottom of one of the better preserved cabriole legs, Cat. no. 646, which is 7.5 by 4.5, and the nail holes align. The stepped stretchers were found near the cabriole legs and therefore probably come from the same piece of furniture. The top surface of the strips was visible, as it was carefully veneered in ivory. Originally the stretchers must have run from the front to the rear of the furniture, at floor level on both sides. While this design may seem awkward, stretchers running from front to rear at floor level occur elsewhere in Roman furniture.77

77 For example, a bed from the Casa del Tramezzo laneum 151-2, Cat. no. 1, figs. 33-6 with full bibl. in Legno, Herculaneum; Mols, Houten Meubels in Hercu- wood furniture and related veneers 255

662 surfaces. The stepped end is broken at the nail hole. The other end is has rounded corners. W = 6.2 Ivory veneer is preserved on the thicker por- PL = 20.1 tion of the stretcher. Both ends are cut. One end Th = 1.4 has rounded corners which coincide with the L of stepped end = 8.3 shape of the wood. The veneer, however, is 4.5 D of step = 0.6 cm shorter than the thicker portion of the wood Veneer and is, possibly, incorrectly positioned. W = 4.4 L = 15.4 Found near 14555 X 2184 Inv. No. SP 285 Pl. VI.35 Wood with ivory veneer 664 Rectangular strip of wood with beveled edges and one end stepped. The stepped end has a nail hole PW = 2.5 roughly through the center. Traces of iron cor- PL = 21.0 rosion around it on both sides. This end of the Th = 1.2 strip is finished and the other is broken. L of stepped end = 1.1 Ivory veneer is preserved on the thicker por- D of step = 0.3 tion of the stretcher. Both ends are cut; the end Inv. no. SP 243 toward the stepped end is cut straight, the other Wood end has rounded corners on either end of a straight edge. Parallel to this edge and 0.6 cm Fragment of a rectangular strip of wood with from it is a lightly incised line. beveled edges and one end stepped. The stepped end has a nail hole in the center, and part of the Found near 14555 X 2184 nail is possibly preserved. The length of the Pl. VI.34; Fig. VI.58 stepped end is complete. The piece was not conserved and has warped and shrunk. 663 665 W = 6.1 PL = 18.5 PW = 2.7 Th = 1.8 PL = 14.8 PL of stepped end = 3.8 Th = 1.3 D of step = 0.4 L of stepped end = 7.0 Veneer D of step = 0.3 W = 4.2 Inv. no. SP 244 L = 10.0 Wood Inv. no. SP 286 Fragment of a rectangular strip of wood with Wood with ivory veneer beveled edges and one end stepped. The stepped Rectangular strip of wood with beveled edges and end has a nail hole in the center. The length of one end stepped. The stepped end has a nail hole the stepped end is complete. The piece was not in the center and traces of iron corrosion on both conserved and has warped and shrunk. 256 chapter vi

Fig. VI.3a. Crossed-leg chair side viewed from outer side; Cat. nos. 519 (top right), 520 (bottom left), 521 (bottom right), 530 (top left) (1:3) wood furniture and related veneers 257

Fig. VI.3b. Crossed-leg chair side viewed from inner side; Cat. nos. 519 (top left), 520 (bottom right), 521 (bottom left), 530 (top right) (1:3) 258 chapter vi

Fig. VI.4a. Crossed-leg chair side viewed from outer side; Cat. nos. 522 (bottom left), 523 (bottom right), 532 (top left) (1:3) wood furniture and related veneers 259

Fig. VI.4b. Crossed-leg chair side viewed from inner side; Cat. nos. 522 (bottom right), 523 (bottom left), 532 (top right) (1:3) 260 chapter vi Fig. VI.5a. Lower crossed-leg chair side viewed from outer side; Cat. nos. 526 (lower left), 527 right) (1:3) Fig. VI.5b. Lower crossed-leg chair side viewed from inner side; Cat. nos. 526 (lower right), 527 left) (1:3) wood furniture and related veneers 261

Fig. VI.6. Lower crossed-leg chair leg; Cat. no. 528, viewed from outer side (left) and inner side (right) (1:3) 262 chapter vi Fig. VI.7. Lower crossed-leg chair leg; Cat. no. 526, viewed from outer side (left) and inner (right) (1:3) catalogue and analysis of wood furniture and related veneers 263 Fig. VI.8. Stretcher; Cat. no. 540 front view (top) and top (bottom) (1:2) 264 chapter vi

(Fig. VI.9: follows p. 234)

Fig. VI.10. Cat. no. 547

Fig. VI.11. Cat. no. 552

Fig. VI.12. Cat. no. 553

Fig. VI.13. Cat. no. 554 wood furniture and related veneers 265

Fig. VI.14. Cat. no. 555

Fig. VI.15. Cat. no. 558

Fig. VI.16. Cat. no. 566.

Fig. VI.17. Cat. no. 567

Fig. VI.18. Cat. no. 575 266 chapter vi

(Fig. VI.19: follows p. 234)

Fig. VI.20. Cat. no. 579 (detail)

Fig. VI.21a. Cat. no. 580 (1:2) wood furniture and related veneers 267

Fig. VI.21b. Cat. no. 580 (detail).

Fig. VI.22. Cat. no. 581

Fig. VI.23. Cat. no. 582

Fig. VI.24. Cat. no. 583 268 chapter vi

Fig. VI.25. Cat. no. 584

Fig. VI.26. Cat. no. 585 Fig. VI.27. Cat. no. 586

Fig. VI.28. Cat. no. 587 Fig. VI.29. Cat. no. 590

Fig. VI.30. Cat. no. 591 Fig. VI.31. Cat. no. 592 wood furniture and related veneers 269

Fig. VI.32. Cat. no. 593

Fig. VI.33. Cat. no. 594

Fig. VI.34. Cat. no. 595

Fig. VI.35. Cat. no. 596

Fig. VI.36. Cat. no. 597 Fig. VI.37. Cat. no. 598

Fig. VI.38. Cat. no. 599 270 chapter vi

Fig. VI.39. Cat. no. 600

Fig. VI.40. Cat. no. 601 Fig. VI.41. Cat. no. 602

Fig. VI.42. Cat. no. 603 Fig. VI.43. Cat. no. 604 Fig. VI.44. Cat. no. 605

Fig. VI.45. Cat. no. 607 Fig. VI.46. Cat. no. 608 Fig. VI.47. Cat. no. 609

Fig. VI.48. Cat. no. 610 wood furniture and related veneers 271

Fig. VI.49. Cat. no. 611 Fig. VI.50. Cat. no. 612

Fig. VI.51. Cat. no. 613 Fig. VI.52. Cat no. 616

Fig. VI.53. Cat. no. 621 (1:2) Fig. VI.55. Type A Border, Cat. nos. 639, 641 272 chapter vi

SIDE B

SIDE A

Fig. VI.54. Cat. no. 636 (1:5) wood furniture and related veneers 273

Fig. VI.57. Cat. no. 648 (1:2) 274 chapter vi

Fig. VI.58. Cat. no. 662 (1:2) furniture reconstructions, provenance, dating, setting, and function 275

CHAPTER VII

FURNITURE RECONSTRUCTIONS, PROVENANCE, DATING, SETTING, AND FUNCTION

The wood fragments and related veneers and plaques of ivory and bone from Kenchreai are, in part, unique. To the authors’ knowledge, no other examples of Roman ivory and/ or bone veneered crossed-leg wood chairs of this type have survived.1 Plaques on small caskets and components of bone beds are preserved2 ; but, with the exception of the chest from Qustul, the range of decoration found on the ivory and bone veneers from Kenchreai is attested only by isolated plaques. A substantial number exist, but most lack specific provenance or evidence of date. And of the surviving examples of caskets and chests decorated with ivory and/or bone inlays or attachments, none, save the one from Qustul, come close to the large size that the Kenchreai plaques might have decorated nor show such an array of high quality— if extremely fragmentary—veneers, plaques, and attachments. On the other hand, quite a few representations of chairs, caskets, and armaria are known, although most do not provide much detailed information about the decoration. Parallels in metal provide valuable information, as there is evidence for the relationship of objects made of silver to ones made of bone and ivory.3 Unfortunately, the surviving consular diptychs, helpful though they are as models for the poses, drapery, and other details of figures, all were made later than the second third of the fourth century, when the Kenchreai furniture was likely produced.4 Hindered by the lack of surviving parallels and the fragmentary condition of the objects themselves, the authors have been unable to determine some aspects of the design and construction of the Kenchreai furniture and its decoration. On the other hand, there are possible explanations for the use of these furnishings and good evidence for the period to which they can be dated. The early view of the excavators that the furniture had been discarded or even thrown from above into the apsidal room,

1 In “Sellae Curules” del Teatro di Ercolano 143, Schäfer same type of backless type; see Schäfer, Imperii insignia points out that Richter refers to wood chairs in error in 2-9, 46. Ancient Furniture 126. Etruscan examples include an ivory 2 For caskets with incised bone plaques, see Lover- fragment from the Tomba Montagnola in Quinto dou-Tsigarida, ÏóôÝévá ðëáêßäéá; Albertoni, Lastrine di Fiorentino, a fairly complete ivory sella curulis from the Rivestimento. For low-relief plaques, see Marangou, Bone Tomba dello Sgabello in Bologna (Museo Civico, Inv. Carvings from Egypt. For lecti, see Nicholls, A Roman Couch; no. 17274), remains of a wood sella in Cerveteri (Mu- Nicholls, More Bone Couches; Letta, Due letti funerari. seum, unpubl.), and evidence of others from the bronze 3 St. Clair, Carving as Craft 15-6. fittings used to connect the legs and to protect the feet 4 The preserved diptychs extend from the consulship of the legs. The bronze sellae curules from Herculaneum of Probus in 406 to that of Basileus in 541, when the (Naples, Inv. nos. 73152 and 73153) are examples of the consulship ended. 276 chapter vii which they believed to be an unroofed fountain court, seems unlikely. The main deposit of chairs was located near the center of the space, as if placed together there, and not along the entrance wall or near the perimeter of the room. Also, if—as seems likely in view of its mosaic floor and its function as suggested by the floor plan—the room was a roofed oecus/ stibadium, casual discard seems even less plausible. It seems more apt to be the case that these broken furnishings remained where they had been used or, if moved from another location, were placed in this room either because they were hopelessly damaged and/or because the function they had served ceased to exist and repair, even if possible, was irrelevant. For example, if the suggestion made above in Chapter VI is correct, that the cabriole legs, bone rings, and miniature architectural elements were from an elaborate armarium for scrolls and codices, the widespread public book burnings and destruction of private libraries by their owners known to have been carried out in 371, or at some other time, might not only have caused damage to an armarium but also eliminated any further use for it.5 This chapter presents some additional thoughts about reconstructions based on objects that share a relationship—stylistic, iconographic, or both—that may have bearing on the provenance and the date(s) when the objects were produced. Determining a precise provenance through stylistic analysis of local styles is complex because of the Roman practice of commissioning objects from (and for) remote sources, as is doubtless the case for both the Kenchreai glass opus sectile and the furniture.6 The conclusion suggests the possible use to which these furnishings were devoted, the function of the room in which they were found, and the sort of owner who may have possessed such luxuries.

A. RECONSTRUCTIONS

No group of fragments catalogued in the preceding chapters can be reassembled into a complete object, but there seem to be materials catalogued in different categories that can be shown with some likelihood to have belonged together. These connections provide the basis for suggestions about the original appearance of some objects, although not complete or certain reconstructions. Even in the case of the figural panels, most of which are extremely fragmentary, there are either no, or few, similar complete examples to provide evidence of content and composition. However, certain subjects on the Kenchreai fragments occur in other mediums, especially mosaic and silver, and these offer assistance in reconstructing some of the panels. The association of certain subjects in these representations also provides evidence

5 Amm. Marc. xxxix. i.41; ii. 4; in view of the cruel to 388, thus avoiding trouble when his correspondence executions carried out on people suspected of practis- was inspected in 371 (Or. i 175-7); see Norman, Book ing sorcery under Valentinian I, ownership of even Trade 125; Liebeschuetz, Antioch 30. The risk posed by straightforward scholarly books might have made their the contents of an armarium during the reign of Diocletian owners nervous, see A.A. Barb, “The Survival of Magic is preserved in the Gesta apud Zenophilum consularem, CSEL Arts,” in Momigliano, Conflict Between Paganism and Chris- 26:186-8. tianity 116-7. Not everyone was as prudent as Libanius, 6 Thomas, Late Antique Egyptian Funerary Sculpture 105 who apparently censored his correspondence from 365 n. 11. furniture reconstructions, provenance, dating, setting, and function 277 about which of the Kenchreai panels and plaques may have decorated the same object. And— while using caution when making chronological comparisons—parallels among mosaics, sarcophagi, and other stone sculptures, glass, silver, textiles, coins, seals, and North African red slip wares with representations of figures, objects, and scenic compositions provide clues about the iconography of the Kenchreai finds.7 Even though there was no late Roman koine as far as style is concerned, the repertoire of iconography was sufficiently widespread to provide some certainty in suggesting parallels.8 Pattern books likely served as records of, and sources for, imagery and designs for a wide range of mediums in various sizes. Designs may have been traced directly as patterns for objects of more or less the same size; e.g., ivory plaques and silver plate.9 This procedure would explain awkward disparities in scale among figures in a single scene, such as is the case for the Kenchreai Thiasos Panel. Images of furniture from pattern books can similarly be presumed to provide reliable models for the proposed appearance of the Kenchreai furniture. As described in Chapter I, a three-dimensional coordinate grid was used to record the find spots of materials excavated at Kenchreai. Review of the data for objects for which a specific location was recorded was our basis for relating fragments likely to belong together. It must, of course, be kept in mind that if some, or all, of the furniture was moved to the apsidal room after damage, parts that originally belonged together might have been dispersed, while parts from different objects might have ended up in close association. Also, wood— even large pieces—was often found floating, possibly quite far from its original point of deposit. And some fragments were discovered only during the cleaning and conservation of other objects, so their find spots are unknown. During the first exploration of the apsidal room in 1964, a nozzle that directed a stream of water under high pressure was initially used to excavate a part of the area, and small fragments of very thin veneer, for example from the Curved Panel, were extremely difficult to see in the turbid water until strategies were used to control and improve the equipment’s use.10 It is entirely possible that some pieces were washed to the opposite side of the room from their original location. For these reasons, the descriptions that follow are intended only to suggest possible reconstructions and should not be taken as certain. Alternative, and more likely, suggestions are solicited.

Crossed-leg Chairs In the area extending from 14551-14552 X 2182-2183 was excavated a mass of broken furniture, which appeared primarily or entirely to belong to wood chairs. The pieces of wood were badly damaged and, in their removal, large pieces of the ivory and bone veneers with which they were covered became detached.11 Parts of an ivory-veneered crossed-leg chair

7 Dunbabin warns against using mosaics as a basis 10 J.W. Shaw, “Shallow-Water Excavation at for dating works in other mediums, Dunbabin, Mosaics Kenchreai,” AJA 71 (1967) 230-1. of Roman North Africa 33. 11 Because of the pressure under which this removal 8 As, e.g., Trilling, The Medallion Style 3; Friedman, was accomplished, many elements of wood and veneer Beyond the Pharaohs 23. were not separately numbered. As far as the authors have 9 Loverdou-Tsigarida, ÏóôÝévá ðëáêßäéá 64-6, esp. 64 been able to determine, there are no notes now avail- n. 4. able that record specifically which veneer came from 278 chapter vii were found together, including the dolphin arms (Cat. nos. 579 and 580) excavated at 14551 X 2183, and the chair legs under them (Cat. nos. 519-523 and 530). Pieces of compound molding found at 14552 X 2183 (Cat. nos. 613-620) could have decorated some element of this chair. An undecorated stretcher (Cat. no. 540) veneered entirely with ivory was found nearby at 14549 X 2183. A hypothetical reconstruction of this chair (Fig. VI.1) positions the dolphins as arms between the upper parts of the crossed legs, with a leather sling, suspended from horizontal bars running between the legs, as the seat. This reconstruction is based on the representations of dolphin-arm crossed-leg chairs on a sarcophagus in Arles (Pl. VI.1a-b) and on views from the rear of similar chairs on the ivory relief in Dijon (Pl. VI.4), as discussed in Chapter VI.12 Additional furniture elements were found nearby at 14551 X 2182, and these were proposed in Chapter VI to be part of a second crossed-leg chair. Unlike the first chair, it was apparently elaborately decorated and veneered with a combination of bone and ivory. To it belong the lower parts of two legs (Cat. nos. 526 and 527). The other parts of legs that may be from this chair, because they also are in part veneered with bone, include Cat. nos. 528, 532, and 533. Cat. no. 529 may also belong, although no veneer is preserved and it is shrunken and warped. The abstract fish design of ivory and bone veneers, mainly found around 14550 X 2181, could also have belonged to the decorated arms of this chair.13 At least one fragment of a stretcher veneered with bone decorated with floral ornament with buds was also found at 14451 X 2182 (Cat. no. 546). There are additional similar fragments of veneer incised with foliated spiral ornaments of both bone and ivory, suggesting that this elaborate chair may have had two decorated stretchers running between the legs, which were veneered with ivory on the outer surfaces and with bone on the less visible surfaces. A hypothetical reconstruction of this chair is proposed in Fig. VI.2. Two other parts of legs from a crossed-leg chair veneered with ivory are also preserved (Cat. nos. 524 and 525). These could be the remnants of a third chair. In the same location as the first chair, in the area extending from 14551-14552 X 2182- 2183, were recovered three thin wood panels from a piece of furniture (Cat. nos. 636-638). The panels originally were thought to be from the high back of a throne-like chair, which is described in the field notebook as being about 80 cm high and having an arched top. However, what originally was thought to be the arched top turned out to be two curved chair legs. A subsequent idea, that the three unequally-sized panels formed seats for crossed- leg stools, is not likely. The panels are very thin, probably too thin to support the weight of a sitter. They may have been veneered on both sides, and thus both flat surfaces might have been visible. However, the latter idea that these were separate panels was probably correct, and, if not seats, they could have formed three sides of a large rectangular casket that col- lapsed, leaving the panels in a row. Perhaps belonging with these flat panels are the three wood boards with attached half-round rods, all veneered in ivory (Cat. nos. 631-635), at least one of which was recovered in the same location at 14552 X 2183. It appears from the

which piece of wood, nor notes about any that were 12 See Chapter VI, nn. 37 and 41. detached during conservation. 13 See Chapter VI, Section D. furniture reconstructions, provenance, dating, setting, and function 279

Fig. VII.1. Crossed-leg Chair; hypothetical placement of Egg-and-Dart Molding (1:6) 280 chapter vii photograph taken during their excavation, that two of these board-and-rod parts were found propped up at a right angle to the panels, as they would have been if they served as a frame for them (Pl. VI. 29a). As described in Chapter VI, the edges of the flat panels have areas of damage at the same distance from their ends as the locations of the pegs that connect the rods and boards. It may be that the ends of the rods that extend beyond the boards could have formed short feet for a rectangular container, whether lidded or not is uncertain, possibly a scrinium to hold book rolls. Another possible function of the panels is that they were shelves from the interior of a large armarium. In this case, the boards with attached rods could have served as the front edge of the shelves that held the rolls and/or codices in place. Images of crossed-leg chairs are represented with both plain and decorated arched backs.14 The arch of ivory egg-and-dart molding was found not too far from the chairs, some at 14549 X 2185, some at 14558 X 2180 in the apse of the apsidal room, and some at 14552 X 2185 (Cat. nos. 351-378). Because a substantial portion of the arch was found in an undisturbed sequence, the individual elements must still have been attached to the wood panel it decorated at the time it was destroyed or discarded. Although no evidence survives for its original position, the width across the bottom of the arch formed by the egg-and-dart molding is appropriate for it to have been attached to the top of one of the crossed-leg chairs. The exterior diameter proposed for the arch is ca. 49 cm, roughly equivalent to the exterior width of the chairs between ca. 48.5 and 51.75 cm. If this proposal is correct, the curved panel that the egg-and-dart molding framed would have been pegged into the upper ends of the legs, where it would have extended above the top of the leather seat (Fig. VII.1). Although the one upper leg from the ivory chair that survives complete does not appear to have a mortise to hold such a tenon, the arch of egg-and-dart molding could have belonged to the top of the second or third chair, for which none of the upper ends of crossed legs are well enough preserved to provide evidence. This proposed back reconstructs a chair close in appearance to the chairs on the Dijon relief (Pl. VI.4). The main argument against this proposal is that, unless the upper parts of the legs were longer than seems to have been the case, the back of the chair would have been too low for the arched top to have been very visible when in use. It is alternately possible that the egg-and-dart molding decorated the arched lid of a casket; however, there is apparently no known close parallel for this reconstruction.15 It is not likely that the arch of egg-and-dart molding framed the curved bone panel (Cat. nos. 5-45). The diameter at the base of the panel is about 60 cm, and so the egg-and-dart molding was not wide enough to fit. Nor was the arch found near the location of most of the panel.

14 For example, the chair represented on the sar- from the Byzantine period, and the curved bone panel cophagus from Aphrodisias; see Chapter VI, n. 24. excavated in the Athenian Agora (see below n. 172) 15 Caskets typically have gabled or hipped roofs. clearly decorated a small casket with an arched top. There are, however, large wood chests with arched tops furniture reconstructions, provenance, dating, setting, and function 281

Hypothetical Armarium Scattered throughout the apse but mainly toward the north side of the apsidal room, distinct from the deposits that constitute the crossed-leg chairs, were heterogeneous pieces of wood, of plain veneer, and of ivory and bone decoration (see Plan I.3 for grid locations). Although there is no specific evidence to support the hypothesis, it is proposed that all or most of these pieces might have come from one large, elaborately decorated piece of furniture; namely, a large cupboard, or armarium. In 1964, the season when the apsidal room was discovered, several fragments of ivory and bone veneer were recovered from the northeast corner of the rectangular section of the room at 14555.5 X 2185.7, including two pieces of bone spiral, a pilaster capital in low relief (Cat. no. 516), a curved segment of a bone ring, beveled blocks (Cat. nos. 431-442), decorated blocks (Cat. nos. 443-447), and numerous fragments of decorated veneer from what is now called the Curved Panel. Further east, at 14556 X 2189, under the later concrete floor that overlay this area (see Chapter I), was recovered a cabriole-style furniture leg (Cat. no. 647) and a fragment of a veneer strip decorated with a design of rectangles, diamonds, and ovals. Further west, in the area between 14555-56 X 2182-83, were found a miniature ivory Corinthian capital and a column base (Cat. no. 404). In 1965, in roughly the same area at 14555.5 X 2183.5, two additional cabriole furniture legs (Cat. nos. 646 and 648) were found. Next to these, at 14555.5 X 2184, were found what was described in the field notebook as wood panels lying on a layer of seaweed. These finds were not separately numbered and cannot now be identified. These panels may have formed the sides of a case supported on the cabriole legs. In the north half of the room, at 14558 X 2180, were found miniature wood columns and both decorated and undecorated veneers, including a fragment of the Outstretched Arm Panel (Cat. no. 89), a fragment of veneer from Animal Panel I (Cat. no. 61), and numerous fragments of the Rectangle, Diamond, and Oval border (Cat. nos. 280, 294-300, and 305). Another fragment of Animal Panel I (Cat. no. 68), is noted as having been found with fragments of the Rectangle, Diamond, and Oval border. Another fragment of the Outstretched Arm Panel (Cat. no. 88) was found with a fragment of a figure that probably belongs to the Thiasos Panel (Cat. no. 107) and with the fragment of Animal Panel II with the head of an eros (Cat. no. 71). Related fragments were found scattered throughout the apse. On the south side of the apse, within the grid points of 14550.7 X 2184.3, 14552.5 X 2185.5, 14551.6 X 2186.5, and 14550 X 2185.4, were found two more column bases, another strip of bone spiral, and a piece of veneer decorated with a quatrefoil pattern. Closer to the south side of the apse at 14549 X 2185 was retrieved a square plaque decorated with a low relief tondo (Cat. no. 283). Near the center of the apse, at 14552 X 2186, a fragment of the wood arcade covered with veneer incised with a pattern of erotes suspending garlands was found; a miniature wood column (Cat. no. 426) was recovered from the same spot. Nearby, at 14552 X 2185, a rectangular ivory plaque decorated with a low relief representation of a bearded seated philosopher (Cat. no. 1) was discovered. A second plaque of the same size, decorated with a youthful (beardless) seated philosopher, was found about a meter away at 14551 X 2183 (Cat. no. 2). Planks of wood are also described in the field notebooks as coming from 282 chapter vii this area.16 Throughout the area 14551-14553 X 2183-2185 was found a quantity of bone spiral strips, along with a piece of the Diamond-Bordered Panel with figural decoration (Cat. no. 115) found at 14552 X 2183. The arch of ivory egg-and-dart molding was found at 14552 X 2185, and other fragments of egg-and-dart were recovered at 14549 X 2185 and 14558 X 2180. In summary, the wood, ivory, and bone materials found in the north side of the apsidal room and in the apse itself consist of three cabriole-style legs, a miniature Corinthian order, an arcade decorated with erotes that was probably supported by the Corinthian order, a convex tondo, bone rings, thin veneers and plaques with decoration of plants, animals, and humans in varying scales, decorated molding strips, and strips of bone spiral. These could all or mostly derive from a single very luxurious cupboard, or armarium. Of course, some fragments might have decorated another, perhaps smaller, chest or casket, but if all of these elements belonged to one item of furniture, it could have been a chest raised on the cabriole legs. The mortices cut in these legs indicate that they probably supported a rectangular case and not a round table.17 Cabriole legs in a much smaller size are known to have served as feet for caskets, which increases the likelihood of their use here, albeit for a substantial, large chest.18 It could be argued that the legs supported a reading desk. Miniature architectural orders are described as having decorated these,19 but neither the surviving legs nor the decorative veneers and attachments seem suitable for that use. In surviving examples and in representations, the legs of reading desks are identical, straight, and either round or rectangular.20 Thus cabriole legs are not the typical shape and the Kenchreai legs were found in pairs of different shapes, also not the usual design. Cabriole-style legs in the form of lion’s paws are common on Roman tables and chairs, judging from the number of surviving examples, but undecorated legs of cabriole shape do not seem to have been common on armaria. However, there are representations of related types. An elaborate armarium raised on volute legs in front and what seem to be straight legs in back is represented in the painted frieze of erotes making perfume from the oecus off the peristyle of the House of the Vettii, Pompeii.21 The two single-leaved doors of this tall, narrow armarium are wide open, reveal- ing three interior shelves. The overhanging gable top is surmounted by an acroterion. Painted or inlaid decoration seems to be represented on the pediment. The same types of volute and straight legs are seen on a cupboard in a wall painting of erotes as shoemakers from

16 Each piece of wood was not separately numbered, front of the leg as in the case of the Kenchreai legs; Mols, and the identity of these pieces was not retained through Houten Meubels in Herculaneum 177-87, Cat. nos. 14-19, the conservation process. They are included in the mis- figs. 96c, 105d, 106c, 114f, and 115c. cellaneous wood fragments catalogued in Appendix 1, 18 Cutler has identified a common type of foot from probably to be found among those now catalogued as such caskets; Cutler, Late Antique and Byzantine Ivory Carving numbers W.32 through W.44. 2-3, also repr. in Cutler, Five Lessons in Late Roman Ivory 17 Not table legs as described by Lapatin, Chrys- 167-9. elephantine Statuary 77; the tables from Herculaneum all 19 For example, Rodziewicz, M. Alexandrie 245. have three legs that are connected to a support or di- 20 Ransom, Couches and Beds passim. rectly to the table top through attachment, either on one 21 Herrmann-Bruckmann, Denkmäler der Malerei des side—front or rear—or on two opposite sides—front and Altertums, Pl. 22; Mau, Führer durch Pompeji6 70, fig. 27; rear, and not through mortises cut at right angles to the Budde, Armarium 21-2, 64, Cat. no. (B)2, fig. 11. furniture reconstructions, provenance, dating, setting, and function 283

Herculaneum.22 This cupboard is very wide and has a flat top. Its two bifold doors are folded back to show three interior shelves. Further supporting the view that these elements derive from an armarium is the fact that no legs, fulcra, or other typical parts of a lectus were found. Also, it is difficult to make sense of the variations in size of the capitals if they decorated a lectus, and the combination of the Corinthian order plus the Erotes Arcade is too high for the side rail of a lectus. Finally, the numerous rings must have decorated some large piece of furniture. Rings are a common design on chests, caskets, and doors, but do not seem to have been used to decorate lecti.23 If the components decorated an armarium, what can be suggested about its design? There are several major sources of information concerning the possible structure—but not the exterior decoration—of such a cupboard, both from extant examples and representations. An armarium consisting of two cabinets, one set on top of the other, is preserved from the House of the Wooden Shrine (Casa del Sacello in Legno), Herculaneum.24 The top unit has hinged double-leaved doors recessed behind an overhanging aedicula supported at its side corners by delicately fluted Corinthian columns. Both the upper and lower cabinets rest on plinths. However, they have neither painted figural representations nor attached plaques or panels. The overall height as reconstructed is about 1.64 m.25 Evidence for a larger armarium, about 2.2 m high and 1.38 m wide, was discovered at Pompeii and is preserved as a cast.26 Its two single-leaved main doors are divided horizontally, in a ratio of about 7:4, and decorated with a latticework pattern. Below these doors is a row of four small paneled doors. The entire case stands on small feet, about 5 cm high. Four armaria were found in the atrium of the House of the Menander, Pompeii. Those on the east wall were 1.0 m high, 0.5 m wide, and 0.38 m deep. They are decorated with bone intarsia decoration. Other simple wood armaria found at Pompeii seem consistent in height at about 1.7 to 1.8 m, but the widths vary considerably from 0.94 to 1.7 m.27 To the evidence of these preserved examples and the painted images mentioned above can be added additional representations of the same sort of cupboard. There is an armarium on a relief dated to the late second century from the sarcophagus of a cobbler from Ostia, Lucius Atilius Artemas, who is shown with his friend T. Fabius Trophimus at work in the shoemaker’s workshop.28 The cupboard, raised on fairly high legs, is represented between the two men. Its height is shown as coming to chin level of the man standing to the right, perhaps ca. 1.6 m, although scale relationships are not systematically represented. Each of the two single-leaved doors is faced with two recessed panels, one above

22 Naples, Museo Archeologico Nazionale, Inv. no. 12-3, 60, fig. 3; Deiss, Herculaneum 91, 108; Mols, Houten 9179; Budde, Armarium 22-3, 65, Cat. no. B-23, fig. 13; Meubels in Herculaneum 205. Le Collezioni del Museo Nazionale di Napoli 154-5, Cat. no. 26 Pompeii I, 10, 7; O. Elia, NSc (1934) 293, fig. 13; and fig. no. 229. O. Brendel, AA (1935) 563ff.; Budde, Armarium 14-5, No. 23 See Chapter IV for further discussion of the deco- 3, 61, fig. 5. rative function of rings. 27 Budde, Armarium 15-6, Nos. 4, 5, 10, 11. 24 See Chapter VI; Deiss, Herculaneum 107, 91; 28 Rome, Museo Nazionale Romano, Inv. no. 184; Budde, Armarium 12-3, Cat. no. (A)1, fig. 3; Mols, Houten Helbig, Führer3 1271; Budde, Armarium 17, 62, Cat. no. Meubels in Herculaneum 202-6. B 14, fig. 7; Richter, Furniture 115-6, n. 5, fig. 585. 25 Maiuri, Ercolano 41, Pl. 23, 42; Budde, Armarium 284 chapter vii the other. Horizontal recessed panels flank the doors above and below. The Simpelveld sarcophagus represents, among the furnishings, a low, double-door armarium about the same height as a table.29 These doors have two vertical recessed panels above one another, separated by a horizontal bar serving as a handle. The height ratio of the lower to the upper panels is about 7:4. The recessed panels each have a projecting vertical strip running down the center. No other decoration appears to have been represented (or to survive). A detailed representation of the shape of such an armarium, used as a bookcase, with straight rather than cabriole-style legs, can be seen in the fifth-century mosaic of St. Lawrence in the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia, Ravenna (Pl. VII.1).30 It is a large cupboard, shown as almost equaling St. Lawrence in height. It has a gabled top, two single-leaved doors, each of which has two recessed panels, and two interior shelves. White, perhaps meant to represent ivory or bone veneer, is used to indicate the edges of the gable, the triangular pediment, the edges—and therefore possibly the front surfaces—of the open doors, and the front but not the rear legs. Narrow rectangular panels of red decorate the frame above and below the doors, and the white pediment is set on a red triangle. A double line of white tesserae edges the interior door panels and the rails at mid-height on the interiors of the doors, perhaps to indicate a molding of bone or ivory. Also helpful in developing a hypothetical reconstruction of the Kenchreai armarium is the representation of a large and elaborately decorated bookcase in a miniature from the Co- dex Amiatinus (Pl. VII.2).31 The Codex, which dates from the end of the sixth century, copies the Grandior Bible, a manuscript from the library of the monastery founded by Cassiodorus (d. 583), and thus the armarium depicted presumably reflects a sixth-century or somewhat earlier design.32 The title page represents the prophet Ezra as a scribe, seated in his library on a rectangular stool with his feet on a simple footrest. Behind him is an open bookcase on high legs with five shelves on which the codices are laid flat with their bindings toward the front. The left door has a rail along its opening edge that projects above its top and ends with a sort of finial that flares out as it rises, like a Doric capital. The doors have four horizontal recessed panels, about equal in height. The cupboard is decorated with inlaid and/or painted designs. The case has a gabled top, decorated with a cross in the top center above a water- ing trough or chest flanked by doves. The gable is edged with a zigzag decoration. Below the pediment, on a narrow horizontal panel above the doors, is a frieze of cows, sheep, turtledoves, and vases. Below the doors can be seen the right side of a higher horizontal panel on which is represented a series of upright plaques of varying widths depicting, from the center, a bird (pelican or goose), four dots in a vertical row, a cross, and five dots in a vertical row. Below the plaques is a narrow frieze decorated with a zigzag line and crosses set in the triangular spaces above and below the line.

29 Leiden, Rijksmuseum van Oudheden, Inv. no. 1 Budde, Armarium 22-3, 65, Cat. no. (B)23, fig. 13. The 1930/12.1; Richter, Furniture 101, n. 28, fig. 554. relevant image is on fol. 5. 30 Budde, Armarium 23-4, Cat. no. 24, fig. 14; Age of 32 P. Meyvaert, “Bede, Cassiodorus, and the Codex Spirituality 567, fig. 81; Bovini, Il cosidetto mausoleo di Galla Amiatinus,” Speculum 71.4 (1996) 836ff., 882; Budde, Placidia 46-7, fig. 23. Armarium 23; after Zimmerman, Vorkarolingische Miniaturen 31 Florence, Laurentian Library ms. Amiatino 1; 110; Scheide, Tradition und Innovation? 394-5. from the monastery of S. Salvatore di Monte Amiata; furniture reconstructions, provenance, dating, setting, and function 285

If we explore further the hypothesis that there was a large armarium, either in or near the apsidal room at Kenchreai, that served as a bookcase, it is possible to consider its size and decoration. Its depth would have to be appropriate to hold both large papyrus and parchment volumina and codices in their typical positions.33 In the fourth century, most book collections contained three forms of book.34 Wood tablet books were limited in size by the heart wood of the trees from which they were produced, and the typical range is ca. 100 X 200 mm.35 They are not likely to have constituted a major part of a book collection, and the examples preserved are outnumbered by papyri by a factor of 200 to 1.36 Casson reports that of “over 1,330 pieces of Greek literary, scientific, and other such writings that date to the first and second centuries, all are on rolls save less than twenty; a mere 1.5 percent, on codices. In the third century the percentage rises ... to about 17 percent.”37 According to cal- culations based on data collated by Pack, by the fourth century, 73.5 percent of books were codices and 26.5 percent rolls.38 In the mosaics of the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia, both are represented: the Apostles carry rolls, St. Laurence a codex, and the armarium displays codices.39 A review of characteristic rolls and codices of the third and fourth centuries suggests that the height of Bibles and of literary and scientific volumina ranged between ca. 25 and 35 cm, with most falling between ca. 25 and 30 cm.40 In antiquity, rolls were stored lying on the

33 For terminology and the use of armaria, see Chap- (Dublin: Chester Beatty Museum, Inv. nos. 100, 167, ter VI, n. 1. 169, 170 and Ann Arbor, University of Michigan Li- 34 Weitzmann, Late Antique and Early Christian Book brary, Inv. no. 5552), an early fourth-century papyrus Illumination 9. codex originally ca. 29 cm X 13.5 cm; Cavallo and 35 Whitehorne, The Kellis Writing Tablets 243. Maehler, Greek Bookhands 12, Cat. no. 3a. (2) P. Mich. 36 Ibid. 240; however, the scarcity of wood in Egypt 137, New Testament Matthew (Ann Arbor, University and the usefulness of these small panels may skew these of Michigan Library, Inv. no. 1570), page of a first data. half of the fourth century papyrus codex, originally 25 37 Casson, Libraries in the Ancient World 127. X 15 cm; Cavallo and Maehler, Greek Bookhands 14, 38 Roberts and Skeat, The Birth of the Codex 36-7, Cat. no. 4b. (3) P. Bodmer IV (Cologny-Genève: referring to Pack, R.A. The Greek and Latin Literary Texts Bibliothèque Bodmer), first half of the fourth-century from Graeco-Roman Egypt, 2nd ed. (Ann Arbor, MI, 1965). papyrus codex edition of Menander’s Dyscolus, 27.5 X In an estimate earlier than Pack’s, Devreesse gave the 13 cm; Cavallo and Maehler, Greek Bookhands 16-7, Cat. figure of 65 percent codices, Devreesse, L’étude des manuscrits no. 5b. (4) The “Harris Homer” (London, British grecs 9. Museum Pap. 126), a papyrus codex dated to the later 39 Casson, Libraries in the Ancient World 134, fig. 8.4. third century, 26 cm. high; Turner, Greek Manuscripts 40 The maximum height of papyrus sheets was 40, Cat. no. 40. (5) Fragments of a fourth-century “more or less determined by the length of the stalks papyrus codex of Exodus acquired at Akhmin (Biblio- that provided the vertical strips” from which they were thèque nationale, Manuscrits orientaux, Copte 135I), formed, roughly 30-40 cm, Casson, Libraries in the An- 25 X 18 cm; L’art copte en Égypte 61, Cat. no. 32a, b. cient World 25. Both rolls and codices were smaller be- For example, the following papyrus volumina: (1) Bodl. fore the fourth century, and there was even a fashion MS. Gr. Class. b.13(P), a late second-early third-century for small format books of poetry in the first century papyrus roll of Euripides’ Hypsipyle, 37 cm high; Turner, B.C. and the first and second centuries A.D. (Turner, Greek Manuscripts 62, Cat. no. 31. (2) List of Olympic Vic- Greek Manuscripts 19, n. 106.) Pliny the Elder mentions tors (London, British Museum Pap. 1185), a papyrus roll that Cicero reported a miniature Iliad that could fit in of the third century estimated to have been ca. 29.5 cm a nutshell; N.H. vii. 21. 85. For discussion, see Rob- high; Turner, Greek Manuscripts 110, Cat. no. 65. (3) Plato, erts and Skeat, The Birth of the Codex 13-4. Assigned to Phaedrus (Toledo, Toledo Museum of Art), papyrus roll, the third and fourth centuries, for example, are the 28 cm high; Turner, Greek Manuscripts 142, Cat. no. 84. following papyrus codices: (1) P. Chester Beatty XII For vellum codices, Bianchi-Bandinelli lists sizes for (1) 286 chapter vii shelf so that tags, attached as titles to the bottom of the roll, would be visible to someone selecting one from a group.41 Books were placed flat with the spine, the side opposite the spine, or the bottom of the pages at the front of the shelf, unlike the modern practice of standing books upright.42 Shelves to hold codices would probably have been somewhat deeper than for rolls, perhaps ca. 40 cm.43 Therefore, the ca. 38 cm depth of the armaria in the House of the Menander mentioned above can probably be taken to be appropriate and perhaps fairly typical for bookcases. Smaller chests for storing scrolls, scrinia or arcae, were made of wood and often covered with bronze, silver, or ivory and/or bone decorations. Examples where the wood case survives provide further information on the size needed to hold books or scrolls. Although discovered empty, the chest from Qustul (Pl. V.2) may be a rare (and large) fourth-century example. Its case, which opens from the top, is raised on straight legs that are extensions of the vertical side rails. No complete set of measurements is published for the chest, but a height of 105 cm is given by Emery, whether for the case and legs or for case alone is not clear.44 From the photographs and the scale sketch in situ, the case appears to be ca. 45-50 cm wide, and ca. 35-40 cm deep.45 This size would have been sufficient to hold documents written on rolls.46 Therefore, although the Qustul chest is half the height of most tall armaria with vertical doors, it is equal to their presumed width and depth. Enough ivory and bone veneer was recovered from the apsidal room at Kenchreai to reconstruct a large chest or even an armarium. In addition to the veneers catalogued above and in Appendix 2, a large quantity of plain veneers, mainly with broken edges, was found, totaling about 2.5 m2. If the front surface of the hypothetical armarium was covered with decorative veneers, plaques, and attached architectural elements, the additional plain veneer easily could have covered a case at least the size of the Qustul chest. If the preserved veneer represents all of what originally was used on a large armarium, at least the insides of the doors or two sides of the case could have been covered with plain veneer.

Vatican Virgil, 22.2 cm X 19.8 cm; (2) Roman Virgil, their spines at the front, perhaps a later practice. Vat. lat. 3867, ca. 32.5 cm X 31.3-32.1 cm; (3) Vienna 43 The Werden book case, an eleventh-century wood Genesis, 32.6 cm high X 26.5 cm wide; (4) Vienna book box for the manuscript of the Life of St. Liudger Dioscurides, 36-37 cm high X 30 cm; (5) Ilias Ambro- that carries the Probianus diptychs, is 34.6 cm X by 16 siana, 32.6 cm X 28.8 cm; Bianchi-Bandinelli, Hellenistic- cm X by 5.8 cm; however, the size of the manuscript Byzantine Manuscripts of the Iliad 45. The fourth-century (and therefore the box) may have derived from the size Codex Sinaiticus, London, British Museum Add. MS. of the diptychs; V. Elbern, “Der Werdener Buchschrein 43725 has a page size of 37.6 cm X 24.7 cm; Roberts mit dem Probianusdiptychon,” in Elbern, St. Liudger und and Skeat, The Birth of the Codex, Pl. V. die Abtei Werden 99, fig. 11. 41 Rolls placed in this fashion in an armarium can 44 Emery, Nubian Treasure Pl. 48. be seen on the sarcophagus in New York, Metro- 45 The only complete drawing of the chest known to politan Museum of Art, Inv no. 48.76.1; McCann, Ro- me is on a sketch plan drawn to scale of the tomb where man Sarcophagi 138-40, Cat. no. 24. it was found; Emery and Kirwan, The Royal Tombs fig. 42 The Notitia Dignitatum shows books lying flat on a 16. shelf with the spines at right angles to the front edge of 46 Fragmentary rolls are placed sideways in the wood the shelf; Berger, Insignia of the Notitia Dignitatum figs. box from Hermopolis in Berlin, Staatliche Museen 20, 64, 45, and 45. However, the Codex Amiatinus Preussischer Kulturbesitz; Turner, Greek Manuscripts shows books lying flat on the shelves of the armarium with Supp. Pl. II D. furniture reconstructions, provenance, dating, setting, and function 287

The chest from Qustul may not be closely similar in construction to the proposed armarium, but it can help reconstruct the original appearance. It has four posts that extend below the bottom of the case to form simple legs. The wood sides and back each had three(?) vertical recessed panels and no added decoration. Although within the size range of small armaria, the chest opens at the top by a flat lid rather than from the front with doors. The fronts of the lid and the case have elaborate inlaid designs, described as of ivory.47 The lid carries a horizontal row of arched plaques, each of which is set within an arched Corinthian aedicula with acroteria. The columns are spiral fluted. Below each aedicula is a strip of diamond-and-bar inlay. Between the aediculae are two grape clusters set vertically between undulating bines decorated with projecting ivy leaves at the intersections. Above the row of plaques is a double band of inlaid triangles pointing down. At either side of the lid is an extra pair of grape clusters framed by double rows of triangles with the points facing and offset, a pattern that from a distance looks like a zigzag line. On the front panel of the chest are three rows of similar plaques, the top two rows of which are rectangular and the bottom row arched. The middle row has alternating arched and pedimental aediculae. Sepa- rating the three architectural rows are rows of small square plaques inset with a circle of radiating triangles; three plaques in each row—on the ends and at the center—have an attached projecting circular boss.48 Between each plaque are vertical patterns of three grape clusters set within bines, as on the lid. Horizontal rows of zigzag, formed by offset facing triangles, separate the horizontal rows. The bronze lock is engraved with a pattern of concentric rings decorated, from the center out, with strigilate, dotted spiral, dotted tongue, and grape scroll patterns. A major reason for the hypothesis that most of the decorative attachments and veneers found in the apsidal room at Kenchreai derive from a single large armarium is the set of at least ten large bone rings, a decoration that seems only to have been used on chests and doors. Examples include two pairs of ivory doors from flat-top cupboards, found at Rosarno Medma, in South Italy.49 They are similar to the Qustul chest in some respects, with short legs formed by corner posts that project below the bottom of the case to form feet. Each of the doors has two recessed panels, the upper panels shorter than the bottom panels. A distinctive feature related to the circles of radiating triangles of the Qustul chest is that each door has nine rings, three in a row above the top panel, three on the horizontal rail between the panels, and three below the lower panel. On each of the two sides of the Qustul chest are two horizontal sections within which are three vertical recesses. The sides have three rows of three rings, falling above, in between, and below the two sections.50 There does not seem to be any additional decoration.51 Rows of circular decorations are also used

47 Loverdou-Tsigarida, ÏóôÝévá ðëáêßäéá 33 discusses 49 From Rosarno Medma, Museo Reggio; Budde, the consistency in principles of design among chests and Armarium 10, Cat. nos. 14-15, fig. 2; P. Orsi, NSc Suppl. caskets in various media. (1913) 137, fig. 181. 48 It has been suggested that these bosses may have 50 Budde, Armarium fig. 2. been produced for use as pyxis lids, but it is now more 51 Typically, cupboards were inlaid with woods, ivory widely accepted that this chest was made in a local (and bone), and/or were painted; Pliny, N. H. 16, 232; workshop and not from scavenged or looted parts; Sulp. Sev., Dial. 1, 21, 4. Rodziewicz E., Stylistical and Technical Components 409. 288 chapter vii on the front (and possibly on the sides) of a lead cult cabinet excavated at Hadrumentum (Sousse).52 Both doors have three horizontal rows of three rings—across the top, on the band between the two recessed panels, and across the bottom. A small, well-preserved painted chest, perhaps a reliquary, from Akhmin(?) is decorated on all four sides and on the lid with rings—double pairs of small rings on the case and a single large ring on the lid.53 The circles surround heads of Christ, angels, and saints. The front side of a small silver chest from Çirga with a half-round lid is decorated with a central tondo flanked by rectangular fields, all decorated with figures.54 Based on these examples, it seems plausible that the bone rings from Kenchreai were arranged in rows to decorate the doors, or the front and sides, of a good-sized cabinet.55 The different diameters could have decorated different surfaces of the case, for example, the front and side(s), or they all could have been arranged in horizontal rows of different heights across the front. All four of the swastika-and-flower pattern rings (Cat. nos. 147-165) appear to have been cut in half, including one large ring and three middle size rings. Numerous sce- narios could explain their disposition. If the front were divided into an upper larger door and either a single shorter door or a row of smaller cupboard doors below, the half rings could have accommodated the horizontal openings on the horizontal rails. It is also possible that the half rings were located along the hinge on each side of a pair of double-leaved doors that folded when the cupboard was fully opened. It is also conceivable that the half rings were positioned at the center between two single-leaved doors (see Figs. VII.2 and VII.3), although three rings per door seems to have been a more common arrangement.56 The rings may instead have been cut to fit around a projecting handle, lock, or boss, but no element of this type was found in the apsidal room. If of metal, it could have been salvaged for melting down and reuse. Hinges may have met the same fate, as none were recovered. Although there appears to be no other surviving example, nor even a representation of exactly such an armarium as is suggested here for the Kenchreai fragments, physical evidence from the Erotes Arcade and the Corinthian order (Pl. V.1; Figs. V.22a and V.22b) supports their use as attachments on a highly decorated piece of furniture. First, most of the elements of the architectural order are flattened on one side, as if they were attachments. Second, the largest Corinthian capital (Cat. no. 379) and two slightly smaller capitals (Cat. nos. 380 and 381) have dowel holes only in their bases and are not drilled through; these could have

52 Algiers, Musée des Antiquités et Arts; Budde, evidently recovered. They may have been removed for Armarium 38, Kultschränke Cat. no. 14, fig. 28a-b. re-use or scrap when the rest of the piece of furniture 53 Berlin, Staatliche Museen, previously Frühchrist- was discarded. lich-Byzantinischen Sammlung, Inv. no. 6113; Ägypten 56 Six across the front is a common pattern on scrinia, Schätze 147, Cat. no. 109; Effenberger, Koptische Kunst 98, but other arrangements occur; Buschhausen, Metallscrinia 100, 211, fig. 100; Das Museum für spätantike und 122-4, chest attachments from Intercisa, now Mainz, byzantinische Kunst 168-9, Cat. no. 83. Römisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum, Inv. no. 04651, 54 Adana, Eski Eserler MüzesÌ, silver reliquary from Cat. no. A 60, Pl. A 70-1, 73; but see, for example, 83- Çirga; Buschhausen, Metallscrinia 190-207, Cat. no. B 4, 6, Cat. no. A 39, Pl. A 42-3, a chest from Császár, Plate B 13-19, A73; Alborino, Das silberkästchen von Budapest, Magyar Nemzeti Múzeum (Hungarian Na- San Nazaro figs. 48-9. tional Museum). 55 Although doors are proposed, no hinges were furniture reconstructions, provenance, dating, setting, and function 289 served as acroteria or finials. The largest of the three capitals, 3.1 cm high, might have been placed at the top corner of a door to serve as a handle, as on the armarium illustrated in Pl. VII.2, and the two others, slightly smaller at 2.45 and 2.55 cm, at the lateral corners of the top.57 Third, all of the other capitals are drilled through from top to bottom to support the arcade. Fourth, the Erotes Arcade itself is not decorated on the back and could have been attached to the wood surface of the cupboard. If the arcade projected from the surface of the doors, the top edge of each level would have been visible and needed to be veneered, as it is. Finally, the scale of the arcade and its supports seems to suit a large armarium. The columns that supported the erotes arcade (Cat. nos. 426-430) are ca.15 cm tall; in comparison, the columns on the small casket in the Walters Art Museum are ca. 2.8 cm tall.58 It seems clear that a piece of furniture on a large scale and not a small casket must be proposed for the Kenchreai elements. There are numerous parallels for the attachment of arcades to furniture. Architectural orders were standard decoration on chests and armaria. As noted above, the top part of the wood armarium found in the Casa del Sacello in Legno, Herculaneum, has miniature prostyle Corinthian columns supporting the lateral corners of the epistyle. More relevant in date, the front of the Qustul chest includes rows of inlaid aediculae (Pl. V.2). Arcades, often enclosing figures, were common decoration on metal scrinia.59 Another, more limited, precedent for this reconstruction occurs on the casket at the Walters Art Museum mentioned just above.60 The decoration of one side of this small casket has been reconstructed as having a row of three engaged gabled aediculae; the other sides may have been the same. The “columns” are represented by a bead-and-reel molding that is almost circular in section. Within each aedicula is an inlaid plaque with a single figure. There is also evidence for miniature architectural orders on armaria used as mask cupboards illustrated in Terence manuscripts. They appear as open aediculae with shelves flanked by Corinthian columns.61 Three are semicircular and three are gabled, suggesting that armaria were produced in both forms. The Simpelveld sarcophagus represents, ranged along its interior in addition to the standard armarium with paneled doors mentioned above, a cupboard fronted with two levels of superimposed arcades, two larger on the bottom and three smaller, offset, above.62 The front of the hypothetical Kenchreai armarium could have included figurative plaques set within the arcades. It is possible that the philosopher plaques (Cat. nos. 1-2) were among

57 There is a less likely possibility that the Erotes 58 Baltimore, Walters Art Museum, Inv. no. 71.40; Arcade was part of a lectern, either independent of or Randall, Masterpieces 90-1, Cat. no. 135, Colorpl. attached to the top of the proposed armarium. The wood 44. so-called lectern of St. Radegunda (d. 587) in the Abbaye 59 Trier, Landesmuseum, Inv. no. 39.82; Busch- Sainte-Croix, Poitiers, has a decorated sloping top hausen, Metallscrinia 49-50, Cat. no. A 18, Pl. A 21; and supported on colonnades that increase in size from 50-1, bronze attachment from Kaiseraugst, Berlin, front to back along the sides; Age of Spirituality 595-6, Staatliche Museen, Antikenabteilung, Inv. no. 7420, Cat. fig. 85. The colonnade across the front is smaller and no. A 19, Pl. A 21. the colonnettes are equal in size. One problem with this 60 See n. 58. reconstruction is that it leaves unexplained the three 61 Budde, Armarium 32, Maskenschränke Cat. nos. 1- capitals from Kenchreai that are not drilled through 5, figs. 19-23. and the trimming down of the backs of the capitals. Also, 62 Leiden, Rijksmuseum van Oudheden, Inv. no. 1 the preserved capitals cannot be arranged in a gradu- 1930/12.1; Richter, Furniture fig. 586. ally increasing size. 290 chapter vii these, as both plaques could have fit nicely. This design follows the Qustul chest and is similar to scrinia that have rectangular figurative panels in horizontal rows alternating with tondi, such as the example from Intercisa now in Mainz.63 The tondo plaque (Cat. no. 283) and other less well preserved circular designs (Cat. nos. 284-291) may also have been attached. Scrinaria with low relief columns flanking tondi parallel this design.64 The erotes plaques (Cat. nos. 3-4), too wide to fit within the arcades, could have been inlaid along the bottom or top rails of the door(s). As the proposed armarium is completely hypothetical, there are a number of possible reconstructions. Nineteen capitals are preserved, of which it was noted above that three may have served as finials or acroteria. The remaining sixteen suggest two rows of arcades with one row of rings between them, a proposal shown in Fig. VII.2. If the two levels of arcades (#4 and its duplicate below on the drawing) on each door consisted of three arches supported by four complete columns, the width would be ca. 27 cm, because the arcades are ca. 9 cm wide measured from the center of one to the center of the next. Three of the rings preserved—one decorated with a swastika-and-flower pattern and a fragment of another, plus one with a leaf pattern—are ca. 19 cm in diameter (#5 on the drawing). The width of one and a half of these rings comes to ca. 28.5 cm, roughly the same as an arcade with four columns. A more generous spacing of the rings would permit a five-column arcade. The overall width of the cabinet with two doors would then approach 90 cm. Given that the overall height of the armarium probably would not exceed ca. 2.0 m, a design can be proposed (Fig. VII.2) that has a row of three of the 19-cm rings across the front, with above and below Corinthian columns carrying erotes arcades, each ca. 25 cm high (Corinthian order = ca. 20 cm and the erotes arcade from springing to top = ca. 4.5 cm). The cabriole legs are ca. 45 cm high, which with the above and various bands of narrow molding totals about 1.25 m. Other elements that may have decorated the front, such as the bone Erotes Plaques that are 7 cm high (Cat. nos. 3-4 = #9 and 10 on the drawing) and the Outstretched Arm Panel (Cat. nos. 86-92 = #3 on the drawing), ca. 4 cm high, would bring the height to the top of the case to ca. 1.40 m. To that must be added a top. There is a bit of evidence for a hipped top, judging from Cat. no. 57, a small fragment of Animal Panel I, a scene with representations of animals and plant motifs, one corner of which preserves a 115o angle that must derive from a triangular or trapezoidal panel. If the top took the form of a hipped roof, decorated on its front by the Curved Panel (Cat. nos. 5-45 = #2 on the drawing) of ca. 30 cm in height, the total reaches ca. 1.75 m. This design provides an appropriate location on a flat strip across the peak of the top for the Thiasos Panel (Cat. nos. 98-110 = #1 on the drawing). The two animal panels (Cat. nos. 46-69 and 70-

63 Casket attachments from Intercisa, now Mainz, made from the same mold were found in association with Römisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum, Inv. no. 04651 a coin of Valentinian I, loc. cit. 142. and Budapest, Magyar Nemzeti Múzeum (Hungarian 64 Budapest, Magyar Nemzeti Múzeum, Inv. no. 64/ National Museum), Inv. no. 100/1912-196; Busch- 1903-18, a silver attachment with a tondo on which is hausen, Metallscrinia 122-5, Cat. nos. A 60 and A 61, Pl. a representation of Sol; Buschhausen, Metallscrinia 41- A 70-3; Arca und Scrinium 141-57, Pl. 10. Interestingly, 4, Cat. no. A 14, Pl. 15. attachments in Budapest, Magyar Nemzeti Múzeum, furniture reconstructions, provenance, dating, setting, and function 291

Fig. VII.2. Armarium; hypothetical reconstruction (approximately 1:8) 292 chapter vii

85) would have decorated either side of the hipped top, and the poorly preserved Diamond- Bordered Panel (Cat. nos. 113-115), the back of the top. If the small rings decorated the sides in rows of three (#11 on the drawing), a depth of ca. 45-50 cm can be proposed, appropriate to hold both codices and rolls. If all of the rings and arcades preserved derive from only one door, the full width of the case would be almost 1.8 m. While this width is not impossible, it would make the width of the Curved Panel on the lid too small and the overall proportions unusual and unlikely.65 Numerous other arrangements are possible. Among the most likely, shown in Fig. VII.3, is a design with three rows of three rings across the front—above, between, and below two arcades. In addition to the three rings of 19 cm diameter (#9), there are three preserved with a swastika design, three with some version of a leaf pattern of ca. 14.5-14.9 cm diameter, and one with a leaf pattern of ca. 12 cm diameter. The largest rings could have been located on the rail at the bottoms of the doors; a row of three slightly smaller rings could have been evenly spaced on the mid-door rails (#6); and a row of three rings could have run across the top rails of the doors (#4). Leaving ca. 3 cm between each row and 4.6 cm for the broad Rectangle, Diamond, and Oval Border at the bottoms of the doors, the height of three rows of rings separated by two rows of arcades (#5), each of which totals ca. 25 cm in height, would total ca. 120 cm. Raised on legs of ca. 45 cm, the cupboard, including the hipped top, would be ca. 2 m tall, or about the height of a tall person, the height often indicated in representations of armaria. If the Erotes Arcade and rings were engaged to the surface of a moderately tapered armarium, the elements would have been made in slightly different sizes, smaller for the upper rows than the lower. This layout might explain the small variations in size of capitals and rings. It is relevant to consider whether the range of subjects represented among the Kenchreai figural panels and plaques makes sense combined on a single piece of furniture. On iconographical grounds, the combination of the decorative rings catalogued in Chapter IV and some of the figural designs catalogued in Chapter III is supported by comparison with other works of the period. For example, a silver amphora in the Sevso Treasure has friezes of acanthus; animal fights between lions and gazelle, onager, and stag, and two dogs against a boar; a Dionysiac scene including Silenus, Pan, a satyr, Dionysus, and maenads; marine creatures and water fowl; and an oak garland.66 Representations of the four seasons are commonly associated with Dionysiac themes,67 marine subjects,68 the circus,69 the hunt,70 and seasonal plants and animals. The four circus factions were also commonly used to allude to the four seasons in Roman art and literature. For example, a mosaic from the Maison du Paon, Carthage, dated to the first half of the fourth century, shows circus horses alternating with seasonal plants below a laurel garland interspersed with diagonal bindings.71 Some North African mosaics combine representations of the seasons with authors—in one

65 See above n. 27. 69 Parrish, Season Mosaics 52-4; Age of Spirituality 101. 66 Mango and Bennett, The Sevso Treasure 194-239, 70 Parrish, Season Mosaics 56. figs. 5-1 to 5-53. 71 Tunis, Bardo Museum, Inv. no. 2403; Parrish, 67 Parrish, Season Mosaics 43-5. Season Mosaics 52-3, 108-10, Cat. no. 8, Pls. 13-14; Age 68 Parrish, Season Mosaics 103. of Spirituality, 101, 102. furniture reconstructions, provenance, dating, setting, and function 293

Fig. VII.3. Armarium; hypothetical reconstruction (approximately 1:10) 294 chapter vii case Xenophon—and a tomb mosaic from Dougga depicts a young seated togate figure making a speaking gesture. Such combinations of iconographically diverse subjects have been explained as a desire symbolically to represent all aspects of nature, both mythological and real, including animals, birds, fish, hunt, and Dionysiac themes in objects or a related group of objects, such as a silver service.72 Therefore, the rings, one of which is decorated with heads of the four seasons (Ring 5, Cat. nos. 167-172), could have been combined on one object with the rectangular panels of single seated figures, presumably meant to represent authors or philosophers; the Thiasos Panel; the two Animal Panels; the Erotes Arcade and erotes plaques; the Hunting Scene; and the strips of decorative veneer, including the quatrefoil, scale, foliated spiral, flower circles, and possibly the Diamond, Rectangle, and Oval Border. The bone spiral strips probably bordered some element(s) in the design.

B. PROVENANCE

In the Lives of the Sophists, written in the early third century, L. Flavius Philostratus describes the luxurious household goods brought to Greece by the teacher Proclus of Naukratis when he moved to Athens, and to the regular supplies of ivory, papyrus, books, and other luxury goods that he continued to receive from Egypt for his own houses (he had four) and for sale.73 As a port serving trade between Corinth—the late-antique capital of Achaia—and the eastern Mediterranean, Kenchreai was similarly rich with imports, especially from Egypt and Asia Minor.74 The glass opus sectile panels discovered in the apsidal room were almost certainly made in Egypt, and it is reasonable to presume that the ivory- and bone-veneered furniture was as well, because there are numerous parallels to the plaques and veneers catalogued here that are of Egyptian provenance, where major workshops existed throughout the Roman period and as late as the ninth century.75 Rome has been suggested as a significant location for the production of incised bone plaques with figural representation, although their presence may be in part due to import rather than exclusively to local manufacture.76 Unfortunately, relatively few ivory and bone plaques of the fourth century have been discovered in archaeological contexts in Egypt that provide either a clear cut chronological marker or evidence of manufacturing provenance.77 Several factors account for the lack of knowledge of the location of most ivory and bone workshops: the tendency of early excavators not to preserve unworked debris or fragments of wood, bone, or other minor arts, especially of Roman date; the paucity until recently of excavations of major urban sites of the late Roman period in Egypt where workshops might have been located; and the

72 Schneider, Die Domäne als Weltbild 150-1, 126-7; Minor in the late Empire; Kenchreai V, 91-2. Painter, Signification of Silver Hoard in Britain 97. 75 See n. 80 below; Engemann, Elfenbeinfunde aus Abu 73 Philostratus, Vit. Soph., Book 21. Mena 175-6; Rodziewicz, E. Bone and Ivory Carvings 135- 74 Roman lamp imports to Kenchreai were almost 6 follows Barnett in arguing that bone was by far the entirely from Ephesus, Iasos, Pergamon, and Priene, with more common material. none from Syria or the Near East. There was a mark- 76 Stern, Evidence for Bone and Ivory Working 746. edly larger number of lamps imported from Asia 77 Marangou, Bone Carvings from Egypt 19-28 passim. furniture reconstructions, provenance, dating, setting, and function 295 probably small number of workshops producing objects of high quality.78 In recent decades, various archaeological projects in Egypt have increased information about the period, especially the Polish excavations in Alexandria and work at sites in lower Nubia. As a result, the multivalent nature and regional characteristics related specifically to artifacts are being defined more clearly.79 Finds relevant to the study of the Kenchreai material from Quseir al-Qadim, Dakleh Oasis, and the Fayum are limited, although those of the fourth through the ninth centuries, published by Rodziewicz, demonstrate the substantial production of bone implements, pyxides, and low relief work from the center of Alexandria.80 Notably, no examples published by Rodziewicz are in an incised technique, and only a few objects are of ivory. The paucity of ivory artifacts in archaeological contexts has been ascribed to the high water table in Alexandria and the fragility of the material, to the recycling of material, to the careful use of even small wasters, and to the practice of pulverizing ivory waste for medical use.81 Unlike bone, ivory left over from manufacturing was routinely sold by owners of workshops.82 These factors do not argue against the working of ivory in Alexandria; but, as discussed further below, it is likely that no workshop in Alexandria regularly produced incised reliefs or excised plaques with colored inlay of ivory or bone. Considering the numerous good-size urban settlements along the Nile and modern standards of data retrieval, one can hope for steady improvement in knowledge of the organization and location of production sites. In the interim, localizing the workshops that were active in the fourth century and that could have produced the ivory and bone objects found at Kenchreai has proved difficult.83 As discussed in Chapter II, the local manufacture of small, functional bone goods such as pins was quite common, judging from the evidence of bone working at Alexandria, Carthage, and elsewhere.84 Workshops producing high quality decorated veneers were probably not common, and at least in some cases were not necessarily located in conjunction with the furniture workshops for which their output was destined. For example, a workshop in Memphis or nearby could have prepared decorated bone and ivory veneers and attachments that were sent to Alexandria where they were integrated with locally made plaques by a cabinetmaker producing furniture. In any case, the following geographical survey summarizes some current evidence for workshop locations, from south to north. It appears that the ivory shipped from the kingdom of Axum (modern Ethiopia) and from Red Sea ports was traded without having been crafted, and so the workshops must have

78 Cutler, Five Lessons in Late Roman Ivory 176-8. E. Bone and Ivory Carvings presents well-documented, il- 79 Thomas, Late Antique Egyptian Funerary Sculpture 33- lustrated, and dated evidence of bone working in Alex- 5; Bagnall, Hellenistic and Roman Egypt passim. andria during the fifth through ninth centuries. 80 Rodziewicz, E. Bone and Ivory Carvings 137-57. 84 See Chapter II, n. 39; A.J.B. Wace, “Excavations 81 Rodziewicz, E. Bone and Ivory Carvings 135, 157-8; on the Government Hospital Site: Preliminary Report,” Cutler, Five Lessons in Late Roman Ivory 176; for medi- Bulletin of the Faculty of Arts, Farouk I University of Alexan- cinal and other use of scrap ivory in the Roman pe- dria 5 (1949) 151-6; Cutler, Craft 20; S. Shenouda, “Al- riod, see Lapatin, Chryselephantine Statuary 14 n. 92; St. exandria University Excavations on the Cricket Clair, Carving as Craft 17. Playgrounds in Alexandria,” OpRom IX 23 (1973) 204, 82 St. Clair, Carving as Craft 12. fig. 61. 83 Marangou, Bone Carvings from Egypt 23; Rodziewicz, 296 chapter vii been further north.85 This generalization is supported by the results of the excavations at the Red Sea port of Portus Albus (mod. Quseir al-Qadim, Egypt), which lies at the opposite end of the Wadi Hammamat from the Nile port of Quft (ancient Coptos), near Luxor. The site has produced only one small ivory fragment and some undecorated bone grommets.86 Yet there was a long tradition of incised decoration on plaques in Upper Egypt, where the technical skills used to work ivory and bone were well established.87 An ivory box with incised figure decoration was recovered from a tomb at Meroe.88 The chest from Qustul discussed above (Pl. V.2) is one of the few examples of a well dated and securely provenanced major find from Nubia or Upper Egypt; but even in this case, we know only its find spot and approximate date of deposition, and not its time or place of manufacture. The style of the chest’s figural panels is highly simplified and crude, but the themes are thoroughly Graeco-Roman, including (probably) images of Zeus, Perseus (in Phrygian hat) and Andromeda, Dionysus, Pan, and Aphrodite; in short, a selection of the repertoire familiar in the finest Lower Egyptian bone inlay work.89 Additional finds from Nubia include the Meroitic incised ivory inlays from a wood chest found in Grave 45 at Karanog depicting semidraped female figures and Egyptianizing motifs90 ; an inlay depicting a nude woman probably from Gebel Adda91 ; and from Qasr Ibrîm, a small ivory plaque from an X-Group level found in 1963-64 and an incised ivory plaque found in 1974.92 Further north, in Upper Egypt, similar finds are rare, and so it is probably safe to assume that a long-standing local workshop produced these inlays and elaborate furniture, but that its products did not move north in any quantity. The earlier view that such objects were looted or obtained by trade from distant Roman settlements is no longer uniformly accepted, but the actual locale of production is not established.93 The use, but not necessarily the production, of plaques with incised decoration in Middle Egypt is documented by a find excavated at a bath at Kom el-Ahmar, 17 km northwest of Damanhur (ancient Hermopolis Parva).94 The fragmentary bone plaque carries a representation of a standing figure and part of a curtain; the sleeve and drapery of the figure are excised from the surface, and the facial features are incised. No other ivory or bone objects were reported in this publication. For a major city of the Egyptian, Ptolemaic, Roman, Coptic, and Arabic periods, there is a surprising lack of decorated bone from Hermopolis other than

85 Kobishchanov, Axum 176. 90 Philadelphia, University of Pennsylvania, Museum 86 Quseir al-Qadim 1978 2-4, 203; Quseir al-Qadim 1980 of Archaeology and Anthropology, Inv. no. E7519; 332; flotation and screening of excavated earth produced O’Connor, Ancient Nubia, 153, Cat. no. 127, Pl. 16. no bone and one fragment of ivory. 91 Brooklyn Museum of Art, Inv. no. 60.66.2; Art in 87 For example, five panels 22 cm long inlaid with Antiquity II, 320. ivory dots and teardrops forming a design of trees within 92 J.M. Plumley, “Qasr Ibrîm 1963-64,” JEA 50 squares from a framed wood box, Ballana Tomb 187, (1964) 4; “Qasr Ibrîm 1974,” JEA 61 (1975) 11. a burial of two women; Williams, Meroitic Remains, Vol. 93 Millet, Gebel Adda 9 believes they were all imports, 8, Pt. 1, 155-6 and Pt. 2, 235, Pl. 89. Wood boxes ex- but Wenig in Art in Antiquity II, 320 believes that at least cavated at Karanog inlaid with ivory demonstrate that some originated in Nubia. the technique was common; see Africa in Antiquity II, 268- 94 el-Khash§b, ‘Abd el-Mohsen, Ptolemaic and Roman 9, 270, Cat. nos. 208 and 269, Cat. no. 209. Baths of KÙm El Ahmar, Supplément aux Annales du Ser- 88 Dunham, The Royal Cemeteries of Kush V, 168-9, fig. vice des Antiquités de l’Egypte, Cahier no. 10. Cairo, 121b. 1949; 28, 130. 89 Compare Marangou, Bone Carvings from Egypt 29- 52. furniture reconstructions, provenance, dating, setting, and function 297 thick and thin pins; and only three ivory fragments are reported by Roeder, one of which is a 4.6 cm-long strip with an overlapping dart pattern.95 In contrast, the corpus of bone and ivory plaques from Lower Egypt is extensive. There is literary and archaeological evidence that ivory was plentiful and worked in and around Alexandria.96 Ivory furniture was being produced—or at least marketed—as noted in Chapter II, since it is recorded that Cyril, Patriarch of Alexandria, sent ivory chairs to the Patriarch of Constantinople about 432-433, and an inventory of gifts sent to the imperial court refers to fourteen ivory chairs.97 There is also good evidence for bone and ivory being worked in Alexandria to produce low relief plaques of (primarily) mythological themes, especially the Dionysiac thiasos, Aphrodite, Nereids and marine deities, and miniature architectural ornaments.98 The Polish Center of Mediterranean Archaeology’s well-stratified excavation of late Roman houses, baths, cisterns, and a theatre at Kom el-Dikka in Alexandria has produced about 300 objects of bone and ivory. The objects decorated with figural designs were all carved in low relief, and none published was decorated with incision or excised for colored inlays.99 Fragments of a continuous frieze of architectural ornaments, colonettes, and pilasters with Corinthian capitals were also discovered.100 Kraeling’s publication of excavations at Ptolemais, a city with close ties to Alexandria, includes only one bone object other than pins, a fragmentary low-relief plaque showing the feet of a dancing satyr, a typical Alexandrian technique and theme.101 There is evidence for low-relief ivory carving in Naukratis and possibly in Andropolis, to its south.102 In summary, the examples of bone and ivory low reliefs and miniature architectural elements from Alexandria and the surrounding area amply support the existence of at least one active workshop in the city or nearby producing attachments and low-relief plaques.103 Generalizations about ivory and bone working in Alexandria have not usually differen- tiated among the techniques with which these materials were worked and those used for one material and/or the other, until E. Rodziewicz investigated this issue.104 The pre- sumption that most—if not all—bone and ivory reliefs were produced in Alexandria is not supported; in fact, it is now realized that bone and ivory plaques decorated with in-

95 G. Roeder, Hermopolis, 1929-1939. Pelizaeus- Ptolemais, City of the Libyan Pentapolis, The University of Museum zu Hildesheim, Wissenschaftliche Veröffentli- Chicago, Oriental Institute Publications, Vol. XC (Chi- chung 4; Hildesheim, 1959; 305, Pl. 73k (7/VI), 73m cago, 1962) 22, 271. (201/VI), and 73n (389/V). 102 Cutler, Craft 20-1. 96 Cutler, Five Lessons in Late Roman Ivory 176-8. 103 Loverdou-Tsigarida, ÏóôÝévá ðëáêßäéá 78-81 sum- 97 See Chapter II, n. 6; Beckwith, Coptic Sculpture 11. marizes the evidence. 98 Rodziewicz, E. Bone and Ivory Carvings 143-57. 104 Rodziewicz, E. Stylistical and Technical Components 99 E. Rodziewicz, “Reliefs figurés en os des Fouilles specifically addresses this question; St. Clair, Carving as á Kôm el-Dikka,” ÉtTrav (1978) 317-36; Rodziewicz, M. Craft 35 is also an exception; Marangou, Bone Carvings Alexandrie 243-5. from Egypt 23 does not differentiate among techniques 100 M. Rodziewicz, loc.cit. 245. but does summarize the general issue of Alexandrian 101 Dated to the fourth century; the plaque was found provenance. Alexandria continues to be cited as the in the fill over the early Roman villa, which began dis- source of these plaques, for example, the bone plaques integrating in the reign of Gordian III, a process that in incised and excised technique published by Grimm went on until the reign of Arcadius; C.H. Kraeling, as examples of Alexandrian work, see n. 109 below. 298 chapter vii cised designs are unlikely to have been produced there. My informal survey in 1989 of the ivory and bone collections at the Graeco-Roman Museum, Alexandria, disclosed an almost exclusive occurrence of low reliefs and only a few pieces of incised work, perhaps the exceptions that prove the rule.105 The survey included the collections on display and those in the inventory of the museum store rooms, which I was allowed to see thanks to the courtesy of the curatorial staff. The only incised pieces on display at that time were Reg. no. 13353, a plaque with a representation of a bird, lotus flower, and buds, and Reg. no. 12337, a plaque with plants and an unidentifiable cross-hatched object, now published.106 The inventory added Reg. no. 12018, Inv. no. 1844, which represents a fragment of a figure next to a column on which spiral fluting is incised. The very low percentage of incised plaques in contrast to numerous low reliefs argues against local production.107 I saw no low-relief plaques similar to the small ivory panels with seated figures from Kenchreai. These observations are supported by the extensive decorated bone collection of the Benaki Museum, Athens, acquired in Alexandria, and largely—but not exclusively—of low relief plaques.108 Grimm published two bone plaques with incised and excised technique as Alexandrian, perhaps because of their beautiful workmanship; they are in fact of unknown provenance or workshop origin.109 The von Sieglin Collection from Alexandria included relatively few bone objects.110 Rod- ziewicz has reported and described the discoveries of a single incised bone plaque at two sites in the Delta, from a bath at Schedia (Kafr ad Dawwar) and the cemetery at Kom el- Nigili (in Beheira) in the western Delta.111 Since it seems unlikely that workshops in Alexandria and towns in the Delta produced incised reliefs, including those excised to hold colored inlay, alternative locations should suggest themselves. No comprehensive study has presented a specific candidate for such a workshop,112 but there is scattered evidence that the region around Babylon, or Old Cairo, is a possibility.113 One of the finest surviving objects decorated with incised plaques with wax inlay, the fragmentary casket discussed in Chapter IV, now at the Coptic Museum, Cairo (Pl. IV.8),

105 These observations were recently corroborated by tion were in a private collection. Thomas, in Late An- Rodziewicz, E. Stylistical and Technical Components 405. E. tique Egyptian Funerary Sculpture 36, 50, suggests that a Breccia, Alexandrea ad Aegyptum (Bergamo, 1922) 290-2, highly Hellenizing style is more a mark of fourth- or fifth- fig. 201-4, all objects are low reliefs; E. Breccia, Monu- century date than of an earlier period or particular lo- ments de l’Égypte gréco-romine, Pt.1, Le rovine e i Monumenti cation. di Canopus (Bergamo, 1926) 80-1, Pl. XLIV, all sculptured 110 Pagenstecher, Sieglin Collection, Vol. II,3, 168; Vol. plaques are low reliefs or common items such as pins III,3, Pls. LIV, LV, LVI, LVII. Note, however, Tübingen and pyxis lids. fragment Inv. Sl/13 3761, an incised circular plaque. 106 R.M. Bonacasa Carra, “Ossi e avori “alessan- Acquisition and even excavation in Alexandria do not drini” a Roma,” in Ensoli and La Rocca, Aurea Roma 354, necessarily indicate production in that city; Stern, Evi- fig. 2, 3. dence for Bone and Ivory Working 746. 107 Contra Carra, ibid. 355. 111 Rodziewicz, E. Stylistical and Technical Components 108 Marangou, Bone Carvings from Egypt passim. 405-8, figs. LXXV (1) and (2). 109 G. Grimm, “Orient und Okzident in der Kunst 112 Marangou, Bone Carvings from Egypt 23. Alexandriens,” in Alexandrien: Kulturbegegnungen dreier Jahr- 113 Loverdou-Tsigarida, ÏóôÝévá ðëáêßäéá 84-5 sug- tausende im Schmelztiegel einer mediterranen Grossstadt, N. gests that this was a new workshop that responded to Hinske, ed., Aegyptiaca Treverensia, Vol. I. (Mainz: Philipp local demand from an increased population and regional von Zabern,1981) 13-25, Pl. 20 a, b. These were at one monasteries for decorated boxes and pyxides which time on the art market and at the time of this publica- continued for several centuries. furniture reconstructions, provenance, dating, setting, and function 299 was found at Sakkara.114 At Hawara, in the Fayum, Petrie excavated, from a burial of a woman, a wood casket inlaid with ivory(?) plaques into which an eros and birds had been incised and colored with inlaying.115 At the turn of the twentieth century, Strzygowski noted that the art market in Alexandria was flooded with bone carvings and that it must have been a specialty of the city; but when the collection he made for the then Kaiser-Friedrich Mu- seum, Berlin, was published, their provenance was given as “from Cairo.”116 Faced with the dearth of evidence to answer the question of origin definitively, two other approaches may be used to locate regions where there might have been workshops: design elements and possible sources of materials. Chapter II addressed the latter point, differences in the sources and working characteristics of ivory and bone and some implications in terms of production sites, especially where camel bone might have been available. Here, I turn to aspects of design and technique that might assist to locate the production of these furnishings. Comparisons with most objects are not informative with regard to provenance. Deco- rated objects, from coins to glass, were traded widely throughout and beyond the Roman world. As an example, the preponderance of the ca. 100,000 ancient textiles preserved in museum collections were discovered in Egypt, so scholars are apt to use Egyptian findspot as evidence for manufacture of any so-called Coptic textile. However, textiles were produced in many locations in the late antique world, and trade sometimes followed surprising patterns. Textiles found in Egypt but clearly produced elsewhere include the group of Sasa- nian silks found at Antinoe (ancient Antinoopolis)117 and products of the major state workshop on the Sea of Marmara at Heraclea (ancient Perinthus) that exported textiles to Egypt during the fifth century and probably throughout late antiquity.118 In contrast, stone reliefs and architectural decorations, produced locally, cast some light on regional design traditions.119 Byzantine Egyptian sculptural styles can be temporally and geographically defined within fairly small areas, so one might expect slightly earlier bone and ivory workshops to display parallel local traditions.120 Traditional Egyptian stone sunken relief, in a simplified version that approaches incision, was still being carved in the area of

114 Cairo, Coptic Museum, Inv. nos. 9060-9063; Suecana 12 (1963) 3-36. Strzygowski, Koptische Kunst nos. 7060-7064; Age of Spiri- 118 H. Seyrig and L. Robert, CahArch 8 (1956) 27- tuality 332-3, Cat. no. 311; Loverdou-Tsigarida, ÏóôÝévá 36; V. Velkov, Cities in Thrace and Dacia in Late Antiquity ðëáêßäéá 305-7, Cat. nos. 16-20; Albertoni, Lastrine di (Amsterdam, 1977) 140 n. 555. Rivestimento 368-9, figs. 50-1. 119 Itinerant work groups of masons, mosaicists, 115 Petrie, Ten Years’ Digging in Egypt 101-2, fig. 75. painters, and so forth do, of course, muddy the waters. 116 J. Strzygowski, “Hellenistische und koptische 120 Thomas, Late Antique Egyptian Funerary Sculpture 38- Kunst,” Bulletin de la Société Royale d’Archéologie d’Alexandrie 43; T.K. Thomas, “An Introduction to the Sculpture of 5 (Vienna 1902) vii; Wulff, Bildwerke Pl. XIV, Cat. nos. Late Roman and Early Byzantine Egypt,” in Friedman, 341, 344, 349, 350, 351, and 352. Cat. no. 341, now Beyond the Pharaohs 60-1. Interestingly, the list of skilled missing, a characteristic example of a bone plaque with artisans from an Edict of Constantine of 337 incorpo- the figure mainly indicated by incision and drapery rated in the Theodosian Code (Cod. Theod. XIII, 4, 2), excised for wax inlay, is illustrated in Effenberger, pointed out by Thomas, lists joiners and ivory workers Koptische Kunst fig. 82. but not bone workers. Either working in bone was sub- 117 A. Gonosová, “Textiles,” in Friedman, Beyond the sumed under ivory working or it was considered un- Pharaohs 72 n. 42 with reference to A. Geijer, “A Silk skilled. from Antinoë and the Sassanian Textile Art,” Orientalia 300 chapter vii

Cairo or Sakkara, as an early third-century(?) painted limestone relief in the Egyptian Museum, Cairo, demonstrates.121 Most of the Kenchreai plaques are also worked in incision, a traditional Egyptian technique, but the subject matter includes Graeco-Roman mythological scenes, the thiasos, and the imperial subject of the curved panel. The “merging and development of the two distinct stylistic traditions” in Roman Egypt is particularly characteristic of the Fayum.122 In a relief from Arsinoe (modern Medinet el-Fayum) near the center of the Fayum, which represents a young woman breastfeeding, the figure is incised into the surface and decorated with colored wax, techniques characteristic of the Kenchreai bone plaques and veneers.123 There are parallels from this region for some of the imagery and decorative details on the Kenchreai bone and ivory as well. A strong tradition of Hellenistic iconography, often with Dionysiac-related themes, characterizes sculpture produced in Oxyrhynchus (modern Behnesa), whose population included a substantial proportion of Greeks and Hellenized Egyptians.124 A fourth- or fifth-century funerary niche from Oxyrhynchus depicts a man playing the syrinx, and numerous images of Dionysus and other deities were produced locally.125 A distinctive ornamental motif that occurs on the Kenchreai bone rings and also on late antique Egyptian stone architectural reliefs is a swastika-and-flower design. Limestone moldings in (and presumably from the area of) Alexandria display a pattern of alternating swastikas and paneled flowers, but typically the panels that enclose the flowers do not alternate between facing in and facing out.126 However, a sculptured limestone niche decoration from Oxyrhynchus does have a swastika design with flowers set into panels that alternately open toward opposite sides, a pattern like that on three of the decorative rings from Kenchreai (see Chapter IV, Cat. nos. 147-172).127 A similar pattern occurs on a curved (bone?) strip in Berlin, acquired in 1902 and said to be from Helwan. This strip is decorated with overlapping meanders alternating with panels that open in opposing direction. These panels are filled with four-petaled flowers, a design very similar to that of the Kenchreai bone rings.128 Other distinctive patterns that appear on the Kenchreai decorative strips and on reliefs from Oxyrhynchus include foliated spirals and leaf patterns.129 Production of bone and ivory reliefs was, of course, not limited to Egypt, but there is not much evidence for production of plaques in the style of those at Kenchreai at other loca-

121 Cairo, Egyptian Museum, Greek Sculpture Col- 23603; for this and other similar examples, see lection Inv. No. 27569; Age of Spirituality 69-70, Cat. No. Krumeich, Spätantike Bauskulptur aus Oxyrhynchos 118-9, 59. Cat. no. G-122, Pl. 92; also E. Breccia, Le Musée Gréco- 122 Thomas, Late Antique Egyptian Funerary Sculpture 39. Romain 1925-31 (Bergamo, 1932) no. 142, Pl. XXXIX. 123 Berlin, Staatliche Museen, Museum für See also Friedman, Beyond the Pharaohs 58-9, figs. 6, 7. Spätantike und Byzantinische Kunst, Inv. no. 4726; 128 Berlin, Staatliche Museen, Inv. no. 3858; Wulff, Ägypten Schätze 114-5, Cat. no. 61, with earlier bibl.; Bildwerke 122, Cat. no. 445, Pl. XX. 124 Thomas, Late Antique Egyptian Funerary Sculpture 37- 129 For foliated spirals similar to Kenchreai Cat. nos. 8; Krumeich, Spätantike Bauskulptur aus Oxyrhynchos 21. 345-349, see Alexandria, Graeco-Roman Museum, Inv. 125 Krumeich, Spätantike Bauskulptur aus Oxyrhynchos nos. 23567 (9395) and 23452 (9298) in Krumeich,

151-4; Thomas, Late Antique Egyptian Funerary Sculpture, e.g. Spätantike Bauskulptur aus Oxyrhynchos 75-61, AG-21 and G- figs. 75-81. 31 respectively, Pl. 61. For leaf patterns similar to 126 E. Breccia, Le Musée Gréco-Romain 1931-32 Kenchreai Cat. nos. 167-190, see Alexandria, Graeco- (Bergamo, 1933) Pls. XXVIII-XLI. Roman Museum, Inv. no. 23584 (9261); Krumeich, 127 Alexandria, Graeco-Roman Museum, Inv. no. Spätantike Bauskulptur aus Oxyrhynchos 86, AG-40, Pl. 72. furniture reconstructions, provenance, dating, setting, and function 301 tions. An unfinished bone relief plaque found in Syria may indicate a workshop in that region, and recent work at Ashkelon has disclosed a major workshop, albeit of later date.130 Liter- ary evidence documents the large-scale production of ivory goods in Constantinople in the second half of the fourth century. There is evidence that consular diptychs were produced at a number of sites besides Constantinople, including Rome, Milan, various locations in Gaul, and as far north as Trier.131 Albertoni has argued for a workshop producing incised figural plaques in Rome, but this remains to be proved by close analysis of comparative material.132 In summary, parallels to both the techniques and the subjects of the Kenchreai decoration have been found in the area around Memphis or Helwan/Sakkara and also in the Fayum, so it is likely that craftsmen in one or more workshops in this region created the decorated bone and ivory of the Kenchreai furniture and many other incised plaques. This conclusion parallels that of E. Rodziewicz, who has summarized the evidence for an incised bone workshop location, and suggests Memphis, or perhaps Scenas Mandras (modern Shurafa) as the location.133 Hypothesizing that craftsmen trained in Alexandria moved in the fourth century to Babylon (Old Cairo) or nearby could explain the appearance of a new technique of incised work, inspired by local stone sculpture techniques, as well as the continuation of mythological themes, such as the Dionysiac cycle, and the production of miniature architectural attachments.

C. DATING

If, as is argued here, the furnishings from Kenchreai were in use in the apsidal room where they were found, they all must have been made before the time of its final destruction, whether that occurred under Julian, or in 365, 375, or perhaps as late as ca. 400.134 A fourth- century dating for the furniture is supported by a review of the parallels presented in the chapters above and in the discussion below, which indicate that the closest relationships of the decoration of the bone and ivory are almost exclusively to objects, in several mediums, of the second third of the fourth century.135 While it would be preferable to compare the Kenchreai furniture and its decoration directly to well-dated parallels, the bone and ivory plaques from Egypt do not provide firmly dated comparanda. Until recently, the dating and interpretation of ivory and bone materials from Egypt has been hindered by the paucity of controlled excavation and by the practice of labeling a large body of material of the third through seventh centuries as Coptic, with the assumption that all were products of a thoroughly Christianized Egypt.136 Since it is assumed that at least some bone- and ivory-

130 Cutler, Craft 22; Wapnish, Manufacture of Bone 133 Rodziewicz E., Stylistical and Technical Components Implements n.p. 409. 131 A. Cameron, “A Note on Ivory Carving in 134 See Chapter I for a discussion of the issues con- Fourth Century Constantinople,” AJA 86 (1982) 126-9; cerning the chronology of the site and its destruction. Cutler, Craft 23; Volbach, Elfenbeinarbeiten der Spätantike3 135 For one example among several, see in Chapter 24. III the parallels for Cat. no. 3. 132 Albertoni, Inediti Frammenti 160. 136 Thomas, Late Antique Egyptian Funerary Sculpture xvii-xviii, 6; Marangou, Bone Carvings from Egypt 20. The 302 chapter vii decorated caskets were created for domestic use, their deposition, even in a datable funerary context, does not provide a close date for their production. New analyses based on modern excavations in cemeteries may assist in interpreting the various decorative themes on these caskets, and if they were primarily intended for funerary use, provide chronological mark- ers and relationships to funerary sculpture.137 The style and iconography of the large corpus of funerary sculpture are also being re-evaluated, and it is clear that neither has been well understood.138 The most striking characteristic of fourth-century funerary sculpture in Egypt is its strongly Hellenizing character, unlike the “Greco-Egyptian syncretism of the first through third centuries.” Thus stylistic and iconographical features also reinforce a fourth- century dating for the Kenchreai veneers and plaques.139 A stable economy, with continuity in the trade of materials and in the demand for products, are necessary for the existence of workshops producing luxury goods such as the Kenchreai furniture. While small caskets decorated with bone may have been cheap versions of the metal boxes preferred by wealthy elites, ivory-veneered furniture must always have been expensive, and if decorated, particularly so.140 As in North Africa, there was probably renewed prosperity in Egypt and increased production of luxury goods during the fourth century.141 Egypt—unlike Italy, the Balkans, and Greece—was relatively untouched by the physical destruction and political disruptions of the third and early fourth centuries. Insurrections, such as the revolt in Upper Egypt during the reign of Diocletian, and the incursions of the Blemmyes, apparently did not disrupt the economic life of Lower Egypt, however much they may have slowed or intermittently halted the trade in luxury goods, specifically ivory, from time to time. In fact, the widespread use of bone for furniture veneers may have been prompted not by the costliness nor by the limited supply of ivory at its sources, but rather from the interruption of the ivory trade routes in Upper Egypt. On the other hand, St. Clair has suggested that the volume of objects of bone increased parallel to those of ivory, as the less wealthy emulated the luxurious possessions of the elite.142 That the use of bone grew markedly during the fourth century is supported by E. Rodziewicz’s research on the dating of bone carving in Alexandria, which does not confirm significant activity prior to that time.143 The use of bone for a substantial portion of the elaborate decoration of the Kenchreai furniture thus seems to fit the pattern of production in Egypt in the fourth century. To argue that the Kenchreai furniture could have been produced in Egypt in the fourth century is not sufficient to show that it in fact was. Further support would be desirable, but

ivory and bone work known to have been found at spe- 138 In summary, Thomas, Late Antique Funerary Sculp- cific sites in Egypt catalogued by Volbach are all sixth- ture xxiii-xxiv. or seventh-century in date and thus not helpful for the 139 Thomas, Late Antique Egyptian Funerary Sculpture 36, dating of the Kenchreai materials, Volbach, Elfen- 50. beinarbeiten der Spätantike3 24. 140 Loverdou-Tsigarida, ÏóôÝévá ðëáêßäéá 20-1; Cut- 137 I am not aware of any complete tomb assemblage ler, Five Lessons in Late Roman Ivory 189. that includes both exterior and interior remains in Al- 141 For North Africa, see Dunbabin, Mosaics of Ro- exandria, Sakkara, Oxyrhynchus, or the Fayum; Tho- man North Africa 14. mas, Late Antique Funerary Sculpture 47. 142 St. Clair, Carving as Craft 9. 143 Rodziewicz E., Bone and Ivory Carvings 137. furniture reconstructions, provenance, dating, setting, and function 303 the decorative vocabulary of the Kenchreai bone and ivory plaques and veneers is difficult to date, as it belongs to a design tradition that had a long life. Hellenistic architectural details were widespread in late Roman Egypt, not only in locations that were foundations of, or heavily influenced by, the Roman administration, such as Alexandria, Antinoopolis, Naukratis, Ptolemais, and Paraetonium. Graeco-Roman features that were rare prior to the fourth century replaced traditional Egyptian architectural vocabulary following administrative changes under Diocletian and the spread of Christianity in Egypt after the Edict of Toleration in 311.144 The early fourth-century imperial cult room at Luxor had columns with Corinthian capitals, and during the fifth century, churches in Upper Egypt used the traditional Helle- nistic-Roman vocabulary of Attic bases and Corinthian capitals, for example in the tran- sept church of Hermopolis Magna (modern Ashmunein), the atrium of which enclosed crossing colonnaded porticoes with these elements, perhaps made of reused materials.145 Other architectural motifs were equally long-lived. Molded plaster wall decorations in the shape of double swastikas with panels and foliated spirals flanked by rows of dotted circles were used for hundreds of years, as finds from Fustat reveal.146 We can examine additional internal evidence and archaeological parallels that indicate a likely dating to the mid-fourth century. The iconography and style of the Curved Panel (Cat. nos. 5-45) may provide the most concrete evidence. As discussed in Chapter III, it is uncertain what is depicted, but if the panel represents standing personifications of Roma and Constantinopolis flanking the enthroned Constantius II (ruled 337-361), its date can be narrowly fixed.147 Most representations of Dea Roma in the fourth century derive from the Hadrianic porphyry cult image in the Temple of Venus and Roma near the Roman Forum that was restored and modified by Maxentius (ruled 306-312) after a fire had destroyed the structure.148 In this fourth-century type, Roma sits on a low-backed throne, helmeted, draped in a high-belted chiton and mantle that expose one leg from the knee down, and holding an orb and a spear or scepter-staff. No single source can be adduced for the personification of Constantinopolis that first appeared following the decisive victory by Constantine over the forces of Licinius near Byzantium and the re-founded city’s dedication as Constantinople in 330. The Constantinople mint began production of coins and medallions showing personifications of the city in three guises. An early silver medallion carries a seated representation dressed in tunic and long mantle with mural crown, holding a cornucopia.149 A second type shows a standing “sceptred and armed” Constantinople with one foot supported by the prow of a ship, a reference to the recent victory at sea.150 The mint also struck medallions with a bust of Constantinople helmeted on the obverse.151 Bronze medallions with a helmeted bust of Constantinopolis or of Roma were produced at the mint in Rome in 330-337,152 as well as

144 Rodziewicz, E. Bone and Ivory Carvings 82-4, Bow- 148 Cullhed, Conservator Urbis Suae 50, fig. 8, 52; Bühl, man, Egypt after the Pharaohs 46-7. Constantinopolis und Roma 21, n. 50; Vermeule, Roma 42- 145 P. Grossman, “Early Christian Architecture in the 6, 89-96, Pls. IV.11-25. Nile Valley,” in Friedman, Beyond the Pharaohs 82. 149 Bühl, Constantinopolis und Roma 11-2, fig. 1. 146 A.B. Bey and A. Gabriel, Fouilles d’Al Foustat 150 Kent, Urbs Roma and Constantinopolis 105-6, Pl. 12.2. (Paris, 1921) 111, Pls. XX,3; XXI,2. 151 Tocci, I Medaglioni Romani 136-8, Cat. nos. 94-6, 147 For a list of standing representations of Roma, Pl. LIV. see Vermeule, Roma 101-3. 152 Bühl, Constantinopolis und Roma 15, figs. 4 and 5. 304 chapter vii medallions with a turreted and winged Constantinopolis from 335 to 337.153 Issues depicting Roma and Constantinopolis ceased at the Roman mints after Constans’ annexation of Gaul in 340, to resume in a minimal way under Nepotian and Magnentius in 350, and in force only under Constantius II in 352.154 Gnecchi’s tabulation of the appearance of Roma and Constantinopolis on medallions also shows this pattern of resumption under Constantius II.155 In 1947, J.M.C. Toynbee published a study of the paired personifications of Roma and Constantinopolis, pointing out that they were a prominent feature of the vota coinage of the reign of Constantius II.156 She noted that these personifications, although pagan, remained acceptable as representations in a way that images of the gods and goddesses no longer were, perhaps explaining in part the reason for their popularity.157 Recent numismatic study also demonstrates that Roma and Constantinopolis shown enthroned together first appear in the vota coinage struck to commemorate the vicennalia of Constantius II in 343.158 They also appear in honor of Constans’ decennalia in 343 and some time between 346/7 and 350 on solidi, with the legend GLORIA REI PUBLICAE.159 These issues continued in the period 352 to 355 joined by silver issues with reverses showing paired standing representations of Roma and Constantinopolis.160 There was some variability in details of dress and pose of the figures. The reverses of bronze medallions struck by Magnentius show Roma wearing a hel- met, short tunic, and high boots, the last a good parallel for the heavy boot preserved among the fragments of the Curved Panel from Kenchreai (Cat. no. 9).161 After the 360s, coinage bearing Roma and Constantinopolis recurs for the decennalia of Valentinian and Valens in 373/4, under Gratian in 375-8, and under Eugenius in the 390s, but these issues are rare.162 The high point of the numismatic distribution of the imagery was the 350s, but its persistence in other mediums into the fifth century is shown by its frequent appearance on the consular diptychs and on such official products as the Missorium of Ardabur Aspar. If the deposition of the Kenchreai Curved Panel occurred prior to or shortly after the earthquake of 365, the observations above indicate that it was probably produced in the 350s. Parallels to the Thiasos Panel (Cat. nos. 98-110) also support a fourth-century date, especially the similarities in composition to the mosaic from the Villa of the Falconer, Argos, from the end of the fourth century, assuming that the reconstruction of the panel proposed above in Chapter III is substantially correct.163 This chronology is reinforced by the horizontal leg coverings in parallel stripes worn by the leaning Dionysus, which are also seen

153 Bühl, Constantinopolis und Roma 15-6, Fig. 8; Kent, 159 RIC viii 39-40, 504, 518, Pl. 24 (33) and (75), Pl. Urbs Roma and Constantinopolis 108; RIC vii 340, no. 356. 26 (81) and (83); the type was minted at Nicomedia and 154 RIC viii 34, 261, 269; Tocci, I Medaglioni Romani Antioch along with a variant carrying the legend 151, Cat. no. 109, PL. LVI; K.J. Shelton, The Esquiline GLORIA ROMANORUM, RIC viii 517; Bühl, Treasure 153. Constantinopolis und Roma 127-9. 155 Gnecchi, I Medaglioni Romani I, xlviii. 160 Bühl, Constantinopolis und Roma 45; RIC viii 227 and 156 J.M.C. Toynbee, “Roma and Constantinopolis in 232, Pl. 10. Late-Antique Art from 312 to 365,” JRS 37 (1947) 138- 161 Ibid., 142. 9. 162 Ibid., 66 n. 218; 67, 220-1, fig. 32. 157 Ibid. 135-6. 163 See Chapter III, Section H. 158 Bühl, Constantinopolis und Roma 45. furniture reconstructions, provenance, dating, setting, and function 305 on a mosaic from the Esquiline Hill, Rome, which has been dated to the period of Con- stantine.164 The Qustul chest, discussed above, provides an important parallel for dating from an archaeological context of the fourth century. This large rectangular wood chest on legs, decorated with ivory inlays, was recovered from the tumulus over Tomb 14 at Qustul, the earliest of a group of Nubian burials at the sites of Ballana and Qustul.165 These tombs were constructed by a people who occupied the area south of Kalabsha from the fourth through the sixth centuries, either the Blemmyes or, it is now more widely thought, the Noubades.166 The Qustul tombs are the burials of the deputies of the post-Meroitic kings in Upper Nubia. The tombs held large quantities of imported pottery, bronze and iron work including crossed- leg stools—perhaps sellae castrenses—and other artifacts, received as gifts from high officials in the Thebaid, with whom they had federate relations, seized in raids on settlements in Upper Egypt, obtained by trade, or made locally.167 The contents of the Qustul chest had been plundered, probably at the time of burial. This luxurious object may have been crafted in an Upper Egyptian or Nubian workshop.168 Tomb 14 has been dated to the second half of the fourth century, probably no earlier than the 360s.169 A coin of Valens (ruled 364- 378) was discovered in the debris of the tumulus.170 The tomb contained storage amphorae that parallel those from the cellar adjacent to the apsidal room at Kenchreai.171 It is interesting that the same amphora type, furniture with incised ivory veneer, and a coin of Valens were found both at Kenchreai and at the Qustul tomb. While this circumstance does not provide evidence for a secure dating in either case, it adds some support for their contemporaneity. An incised bone relief from a dated archaeological context may also support a fourth- century date for the Curved Panel. Stylistically and iconographically related is a semicircular panel discovered in the late Roman fill of the Athenian Agora.172 The Agora panel was

164 See parallels to Chapter III, Cat. no. 99. Meroitic Chronology 218-9, 222; Török, Egyptian Late An- 165 Aswan, Nubia Museum? (previously Cairo, Cop- tique Art from Nubian Royal Tombs 91-2. tic Museum, Inv. no. JE71191); Emery and Kirwan, The 168 Emery and Kirwan, The Royal Tombs 23; Africa in Royal Tombs 48-9, 178-9, 383-4, 388-9; Cat. No. 881, Pl. Antiquity II, 320; Millet, Gebel Adda 9; O’Connor, Ancient 109-A and -B; Emery, Nubian Treasure 50-3, Pl. 48; Af- Nubia 112. rica in Antiquity II, 104-6, fig. 80. 169 Emery and Kirwan, The Royal Tombs 398-9; 166 Emery, Nubian Treasure; Török, Contribution to Post- Török, Egyptian Late Antique Art from Nubian Royal Tombs Meroitic Chronology 201 n.1. 91-2 dates all the tombs post ca. 380. 167 The Blemmyes, a camel-owning people of the 170 Emery and Kirwan, The Royal Tombs 49. eastern desert, regularly visited shrines of their god 171 See Chapter I. Mandoulis at Philae and Kalabsha and raided as far 172 T. Leslie Shear, Excavations in the Athenian north as Ptolemais. For a time they dominated the south- Agora, “the Campaign of 1936,” Hesperia VI (1937)380- ern Thebaid. W.Y. Adams, Nubia. Corridor to Africa 1, fig. 46; Agora Guide (1976) 274. Although the late (Princeton, 1977) 342-3, 440, 442; Wanscher, Sella Curulis Roman fill in the Agora was generally too disturbed to 146; Emery and Kirwan, The Royal Tombs 25; Emery, be of use for precise dating, this panel was excavated Nubian Treasure 28; Andrew, Beja Tribes 56-8. Both the from a pocket lying on a well-compacted strosis. The Blemmyes and a major group inhabiting Lower Nubia other materials found with the panel were a Knidian from the mid-fourth through the sixth centuries, the amphora stamp of the early first century B.C. and coins Noubades, established a foederate relationship with the ranging in date from the late second/early third century court in Constantinople and probably received appro- through the fourth century. None were later. A date ante priate gifts and documents; Török, Contributions to Post- quem ca. 400 is therefore probably indicated. 306 chapter vii probably made to attach to one side of the lid of a curved-top casket. It represents a draped standing figure holding a staff, leaning shields at left, and an amphora at right. The border is cross-hatched. The subjects represented on the Kenchreai plaques are consistent with fourth-century dating. There is nothing that suggests either an overt or veiled allusion to Christianity, but it is also the case that, other than the erotes, there are no totally nude figures among the preserved materials, although both nude male and female figures are common on similar late Roman plaques. While it does not point to a particular chronology, this feature is consistent with fourth-century practice in Egypt where explicit Christian imagery was yet to develop.173 There is little evidence for dating through purely stylistic comparanda, except for the male heads on the Curved Panel. These fit well into the stylistic milieu of the mid-fourth century and especially the second third of the century. Breckenridge described the style of fourth- century portraits between the periods of Constantine and Theodosius as “compact, spheri- cal, delicately modeled, with strongly contrasting textures; (that) in many cases .... seem slightly under true life-size....”174 Kiilerich has described the continuity of classicism throughout the fourth century, from the Constantinian through the Theodosian periods.175 These male heads (Cat. nos. 14, 15, and 16) all display idealized faces with fine, pointed features. One head has a pronounced hooked nose; the others show the features closely grouped together. The eyes are all heavily lidded. The hair is very fine and combed in long parallel strands forward toward the face. These are features specifically seen on imperial portraits of the second third of the century. Constans I (ruled 337-350) is depicted with long, linear strands of hair combed forward, a thin hooked nose, small mouth, receding chin, and sharply cut features.176 Coin portraits of Constantius II (ruled 337-361) are stylistically similar; for example, his image on a solidus from the mint at Antioch shows a strongly hooked nose, narrow face, and fine linear strands of hair rather long at the nape.177 The composition of the Kenchreai panels also supports a fourth-century date. Animal Panels I and II (Cat. nos. 46-85) show isolated clumps of plants in a suggestion of a landscape setting, albeit fairly abstracted. This design is typical of Egyptian depictions of hunt from the fourth century on: “Depictions of hunt in the Roman period are shown in a landscape setting, but from the end of the fourth century onward, they are increasingly rendered as freer compositions of isolated motifs placed on neutral backgrounds.”178 Attribution to the fourth century is further supported by the depiction of textile designs and clothing types on the relief panels that include representations of human figures, as described in Chapter III. The eros on plaque Cat. no. 3 wears a boat-necked tunic with long sleeves banded at the wrist. The pointed clavi are attached to rectangular epaulets.179

173 Thomas, Late Antique Egyptian Funerary Sculpture Giuliano 323-32, Pl. CXI, no. 405. xviii. 177 Worcester Art Museum, Inv. no. 1999.373; An- 174 James D. Breckenridge, “Portraiture,” in Age of tioch, The Lost Ancient City 104. Spirituality 5. 178 Friedman, Beyond the Pharaohs 269. 175 Kiilerich, Late Fourth Century Classicism 250. 179 See Chapter III, Section B for definitions. 176 Calza, Iconografia Romana Imperiale da Carausio a furniture reconstructions, provenance, dating, setting, and function 307

There are oval orbiculi at the knees. The eros on plaque Cat. no. 4 has dotted, round orbiculi at the shoulders and what may be a broad, pointed clavus that appears to fall under the figure’s left arm. The parallels for these plaques cited in the catalogue date from the third through the fifth centuries, but mainly from the fourth. A large orbiculus decorated with rays on the left upper arm, straight clavi, and an edging along the neck opening is shown on the attendant on the Curved Panel (Cat. no. 16). Several additional orbiculi with a pattern of rays appear on fragments of drapery that probably veiled the hands of this and another attendant (Cat. nos. 22 and 23). The design consists of a radiating pattern of pointed rays alternating with thin bars inside a double circle. The largest patch would have had fourteen or fifteen rays, the two smaller ones about ten rays. A smaller patch with fourteen rays is also preserved. Parallels are cited in the text of Chapter III and notes 43-50 for the sunburst design, of fourth-century date, when sun imagery was particularly popular. Other details similarly point to a fourth-century dating, such as the main figure on the Curved Panel wearing stockings decorated with radiating flowers at the intersections of crossing bands.180 Cat. no. 18 depicts the seated figure’s left wrist and a spotted cloth draped over the throne. At the edge of the sleeve is a narrow cuff (manicae) edged with a row of circles, perhaps representing pearls, identical to the cuff design of the representation of Constantius II in the Calendar of 354.181 Rows of circles banding very broad cuffs can be seen on the figures of Theodosius and the co-Augustus to his right on the Missorium of Theodosius, created in 387 for the celebration of the imperial decennalia celebrated in January 388.182 Checked and dotted fabrics were used for cushions and hangings as well as appliqué patches, and there are several representations of checked textiles on the Curved Panel: the central figure sits on a large cushion covered with four squares in a square checked fabric, two feet are clad with checked socks, and an attendant wears a checked epaulet or tunic (Cat. nos. 5, 9, 10, and 17).183 In the panel with figures with outstretched arms (Cat. nos. 86-92), two tunics have broad, pointed clavi. One has triple dots, possibly small orbiculi, one has square orbiculi decorated with an X, and a rectangular epaulet, with parallels of third- and fourth- century date.184 The figure shown in Cat. no. 93 also has a square orbiculus with an X decoration, possibly pointing to a similar date.185 As noted above, the leg of Dionysus on the Thiasos Panel (Cat. no. 99) is represented with a pattern of horizontal stripes, a motif with a dated parallel from the period of Constantine.186 In addition to these parallels for fabric designs in non-textile mediums, there are also parallels among fourth- and fifth-century fabrics for decorative patterns that occur on the Kenchreai veneers. Among these is a broad border of foliated spiral with grapes and pomegranates at the Museum Simeonstift, Trier, dated fourth to fifth century, similar to the foliated spiral border described in Chapter IV (Cat. nos. 345-350).187

180 See Chapter III, n. 14. 184 See Chapter III, n. 77. 181 See parallels for Cat. no. 18 in Chapter III for 185 For parallel, see Chapter III, Cat. no. 93. references for the cuff treatment and spotted cloth. 186 For dating, see Chapter III, Cat. no. 99. 182 El Disco de Teodosio 189 Pl. III (1) and (2); Kiilerich, 187 C. Nauerth, Koptische Textilkunst im spätantiken Representing an Emperor 274. Ägypten: Die Sammlung Rautenstrauch im Städtischen Museum 183 For parallels, see Chapter III, Cat. no. 17. Simeonstift Trier (Trier, 1978) 41, Cat. no. 20 b. 308 chapter vii

Comparing some representations among the Kenchreai incised veneers with the reliefs on the base of the Obelisk of Theodosius, in what was the hippodrome in Constantinople, also supports a later fourth-century date for the Kenchreai plaques and veneers. As discussed above in Chapter III, these include also comparisons with fairly securely dated silver objects such as the Projecta casket of 330 to 370188 and the Missorium of Theodosius of 387.189

D. SETTING AND FUNCTION

The excavators initially proposed that all of the fragmentary furniture recovered from the apsidal room had been thrown there as if into a rubbish tip, after having been moved from its original locations. This conclusion was in part due to the original identification of the room as a hypaethral “fountain court,” a view not assumed in the present volume. It is conceivable that the furniture legs and decorative panels were stored after being shipped in uncompleted form for assembly at a local furniture workshop; the absence of evidence for hinges may support this view. But unlike the glass opus sectile in the same room, only parts of the items of furniture were found, and there was no evidence of packing crates for them. Therefore, it seems unlikely that the furniture was waiting to be transported to a workshop in Kenchreai, Corinth, elsewhere in the Corinthia, or further afield in the Argolid. It seems more likely that the furniture was already in use at Kenchreai and damaged in its original location of use or near to it. The questions are Where? and For what purpose? Since much of the heavier wood was found resting directly on the floor of the apsidal room and was overlaid with varying layers of earth and debris, it seems appropriate to ask the function of the room and whether there is any reason that these furnishings might have been used in it. Access to the room and its entrance hallway from adjacent structures, from its original construction ca. A.D. 100 until the fourth century, was not clearly determined by the excavators.190 The apsidal room is entered from a lateral hallway behind the adjacent structure, identified by the excavators as the temple of Isis. No entry into this lateral hallway is indicated on the plan; however, it apparently is located at the end of a sequence of spaces that leads from a long, narrow entrance area via a colonnade perpendicular to it, and into a rectangular room. A common wall at the rear of this room separates it from the lateral hallway, from which one enters the apsidal room. An entrance down a flight of five steps leads from the opposite long wall of the lateral hallway into the apsidal room (Plan I.3; Pl. I.1). How- ever, it is unclear whether the sequence of spaces described served as the formal approach to the apsidal room. The apsidal room consists of a rectangular space that measures ca. 7.70 by 9.90 m, from which extends, from the side opposite the entrance, an apse of 5.2 m in diameter elevated ca. 0.1 m above the floor level. A low marble sill separates the apse from the rectangular

188 For parallels see Chapter III, Cat. no. 8 and 189 See above n. 182. Chapter VI n. 20. 190 Kenchreai I, dwgs. 27-9. furniture reconstructions, provenance, dating, setting, and function 309 part of the room. Overall, the room is approximately 86.8 m2 in size. There is a drain on the south side of the apse that would have been useful if the floor needed to be cleaned and that would also have accommodated overflow from a fountain located near its center. The opus lithostroton mosaic flooring of the apse is marked out in four wedge-shaped sections, those in the center wider than the lateral sections. Common features of late Roman dining rooms are a typical dimension in the neighborhood of 87.5 m2, the use of mosaic pavements, elaborate wall facing or decoration, a fountain, and a location at the far end of a structure opposite the entrance.191 With its marble dado and the features described above, the apsidal room at Kenchreai fulfills these criteria closely, supporting its identification as an oecus/ stibadium, which could have been furnished with portable dining couches in a fashion similar to Room XXXII in the Villa, El Ruedo, or the Villa of the Falconer, Argos.192 The apsidal room at Kenchreai was first constructed ca. A.D. 100 and remained in use for almost three centuries.193 Similar large apsidal rooms are a common feature of both domestic and semi-domestic structures in late antiquity across the Mediterranean, following their introduction in the first century B.C.194 From the third century on, there was an increasing preference for semicircular rather than rectangular dining couches. Set around the interior of an apsidal room, the cushioned couches faced an open area with space for one large round or semicircular table or for several small round tables. Diners reclined against a semicircular cushion (the stibadium), the name for which has come to signify the entire array of couches and cushions. The stibadium originated as a cushion for al fresco dining, as part of a festival or in funerary, military, hunting, or other bucolic settings.195 By the end of the Republic, architectural settings in gardens were in use for dining on stibadia, and by late antiquity the stibadium had migrated indoors, into apsidal rooms especially designed for its use.196 The host and honored guest occupied the positions at either end of the semicircle.197 Dining parties enhanced by the sight and sounds of a fountain were very popular in the Roman world.198 Sometimes a fountain even rose through the center of the table, and the

191 See Roman Villa of El Ruedo 145 n. 39 for criteria huntsman thereby releasing thrushes caught by bird suggested by Thébert and Morere for reception rooms catchers, shows the blurring of practices between a rus- in North African houses and villas in Narbonensis. tic picnic held out of doors after a hunt and an elabo- 192 Dunbabin, Roman Banquet 169-72; Roman Villa of rate cena or convivium. The architectural settings for late El Ruedo 148; Åkerström-Hougen, The Calendar and Hunt- antique dining are presented in Rossiter, Convivium and ing Mosaics of the Villa of the Falconer 101; the room is 6 m Villa passim. wide. 197 Sidonius, Ep. I, xi clearly explains the order of 193 Kenchreai I, 70-1. placement. 194 Dunbabin, Roman Banquet 171; Frantz, Agora 198 Rossiter, Convivium and Villa 204. At an inn found XXIV, 34-5 n. 128; based on J.C. Balty, “Notes sur in 1959 and re-excavated in 1999 at Moregine (ancient habitation romaine, byzantine et arabe d’Apamée,” Murecine), outside Pompeii about 600 m. south of the Colloque Apamée de Syrie, 29-31 May 1980 (Brussels, 1981) Stabian Gate, there are three triclinia in which an ad- 471-503. vanced hydraulic system provided water that streamed 195 Dunbabin, Roman Banquet 43-6; Dunbabin, Tri- down a wall and ran in front of the diners on their clinium and Stibadium 132-3. banquet couches; Tales from an Eruption: Pompeii, Her- 196 Dunbabin, Roman Banquet 43-6; Dunbabin, Tri- culaneum, Oplontis, Guide to the Exhibition, P.G. Guzzo, ed., clinium and Stibadium 133-5. The description of the presen- exhibition catalogue, Field Museum, Chicago. Milan: tation of the boar in Petronius’ “Banquet of Trimalchio,” Electa, 2003, 166-77. carved with a hunting knife by a slave dressed as a 310 chapter vii spectacle of serving dishes actually floating from diner to diner in a sort of water table has been suggested.199 Water features in rooms designed for a sigma couch combine elements of the out of doors, the original location of stibadium dining, and an indoor setting.200 The floor decoration often reflected the layout of the couch. The wedge-shaped sections of the mosaic within the apse at Kenchreai probably mark the location of a four-part sigma couch that supported the stibadium cushion on which the diners reclined.201 In front of, or adjacent to, the dining area there was often a rectangular anteroom, primarily used for entertaining during dinner but also as the location for preprandial conversation, board games, or other intellectual or social pursuits.202 Books seem to have been kept in these reception rooms, as Macrobius, in the Saturnalia, calls a reception room used for a social preprandium a “library.”203 Sidonius Apollinaris describes the codices kept in a reception room, those suitable for women separate from those for men, with chairs nearby for both genders. The reception room was being used for a pre-luncheon gathering.204 Although both of these authors wrote in the fifth century, the Saturnalia is set in the last decade of the fourth century, and the villa described by Sidonius was constructed in the fourth century. It is worth noting that one of the rooms described above is in a villa (Sidonius), the other in an urban house (Macrobius). While unroofed dining suites were particularly popular in the countryside, where extensive views of the sea or countryside could form part of the amenities,205 both roofed and unroofed urban dining rooms probably existed.206 Such rooms were not limited to purely domestic structures. Wealthy members of the sena- torial and equestrian classes commonly donated banquets to celebrate their entry to a political position or other event.207 Public dining rooms are common features of the buildings used by collegia, professional or religious guilds, and other non-domestic institutions.208 Among many are two of the large house-like buildings constructed in the last quarter of the fourth century on the Areopagus in Athens.209 The apsidal rooms are, as is typical, placed at the furthest location from the street entry and approached indirectly. In Areopagus Building A, the apsidal room is located opposite the main entrance on the far side of a peristyle.210 In Building B, for a person entering from the main doorway, the apsidal room is approached by a right-angled turn at the peristyle to a hallway and a second turn from this hall to the rectangular end of the main room.211 While it may be the case that these two rooms were not always used for dining, that was probably one of their main functions. Several examples of apsidal rooms in both domestic and non-domestic structures occur at Stobi.212 The “Casino” had a small fountain in the center of such a room and a bench around the apse in which

199 Dunbabin, Triclinium and Stibadium 132. Carthage used by the Vandal Guntharius in the sixth 200 Dunbabin, Roman Banquet 172. century; Procop. Bell. 4, 28, 1. 201 Ibid., 170. 207 Dunbabin, Roman Banquet 78. 202 Rossiter, Convivium and Villa 199-214. 208 Ibid., 72-3; 94-9. 203 Macrobius, Saturnalia I, 6, 1. 209 Frantz, Agora XXIV, 38-40. 204 Sidonius, Ep. II, 9, 5; Rossiter, Convivium and Villa 210 Ibid., Pl. 26a. 200. 211 Ibid., Pl. 26b. 205 Sidonius, Ep. II, 2, 11-12. 212 Elizabeth Gebhard suggested I consider the Stobi 206 Rossiter, Convivium and Villa 206 and 212 n. 43 structures, and I thank both her and Frederick Hemans suggests that Procopius describes such a dining room in for their comments. furniture reconstructions, provenance, dating, setting, and function 311 was also found a marble table.213 The plan of the “Fuller’s House,” which has been dated to the late third to late fourth century, includes both an apsidal room and an apse off the peristyle with benches around its curved wall. In both cases the floors are finished with hydraulic cement.214 Of the two apsidal rooms that open from the peristyle in the House of Peristerias, the earlier and larger of the two, dated to the late fourth or early fifth century, had a mosaic pavement, an octagonal fountain in the center, and a rectangular space 7.5 X 9.5 m in dimension.215 The Roman practice of listening to a reader while dining had a lengthy tradition.216 In the first century B.C., Cornelius Nepos commented that no one at a dinner party at the house of Atticus heard any entertainment other than a reader and that dinner was never served without reading of some kind.217 Pliny the Younger’s Letters contain many references to reading during dining, including a marathon of poetry reading on two successive days, as well as to public readings in auditoria.218 The Scriptores Historiae Augustae recounts that Hadrian’s tastes in dinner entertainment included readers and poets along with the usual array of musical and theatrical performances.219 In the Deipnosophistae, Athenaeus reports that diners brought “their literary lore tied up in rolls of bedding.”220 In its fourth-century form, the House of the Symmachi, in Rome, had a peristyle court off one side of which was a large (ca. 120 m2) apsidal room set within a previously constructed curved outer wall that was lined with alternating rectangular and semicircular recesses. Lateral passages formed an ambulatory flanking the apsidal room, providing access through doors just in front of the apse and doors leading to the space with niches behind the apse.221 One wonders if the rectangular recesses held bookcases to supply preprandial reading material for the apsidal room. In his Letter to Donidius, Sidonius describes a villa he visited in which were tower- ing bookcases (armaria exstructa), such as one would find in use by a scholar, at the Atheneum, or at a bookseller’s.222 Later in the same letter he describes the reading of short stories as entertainment during a dinner.223 The identification of the rectangular portion of the apsidal room at Kenchreai as a reception room that also served as a library may seem unlikely, given the absence of any evidence in the plan for niches, but book storage might have been accommodated in a tall free-standing bookcase, or armarium, of the type described above and depicted in several late antique representations. It seems possible, therefore, that the fragmentary furniture found in the apsidal room at Kenchreai is appropriate to the room’s function as a stibadium during the late antique pe-

213 Wiseman, Stobi 74-5, 208. 217 Cornelius Nepos XXV, Atticus, xiv, 1. 214 Ibid., 210. 218 Pliny, Ep. 3.18, 8.12; Fantham, Roman Literary 215 Ibid., 41; V. Sokolovska, “Investigations in the Culture 214-5, 219. House of Peristerias,” in Studies in the Antiquities of Stobi, 219 S.H.A. Hadr. 26.4; C.P. Jones, “Dinner Theatre,” Vol. 2, J. Wiseman, ed. Boston: Boston University in Dining in a Classical Context 193. Press, 1975; 126-7, 133-4, fig. 15. 220 Deipn. I, 4. 216 In a literate society, reading is a continuation of 221 Andrea Carignani, “La domus dei Simmaci,” in the earlier practice of the singing of poetry at banquets, Ensoli and La Rocca, Aurea Roma 149-51 with references. probably a feature of Roman as well as Greek dining, 222 Sidon. Ep. II , 9, 4. as argued by N. Zorzetti, “The Carmina Convivalia,” in 223 Sidon. Ep. II, 9, 6. Murray, Sympotica 289-307. 312 chapter vii riod. Further, some of the decorative enhancement of the furniture may point to an expla- nation of the type of owner who used this elaborate room. As suggested in Chapter III, the Curved Panel is decorated with a scene of an enthroned emperor, perhaps Constantius II, flanked by attendants, with symbols alluding to the circus—palm branches and an amphora. The presence of such an item of furniture indicates that the owner was a man of considerable status—enough to have received an imperial, or consular, gift. He was therefore probably the holder of an official position of some sort and perhaps also a sophist, for whom a crossed-leg chair, or thronos, would have been appropriate. It is probably impossible to know to whom the Kenchreai furniture belonged, but there are at least three candidates who fit this description. One possible candidate is Flavius Hermogenes, a man who at one time devoted himself to philosophy, was Proconsul of Achaia between approximately 353 and 358, and is known to have repaired the harbor at Corinth (Lechaion assumed, but possibly Kenchreai?).224 Vettius Agorius Praetextatus, Proconsul of Achaia in 362/4, a personal friend of the emperor Julian (ruled 361-363) and a learned man who held numerous priesthoods, is also a candidate; but there is no evidence of his involve- ment with Kenchreai.225 The fourth-century sophist, Aristophanes, is a third possibility.226 In his Letters, Libanius writes about—and to—Aristophanes, providing some information about his career and chronology. Aristophanes, a native and decurion of Corinth, was a nephew of the philosophers Diogenes and Hierius. He was appointed to an imperial position in Greece by the emperor Julian, possibly with the responsibility to restore pagan religious practices in Achaia or to fill some other minor but official post.227 He was sent to Egypt in 357. By 364, after the death of Julian, he had retired to Corinth and was collecting a volume of orations in Julian’s defense, by then a risky activity.228 Corinth, the capital of Achaia, outranked Athens as an imperial city, and it likely enjoyed at least the same amenities, including a school of philosophy. While Aristophanes’ activities in the early 360s are uncertain, during late antiquity, sophists did more than teach and write. Their occasional political functions could include service as official ambassadors.229 Even in the mid-second century, they sometimes held multiple offices, such as Lollianus of Ephesus, who was simultaneously the first holder of the municipal chair of rhetoric in Athens and strategos, in which capacity he was respon- sible for the city’s grain supplies—the title having lost its military significance.230 An establishment with trappings of both imperial connections and scholarly activities, near the harborside at the heart of Kenchreai, makes sense for Aristophanes or someone similar, a respected sophist with some political responsibilities, perhaps to monitor trade or even

224 PLRE I, 424-5; Frantz, Agora XXIV, 22 n. 58; 5 n. a and 241 n. e; Groag, Reichsbeamten von Achaia 48. Groag, Reichsbeamten von Achaia 36-8. 228 Libanius 264-6 n. a, b; see also Matthews, The 225 PLRE I, 722-4; Frantz, Agora XXIV, 19 n. 31; 22; Roman Empire of Ammianus 209-26, esp. 223 on the ner- Groag, Reichsbeamten von Achaia 45-8. vous fear of prosecution and book burnings, some by 226 PLRE I, 106-7. their owners, under Valentinian I and Valens. 227 He may have held a high office, possibly Vicar 229 Haas, Alexandria in Late Antiquity 322. of Macedonia, in 363; PLRE I, 107; for several theories 230 Philostratus, Vit. soph. 23; he was curator annonae, on the post to which he was appointed, see Libanius 184- see Philostratus and Eunapius, xxxiii. furniture reconstructions, provenance, dating, setting, and function 313

Corinth’s food supply, as Kenchreai was the port of ancient Corinth through which grain imports from Egypt and Asia Minor would have flowed. Further reinforcing the reconstruction of an item of furniture decorated with the Curved Panel and in use in the apsidal room is the decoration of another feature of the same complex. Its entrance dromos was to have been—it was suggested by Scranton—decorated with the famous glass opus sectile panels discovered, still in their packing crates, in the apsidal room. These panels included at least two bearing representations of consuls and others decorated with images of famous philosophers and writers—Homer, Plato, Theophrastos, and at least one other.231 The combination of official and intellectual themes seems particularly suitable for an establishment of a sophist with an imperial appointment. These observations expand on, and are supported by, the suggestion of Richard Rothaus that the harborside complex may have functioned as a philosophical establishment.232 From the very fragmentary, but copious, remains excavated at Kenchreai in 1964 and 1965, therefore, it is possible to visualize near the port facilities a luxuriously decorated and outfitted complex, serving perhaps both the intellectual life of the town and some administrative functions suitable to the portal to one of the great cities of late Roman Greece, Corinth.

231 Kenchreai II, 164. Isaeum of Kenchreai, Greece,” AJA 99 (1995) 328 (ab- 232 R. Rothaus, “The So-called Aphrodision and stract). 314 chapter vii miscellaneous wood fragments 315

APPENDIX 1

CATALOGUE OF MISCELLANEOUS WOOD FRAGMENTS

W.1 Fragment with both long sides and one short end cut and a square hole close to the short cut end. PL = 27.6 Probably a piece of a board from one of the opus PW = 4.4 sectile crates. PTh = 0.7 Inv. no. SP 241+ 242 W.5 Board with both long sides and one short end cut PL = 9.1 and a square hole 6.2 cm from the short cut end. PW = 4.6 Probably a piece of a board from one of the opus PTh = 0.5 sectile crates.1 Reassembled from two pieces. Inv. no. SP 245 W.2 Fragment, probably with two cut long sides; broken at both ends. PL = 7.5 PW= 2.5 W.6 PTh = 0.7 Inv. no. SP 251 PL = 7.3 PW = 4.4 Fragment with one long side cut; the other long PTh = 0.5 sides and both short ends broken. Probably a piece Inv. no. SP 246 of a board from one of the opus sectile crates. Fragment with one long side cut and one short end W.3 rounded. Similar in quality to W.5.

PL = 7.5 W.7 PW = 2.5 PTh = 0.7 PL = 7.4 Inv. no. SP 252 PW = 6.6 PTh = 1.0 (variable) Fragment with one short end cut. Probably a piece Inv. no. SP 247 of a board from one of the opus sectile crates. Fragment of wood with traces of ivory veneer, both W.4 plain and incised. The wood is 1.0 cm thick at one end, which is possibly cut, and becomes pro- PL = 2.5 gressively thinner toward the other end. The wood PW = 6.7 is warped and curled. The incised fragment of PTh = 1.3 veneer has a row of four small pointed teeth along Inv. no. SP 287 one edge.

1 See Kenchreai II for description of the crates. 316 appendix 1

W.8 appear to be the remains of two small round wood pegs. PL = 7.0 PW = 2.5 W.13 PTh = 1.0 (variable) Inv. no. SP 254 PL = 4.7 PW = 6.5 Fragment similar to W.7. The piece is 1.0 cm PTh = 0.2 thick at one end, which is possibly cut, and be- Inv. no. SP 249 comes progressively thinner toward the other end. The wood is warped and curled. Fragment of wood with what might be textile remains. The fragment is very thin and curled, and W.9 one end appears to have been wrapped round a thin rod. PL = 8.5 PW = 3.2 W.14 PTh = 0.2 Inv. no. SP 248 PL = 6.6 PW = 2.0 Fragment, very thin and curled. One long side is PTh = 0.8 possibly cut. Inv. no. SP 255 W.10 Fragment, possibly from a chair stretcher because one long side is slightly curved. PL = 5.2 PW = 3.1 W.15 PTh = 0.1 Inv. no. SP 258 PL = 34.7 PW = 3.3 Fragment, very thin and curled; similar to W.9. PTh = 2.6 Traces of bronze corrosion at one edge. Inv. no. SP 284 W.11 Long piece with rectangular cross section, finished on all four sides but broken at both ends. At 7.0 PL = 4.5 cm from one end there appears to be a wood peg. PW = 2.3 The piece was not conserved and has warped badly. PTh = 0.4 Reassembled from two pieces. Inv. no. SP 257 Fragment, very thin and curled; similar to W.9 and W.16 W.10. PL = 6.9 W.12 PW = 2.1 PTh = 1.6 PL = 5.9 Inv. no. SP 295 PW = 3.5 Triangular fragment with one finished long side. PTh = 0.3 Possibly a piece from the leg crossing of a crossed- Inv. no. SP 250 leg chair. Fragment with one short end shaved down to a width of 0.5 cm. Above the shaved end are what miscellaneous wood fragments 317

W.17 The straight edge of the veneer appears to have broken along the incised bottom line of a linear PL = 8.8 border. A small fragment of the lower band of PW = 2.4 the border is preserved. PTh = 1.1 Inv. no. SP 296 W.21 Triangular fragment, probably with one finished PL = 11.1 long side. At 0.9 cm from one end and parallel to PW = 3.5 it is a shallow oblique cutting. On the opposite PTh = 0.6 side this end is rounded. Possibly a piece from the Inv. no. SP 300 leg crossing of a crossed-leg chair. Flat fragment with a slight curve at the end of one W.18 of the long sides.

PL = 8.6 W.22 PW = 2.3 PTh = 1.2 PL = 9.9 Inv. no. SP 297 D = 2.3 Inv. no. SP 301 Roughly rectangular fragment with one rounded end and the opposite end cut or broken off Cylindrical fragment, possibly of a peg. There diagonally. A notch is cut into the wood at the is a small projecting piece of wood near one end. upper end of the diagonal. The edge on the other side of the notch is broken off along its length. W.23 Possibly from the leg of a crossed-leg chair. PL = 8.5 W.19 PTh= 1.5 Inv. no. SP 302 PL = 7.5 Cylindrical fragment, possibly of a peg. PW = 2.8 PTh = 1.3 W.24 Inv. no. SP 298 PL = 10.1 Fragment broken or cut off diagonally at one short PW = 1.4 end and at 0.5 cm from the other end. a shallow PTh = 0.9 oblique cutting similar to W.17 There appears to Inv. no. SP 303 be a shallow, rectangular channel, 0.9 cm wide, running diagonally across the piece on the same Fragment with triangular cross section. side as the cutting and parallel to the diagonal end. Possibly from the leg of a crossed-leg chair. W.25

W.20 PL = 9.3 PW = 0.8 PL = 15.3 PTh = 0.9 PW = 2.6 Inv. no. SP 305 PTh = 0.6 Curved fragment shaped to a point at one end, Inv. no. SP 299 and with what appears to be a notch cut into one Long, thin fragment of wood with veneer preserved long side. along the whole length and width of one long side. 318 appendix 1

W.26 Fragment of wood with one short end cut and, perhaps, one long cut side. Ivory veneer is pre- PL = 10.0 served attached to it, but there is no real evidence PW = 1.8 PTh = 2.4 that it belongs. One edge of the veneer is broken Inv. no. SP 304 along the incised bottom line of a linear border. Fragment with triangular cross section. Two of W.31 the edges form a 90o angle. a. W.27 PL = 4.5 PW = 2.25 PL = 3.1 PTh = 0.5 PW = 2.5 PTh = 1.2 b. Inv. no. SP 307 PL = 6.0 Small block. PW = 1.6 PTh = 0.7 W.28 Inv. no. SP 43 PL = 3.8 Two rectangular pieces of wood. PW = 2.8 PTh = 1.5 Seven fragments of wood were found with the col- Inv. no. SP 308 umns and ivory capitals. The other five of these fragments are too small to be of recognizable Triangular fragment with a circular cutting, per- shapes.2 haps part of a nail hole, at one corner. Along the opposite edge, there are signs of a shallow cutting. W.32

W.29 PL = 35.9 PW = 6.0 PL = 3.3 PW = 1.4 PTh = 0.2 PTh = 0.4 Uninventoried Inv. no. SP 394 Thin board with both long sides and one short end Fragment with triangular cross section. cut.

W.30 W.33

Wood PL = 33.8 PL = 7.6 PW = 4.7 PW = 2.1 PTh = 0. PTh = 0.7 Uninventoried Veneer PL = 6.4 Thin board with both long sides and one short end PW = 2.1 cut. Inv. no. SP 395

2 See Chapter V. miscellaneous wood fragments 319

W.34 W.39

PL = 20.6 Upper piece: PW = 4.9 PL = 5.3 PTh = 0.4 PW = 7.0 Uninventoried PTh = 0.9

Thin board with both long sides cut. Lower piece: PL = 6.5 W.35 PW = 7.7 PTh = 1.2 PL = 2.9 Uninventoried PW = 5.0 PTh = 0.3 Two boards, their grain at right angles to each Uninventoried other, nailed together. The nail hole goes through both pieces. The width of the upper piece seems Thin fragment with one long side and one short fully preserved. The lower piece has one cut edge. end cut. W.40 W.36 PL = 21.9 PL = 21.6 PW = 5.0 PW = 4.5 PTh = 1.3 PTh = 0.3 Uninventoried Uninventoried Piece of board with one short end cut down in a Thin board with both long sides cut. step. W.37 W.41 PL = 16.1 PL = 5.6 PW = 4.0 PW = 3.9 PTh = 0.5 PTh = 1.1 Uninventoried Uninventoried Thin board with one long side cut. Fragment of board, with both long sides cut and W.38 both short ends broken.

PL = 24.1 W.42 PW = 5.65 PL = 4.3 PTh = 0.3 PW = 3.5 Uninventoried PTh = 1.0 Uninventoried Thin board with both long sides and one, possibly both, short ends cut. W.37 and W.38 were found Piece of indeterminate shape. in the box of miscellaneous wood after conservation tied together. 320 appendix 1 W.43 W.44

PL = 5.1 PL = 16.5 PW = 1.8 PW = 2.9 PTh = 0.2 PTh = 0.9 Uninventoried Uninventoried

Fragment with two bevelled edges. Piece of board with one short end cut. At 2 cm from the finished end are signs of green bronze corrosion, perhaps from a nail. miscellaneous plain veneer fragments 321

APPENDIX 2

CATALOGUE OF MISCELLANEOUS PLAIN VENEER FRAGMENTS

A large quantity of undecorated ivory and bone veneer was retrieved from the apsidal room, including pieces whose original function could not be surmised and which did not seem clearly related to the groups of decorated veneers catalogued in Chapters III through VI. The fragments are described here in order to demonstrate the volume of the material; the relative proportion of ivory to bone veneer; and the nature of the edges, shapes, and border marks that appear on some pieces—information that may be useful for future researchers who attempt to reconstruct objects from this deposit. The veneers catalogued below are divided by material, first ivory and then bone. At the time of excavation, most of these fragments were collected by size or type, without being identified by separate SP inventory numbers.

A. IVORY VENEER (I.V.)

Catalogue numbers I.V.8 through I.V.16 were originally placed together in a box labeled Plain Veneer-Large Pieces. Of these pieces, there does not appear to be a standard length or width among those in which the cut ends or sides are preserved. This veneer is very thin and uniform, ca. 0.01 cm in thickness. Catalogue numbers I.V.48 through I.V.58 are edged with borders of three types. Type A consists of two parallel grooves flanking a narrow register (Fig. VI.55), Type B consists of three parallel grooves separating a narrow register and a second wider one (Fig. A-2.1), and Type C consists of grooves forming two narrow convex registers with a wider concave register in between (Fig. A-2.2). There are about 160 more fragments with indications of a border, but many of the fragments are too small to recognize their type.

I.V.1 after which the ivory has been incised with irregular scratches as though to pare it down for in- PL = 58.1 sertion under something. PW = 5.9 W of worked end = 1.65 Pl. A-2.1a-1b; Fig. VI.55 Uninventoried I.V.2 Strip of veneer with a linear border (Type A) carved on one long side. At one short end there PL = 23.3 is an incised line running perpendicular to it, PW = 6.1 beyond which the strip appears to be worked; i.e., Distance between borders (cut end) = 5.8 the decoration ends with a vertical incised line, Distance between borders (broken end) = 5.5 322 appendix 2

Uninventoried I.V.6 Strip of veneer with fragments of linear border PL = 20.65 (Type A) carved on both long sides. One short PW = 4.75 end is cut, and the strip narrows toward the op- Uninventoried posite short end, which is broken. Strip of veneer. One long side is cut; the other is Fig. VI. 55 broken. One short end is cut; at the opposite short end is a vertical incised line, beyond which I.V.3 the ivory is pared down (see I.V.1). PL = 32.6 I.V.7 PW = 6.8 Distance between borders = 6.1 PL = 21.3 Uninventoried PW = 4.1 Strip of veneer with a fragment of border (Type Inv. no. SP 268 A) preserved on one long side. The opposite long side has obviously broken along the bottom edge Strip of veneer with one cut end found wrongly of the Type A border. One short end has a attached to chair strut Inv. no. SP 268 (Cat no. lightly incised vertical line beyond which the end 542). is pared down (see I.V.1); the other short end is I.V.8 broken. PL = 30.2 Fig. VI. 55 PW = 5.0 Uninventoried I.V.4 Strip of veneer with one short end probably bro- PL = 26.9 ken off along an incised line beyond which the PW = 5.1 end is pared down (see I.V.1). Uninventoried I.V.9 Strip of veneer with border (Type A) preserved along the length of one long side. The opposite PL = 30.2 long side appears to have broken along the bot- PW = 4.2 tom edge of the border. One short end is cut at Uninventoried an oblique angle from left to right from the end Strip of veneer with all edges broken. of the preserved border; the other short end is broken. I.V.10 Fig. VI. 55 PL = 31.1 PW = 4.2 I.V.5 Uninventoried PL = 20.5 Strip of veneer with both short ends cut. PW = 8.1 Uninventoried I.V.11 Strip of veneer with one cut short end from which PL = 5.6 the strip appears to widen. The other three edges PW = 2.6 are broken, and the piece curls under across its Uninventoried width. Strip of veneer with all edges broken. miscellaneous plain veneer fragments 323

I.V.12 I.V.18

PL = 17.7 PL = 7.6 PW = 2.8 PW = 4.5 Uninventoried Uninventoried Strip of veneer with one short end cut. Short curved piece of veneer with all edges cut.

I.V.13 I.V.19

PL = 14.5 PL = 13.2 PW = 6.2 PW = 4.3 Uninventoried Uninventoried Strip of veneer with all edges broken. Curved piece of veneer similar to I.V.18, with two short ends and the curved side cut. I.V.14

PL = 11.2 PW = 7.2 I.V.20 Uninventoried PL = 20.3 Strip of veneer with all edges broken. PW = 7.8 Uninventoried I.V.15 Large strip of veneer with all edges broken simi- PL = 11.2 lar to I.V.13 and 14. PW = 4.1 Uninventoried I.V.21 Strip of veneer with both short ends cut. PL = 11.0 I.V.16 PW = 5.4 Inv. no. SP 454 PL = 13.5 Strip of veneer with the left short end cut oblique- PW = 3.7 ly rising right to left. Part of the opposite short Uninventoried end appears to be cut; the long sides are broken. Strip of veneer with both short ends cut, one horizontally, the other obliquely. The edge I.V.22 between the upper end of the oblique cutting and PL = 10.4 the horizontal end curves up toward the oblique PW = 7.35 end. Uninventoried I.V.17 Strip of veneer with all edges broken but with vertical and horizontal incised lines on one long PL = 22.4 side. May belong to decorated veneer. W = 3.5 Uninventoried Curved strip of veneer with both long sides cut. 324 appendix 2 I.V.23 I.V.28

PL = 11.2 PL = 8.0 PW = 4.1 PW = 1.9 Inv. no. SP 454 Uninventoried Strip of veneer with both short ends cut, one Strip of veneer with one short cut end, similar to vertically and the other obliquely, rising from left I.V.26. to right. On one long side is a concave curve. The remaining long side is broken. I.V.29

Pl. II.3 PL =18.0 PW = 3.8 I.V.24 Uninventoried PL = 16.0 Strip of veneer, cut at one end in a concave PW = 3.2 curve. All of the other edges are broken. Possi- Uninventoried bly from the leg of a crossed-leg chair. Strip of veneer with one long side and one short I.V.30 end cut on a curve. The other edges are broken. PL = 10.4 PW 4.2 I.V.25 Uninventoried

L = 15.7 Strip of veneer with one short end and one long PW = 4.2 side cut. Uninventoried Strip of veneer with both short ends cut. One I.V.31 corner is rounded. Possibly a rectangular furniture strip. PL = 2.1 PW = 3.4 I.V.26 Uninventoried

L = 12.8 Strip of veneer with one shorter end cut. PW = 2.5 I.V.32 Uninventoried L = 4.3 Strip of veneer with both short ends cut. At the PW = 5.1 wider end is an incised line running parallel to Uninventoried the end. Rectangular fragment of veneer with the long- I.V.27 er upper and lower edges cut. The grain of the ivory runs vertically between the two cut edges. L = 12.9 PW = 1.9 I.V.33 Uninventoried PL = 6.8 Strip of veneer with both short ends cut, similar PW = 5.4 to I.V.26. Uninventoried Strip of veneer with one short end cut. miscellaneous plain veneer fragments 325

I.V.34 I.V.40

PL = 7.9 PL = 13.9 PW = 5.6 PW = 3.4 Uninventoried Uninventoried Strip of veneer with one short end cut, similar to Strip of veneer with one short end cut and in- I.V.33. cised lines parallel to the cut. Along one long side is an oblique cut, both ends of which are I.V.35 broken off.

PL = 7.0 I.V.41 PW = 5.2 PL = 13.5 Uninventoried PW = 3.8 Strip of veneer with one short end cut, similar to Uninventoried I.V.33. Strip of veneer with all edges broken.

I.V.36 I.V.42

PL = 9.5 PL = 11.7 PW = 4.0 PW = 3.2 Uninventoried Uninventoried Strip of veneer with one short end cut. Along Strip of veneer with one convex curved long side. the strip are random horizontal scratches. I.V.43 I.V.37 PL = 13.6 PL = 8.1 PW = 3.6 PW = 4.7 Uninventoried Uninventoried Strip of veneer with all edges broken. Strip of veneer with one short end cut. I.V.44 I.V.38 PL = 13.3 Uninventoried PW = 1.7 Uninventoried Irregularly shaped fragment of veneer with one edge cut. A convex curve rises at one short end. Strip of veneer with one short end cut with a At the opposite end is a curved edge which ends rounded corner. at the lower end of a diagonal. I.V.45 I.V.39 PL = 6.9 PL = 18.8 PW = 3.1 PW = 3.25 Uninventoried Uninventoried Strip of veneer with one short end cut. There is Strip of veneer with one short end cut. an incised line parallel to the cut, and below it are diagonal scratches. 326 appendix 2 I.V.46 I.V.50

PL = 9.9 PL = 17.3 PW = 6.8 PW = 3.3 Uninventoried Uninventoried Fragment of veneer, probably the end of a long Strip of veneer with a Type B border along one strip. One short end is cut, the other edges are long side, similar to I.V.48. The opposite long broken. side is broken; one short end is cut at an oblique angle, the other broken. I.V.47 Fig. A-2.1 L = 8.0 PW = 4.4 I.V.51 Uninventoried PL = 20.6 Fragment of veneer with both short ends and one PW = 2.9 long side cut. Along the cut side is incised a Uninventoried linear border. Strip of veneer with a Type B border along one I.V.48 long side, similar to I.V.48. All of the other edges are broken. PL =10.8 Fig. A-2.1 PW = 2.1 W of border = 0.7 I.V.52 Uninventoried PL = 5.7 Strip of veneer with a border carved along one PW = 2.2 long side, consisting of a narrow register and a Uninventoried wider one (Type B). The opposite long side is broken; one short end is cut, the other broken. Strip of veneer with a Type B border along one long side, similar to I.V.48. One end of the bor- Fig. A-2.1 der is cut diagonally and the short edge immedi- ately beyond the diagonal is cut parallel to the I.V.49 border. All of the other edges are broken. PL = 15.9 Fig. A-2.1 PW = 2.6 Uninventoried I.V.53 Strip of veneer with a Type B border along one PL = 13.9 long side, similar to I.V.48. The opposite long PW = 2.0 side is broken. Uninventoried Fig. A-2.1 Strip of veneer with a Type B border along one long side, similar to I.V.48. The opposite long side is broken; one short end is cut, the other broken. Fig. A-2.1 miscellaneous plain veneer fragments 327

I.V.54 I.V.56

PL = 31.6 PL = 19.9 PW = 1.9 PW = 2.7 Uninventoried Uninventoried Strip of veneer with a Type B border along one Strip of veneer with a Type C border along one long side, similar to I.V.48. The opposite long long side, similar to I.V.55. The opposite long side is broken; one short end is cut, the other side is broken; one short end is cut, the other broken. broken. Fig. A-2.1 Fig. A-2.2

I.V.55 I.V.57

PL = 10.1 PL = 37.6 PW = 2.2 PW = 1.6 Uninventoried Uninventoried Strip of veneer with a border carved along one Strip of veneer with a border carved along one long side consisting of two narrow registers with long side, appearing to consist of two registers, a wide one in between. The center one is slightly one narrower, one wider. One long side has concave, while the others are convex (Type C). broken off along an incised line, which might The opposite long side is broken; one short end mean a third register. The opposite long side is cut at an oblique angle, the other broken. appears to be the beginning of the plain strip to which this is the border. All of the edges are Fig. A-2.2 broken.

I.V.58

PL = 11.1 PW = 1.5 Uninventoried Strip of veneer similar to I.V.57.

B. BONE VENEER (B.V.)

Among the following strips of bone veneer, numbers B.V.1 to B.V.17 are undecorated. Numbers B.V.18 to B.V.20 have borders carved along both long sides, and B.V. 21 to 30 on one long side. There are fourteen more similar strips and one fragment of a strip from which the border is missing. The borders are all of two or three registers of the types described above. There is one more fragment of a strip similar to B.V.29, but with borders on both long sides. 328 appendix 2 B.V.1 B.V.6

PL = 9.4 PL = 5.8 PW = 1.6 PW = 3.2 Uninventoried Uninventoried Strip of veneer with both short ends broken and Fragment of strip of veneer with one short end file marks along both long sides as if for inser- and both long sides cut. tion under something. B.V.7 B.V.2 PL = 8.8 PL = 7.1 W = 3.2 PW = 1.3 Inv. no. SP 525 Uninventoried Strip of veneer with both short ends and both Strip of veneer with one long side cut and file long sides cut and file marks of varying lengths marks similar to B.V.1. along one long side. One end is slightly curved.

B.V.3 B.V.8

PL = 22.2 PL = 13.9 PW = 1.7 PW = 3.4 Inv. no. SP 667 Uninventoried Strip of veneer with one short end and one long Strip of veneer with one short end and both long side cut and file marks along the edges and across sides cut and file marks along one long side. the surface. B.V.9 B.V.4 PL = 21.5 PL = 16.5 PW = 3.55 W = 2.0 Uninventoried Uninventoried Strip of veneer with both long sides cut and file Strip of veneer with one short end and both long marks on both. sides cut. B.V.10 B.V.5 PL = 12.1 PL = 12.0 W = 1.6 PW (cut end) = 2.5 Uninventoried PW (broken end) = 3.2 Strip of veneer with two long sides cut. One short Uninventoried end is curved, perhaps to fit a curved piece of Strip of veneer with one short end and both long wood (crossed-leg chair stretcher?). sides cut. The piece seems to curve slightly upward along one side. miscellaneous plain veneer fragments 329

B.V.11 Strip of veneer with both long sides cut and both short ends broken. PL = 20.8 W = 1.5 B.V.17 Inv. no. SP 667 PL = 6.0 Strip of veneer with both long sides cut, similar PW = 3.3 to B.V.10. Uninventoried B.V.12 Fragment of veneer strip with both long sides cut and curved. PL = 6.5 PW = 1.8 B.V.18 Uninventoried L = 21.4 Strip of veneer with one short end and both long W = 2.3 sides cut. W between borders = 1.0 B.V.13 Uninventoried Strip of veneer with linear borders carved along L = 9.0 both sides, consisting of a narrow register next PW = 2.4 to a wider one (Type B). One short end is cut; Uninventoried the other end is oblique and probably broken. Strip of veneer with both short ends and one long side cut. The strip curves slightly. Fig. A-2.1

B.V.14 B.V.19 L = 7.2 PW = 2.8 PL = 11.1 Uninventoried W = 2.4 W between borders = 1.0 Strip of veneer with both short ends and perhaps Uninventoried one long side cut. One short end is cut vertically, the other obliquely. Strip of veneer with Type B borders on both sides similar to B.V.18. Both ends are broken. B.V.15 Pl. A-2.2; Fig. A-2.1 PL = 7.2 PW = 3.8 B.V.20 Uninventoried PL = 6.5 Strip of veneer with one short end and one long W = 2.4 side cut. The cut side is curved. W between borders = 1.0 Uninventoried B.V.16 Strip of veneer with Type B borders on both sides PL = 13.3 similar to B.V.18. Both ends are broken. PW = 3.3 Uninventoried Fig. A-2.1 330 appendix 2 B.V.21 B.V.26

L = 15.5 PL = 17.4 PW = 2.6 PW = 1.5 W (below border) = 1.9 Uninventoried Uninventoried Strip of veneer with a border on one long side Strip of veneer with a Type B border on one long similar to B.V.25, but the narrowest register is side similar to B.V.18. One short end is cut. The missing. The opposite long side is cut; one short other end is cut obliquely along the border, and end is cut, the opposite broken. the rest broken. B.V.27 B.V.22 L = 15.35 L= 8.0 PW = 1.5 W = 2.9 Uninventoried W (below border) = 2.3 Strip of veneer with a border on one long side Uninventoried consisting of two registers, the inner wider than Strip of veneer with a Type B border on one long the outer. Both short ends are cut and, perhaps, side similar to B.V.18. One short end is cut, and both long sides. 2.9 cm from it, along the long side, a curve is cut. B.V.28 B.V.23 L = 15.8 PL = 10.1 W = 1.75 W = 2.6 Uninventoried W (below border) = 2.0 Strip of veneer with a border on one long side Uninventoried similar to B.V.25. All edges are cut. Strip of veneer with a Type B border on one long side similar to B.V.18. One short end is cut, and B.V.29 the opposite oblique end is may be broken. PL = 5.35 Pl. A-2.3; Fig. A-2.1 PW = 1.05 Uninventoried B.V.24 Fragment of strip of veneer with a border on one L = 20.4 long side consisting of three bands, two very W = 1.3 narrow and one much wider. Uninventoried B.V.30 Strip of veneer with a Type B border on one long side similar to B.V. 18. A very thin strip may L = 10.7 be missing from the end. Both short ends are cut. W = 1.4 Uninventoried B.V.25 Strip of veneer with a border on one long side Uninventoried similar to B.V.25. All of the edges are cut, and there are diagonal file marks along one edge. Strip of veneer with a border on one long side consisting of three registers, one very narrow, one wider, and a third still wider. All edges are cut. miscellaneous plain veneer fragments 331

Fig. A-2.1. Type B Border Fig. A-2.2. Type C Border 332 appendix 2

APPENDIX 3

CONSERVATION

The conservation of the wood, ivory, and bone was carried out on the site during the summer of 1965, when most of these fragments were excavated, and, it is assumed, at the Nauplion Museum during the following winter, by Mr. Charalambos Deilakis. No written records of treatment are available and so this summary by Danae Thimme is based on oral communication from Mr. Deilakis and on later observation of materials and methods used. As explained in Chapter I, the circumstances of the excavation were such that in many cases veneer was detached from its original location on wood or was recovered adhering to wood to which it did not originally belong. In some cases these veneers were attached as found and only later analysis raised questions as to the accuracy of this location, e.g. Cat. no. 520. Directly after excavation, surface mud, dirt, and incrustations were removed from the surface of the ivory, bone, and wood before any further treatment was performed. Since there was no running water on the site, very little desalination, if any, could be carried out. Next, wood pieces with any accompanying veneer tied on with string, were immersed in a solution of polyethylene glycol (Carbowax) until thoroughly impregnated. Excess wax was then cleaned off the surface, and the veneers were repaired and attached and, in some cases, gaps in the wood were filled in using “fibranyl,” a synthetic putty made of polyvinyl acetal “alvar,” jute, kaolin, and various solvents. Repairs to the veneer were made using cellulose nitrate adhesive and paper hinges and, to the wood, using dowels made of toothpicks. Unattached ivory and bone veneers and other decorative elements were repaired using cellulose nitrate adhesive and, sometimes, paper reinforcement, after which they were consolidated with a thick solution of polyvinyl acetate in a mixture of solvents. The same consolidant was applied to the veneer still attached to the wood pieces. In preparation for the installation of the Kenchreai section of the Isthmia Museum in 1978, conservation treatment was continued by Danae Thimme, Objects Conservator at the In- diana University Art Museum. As much excess polyethylene glycol and fibranyl fill as possible was removed from the wood pieces. When feasible, incorrectly placed and joined veneers were removed. In the case of the unattached bone and ivory veneers and decorative elements, excess consolidant and trapped dirt were cleaned off the surface, and the paper reinforcements were removed where possible, and replaced by nylon net backing attached with a 50%(?) solution of polyvinyl acetate in ethanol. New repairs and joins were made using cellulose nitrate adhesive (HMG). was ivory molded or formed into large sheets in antiquity? 333

APPENDIX 4

WAS IVORY MOLDED OR FORMED INTO LARGE SHEETS IN ANTIQUITY?

The question has long been asked whether there were techniques used in antiquity to soften ivory in order to mold it into curved shapes and/or to create larger sheets than could be cut directly from a tusk. Discussion has tended to combine these two questions into one inquiry; however, a clearer understanding of ancient practices can be obtained by considering these two issues separately. Numerous texts and some physical evidence, including the Kenchreai furniture, support the use of a process, probably as early as the Classical period, for softening ivory in an acidic solution so that it could be molded into plastic shapes.1 Two treatises by the medieval Latin writer Heraclius (fl. 1000), an incompletely preserved work on softening ivory, De mollificando ebore, and De coloribus et artibus Romanorum, refer in the former to the soaking of ivory in vinegar and in the latter to the shaping of it in a mold. A manuscript of the latter text was appended to a twelfth-century work by Theophilus, Schedula Diversar- ium Artium, and translated as follows in an 1847 edition by Hendrie. Take sulphate of potass, (glumen rotundum2 ) fossil salt, (sal gemma, muriate of soda) and vitriol (calcanthum, sulphate of copper,) these are ground with very sharp vinegar in a brass mortar. Into this mixture the ivory is placed for three days and nights. This being done, you will hollow out a piece of wood, as you please. The ivory being placed in the hollow you direct it and will bend it to your will.3 Hendrie notes that in the same manuscript there is a slight variant with the addition that these ingredients are to be “distilled in equal parts, (per alembicum) and this would yield muriatic acid with the presence of water; the MS adds that “infused in this water half a day, ivory is made so soft that it can be cut like wax. And when you wish it hardened, place it in white vinegar and it becomes hard.”4 Theophilus refers to five ways to soften ivory, among them heat.5 The frequent confusion in ancient sources between ivory and horn, materials that were probably often used in

1 See the curved edges of furniture legs in Chapter another active element would be added to this composition. VI. A block of ivory firmly attached to a terracotta mold 3 Theophili, qui et Rugerus, De diversis artibus, 441; Cut- was excavated at the workshop of Phidias at Olympia, ler, Justinian Diptychs 81 points out that modern experi- but the molds were for casting glass and the ivory can- ments have not been successful in reproducing this tech- not be considered anything more than a chance depo- nique. More recently, however, Lapatin has demonstrated sition; Schiering, Glas für eine Göttin 39-48; Lapatin, Pheidias the flexibility of ivory after soaking in dilute acetic acid å/ëåöávôoõñãüò 680 n. 67; Schiering, Werkstatt des Pheidias in Lapatin, Pheidias å/ëåöávôoõñãüò 677. 2 3, Pl. 52a upper right. For an additional brief discus- 4 Lapatin, Chryselephantine Statuary 76 and Lapatin, sion of the issues concerning the interpretation of the Pheidias å/ëåöávôoõñãüò 676 more fully summarize the in- molds, see H.-V. Herrmann, Olympia, Heiligtum und Wett- formation provided by Theophilus and Heraclius. kampfstätte (München, 1972) 254 n. 605. 5 Lapatin, Chryselephantine Statuary 76, and n. 145; 2 Should this “glumen rotundum” be a nitrate of potass, Lapatin, Pheidias å/ëåöávôoõñãüò 676. 334 appendix 4 the same workshops, may have led to some conflation in references to the use of thermosoft- ening techniques.6 In a frequently cited reference to the shaping of ivory (Paus. 5.12. 1), the context is an argument that ivory is a form of horn. The text reads, “using fire you can straighten out the curved horns of oxen and elephants, and make other shapes of them.” This confusion between ivory and horn is also reflected in an attempt at correction in Philos- tratus’ Vit. Apoll. II,13. The passage closely follows a phrase in Vit. Apoll. II,12, “åé’váé äå\ áõ' ôù^ êáé ÷ñõóoõ^ åëéêáò ðåñé ôoé^ò åéô' o' äoõ^óév åéôå êåñáóé,...” which makes clear the confusion between ivory and horn even in the Roman period. The process for shaping transverse sections of horn was to apply heat and then force the horn over a form. The horn would retain the shape—say, of a beaker—after cooling. Longitudinal sections of horn could be flattened into sheets by alternately heating and pulling, and then by pressing between hot plates of metal until cool. These horn sheets were used for furniture veneers, combs, etc., or could be further heated and molded into rounded shapes such as spoons.7 Larger horn sheets were produced by pressing overlapping sections together in the presence of su- perheated steam. Antler may also have been used in the same workshops. “The distinction of small pieces of compact bone from compact antler by non-destructive methods can be very difficult. ...Under the binocular microscope, each will show a pattern of irregularities and small holes, even on a polished surface.”8 It is therefore not surprising that ancient authors did not make clear distinctions among these materials in references to their processing. Lapatin implies that as early as the fifth century B.C. a process existed for making larger sheets of ivory than could be cut directly from the tusk,9 but the textual evidence is not incontrovertible and there is no physical evidence prior to the eighteenth century for such a technique. The modern discussion of this problem derives from Barnett, who summarizes some textual evidence as follows: A clue is given in an oration ascribed by Plutarch to Perikles, which includes a curious passage defending the city of Athens—which had headed the League against the Persians and acted as its treasurer—from the charge of misspending the League’s contribution on the adornment of Athens itself... Perikles, if we may trust Plutarch, in his list of craftsmen used the term ìáëáêôçñò ’åëåöávôoò, “molders” or “softeners” of ivory. If correct, this can only mean that the Greeks used a method of softening, flattening, and molding ivory, and it is indeed reported that they did so by soaking it in boiling water or by some other method, and that by means of this technique Phidias was able to create far larger areas of ivory than had previously been deemed possible.10

6 St. Clair also makes this observation, Carving as Craft Plutarch’s Pericles (Chapel Hill and London: University of 8. North Carolina Press, 1989) 159 notes that Plutarch also 7 O’Connor, Structure, Chemistry, and Decay of Bone, Antler, tells us (An vitiositas ad infel. suff. 499E) that ivory could and Ivory 7; O’Connor, Identification of Osseous and Kerati- be shaped and bent after being soaked in beer; that nous Materials 15. Pausanias (5.12.2) says it could be shaped by fire; and 8 O’Connor, Structure, Chemistry, and Decay of Bone, Antler, that Philostratus (Vit. Apoll. 2.13) uses the terms “unroll- and Ivory 7. ing” or “unfolding” of ivory. Pausanias’ complete phrase, 9 Lapatin, Chryselephantine Statuary 75. “...using fire you can straighten out the curved horns of 10 Barnett, Ancient Ivories in the Middle East 63. According oxen and elephants..,” reflects the ancient confusion to LSJ and the TLG, P.A. Stadter, in A Commentary on concerning the nature of ivory, which was widely con- was ivory molded or formed into large sheets in antiquity? 335

The word ìáëáêôçñò in Plutarch’s Pericles is a unique occurrence, and while it seems to suggest a process of softening, this is not certain. It could refer to those who applied oil to ivory to keep it from cracking, it could be an anachronistic use of terminology by Plutarch for a process that was developed only in the Roman period, and/or it could be based on a confusion between the nature of ivory and horn. However, it does not necessarily document the existence of a technique for creating large sheets of ivory, as Barnett asserts. Cutler disagrees with Barnett and summarizes the arguments against the production of large sheets of ivory.11 Nor does the literary evidence unequivocally support the production in antiquity of large sheets through the unrolling of the tusk as in the modern spiral slicing of ivory veneers. In the extended excursus to define the different natures of horn and tusk mentioned above, Philostratus (Vit. Apoll. II, 13) uses terminology that has been taken to refer to such a process. The verb he uses, áváðôýóóù, commonly means the unscrolling of a book roll. In this case, however, the discussion is concerned with the opening up of the tusk so that the nerve canal is exposed as a way of demonstrating the toothlike nature of ivory. The exposure of the internal cavity could have been carried out by cutting the tusk open, a secondary meaning of á' váðôýóóù, but not necessarily by slicing it into thin veneer.12 Spiral slicing of a tusk into large sheets of veneer would probably have had to have been been carried out on a machine similar to or incorporating a lathe. It is relevant that the ancient Greek term for turning is ôoñvåýù, not á' váðôýóóù. It is therefore not necessarily the case that the passage in Philostratus demonstrates conclusively that this practice existed in the Roman period. And even if it did, there is no clear evidence that the technique existed much earlier in the Greek Classical period.13 The most convincing argument, however, is from the existing evidence. The ivory furniture from Kenchreai was covered, even on relatively large, curved areas, by strips of veneer carefully butted and glued down, and not by large sheets.14 Further, while it has been argued that methods may have been used in antiquity to produce large panels of ivory, efforts to replicate the procedures described in medieval literature have not succeeded in producing wide, long sheets that do not crack over time.15 Judging from the ivory fragments

sidered to be horn. Since ivory and horn were used technique of producing large, thin sheets by “unscrolling” together and probably worked in the same workshops, tusks was used as early as the fifth century B.C. judging from the references to doors made of ivory and 14 See above, Chapter VI. made of horn (Homer, Od. XIX, 562ff.; Verg., Aen. VI, 15 A craftsman at Ivoryton, Connecticut, reported to 893-901; Auson., Ephemeris 22; and see A. Oliver, Jr., A. Cutler that he had experimented extensively and “Ivory Temple Doors,” in Ivory in Greece and the Eastern unsuccessfully to create large panels using ancient meth- Mediterranean 227), this technique could have been been ods. Lapatin Pheidias å/ëåöávôoõñãüò 673-4 demonstrates used on horn but not necessarily on ivory. that extremely long, narrow strips were routinely pro- 11 Cutler, Prolegomena 447. duced in the modern period; however, the absence of 12 Lapatin, Pheidias å/ëåöávôoõñãüò 673 n. 36 makes any evidence for large pieces of ivory among known this point. Plutarch suggests a process like “peeling” in objects prior to the industrial revolution also casts doubt An vitiositas ad infel. suff. 4, but this could refer to any on the use of ancient formulae; see, for example, method of slicing thin sheets of material with a saw and Hegemann, Das Elfenbein in Kunst passim. not necessarily to the spiral slicing of the industrial pro- 16 Lapatin Chryselephantine Statuary and Lapatin, Pheidias cess. å/ëåöávôoõñãüò 664-71 comprehensively present the evi- 13 Lapatin, Chryselephantine Statuary 6 argues that a dence for chryselephantine sculptures. The largest head 336 appendix 4 discovered at Delphi and from what is known of the making of the Athena Parthenos and other composite sculptures, there appears to be no direct evidence of the production of large sheets, although, Lapatin argues in favor at least of the possibility in view of the tremen- dous size and the shape of the surfaces to be covered.16 Arguing from the many small fragments of cut ivory retrieved from the workshop of Phidias at Olympia, Schiering proposes that the ivory faces and limbs of chryselephantine sculptures were produced by a “Schnitzar- beit” technique, whereby a wooden core was covered with small, thin pieces of ivory.17 Even later in antiquity, there appears to be no material evidence in chryselephantine sculpture for the use of ivory sheets enlarged by some technique of softening and spiral cutting.18 This was the technique used to form the body of the Apollo excavated in the Athenian Agora and made in the second or third century.19 But by the late eighteenth century, a technique for making long, thin sheets of ivory had been developed. MacGregor notes that panels up to 75 cm2 were much favored by eighteenth-century portrait painters such as Ross, Newton, and Thorburn, who found that they made excellent vehicles for their art.20 Although none of these panels is larger than could from Delphi is 21 cm high and no large pieces of ivory was introduced by Rosalba Carriera before 1700 and in- and bone were found at Olympia; Barnett, Ancient Ivo- troduced into England by Bernard Lens (1682-1740) no ries in the Middle East 62-3, 91 n. 38, 93 n. 97; P. Amandry, earlier than 1707. Typical ivory miniatures ranged from “Rapport préliminaire sur les statues chryséléphantines as small as 1 in. to, typically, 4-5 in. high. Examples by de Delphes,” BCH 63 (1939) 90-106; Kunze, Olympia 281, his student, Catharine da Costa, dated 1718, are rect- figs. 15-33; Schiering, Werkstatt des Pheidias 2, 159-60; for angular panels, 7 in. (17.8 cm) high; Christie’s: Fine Silver, the Athena Parthenos, see G.P. Stevens, “How the Objects of Vertu, and Portrait Miniatures, London, 11 May Parthenos Was Made,” Hesperia 26 (1957) 350-61. C. 1994, 9, lot nos. 9 & 10. See also 18, lot no. 42, a Albizzati, “Two Ivory Fragments of a Statue of Athena,” miniature dated 1804 by Henry Bone that is 9 in. high; JHS 36 (1916) 371-402, concerns a forearm of a sculp- 25, lot no. 67, is 5.75 in. high and about 8.5 in. wide ture of Athena. For part of a life-size ivory forearm from (ca. 14.61 cm X 21.6 cm). Corinth, see Lapatin, Pheidias å/ëåöávôoõñãüò 666. Ivory For evidence of the steadily increasing size of minia- parts of large-scale composite sculptures, probably of tures painted on ivory, see Murdoch et al., The English Roman date, recently found about 30 km north of Rome, Miniature: 199, a copy of a Van Dyck miniature by Andrew were fashioned from solid sections of tusk; see Il Volto Robertson (1777-1845) 8 in. X 7 in.; 202, Sir William d’Avorio passim; K. Lapatin, “Pheidias, Euphranor, Newton (1785-1869) joined sheets of ivory to make large Praxiteles, or ? The Newly Repatriated Chryselephantine panels; and 200, Sir William Charles Ross (1794/5-1860) Staue Group from Anguillara and Methodolgies of At- is said to have increased 4 in. or 5 in. rectangles to often tribution,” Archaeological Institute of America, Abstracts twice that size. Foskett, A Dictionary of Brtish Miniature of 106th Annual Meeting, 2005 (abstract). Painters vol. 1, 481 presents a miniature by Ross of 17 Schiering, Werkstatt des Pheidias 2, 160. Napoleon III, formerly Hand Collection, that is painted 18 The scanty remains of a chryselephantine statue on a single sheet of ivory 17¾ in. X 13½ in.. Another excavated in Alexandria, probably dating to the end of major experimenter seems to have been Robert Thorburn the third century B.C., appears to display sculptured (1818-1885), who “favored very large ivories.” Accord- rather than molded elements; cf. Rodziewicz, E. Remains ing to D. Foskett, Miniatures, Dictionary, and Guide 222, of a chryselephantine statue 119-20, 123; Lapatin, Chrys- Thorburn experimented with very large pieces of ivory elephantine Statuary 150-1, Cat. no. 51, fig. 249; and Lapatin, that could be obtained by taking a thin slice of ivory from Pheidias å/ëåöávôoõñãüò 678 n. 59. the circumference of the tusk with a lathe. It was flat- 19 T.L. Shear, “Excavations in the Athenian Agora, tened by heat and pressure. It was then laid down on the Campaign of 1936,” Hesperia 6 (1937) 348-51, figs. India rubber and fixed to a mahogany panel. Sometimes 14-15; Barnett, Ancient Ivories in the Middle East 64, Pl. 66a. more than one piece was used. All too often these large 20 MacGregor, Bone, Antler, Ivory, & Horn 65. Actu- panels are now cracked and cannot be mended satisfac- ally, much larger panels were produced by or for torily, as evidenced by a portrait done in 1848 on ivory Thorburn (see below). The technique of painting on ivory by Thorburn illustrated by Foskett that is 20 in. high was ivory molded or formed into large sheets in antiquity? 337 be achieved by direct cutting from the tusk, Williamson describes a technique for producing larger sheets that involved the softening of the ivory tusk by soaking in phosphoric acid, cutting from around the circumference, and—while it was still soft—treating the ivory to a sequence of flattening, washing, and drying.21 This method of cutting ivory from the circumference of a tusk is similar to the process by which modern wood veneers are cut from a log. Lapatin has recovered the information that a veneer-cutting machine was patented in 1826 that allowed the production of a single sheet of thin ivory measuring 76 X 380 cm.22 Despite this development, at least one maker of exquisite and expensive furniture often veneered or inlaid with ivory, Jacques-Emile Ruhlmann (1879-1933), a master of Art Deco design whose career stretched from 1913 to 1933, used small pieces of ivory or, when larger designs were desired, abutted pieces using the same “Schnitzarbeit” technique as ivory and bone workers in antiquity.23 Even so, cracks can be seen everywhere on the ivory veneer surfaces. Thus, it is unlikely that a version of this process existed in antiquity, not only because the accurate control of the veneer slicing process would have been difficult in view of the technology available, but also because it was apparently not used even after the technology seems to have permitted.24

with exactly such signs of cracking, 216, Pl. 50D. In the a shape until dried out, it will retain that shape. If re- early twentieth century, by which time photography had wetted, ivory reverts to a cylindrical shape. Burack, Ivory long overtaken the popularity of portrait miniatures on and Its Uses 45-6 includes some interesting information ivory, Alyn Williams painted miniatures of King George on modern ivory veneer-cutting machines. V and Queen Mary dated 1911 and 1910 respectively 22 Lapatin, Chryselephantine Statuary 75; Lapatin, Pheidias that are 11 3/8 in. high; see Sotheby’s: Silver, Objects of Vertu, å/ëåöávôoõñãüò 673-4; earlier, workers at Pratt, Read & and Portrait Miniatures, London, 10 March 1994. In short, Company of Ivoryton, Connecticut, the location—until very large sheets of ivory were not used for portraits, al- it ceased to use ivory in 1954—of the world’s largest though apparently they would have been if they could manufacturer of ivory objects, had informed Cutler of have been kept from excessive cracking. this process. 21 Cutler, Justinian Diptychs 76; MacGregor, Bone, Antler, 23 Camard, Ruhlmann 34 demonstrates piecing in the Ivory, & Horn 66; Burack, Ivory and Its Uses 44 notes that inlaid ivory volutes; 41 top, 45-8, 72-3. it is claimed that other liquids can be used as well, in- 24 For discussion of Roman lathes, see Chapter II. cluding everything from a mixture of vinegar and nut oil to plain water. Thus softened, if the ivory is held in 338 appendix 5

APPENDIX 5

CONCORDANCES

CONCORDANCE OF CATALOGUE TO SITE INVENTORY NUMBERS

Inventory number SP refers to the Special Objects Site Inventory. This inventory was drawn up before research for this publication began. Therefore, some catalogued items were identified among groups of fragments that were not initially assigned individual SP inventory numbers. Some SP numbers included numerous fragments that were later assigned separate catalogue numbers.

CATALOGUE INVENTORY CATALOGUE INVENTORY NUMBER NUMBER NUMBER NUMBER

CHAPTER III. FIGURATIVE PLAQUES Cat. no. 21 Inv. no. SP 415 Cat. no. 22 Inv. no. SP 739, 742 LOW RELIEF IVORY PLAQUES Cat. no. 23 Inv. no. SP 740 Cat. no. 1 Inv. no. SP 237 Cat. no. 24 Inv. no. SP 457 Cat. no. 2 Inv. no. SP 238 Cat. no. 25 Inv. no. SP 458 Cat. no. 26 Inv. no. SP 460, 467 INCISED BONE PLAQUES Cat. no. 27 Inv. no. SP 461 Cat. no. 3 Inv. no. SP 721 Cat. no. 28 Inv. no. SP 462 Cat. no. 4 Inv. no. SP 722 Cat. no. 29 Inv. no. SP 463 Cat. no. 30 Inv. no. SP 464 CURVED PANEL Cat. no. 31 Inv. no. SP 465 Cat. no. 5 Inv. no. SP 399a, 402 Cat. no. 32 Inv. no. SP 466 Cat. no. 6 Inv. no. SP 399b, 736, 755 Cat. no. 33 Inv. no. SP 468a Cat. no. 7 Inv. no. SP 403 Cat. no. 34 Inv. no. SP 468b Cat. no. 8 Inv. no. SP 409 Cat. no. 35 Inv. no. SP 468c Cat. no. 9 Inv. no. SP 404, 700, 701 Cat. no. 36 Inv. no. SP 468d Cat. no. 10 Inv. no. SP 408 Cat. no. 37 Inv. no. SP 757k Cat. no. 11 Inv. no. SP 409a Cat. no. 38 Inv. no. SP 512 Cat. no. 12 Inv. no. SP 405 Cat. no. 39 Inv. no. SP 507 Cat. no. 13 Inv. no. SP 406 Cat. no. 40 Inv. no. SP 407 Cat. no. 14 Inv. no. SP 720b Cat. no. 41 Inv. no. SP 515 Cat. no. 15 Inv. no. SP 411, 525a Cat. no. 42 Inv. no. SP 516 Cat. no. 16 Inv. no. SP 410, 508, 741 Cat. no. 43 Inv. no. SP 518 Cat. no. 17 Inv. no. SP 412 Cat. no. 44 Inv. no. SP 521 Cat. no. 18 Inv. no. SP 399a Cat. no. 45 Inv. no. SP 522 Cat. no. 19 Inv. no. SP 400, 511 Cat. no. 20 Inv. no. SP 401 concordances 339

CATALOGUE INVENTORY CATALOGUE INVENTORY NUMBER NUMBER NUMBER NUMBER

ANIMAL PANEL I Cat. no. 84 Inv. no. SP 636 Cat. no. 46 Inv. no. SP 446, 449 Cat. no. 85 Inv. no. SP 638, 757j and l Cat. no. 47 Inv. no. SP 447, 448 Cat. no. 48 Inv. no. SP 450 OUTSTRETCHED ARM GROUP Cat. no. 49 Inv. no. SP 451 Cat. no. 86 Inv. no. SP 494, 495, 525, Cat. no. 50 Inv. no. SP 417 730a, 753 Cat. no. 51 Inv. no. SP 452a Cat. no. 87 Inv. no. SP 729, 553 (two Cat. no. 52 Inv. no. SP 459 fragments) Cat. no. 53 Inv. no. SP 504 Cat. no. 88 Inv. no. SP 729a, 552 (one Cat. no. 54 Inv. no. SP 501 fragment) Cat. no. 55 Inv. no. SP 505 Cat. no. 89 Inv. no. SP 732 Cat. no. 56 Inv. no. SP 517 Cat. no. 90 Inv. no. SP 554, 563 Cat. no. 57 Inv. no. SP 523 Cat. no. 91 Inv. no. SP 729b Cat. no. 58 Inv. no. SP 524 Cat. no. 92 Inv. no. SP 730b Cat. no. 59 Inv. no. SP 439 Cat. no. 60 Inv. no. SP 528 BEAUTIFUL HEAD GROUP Cat. no. 61 Inv. no. SP 546 Cat. no. 93 Inv. no. SP 413, 416 Cat. no. 62 Inv. no. SP 553 Cat. no. 94 Inv. no. SP 414 Cat. no. 63 Inv. no. SP 557 Cat. no. 95 Inv. no. SP 418 Cat. no. 64 Inv. no. SP 625, 525 (one Cat. no. 96 Inv. no. SP 544 fragment) Cat. no. 97 Inv. no. SP 748 Cat. no. 65 Inv. no. SP 632 Cat. no. 66 Inv. no. SP 637, 525 (two THIASOS PANEL fragments) Cat. no. 98 Inv. no. SP 731 Cat. no. 67 Inv. no. SP 697 Cat. no. 99 Inv. no. SP 500, 735 Cat. no. 100 Inv. no. SP 482, 698, 734 Cat. no. 68 Inv. no. SP 719 Cat. no. 101 Inv. no. SP 489 Cat. no. 69 Inv. no. SP 634 Cat. no. 102 Inv. no. SP 502, 718, 720 Cat. no. 103 Inv. no. SP 728 ANIMAL PANEL II Cat. no. 104 Inv. no. SP 490 Cat. no. 70 Inv. no. SP 733 Cat. no. 105 Inv. no. SP 491 Cat. no. 71 Inv. no. SP 493 Cat. no. 106 Inv. no. SP 506, 513 Cat. no. 72 Inv. no. SP 550, 556, 562d Cat. no. 107 Inv. no. SP 666 Cat. no. 73 Inv. no. SP 555 Cat. no. 108 Inv. no. SP 756b, 525 (one Cat. no. 74 Inv. no. SP 622 fragment) Cat. no. 75 Inv. no. SP 624 Cat. no. 109 Inv. no. SP 715 Cat. no. 76 Inv. no. SP 626, 629 Cat. no. 110 Inv. no. SP 737 Cat. no. 77 Inv. no. SP 627 Cat. no. 78 Inv. no. SP 702 HUNTING SCENE Cat. no. 79 Inv. no. SP 452b Cat. no. 111 Inv. no. SP 727 Cat. no. 80 Inv. no. SP 628 Cat. no. 112 Inv. no. SP 481 Cat. no. 81 Inv. no. SP 514 Cat. no. 82 Inv. no. SP 631 Cat. no. 83 Inv. no. SP 633 340 appendix 5

CATALOGUE INVENTORY CATALOGUE INVENTORY NUMBER NUMBER NUMBER NUMBER

DIAMOND-BORDERED PANEL CHAPTER IV. DECORATIVE PLAQUES Cat. no. 113 Inv. no. SP 436 AND VENEER Cat. no. 114 Inv. no. SP 484, 581 Cat. no. 115 Inv. no. SP 437 DECORATED RINGS Cat. no. 147 Inv. no. SP 213a, b MISCELLANEOUS FRAGMENTS Cat. no. 148 Inv. no. SP 207 Cat. no. 116 Inv. no. SP 432 Cat. no. 149 Inv. no. SP 212 Cat. no. 117 Inv. no. SP 456 Cat. no. 150 Inv. no. SP 211 Cat. no. 118 Inv. no. SP 470, 525 (one Cat. no. 151 Inv. no. SP 206 fragment) Cat. no. 152 Inv. no. SP 214 Cat. no. 119 Inv. no. SP 471 Cat. no. 153 Inv. no. SP 221 Cat. no. 120 Inv. no. SP 477 Cat. no. 154 Inv. no. SP 215 Cat. no. 121 Inv. no. SP 479 Cat. no. 155 Inv. no. SP 216 Cat. no. 122 Inv. no. SP 492, 525 (two Cat. no. 156 Inv. no. SP 220 fragments) Cat. no. 157 Inv. no. SP 218 Cat. no. 123 Inv. no. SP 498 Cat. no. 158 Inv. no. SP 217 Cat. no. 124 Inv. no. SP 499 Cat. no. 159 Inv. no. SP 219 Cat. no. 125 Inv. no. SP 503 Cat. no. 160 Inv. no. SP 223 Cat. no. 126 Inv. no. SP 509 Cat. no. 161 Inv. no. SP 224, 225 (one Cat. no. 127 Inv. no. SP 548 fragment) Cat. no. 128 Inv. no. SP 738 Cat. no. 162 Inv. no. SP 209 Cat. no. 129 Inv. no. SP 510 Cat. no. 163 Inv. no. SP 210 Cat. no. 130 Inv. no. SP 547a Cat. no. 164 Inv. no. SP 222 Cat. no. 131 Inv. no. SP 419 Cat. no. 165 Inv. no. SP 208 Cat. no. 132 Inv. no. SP 469 Cat. no. 166 Inv. no. SP 225a Cat. no. 133 Inv. no. SP 486 Cat. no. 167 Inv. no. SP 194 Cat. no. 134 Inv. no. SP 487 Cat. no. 168 Inv. no. SP 186 Cat. no. 135 Inv. no. SP 496 Cat. no. 169 Inv. no. SP 192, 193 Cat. no. 136 Inv. no. SP 497 Cat. no. 170 Inv. no. SP 183 Cat. no. 137 Inv. no. SP 520 Cat. no. 171 Inv. no. SP 185 Cat. no. 138 Inv. no. SP 561 Cat. no. 172 Inv. no. SP 184 Cat. no. 139 Inv. no. SP 752 Cat. no. 173 Inv. no. SP 188 Cat. no. 140 Inv. no. SP 478 Cat. no. 174 Inv. no. SP 198 + 225 (two Cat. no. 141 Inv. no. SP 519 fragments) Cat. no. 142 Inv. no. SP 420 Cat. no. 175 Inv. no. SP 189 Cat. no. 143 Inv. no. SP 483 Cat. no. 176 Inv. no. SP 190 Cat. no. 144 Inv. no. SP 485 Cat. no. 177 Inv. no. SP 195 Cat. no. 145 Inv. no. SP 635 Cat. no. 178 Inv. no. SP 196 Cat. no. 146 Inv. no. SP 659 Cat. no. 179 Inv. no. SP 201 Cat. no. 180 Inv. no. SP 200 Cat. no. 181 Inv. no. SP 225f Cat. no. 182 Inv. no. SP 202 Cat. no. 183 Inv. no. SP 203 Cat. no. 184 Inv. no. SP 187a concordances 341

CATALOGUE INVENTORY CATALOGUE INVENTORY NUMBER NUMBER NUMBER NUMBER

Cat. no. 185 Inv. no. SP 187b Cat. no. 228 Inv. no. SP 135 Cat. no. 186 Inv. no. SP 204 Cat. no. 229 Inv. no. SP 140 Cat. no. 187 Inv. no. SP 205 Cat. no. 230 Inv. no. SP 141 Cat. no. 188 Inv. no. SP 199 Cat. no. 231 Inv. no. SP 145 Cat. no. 189 Inv. no. SP 197 Cat. no. 232 Inv. no. SP 146 Cat. no. 190 Inv. no. SP 191 Cat. no. 233 Inv. no. SP 148 Cat. no. 191 Inv. no. SP 225 Cat. no. 234 Inv. no. SP 149 Cat. no. 235 Inv. no. SP 150 SPIRAL STRIPS Cat. no. 236 Inv. no. SP 155 Cat. no. 192 Inv. no. SP 120 Cat. no. 237 Inv. no. SP 157 Cat. no. 193 Inv. no. SP 121 Cat. no. 238 Inv. no. SP 158 Cat. no. 194 Inv. no. SP 122 Cat. no. 239 Inv. no. SP 159 Cat. no. 195 Inv. no. SP 123 Cat. no. 240 Inv. no. SP 161 Cat. no. 196 Inv. no. SP 124 Cat. no. 241 Inv. no. SP 162 Cat. no. 197 Inv. no. SP 125 Cat. no. 242 Inv. no. SP 163 Cat. no. 198 Inv. no. SP 127 Cat. no. 243 Inv. no. SP 165 Cat. no. 199 Inv. no. SP 312 Cat. no. 244 Inv. no. SP 166 Cat. no. 200 Inv. no. SP 313 Cat. no. 245 Inv. no. SP 167 Cat. no. 201 Inv. no. SP 314 Cat. no. 246 Inv. no. SP 168 Cat. no. 202 Inv. no. SP 315 Cat. no. 247 Inv. no. SP 169 Cat. no. 203 Inv. no. SP 316 Cat. no. 248 Inv. no. SP 170 Cat. no. 204 Inv. no. SP 317 Cat. no. 249 Inv. no. SP 171 Cat. no. 205 Inv. no. SP 318 Cat. no. 250 Inv. no. SP 172 Cat. no. 206 Inv. no. SP 319 Cat. no. 251 Inv. no. SP 173 Cat. no. 207 Inv. no. SP 320 Cat. no. 252 Inv. no. SP 174 Cat. no. 208 Inv. no. SP 321 Cat. no. 253 Inv. no. SP 181 Cat. no. 209 Inv. no. SP 322 Cat. no. 254 Inv. no. SP 338 Cat. no. 210 Inv. no. SP 323 Cat. no. 255 Inv. no. SP 175 Cat. no. 211 Inv. no. SP 324 Cat. no. 256 Inv. no. SP 176 Cat. no. 212 Inv. no. SP 325 Cat. no. 257 Inv. no. SP 178 Cat. no. 213 Inv. no. SP 326 Cat. no. 258 Inv. no. SP 182 (fragments) Cat. no. 214 Inv. no. SP 327 Cat. no. 259 Inv. no. SP 182 (fragments) Cat. no. 215 Inv. no. SP 328 Cat. no. 260 Inv. no. SP 126 Cat. no. 216 Inv. no. SP 329 Cat. no. 261 Inv. no. SP 131 Cat. no. 217 Inv. no. SP 330 Cat. no. 262 Inv. no. SP 132 Cat. no. 218 Inv. no. SP 331 Cat. no. 263 Inv. no. SP 133 Cat. no. 219 Inv. no. SP 332 Cat. no. 264 Inv. no. SP 134 Cat. no. 220 Inv. no. SP 333 Cat. no. 265 Inv. no. SP 136 Cat. no. 221 Inv. no. SP 334 Cat. no. 266 Inv. no. SP 137 Cat. no. 222 Inv. no. SP 335 Cat. no. 267 Inv. no. SP 138 Cat. no. 223 Inv. no. SP 336 Cat. no. 268 Inv. no. SP 139 Cat. no. 224 Inv. no. SP 337 Cat. no. 269 Inv. no. SP 142 Cat. no. 225 Inv. no. SP 128 Cat. no. 270 Inv. no. SP 143 Cat. no. 226 Inv. no. SP 129 Cat. no. 271 Inv. no. SP 144 Cat. no. 227 Inv. no. SP 130 Cat. no. 272 Inv. no. SP 147 342 appendix 5

CATALOGUE INVENTORY CATALOGUE INVENTORY NUMBER NUMBER NUMBER NUMBER

Cat. no. 273 Inv. no. SP 151 Cat. no. 306 Inv. no. SP 584 Cat. no. 274 Inv. no. SP 152 Cat. no. 307 Inv. no. SP 585 Cat. no. 275 Inv. no. SP 153 Cat. no. 308 Inv. no. SP 586 Cat. no. 276 Inv. no. SP 154 Cat. no. 309 Inv. no. SP 587 Cat. no. 277 Inv. no. SP 156 Cat. no. 310 Inv. no. SP 588 Cat. no. 278 Inv. no. SP 160 Cat. no. 311 Inv. no. SP 589 Cat. no. 279 Inv. no. SP 164 Cat. no. 312 Inv. no. SP 590 Cat. no. 280 Inv. no. SP 177 Cat. no. 313 Inv. no. SP 592 Cat. no. 281 Inv. no. SP 179 Cat. no. 314 Inv. no. SP 593 Cat. no. 282 Inv. no. SP 180 Cat. no. 315 Inv. no. SP 595 Cat. no. 316 Inv. no. SP 596 TONDO PLAQUE Cat. no. 317 Inv. no. SP 597 Cat. no. 283 Inv. no. SP 236 Cat. no. 318 Inv. no. SP 598 Cat. no. 319 Inv. no. SP 599 FLOWER CIRCLES Cat. no. 320 Inv. no. SP 601 Cat. no. 284 Inv. no. SP 472 Cat. no. 321 Inv. no. SP 602 Cat. no. 285 Inv. no. SP 473a Cat. no. 322 Inv. no. SP 749 Cat. no. 286 Inv. no. SP 473b Cat. no. 323 Inv. no. SP 750 Cat. no. 287 Inv. no. SP 474 Cat. no. 324 Inv. no. SP 751 Cat. no. 288 Inv. no. SP 475, 551 Cat. no. 325 Inv. no. SP 549 Cat. no. 289 Inv. no. SP 476 Cat. no. 326 Inv. no. SP 480 Cat. no. 290 Inv. no. SP 488 Cat. no. 327 Inv. no. SP 547b Cat. no. 291 Inv. no. SP 660, 661 Cat. no. 328 Inv. no. SP 547c Cat. no. 329 Inv. no. SP 594 RECTANGLE, DIAMOND AND OVAL Cat. no. 330 Inv. no. SP 603 BORDER Cat. no. 331 Inv. no. SP 757e, f Cat. no. 292 Inv. no. SP 564, 576, 579, 591, 600, 603 (four QUATREFOIL BORDER fragments) Cat. no. 332 Inv. no. SP 604 Cat. no. 293 Inv. no. SP 565 Cat. no. 333 Inv. no. SP 606 Cat. no. 294 Inv. no. SP 566 Cat. no. 334 Inv. no. SP 605 Cat. no. 295 Inv. no. SP 567 Cat. no. 296 Inv. no. SP 568 SCALE BORDER Cat. no. 297 Inv. no. SP 569 Cat. no. 335 Inv. no. SP 610 Cat. no. 298 Inv. no. SP 570, 578, 600, Cat. no. 336 Inv. no. SP 610a 603 (one fragment) Cat. no. 337 Inv. no. SP 608a Cat. no. 299 Inv. no. SP 571, 577 Cat. no. 338 Inv. no. SP 611 Cat. no. 300 Inv. no. SP 572 Cat. no. 339 Inv. no. SP 612 Cat. no. 301 Inv. no. SP 573, 574, 603 Cat. no. 340 Inv. no. SP 613 (two fragments) Cat. no. 341 Inv. no. SP 614, 615, 616 Cat. no. 302 Inv. no. SP 575 Cat. no. 342 Inv. no. SP 617, 618 (one Cat. no. 303 Inv. no. SP 580 fragment) Cat. no. 304 Inv. no. SP 582 Cat. no. 343 Inv. no. SP 754 Cat. no. 305 Inv. no. SP 583 Cat. no. 344 Inv. no. SP 618 concordances 343

CATALOGUE INVENTORY CATALOGUE INVENTORY NUMBER NUMBER NUMBER NUMBER

FOLIATED SPIRAL BORDER Cat. no. 381 Inv. no. SP 3 Cat. no. 345 Inv. no. SP 607, 609 Cat. no. 382 Inv. no. SP 4 Cat. no. 346 Inv. no. SP 608 Cat. no. 383 Inv. no. SP 6 Cat. no. 347 Inv. no. SP 609 Cat. no. 384 Inv. no. SP 7 Cat. no. 348 Inv. no. SP 558 Cat. no. 385 Inv. no. SP 8 Cat. no. 349 Inv. no. SP 744 Cat. no. 386 Inv. no. SP 9 Cat. no. 350 Inv. no. SP 449 Cat. no. 387 Inv. no. SP 10 Cat. no. 388 Inv. no. SP 11 CHAPTER V. IVORY, BONE, AND Cat. no. 389 Inv. no. SP 12 WOOD ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENTS Cat. no. 390 Inv. no. SP 13 Cat. no. 391 Inv. no. SP 14 EGG-AND-DART MOLDING Cat. no. 392 Inv. no. SP 374 Cat. no. 351 Inv. no. SP 92 Cat. no. 393 Inv. no. SP 375 Cat. no. 352 Inv. no. SP 93 Cat. no. 394 Inv. no. SP 376 Cat. no. 353 Inv. no. SP 94 Cat. no. 395 Inv. no. SP 377 Cat. no. 354 Inv. no. SP 95 Cat. no. 396 Inv. no. SP 378 Cat. no. 355 Inv. no. SP 96 Cat. no. 397 Inv. no. SP 379 Cat. no. 356 Inv. no. SP 97 Cat. no. 398 Inv. no. SP 384 Cat. no. 357 Inv. no. SP 98 Cat. no. 399 Inv. no. SP 385 Cat. no. 358 Inv. no. SP 99 Cat. no. 400 Inv. no. SP 386 Cat. no. 359 Inv. no. SP 100 Cat. no. 401 (Inv. no. SP 5) Cat. no. 360 Inv. no. SP 101 Cat. no. 361 Inv. no. SP 102 COLUMN BASES Cat. no. 362 Inv. no. SP 103 Cat. no. 402 Inv. no. SP 35 Cat. no. 363 Inv. no. SP 104 Cat. no. 403 Inv. no. SP 16 Cat. no. 364 Inv. no. SP 105 Cat. no. 404 Inv. no. SP 15 Cat. no. 365 Inv. no. SP 106 Cat. no. 405 Inv. no. SP 17 Cat. no. 366 Inv. no. SP 107 Cat. no. 406 Inv. no. SP 25 Cat. no. 367 Inv. no. SP 108 Cat. no. 407 Inv. no. SP 36 Cat. no. 368 Inv. no. SP 109 Cat. no. 408 Inv. no. SP 24 Cat. no. 369 Inv. no. SP 110 Cat. no. 409 Inv. no. SP 33, 380 Cat. no. 370 Inv. no. SP 112 Cat. no. 410 Inv. no. SP 19 Cat. no. 371 Inv. no. SP 111 Cat. no. 411 Inv. no. SP 26 Cat. no. 372 Inv. no. SP 113 Cat. no. 412 Inv. no. SP 20 Cat. no. 373 Inv. no. SP 114 Cat. no. 413 Inv. no. SP 22 Cat. no. 374 Inv. no. SP 115 Cat. no. 414 Inv. no. SP 27 Cat. no. 375 Inv. no. SP 116 Cat. no. 415 Inv. no. SP 28 Cat. no. 376 Inv. no. SP 117 Cat. no. 416 Inv. no. SP 29 Cat. no. 377 Inv. no. SP 118 Cat. no. 417 Inv. no. SP 37 Cat. no. 378 Inv. no. SP 119 Cat. no. 418 Inv. no. SP 18 Cat. no. 419 Inv. no. SP 23 CORINTHIAN CAPITALS Cat. no. 420 Inv. no. SP 31 Cat. no. 379 Inv. no. SP 1 Cat. no. 421 Inv. no. SP 21 Cat. no. 380 Inv. no. SP 2 Cat. no. 422 Inv. no. SP 30 344 appendix 5

CATALOGUE INVENTORY CATALOGUE INVENTORY NUMBER NUMBER NUMBER NUMBER

Cat. no. 423 Inv. no. SP 32 Cat. no. 464 Inv. no. SP 87 Cat. no. 424 Inv. no. SP 34 Cat. no. 465 Inv. no. SP 88 Cat. no. 425 Inv. no. SP 381 Cat. no. 466 Inv. no. SP 89 Cat. no. 467 Inv. no. SP 90 COLUMNS Cat. no. 468 Inv. no. SP 91 Cat. no. 426 Inv. no. SP 38 Cat. no. 469 Inv. no. SP 81 Cat. no. 427 Inv. no. SP 39 Cat. no. 470 Inv. no. SP 76 Cat. no. 428 Inv. no. SP 40 Cat. no. 471 Inv. no. SP 77 Cat. no. 429 Inv. no. SP 41 Cat. no. 472 Inv. no. SP 78 Cat. no. 430 Inv. no. SP 42 Cat. no. 473 Inv. no. SP 79 Cat. no. 474 Inv. no. SP 80 ARCHITECTURAL BLOCKS Cat. no. 475 Inv. no. SP 82 Cat. no. 431 Inv. no. SP 44 Cat. no. 476 Inv. no. SP 83 Cat. no. 432 Inv. no. SP 45 Cat. no. 477 Inv. no. SP 56 Cat. no. 433 Inv. no. SP 46 Cat. no. 478 Inv. no. SP 57 Cat. no. 434 Inv. no. SP 47 Cat. no. 435 Inv. no. SP 48 EROTES ARCADE Cat. no. 436 Inv. no. SP 49 Cat. no. 479 Inv. no. SP 706, 758 Cat. no. 437 Inv. no. SP 50 Cat. no. 480 Inv. no. SP 760 Cat. no. 438 Inv. no. SP 51 Cat. no. 481 Inv. no. SP 759 Cat. no. 439 Inv. no. SP 52 Cat. no. 482 Inv. no. SP 761 Cat. no. 440 Inv. no. SP 53 Cat. no. 483 Inv. no. SP 707, 711, 725, 747 Cat. no. 441 Inv. no. SP 54 Cat. no. 484 Inv. no. SP 712 Cat. no. 442 Inv. no. SP 55 Cat. no. 485 Inv. no. SP 708 Cat. no. 443 Inv. no. SP 67 Cat. no. 486 Inv. no. SP 525 Cat. no. 444 Inv. no. SP 68 Cat. no. 487 Inv. no. SP 714 Cat. no. 445 Inv. no. SP 69 Cat. no. 488 Inv. no. SP 709 Cat. no. 446 Inv. no. SP 70 Cat. no. 489 Inv. no. SP 726 Cat. no. 447 Inv. no. SP 71 Cat. no. 490 Inv. no. SP 704 Cat. no. 448 Inv. no. SP 72 Cat. no. 491 Inv. no. SP 705 (two Cat. no. 449 Inv. no. SP 73 fragments) Cat. no. 450 Inv. no. SP 74 Cat. no. 492 Inv. no. SP 713a Cat. no. 451 Inv. no. SP 75 Cat. no. 493 Inv. no. SP 713b Cat. no. 452 Inv. no. SP 58 Cat. no. 494 Inv. no. SP 710 Cat. no. 453 Inv. no. SP 59 Cat. no. 495 Inv. no. SP 699 Cat. no. 454 Inv. no. SP 60 Cat. no. 496 Inv. no. SP 717 Cat. no. 455 Inv. no. SP 61 Cat. no. 497 Inv. no. SP 720e Cat. no. 456 Inv. no. SP 62 Cat. no. 498 Inv. no. SP 720d Cat. no. 457 Inv. no. SP 63 Cat. no. 499 Inv. no. SP 716 Cat. no. 458 Inv. no. SP 64 Cat. no. 500 Inv. no. SP 562 Cat. no. 459 Inv. no. SP 65 Cat. no. 501 Inv. no. SP 620 Cat. no. 460 Inv. no. SP 66 Cat. no. 502 Inv. no. SP 559 Cat. no. 461 Inv. no. SP 84 Cat. no. 503 Inv. no. SP 560 Cat. no. 462 Inv. no. SP 85 Cat. no. 504 Inv. no. SP 619 Cat. no. 463 Inv. no. SP 86 Cat. no. 505 Inv. no. SP 621 concordances 345

CATALOGUE INVENTORY CATALOGUE INVENTORY NUMBER NUMBER NUMBER NUMBER

ARCHITECTURAL MOLDINGS CHAIR STRETCHERS Cat. no. 506 Inv. no. SP 230 Cat. no. 540 Inv. no. SP 263 Cat. no. 507 Inv. no. SP 227 Cat. no. 541 Inv. no. SP 266, 267 Cat. no. 508 Inv. no. SP 228 Cat. no. 542 Inv. no. SP 268, 293 Cat. no. 509 Inv. no. SP 229 Cat. no. 543 Inv. no. SP 265 Cat. no. 510 Inv. no. SP 231 Cat. no. 544 Inv. no. SP 269 Cat. no. 511 Inv. no. SP 232 Cat. no. 545 Inv. no. SP 393 Cat. no. 512 Inv. no. SP 233 Cat. no. 546 Inv. no. SP 264, 670 (one Cat. no. 513 Inv. no. SP 234 fragment) Cat. no. 514 Inv. no. SP 235a Cat. no. 547 Inv. no. SP 672, 674, 675, Cat. no. 515 Inv. no. SP 235b 677, 679, 682, 683, 688 (one fragment) MISCELLANEOUS ARCHITECTURAL Cat. no. 548 Inv. no. SP 681, 688 (one FRAGMENTS fragment) Cat. no. 516 Inv. no. SP 226 Cat. no. 549 Inv. no. SP 686 Cat. no. 517 Inv. no. SP 382 Cat. no. 550 Inv. no. SP 687 Cat. no. 518 Inv. no. SP 383 Cat. no. 551 Inv. no. SP 646, 688 (one fragment) CHAPTER VI. WOOD FURNITURE AND Cat. no. 552 Inv. no. SP 655, 657 RELATED VENEER Cat. no. 553 Inv. no. SP 639 Cat. no. 554 Inv. no. SP 643, 693, 688 CHAIR LEGS (one fragment) Cat. no. 519 Inv. no. SP 272 Cat. no. 555 Inv. no. SP 645, 692 Cat. no. 520 Inv. no. SP 277 Cat. no. 556 Inv. no. SP 649 Cat. no. 521 Inv. no. SP 276 Cat. no. 557 Inv. no. SP 650, 668 (one Cat. no. 522 Inv. no. SP 271 fragment) Cat. no. 523 Inv. no. SP 270 Cat. no. 558 Inv. no. SP 641, 642, 644, Cat. no. 524 Inv. no. SP 281, 294 688 (two fragments) Cat. no. 525 Inv. no. SP 279 Cat. no. 559 Inv. no. SP 685 Cat. no. 526 Inv. no. SP 274 Cat. no. 560 Inv. no. SP 647, 651, 656 Cat. no. 527 Inv. no. SP 273 Cat. no. 561 Inv. no. SP 671 Cat. no. 528 Inv. no. SP 280 Cat. no. 562 Inv. no. SP 654 Cat. no. 529 Inv. no. SP 282 Cat. no. 563 Inv. no. SP 640, 668 (one Cat. no. 530 Inv. no. SP 278 fragment) Cat. no. 531 Inv. no. SP 275 Cat. no. 564 Inv. no. SP 658 Cat. no. 532 Inv. no. SP 391 Cat. no. 565 Inv. no. SP 684 Cat. no. 533 Inv. no. SP 292 Cat. no. 566 Inv. no. SP 689, 688 (one Cat. no. 534 Not inventoried fragment) Cat. no. 535 PV 9 Cat. no. 567 Inv. no. SP 743 Cat. no. 536 Not inventoried Cat. no. 568 Inv. no. SP 745 Cat. no. 537 Not inventoried Cat. no. 569 Inv. no. SP 648, 668 (one Cat. no. 538 Not inventoried fragment) Cat. no. 539 Not inventoried Cat. no. 570 Inv. no. SP 676 Cat. no. 571 Inv. no. SP 678, 688 (one fragment) 346 appendix 5

CATALOGUE INVENTORY CATALOGUE INVENTORY NUMBER NUMBER NUMBER NUMBER

Cat. no. 572 Inv. no. SP 680 Cat. no. 606 Inv. no. SP 545 Cat. no. 573 Inv. no. SP 653 Cat. no. 607 Inv. no. SP 440b Cat. no. 574 Inv. no. SP 652 Cat. no. 608 Inv. no. SP 705 Cat. no. 575 Inv. no. SP 673 Cat. no. 609 Inv. no. SP 756a Cat. no. 576 Inv. no. SP 746 Cat. no. 610 Inv. no. SP 441 Cat. no. 577 Inv. no. SP 690 Cat. no. 611 Inv. no. SP 442 Cat. no. 578 Inv. no. SP 691 Cat. no. 612 Inv. no. SP 438

DOLPHINS COMPOUND MOLDING Cat. no. 579 Inv. no. SP 261 Cat. no. 613 Inv. no. SP 368 Cat. no. 580 Inv. no. SP 262 Cat. no. 614 Inv. no. SP 369 Cat. no. 615 Inv. no. SP 370 FISH DESIGN VENEER Cat. no. 616 Inv. no. SP 371 Cat. no. 581 Inv. no. SP 421, 757c Cat. no. 617 Inv. no. SP 372 Cat. no. 582 Inv. no. SP 425 Cat. no. 618 Inv. no. SP 373 Cat. no. 583 Inv. no. SP 429 Cat. no. 619 Inv. no. SP 261b Cat. no. 584 Inv. no. SP 526 Cat. no. 620 Inv. no. SP 262b Cat. no. 585 Inv. no. SP 527 Cat. no. 586 Inv. no. SP 534 WOOD BLOCKS Cat. no. 587 Inv. no. SP 539 Cat. no. 621 Inv. no. SP 290 Cat. no. 588 Inv. no. SP 543 Cat. no. 622 Inv. no. SP 288 Cat. no. 589 Inv. no. SP 630 Cat. no. 623 Inv. no. SP 289 Cat. no. 590 Inv. no. SP 664 Cat. no. 624 Inv. no. SP 291 Cat. no. 591 Inv. no. SP 665a Cat. no. 625 Inv. no. SP 306 Cat. no. 592 Inv. no. SP 665b Cat. no. 626 Inv. no. SP 392 Cat. no. 593 Inv. no. SP 757h Cat. no. 627 Inv. no. SP 311 Cat. no. 594 Inv. no. SP 431, 434, 435, Cat. no. 628 Inv. no. SP 310 529, 530, 531, 536, 537 Cat. no. 629 Inv. no. SP 309 (one fragment), 662, 663, Cat. no. 630 Inv. no. SP 253 668 (five fragments) Cat. no. 595 Inv. no. SP 532 BOARDS WITH ATTACHED RODS Cat. no. 596 Inv. no. SP 423, 424, 705 AND RELATED VENEERS Cat. no. 597 Inv. no. SP 422 Cat. no. 631 Inv. no. SP 389, 390 Cat. no. 598 Inv. no. SP 535, 537 (one Cat. no. 632 Inv. no. SP 283 fragment) Cat. no. 633 Not inventoried Cat. no. 599 Inv. no. SP 430, 537 (one Cat. no. 634 Not inventoried fragment) Cat. no. 635 Not inventoried Cat. no. 600 Inv. no. SP 427, 428 Cat. no. 601 Inv. no. SP 533 FLAT PANELS Cat. no. 602 Inv. no. SP 538, 540, 541 Cat. no. 636 Inv. no. SP 396 (one fragment) Cat. no. 637 Inv. no. SP 397 Cat. no. 603 Inv. no. SP 703 Cat. no. 638 Inv. no. SP 398 Cat. no. 604 Inv. no. SP 426 Cat. no. 605 Inv. no. SP 542, 545 (two fragments) concordances 347

CATALOGUE INVENTORY CATALOGUE INVENTORY NUMBER NUMBER NUMBER NUMBER

VENEER PIECES RELATED TO Cat. no. 653 Not inventoried FURNITURE Cat. no. 654 Not inventoried Cat. no. 639 Inv. no. SP 339 Cat. no. 655 Not inventoried Cat. no. 640 Inv. no. SP 340 Cat. no. 656 Inv. no. SP 454 (one Cat. no. 641 Inv. no. SP 341 fragment) Cat. no. 642 Inv. no. SP 342 Cat. no. 657 Not inventoried Cat. no. 643 Inv. no. SP 343 Cat. no. 658 Inv. no. SP 454 (one Cat. no. 644 Inv. no. SP 344 fragment) Cat. no. 645 Inv. no. SP 345 Cat. no. 659 Not inventoried Cat. no. 660 Not inventoried CABRIOLE LEGS Cat. no. 661 Not inventoried Cat. no. 646 Inv. no. SP 259 Cat. no. 647 Inv. no. SP 239, 240 STEPPED STRETCHERS Cat. no. 648 Inv. no. SP 260 Cat. no. 662 Inv. no. SP 285 Cat. no. 649 Not inventoried Cat. no. 663 Inv. no. SP 286 Cat. no. 650 Not inventoried Cat. no. 664 Inv. no. SP 243 Cat. no. 651 Not inventoried Cat. no. 665 Inv. no. SP 244 Cat. no. 652 Not inventoried

CONCORDANCE OF SITE INVENTORY NUMBERS TO CATALOGUE NUMBERS

SP numbers refer to the Special Objects Site Inventory that was compiled following conservation prior to research for this publication. Many items were subsequently joined to other fragments, and therefore the same catalogue number may be listed for more than one SP number. Some SP numbers refer to incorrectly joined fragments that were separated or to groups of decorated veneer that in either case were subsequently assigned to different catalogued items, and therefore more than one catalogue number may be listed for a single SP number. Other SP numbers refer to groups of undecorated veneer that were not separately catalogued and were combined with other groups of undecorated veneer without special features. They are indicated with the entry “Not catalogued.”

INVENTORY CATALOGUE INVENTORY CATALOGUE NUMBER NUMBER NUMBER NUMBER

Inv. no. SP 1 Cat. no. 379 Inv. no. SP 10 Cat. no. 387 Inv. no. SP 2 Cat. no. 380 Inv. no. SP 11 Cat. no. 388 Inv. no. SP 3 Cat. no. 381 Inv. no. SP 12 Cat. no. 389 Inv. no. SP 4 Cat. no. 384 Inv. no. SP 13 Cat. no. 390 Inv. no. SP 5 Cat. no. 401 Inv. no. SP 14 Cat. no. 391 Inv. no. SP 6 Cat. no. 383 Inv. no. SP 15 Cat. no. 404 Inv. no. SP 7 Cat. no. 384 Inv. no. SP 16 Cat. no. 403 Inv. no. SP 8 Cat. no. 385 Inv. no. SP 17 Cat. no. 405 Inv. no. SP 9 Cat. no. 386 Inv. no. SP 18 Cat. no. 418 348 appendix 5

INVENTORY CATALOGUE INVENTORY CATALOGUE NUMBER NUMBER NUMBER NUMBER

Inv. no. SP 19 Cat. no. 410 Inv. no. SP 64 Cat. no. 458 Inv. no. SP 20 Cat. no. 412 Inv. no. SP 65 Cat. no. 459 Inv. no. SP 21 Cat. no. 421 Inv. no. SP 66 Cat. no. 460 Inv. no. SP 22 Cat. no. 413 Inv. no. SP 67 Cat. no. 443 Inv. no. SP 23 Cat. no. 419 Inv. no. SP 68 Cat. no. 444 Inv. no. SP 24 Cat. no. 408 Inv. no. SP 69 Cat. no. 445 Inv. no. SP 25 Cat. no. 406 Inv. no. SP 70 Cat. no. 446 Inv. no. SP 26 Cat. no. 411 Inv. no. SP 71 Cat. no. 447 Inv. no. SP 27 Cat. no. 414 Inv. no. SP 72 Cat. no. 448 Inv. no. SP 28 Cat. no. 415 Inv. no. SP 73 Cat. no. 449 Inv. no. SP 29 Cat. no. 416 Inv. no. SP 74 Cat. no. 450 Inv. no. SP 30 Cat. no. 422 Inv. no. SP 75 Cat. no. 451 Inv. no. SP 31 Cat. no. 420 Inv. no. SP 76 Cat. no. 470 Inv. no. SP 32 Cat. no. 423 Inv. no. SP 77 Cat. no. 471 Inv. no. SP 33 Cat. no. 409 Inv. no. SP 78 Cat. no. 472 Inv. no. SP 34 Cat. no. 424 Inv. no. SP 79 Cat. no. 473 Inv. no. SP 35 Cat. no. 402 Inv. no. SP 80 Cat. no. 474 Inv. no. SP 36 Cat. no. 407 Inv. no. SP 81 Cat. no. 469 Inv. no. SP 37 Cat. no. 417 Inv. no. SP 82 Cat. no. 475 Inv. no. SP 38 Cat. no. 426 Inv. no. SP 83 Cat. no. 476 Inv. no. SP 39 Cat. no. 427 Inv. no. SP 84 Cat. no. 461 Inv. no. SP 40 Cat. no. 428 Inv. no. SP 85 Cat. no. 462 Inv. no. SP 41 Cat. no. 429 Inv. no. SP 86 Cat. no. 463 Inv. no. SP 42 Cat. no. 430 Inv. no. SP 87 Cat. no. 464 Inv. no. SP 43 App. 1 W.31 Inv. no. SP 88 Cat. no. 465 Inv. no. SP 44 Cat. no. 431 Inv. no. SP 89 Cat. no. 466 Inv. no. SP 45 Cat. no. 432 Inv. no. SP 90 Cat. no. 467 Inv. no. SP 46 Cat. no. 433 Inv. no. SP 91 Cat. no. 468 Inv. no. SP 47 Cat. no. 434 Inv. no. SP 92 Cat. no. 351 Inv. no. SP 48 Cat. no. 435 Inv. no. SP 93 Cat. no. 352 Inv. no. SP 49 Cat. no. 436 Inv. no. SP 94 Cat. no. 353 Inv. no. SP 50 Cat. no. 437 Inv. no. SP 95 Cat. no. 354 Inv. no. SP 51 Cat. no. 438 Inv. no. SP 96 Cat. no. 355 Inv. no. SP 52 Cat. no. 439 Inv. no. SP 97 Cat. no. 356 Inv. no. SP 53 Cat. no. 440 Inv. no. SP 98 Cat. no. 357 Inv. no. SP 54 Cat. no. 441 Inv. no. SP 99 Cat. no. 358 Inv. no. SP 55 Cat. no. 442 Inv. no. SP 100 Cat. no. 359 Inv. no. SP 56 Cat. no. 477 Inv. no. SP 101 Cat. no. 360 Inv. no. SP 57 Cat. no. 478 Inv. no. SP 102 Cat. no. 361 Inv. no. SP 58 Cat. no. 452 Inv. no. SP 103 Cat. no. 362 Inv. no. SP 59 Cat. no. 453 Inv. no. SP 104 Cat. no. 363 Inv. no. SP 60 Cat. no. 454 Inv. no. SP 105 Cat. no. 364 Inv. no. SP 61 Cat. no. 455 Inv. no. SP 106 Cat. no. 365 Inv. no. SP 62 Cat. no. 456 Inv. no. SP 107 Cat. no. 366 Inv. no. SP 63 Cat. no. 457 Inv. no. SP 108 Cat. no. 367 concordances 349

INVENTORY CATALOGUE INVENTORY CATALOGUE NUMBER NUMBER NUMBER NUMBER

Inv. no. SP 109 Cat. no. 368 Inv. no. SP 154 Cat. no. 276 Inv. no. SP 110 Cat. no. 369 Inv. no. SP 155 Cat. no. 236 Inv. no. SP 111 Cat. no. 371 Inv. no. SP 156 Cat. no. 277 Inv. no. SP 112 Cat. no. 370 Inv. no. SP 157 Cat. no. 237 Inv. no. SP 113 Cat. no. 372 Inv. no. SP 158 Cat. no. 238 Inv. no. SP 114 Cat. no. 373 Inv. no. SP 159 Cat. no. 239 Inv. no. SP 115 Cat. no. 374 Inv. no. SP 160 Cat. no. 278 Inv. no. SP 116 Cat. no. 375 Inv. no. SP 161 Cat. no. 240 Inv. no. SP 117 Cat. no. 376 Inv. no. SP 162 Cat. no. 241 Inv. no. SP 118 Cat. no. 377 Inv. no. SP 163 Cat. no. 242 Inv. no. SP 119 Cat. no. 378 Inv. no. SP 164 Cat. no. 279 Inv. no. SP 120 Cat. no. 192 Inv. no. SP 165 Cat. no. 243 Inv. no. SP 121 Cat. no. 193 Inv. no. SP 166 Cat. no. 244 Inv. no. SP 122 Cat. no. 194 Inv. no. SP 167 Cat. no. 245 Inv. no. SP 123 Cat. no. 195 Inv. no. SP 168 Cat. no. 246 Inv. no. SP 124 Cat. no. 196 Inv. no. SP 169 Cat. no. 247 Inv. no. SP 125 Cat. no. 197 Inv. no. SP 170 Cat. no. 248 Inv. no. SP 126 Cat. no. 260 Inv. no. SP 171 Cat. no. 249 Inv. no. SP 127 Cat. no. 198 Inv. no. SP 172 Cat. no. 250 Inv. no. SP 128 Cat. no. 225 Inv. no. SP 173 Cat. no. 251 Inv. no. SP 129 Cat. no. 226 Inv. no. SP 174 Cat. no. 252 Inv. no. SP 130 Cat. no. 227 Inv. no. SP 175 Cat. no. 255 Inv. no. SP 131 Cat. no. 261 Inv. no. SP 176 Cat. no. 256 Inv. no. SP 132 Cat. no. 262 Inv. no. SP 177 Cat. no. 280 Inv. no. SP 133 Cat. no. 263 Inv. no. SP 178 Cat. no. 257 Inv. no. SP 134 Cat. no. 264 Inv. no. SP 179 Cat. no. 281 Inv. no. SP 135 Cat. no. 228 Inv. no. SP 180 Cat. no. 282 Inv. no. SP 136 Cat. no. 265 Inv. no. SP 181 Cat. no. 253 Inv. no. SP 137 Cat. no. 266 Inv. no. SP 182 Cat. no. 258, 259 Inv. no. SP 138 Cat. no. 267 Inv. no. SP 183 Cat. no. 170 Inv. no. SP 139 Cat. no. 268 Inv. no. SP 184 Cat. no. 172 Inv. no. SP 140 Cat. no. 229 Inv. no. SP 185 Cat. no. 171 Inv. no. SP 141 Cat. no. 230 Inv. no. SP 186 Cat. no. 168 Inv. no. SP 142 Cat. no. 269 Inv. no. SP 187a Cat. no. 184 Inv. no. SP 143 Cat. no. 270 Inv. no. SP 187b Cat. no. 185 Inv. no. SP 144 Cat. no. 271 Inv. no. SP 188 Cat. no. 173 Inv. no. SP 145 Cat. no. 231 Inv. no. SP 189 Cat. no. 175 Inv. no. SP 146 Cat. no. 232 Inv. no. SP 190 Cat. no. 176 Inv. no. SP 147 Cat. no. 272 Inv. no. SP 191 Cat. no. 190 Inv. no. SP 148 Cat. no. 233 Inv. no. SP 192 Cat. no. 169 Inv. no. SP 149 Cat. no. 234 Inv. no. SP 193 Cat. no. 169 Inv. no. SP 150 Cat. no. 235 Inv. no. SP 194 Cat. no. 167 Inv. no. SP 151 Cat. no. 273 Inv. no. SP 195 Cat. no. 177 Inv. no. SP 152 Cat. no. 274 Inv. no. SP 196 Cat. no. 178 Inv. no. SP 153 Cat. no. 275 Inv. no. SP 197 Cat. no. 189 350 appendix 5

INVENTORY CATALOGUE INVENTORY CATALOGUE NUMBER NUMBER NUMBER NUMBER

Inv. no. SP 198 Cat. no. 174 Inv. no. SP 240 Cat. no. 647 Inv. no. SP 199 Cat. no. 188 Inv. no. SP 241 App. 1 W. 1 Inv. no. SP 200 Cat. no. 180 Inv. no. SP 242 App. 1 W. 1 Inv. no. SP 201 Cat. no. 179 Inv. no. SP 243 Cat. no. 664 Inv. no. SP 202 Cat. no. 182 Inv. no. SP 244 Cat. no. 665 Inv. no. SP 203 Cat. no. 183 Inv. no. SP 245 App. 1 W. 5 Inv. no. SP 204 Cat. no. 186 Inv. no. SP 246 App. 1 W. 6 Inv. no. SP 205 Cat. no. 187 Inv. no. SP 247 App. 1 W. 7 Inv. no. SP 206 Cat. no. 151 Inv. no. SP 248 App. 1 W. 9 Inv. no. SP 207 Cat. no. 148 Inv. no. SP 249 App. 1 W. 13 Inv. no. SP 208 Cat. no. 165 Inv. no. SP 250 App. 1 W. 12 Inv. no. SP 209 Cat. no. 162 Inv. no. SP 251 App. 1 W. 2 Inv. no. SP 210 Cat. no. 163 Inv. no. SP 252 App. 1 W. 3 Inv. no. SP 211 Cat. no. 150 Inv. no. SP 253 Cat. no. 630 Inv. no. SP 212 Cat. no. 149 Inv. no. SP 254 App. 1 W. 8 Inv. no. SP 213a,b Cat. no. 147 Inv. no. SP 255 App. 1 W. 14 Inv. no. SP 214 Cat. no. 152 Inv. no. SP 256 Dried wood fragment, not Inv. no. SP 215 Cat. no. 154 catalogued Inv. no. SP 216 Cat. no. 155 Inv. no. SP 257 App. 1 W. 11 Inv. no. SP 217 Cat. no. 158 Inv. no. SP 258 App. 1 W. 10 Inv. no. SP 218 Cat. no. 157 Inv. no. SP 259 Cat. no. 646 Inv. no. SP 219 Cat. no. 159 Inv. no. SP 260 Cat. no. 648 Inv. no. SP 220 Cat. no. 156 Inv. no. SP 261 Cat. no. 579 Inv. no. SP 221 Cat. no. 153 Inv. no. SP 261b Cat. no. 619 Inv. no. SP 222 Cat. no. 164 Inv. no. SP 262 Cat. no. 580 Inv. no. SP 223 Cat. no. 160 Inv. no. SP 262b Cat. no. 620 Inv. no. SP 224 Cat. no. 161 Inv. no. SP 263 Cat. no. 540 Inv. no. SP 225 Cat. no. 161, 174, 191 Inv. no. SP 264 Cat. no. 546 Inv. no. SP 225a Cat. no. 166 Inv. no. SP 265 Cat. no. 543 Inv. no. SP 225f Cat. no. 181 Inv. no. SP 266 Cat. no. 541 Inv. no. SP 226 Cat. no. 516 Inv. no. SP 267 Cat. no. 541 Inv. no. SP 227 Cat. no. 507 Inv. no. SP 268 Cat. no. 542 Inv. no. SP 228 Cat. no. 508 Inv. no. SP 269 Cat. no. 544 Inv. no. SP 229 Cat. no. 509 Inv. no. SP 270 Cat. no. 523 Inv. no. SP 230 Cat. no. 506 Inv. no. SP 271 Cat. no. 522 Inv. no. SP 231 Cat. no. 510 Inv. no. SP 272 Cat. no. 519 Inv. no. SP 232 Cat. no. 511 Inv. no. SP 273 Cat. no. 527 Inv. no. SP 233 Cat. no. 512 Inv. no. SP 274 Cat. no. 526 Inv. no. SP 234 Cat. no. 513 Inv. no. SP 275 Cat. no. 531 Inv. no. SP 235a Cat. no. 514 Inv. no. SP 276 Cat. no. 521 Inv. no. SP 235b Cat. no. 515 Inv. no. SP 277 Cat. no. 520 Inv. no. SP 236 Cat. no. 283 Inv. no. SP 278 Cat. no. 530 Inv. no. SP 237 Cat. no. 1 Inv. no. SP 279 Cat. no. 525 Inv. no. SP 238 Cat. no. 2 Inv. no. SP 280 Cat. no. 528 Inv. no. SP 239 Cat. no. 647 Inv. no. SP 281 Cat. no. 524 concordances 351

INVENTORY CATALOGUE INVENTORY CATALOGUE NUMBER NUMBER NUMBER NUMBER

Inv. no. SP 282 Cat. no. 529 Inv. no. SP 327 Cat. no. 214 Inv. no. SP 283 Cat. no. 632 Inv. no. SP 328 Cat. no. 215 Inv. no. SP 284 App. 1 W. 15 Inv. no. SP 329 Cat. no. 216 Inv. no. SP 285 Cat. no. 662 Inv. no. SP 330 Cat. no. 217 Inv. no. SP 286 Cat. no. 663 Inv. no. SP 331 Cat. no. 218 Inv. no. SP 287 App. 1 W. 4 Inv. no. SP 332 Cat. no. 219 Inv. no. SP 288 Cat. no. 622 Inv. no. SP 333 Cat. no. 220 Inv. no. SP 289 Cat. no. 623 Inv. no. SP 334 Cat. no. 221 Inv. no. SP 290 Cat. no. 621 Inv. no. SP 335 Cat. no. 222 Inv. no. SP 291 Cat. no. 624 Inv. no. SP 336 Cat. no. 223 Inv. no. SP 292 Cat. no. 533 Inv. no. SP 337 Cat. no. 224 Inv. no. SP 293 Cat. no. 542 Inv. no. SP 338 Cat. no. 254 Inv. no. SP 294 Cat. no. 524 Inv. no. SP 339 Cat. no. 639 Inv. no. SP 295 App. 1 W. 16 Inv. no. SP 340 Cat. no. 640 Inv. no. SP 296 App. 1 W. 17 Inv. no. SP 341 Cat. no. 641 Inv. no. SP 297 App. 1 W. 18 Inv. no. SP 342 Cat. no. 642 Inv. no. SP 298 App. 1 W. 19 Inv. no. SP 343 Cat. no. 643 Inv. no. SP 299 App. 1 W. 20 Inv. no. SP 344 Cat. no. 644 Inv. no. SP 300 App. 1 W. 21 Inv. no. SP 345 Cat. no. 645 Inv. no. SP 301 App. 1 W. 22 Inv. no. SP 346 Plain veneer not catalogued Inv. no. SP 302 App. 1 W. 23 Inv. no. SP 347 Plain veneer not catalogued Inv. no. SP 303 App. 1 W. 24 Inv. no. SP 348 Plain veneer not catalogued Inv. no. SP 304 App. 1 W. 26 Inv. no. SP 349 Plain veneer not catalogued Inv. no. SP 305 App. 1 W. 25 Inv. no. SP 350 Plain veneer not catalogued Inv. no. SP 306 Cat. no. 625 Inv. no. SP 351 Plain veneer not catalogued Inv. no. SP 307 App. 1 W. 27 Inv. no. SP 352 Plain veneer not catalogued Inv. no. SP 308 App. 1 W. 28 Inv. no. SP 353 Plain veneer not catalogued Inv. no. SP 309 Cat. no. 629 Inv. no. SP 354 Plain veneer not catalogued Inv. no. SP 310 Cat. no. 628 Inv. no. SP 355 Plain veneer not catalogued Inv. no. SP 311 Cat. no. 627 Inv. no. SP 356 Plain veneer not catalogued Inv. no. SP 312 Cat. no. 199 Inv. no. SP 357 Plain veneer not catalogued Inv. no. SP 313 Cat. no. 200 Inv. no. SP 358 Plain veneer not catalogued Inv. no. SP 314 Cat. no. 201 Inv. no. SP 359 Plain veneer not catalogued Inv. no. SP 315 Cat. no. 202 Inv. no. SP 360 Plain veneer not catalogued Inv. no. SP 316 Cat. no. 203 Inv. no. SP 361 Plain veneer not catalogued Inv. no. SP 317 Cat. no. 204 Inv. no. SP 362 Plain veneer not catalogued Inv. no. SP 318 Cat. no. 205 Inv. no. SP 363 Plain veneer not catalogued Inv. no. SP 319 Cat. no. 206 Inv. no. SP 364 Plain veneer not catalogued Inv. no. SP 320 Cat. no. 207 Inv. no. SP 365 Plain veneer not catalogued Inv. no. SP 321 Cat. no. 208 Inv. no. SP 366 Plain veneer not catalogued Inv. no. SP 322 Cat. no. 209 Inv. no. SP 367 Plain veneer not catalogued Inv. no. SP 323 Cat. no. 210 Inv. no. SP 368 Cat. no. 613 Inv. no. SP 324 Cat. no. 211 Inv. no. SP 369 Cat. no. 614 Inv. no. SP 325 Cat. no. 212 Inv. no. SP 370 Cat. no. 615 Inv. no. SP 326 Cat. no. 213 Inv. no. SP 371 Cat. no. 616 352 appendix 5

INVENTORY CATALOGUE INVENTORY CATALOGUE NUMBER NUMBER NUMBER NUMBER

Inv. no. SP 372 Cat. no. 617 Inv. no. SP 414 Cat. no. 94 Inv. no. SP 373 Cat. no. 618 Inv. no. SP 415 Cat. no. 21 Inv. no. SP 374 Cat. no. 392 Inv. no. SP 416 Cat. no. 93 Inv. no. SP 375 Cat. no. 393 Inv. no. SP 417 Cat. no. 50 Inv. no. SP 376 Cat. no. 394 Inv. no. SP 418 Cat. no. 95 Inv. no. SP 377 Cat. no. 395 Inv. no. SP 419 Cat. no. 131 Inv. no. SP 378 Cat. no. 396 Inv. no. SP 420 Cat. no. 142 Inv. no. SP 379 Cat. no. 397 Inv. no. SP 421 Cat. no. 581 Inv. no. SP 380 Cat. no. 409 Inv. no. SP 422 Cat. no. 597 Inv. no. SP 381 Cat. no. 425 Inv. no. SP 423 Cat. no. 596 Inv. no. SP 382 Cat. no. 517 Inv. no. SP 424 Cat. no. 596 Inv. no. SP 383 Cat. no. 518 Inv. no. SP 425 Cat. no. 582 Inv. no. SP 384 Cat. no. 398 Inv. no. SP 426 Cat. no. 604 Inv. no. SP 385 Cat. no. 399 Inv. no. SP 427 Cat. no. 600 Inv. no. SP 386 Cat. no. 400 Inv. no. SP 428 Cat. no. 600 Inv. no. SP 387 Plain ivory veneer not cata- Inv. no. SP 429 Cat. no. 583 logued Inv. no. SP 430 Cat. no. 599 Inv. no. SP 388 Plain veneer not catalogued Inv. no. SP 431 Cat. no. 594 Inv. no. SP 389 Cat. no. 631 Inv. no. SP 432 Cat. no. 116 Inv. no. SP 390 Cat. no. 631 Inv. no. SP 433 Missing, not catalogued Inv. no. SP 391 Cat. no. 532 Inv. no. SP 434 Cat. no. 594 Inv. no. SP 392 Cat. no. 626 Inv. no. SP 435 Cat. no. 594 Inv. no. SP 393 Cat. no. 545 Inv. no. SP 436 Cat. no. 113 Inv. no. SP 394 App. 1 W. 29 Inv. no. SP 437 Cat. no. 115 Inv. no. SP 395 App. 2 W. 30 Inv. no. SP 438 Cat. no. 612 Inv. no. SP 396 Cat. no. 636 Inv. no. SP 439 Cat. no. 59 Inv. no. SP 397 Cat. no. 637 Inv. no. SP 440b Cat. no. 607 Inv. no. SP 398 Cat. no. 638 Inv. no. SP 441 Cat. no. 610 Inv. no. SP 399a Cat. no. 5 Inv. no. SP 442 Cat. no. 611 Inv. no. SP 399b Cat. no. 6 Inv. no. SP 443 Plain veneer not catalogued Inv. no. SP 400 Cat. no. 19 Inv. no. SP 444 Plain veneer not catalogued Inv. no. SP 401 Cat. no. 20 Inv. no. SP 445 Plain veneer not catalogued Inv. no. SP 402 Cat. no. 5 Inv. no. SP 446 Cat. no. 46 Inv. no. SP 403 Cat. no. 7 Inv. no. SP 447 Cat. no. 47 Inv. no. SP 404 Cat. no. 9 Inv. no. SP 448 Cat. no. 47 Inv. no. SP 405 Cat. no. 12 Inv. no. SP 449 Cat. no. 46, 350 Inv. no. SP 406 Cat. no. 13 Inv. no. SP 450 Cat. no. 48 Inv. no. SP 407 Cat. no. 40 Inv. no. SP 451 Cat. no. 49 Inv. no. SP 408 Cat. no. 10 Inv. no. SP 452a Cat. no. 51 Inv. no. SP 409 Cat. no. 8 Inv. no. SP 452b Cat. no. 79 Inv. no. SP 409a Cat. no. 11 Inv. no. SP 453 Plain veneer not catalogued Inv. no. SP 410 Cat. no. 16 Inv. no. SP 454 Cat. no. 656, 658 Inv. no. SP 411 Cat. no. 15 Inv. no. SP 455 Plain veneer not catalogued Inv. no. SP 412 Cat. no. 17 Inv. no. SP 456 Cat. no. 117 Inv. no. SP 413 Cat. no. 93 Inv. no. SP 457 Cat. no. 24 concordances 353

INVENTORY CATALOGUE INVENTORY CATALOGUE NUMBER NUMBER NUMBER NUMBER

Inv. no. SP 458 Cat. no. 25 Inv. no. SP 499 Cat. no. 124 Inv. no. SP 459 Cat. no. 52 Inv. no. SP 500 Cat. no. 99 Inv. no. SP 460 Cat. no. 26 Inv. no. SP 501 Cat. no. 54 Inv. no. SP 461 Cat. no. 27 Inv. no. SP 502 Cat. no. 102 Inv. no. SP 462 Cat. no. 28 Inv. no. SP 503 Cat. no. 125 Inv. no. SP 463 Cat. no. 29 Inv. no. SP 504 Cat. no. 53 Inv. no. SP 464 Cat. no. 30 Inv. no. SP 505 Cat. no. 55 Inv. no. SP 465 Cat. no. 31 Inv. no. SP 506 Cat. no. 106 Inv. no. SP 466 Cat. no. 32 Inv. no. SP 507 Cat. no. 39 Inv. no. SP 467 Cat. no. 26 Inv. no. SP 508 Cat. no. 16 Inv. no. SP 468a Cat. no. 33 Inv. no. SP 509 Cat. no. 126 Inv. no. SP 468b Cat. no. 34 Inv. no. SP 510 Cat. no. 129 Inv. no. SP 468c Cat. no. 35 Inv. no. SP 511 Cat. no. 19 Inv. no. SP 468d Cat. no. 36 Inv. no. SP 512 Cat. no. 38 Inv. no. SP 469 Cat. no. 132 Inv. no. SP 513 Cat. no. 106 Inv. no. SP 470 Cat. no. 118 Inv. no. SP 514 Cat. no. 81 Inv. no. SP 471 Cat. no. 119 Inv. no. SP 515 Cat. no. 41 Inv. no. SP 472 Cat. no. 284 Inv. no. SP 516 Cat. no. 42 Inv. no. SP 473a Cat. no. 285 Inv. no. SP 517 Cat. no. 56 Inv. no. SP 473b Cat. no. 286 Inv. no. SP 518 Cat. no. 43 Inv. no. SP 474 Cat. no. 287 Inv. no. SP 519 Cat. no. 141 Inv. no. SP 475 Cat. no. 288 Inv. no. SP 520 Cat. no. 137 Inv. no. SP 476 Cat. no. 289 Inv. no. SP 521 Cat. no. 44 Inv. no. SP 477 Cat. no. 120 Inv. no. SP 522 Cat. no. 45 Inv. no. SP 478 Cat. no. 140 Inv. no. SP 523 Cat. no. 57 Inv. no. SP 479 Cat. no. 121 Inv. no. SP 524 Cat. no. 58 Inv. no. SP 480 Cat. no. 326 Inv. no. SP 525 Cat. no. 64, 66, 108, 118, Inv. no. SP 481 Cat. no. 112 122, 486 Inv. no. SP 482 Cat. no. 100 Inv. no. SP 525a Cat. no. 15 Inv. no. SP 483 Cat. no. 143 Inv. no. SP 526 Cat. no. 584 Inv. no. SP 484 Cat. no. 114 Inv. no. SP 527 Cat. no. 585 Inv. no. SP 485 Cat. no. 144 Inv. no. SP 528 Cat. no. 60 Inv. no. SP 486 Cat. no. 133 Inv. no. SP 529 Cat. no. 594 Inv. no. SP 487 Cat. no. 134 Inv. no. SP 530 Cat. no. 594 Inv. no. SP 488 Cat. no. 290 Inv. no. SP 531 Cat. no. 594 Inv. no. SP 489 Cat. no. 101 Inv. no. SP 532 Cat. no. 595 Inv. no. SP 490 Cat. no. 104 Inv. no. SP 533 Cat. no. 601 Inv. no. SP 491 Cat. no. 105 Inv. no. SP 534 Cat. no. 586 Inv. no. SP 492 Cat. no. 122 Inv. no. SP 535 Cat. no. 598 Inv. no. SP 493 Cat. no. 71 Inv. no. SP 536 Cat. no. 594 Inv. no. SP 494 Cat. no. 86 Inv. no. SP 537 Cat. no. 594, 598, 599 Inv. no. SP 495 Cat. no. 86 Inv. no. SP 538 Cat. no. 602 Inv. no. SP 496 Cat. no. 135 Inv. no. SP 539 Cat. no. 587 Inv. no. SP 497 Cat. no. 136 Inv. no. SP 540 Cat. no. 602 Inv. no. SP 498 Cat. no. 123 Inv. no. SP 541 Cat. no. 602 354 appendix 5

INVENTORY CATALOGUE INVENTORY CATALOGUE NUMBER NUMBER NUMBER NUMBER

Inv. no. SP 542 Cat. no. 605 Inv. no. SP 584 Cat. no. 306 Inv. no. SP 543 Cat. no. 588 Inv. no. SP 585 Cat. no. 307 Inv. no. SP 544 Cat. no. 96 Inv. no. SP 586 Cat. no. 308 Inv. no. SP 545 Cat. no. 605, 606 Inv. no. SP 587 Cat. no. 309 Inv. no. SP 546 Cat. no. 61 Inv. no. SP 588 Cat. no. 310 Inv. no. SP 547a Cat. no. 130 Inv. no. SP 589 Cat. no. 311 Inv. no. SP 547b Cat. no. 327 Inv. no. SP 590 Cat. no. 312 Inv. no. SP 547c Cat. no. 328 Inv. no. SP 591 Cat. no. 292 Inv. no. SP 548 Cat. no. 127 Inv. no. SP 592 Cat. no. 313 Inv. no. SP 549 Cat. no. 325 Inv. no. SP 593 Cat. no. 314 Inv. no. SP 550 Cat. no. 72 Inv. no. SP 594 Cat. no. 329 Inv. no. SP 551 Cat. no. 288 Inv. no. SP 595 Cat. no. 315 Inv. no. SP 552 Cat. no. 88 Inv. no. SP 596 Cat. no. 316 Inv. no. SP 553 Cat. no. 62, 87 Inv. no. SP 597 Cat. no. 317 Inv. no. SP 554 Cat. no. 90 Inv. no. SP 598 Cat. no. 318 Inv. no. SP 555 Cat. no. 73 Inv. no. SP 599 Cat. no. 319 Inv. no. SP 556 Cat. no. 72 Inv. no. SP 600 Cat. no. 292, 298 Inv. no. SP 557 Cat. no. 63 Inv. no. SP 601 Cat. no. 308 Inv. no. SP 558 Cat. no. 348 Inv. no. SP 602 Cat. no. 321 Inv. no. SP 559 Cat. no. 502 Inv. no. SP 603 Cat. no. 292, 298, 301, 330 Inv. no. SP 560 Cat. no. 560 Inv. no. SP 604 Cat. no. 332 Inv. no. SP 561 Cat. no. 138 Inv. no. SP 605 Cat. no. 334 Inv. no. SP 562 Cat. no. 500 Inv. no. SP 606 Cat. no. 333 Inv. no. SP 562d Cat. no. 72 Inv. no. SP 607 Cat. no. 345 Inv. no. SP 563 Cat. no. 90 Inv. no. SP 608 Cat. no. 346 Inv. no. SP 564 Cat. no. 292 Inv. no. SP 608a Cat. no. 337 Inv. no. SP 565 Cat. no. 293 Inv. no. SP 609 Cat. no. 345, 347 Inv. no. SP 566 Cat. no. 294 Inv. no. SP 610 Cat. no. 335 Inv. no. SP 567 Cat. no. 295 Inv. no. SP 610a Cat. no. 336 Inv. no. SP 568 Cat. no. 296 Inv. no. SP 611 Cat. no. 338 Inv. no. SP 569 Cat. no. 297 Inv. no. SP 612 Cat. no. 339 Inv. no. SP 570 Cat. no. 298 Inv. no. SP 613 Cat. no. 340 Inv. no. SP 571 Cat. no. 299 Inv. no. SP 614 Cat. no. 341 Inv. no. SP 572 Cat. no. 300 Inv. no. SP 615 Cat. no. 341 Inv. no. SP 573 Cat. no. 301 Inv. no. SP 616 Cat. no. 341 Inv. no. SP 574 Cat. no. 301 Inv. no. SP 617 Cat. no. 342 Inv. no. SP 575 Cat. no. 302 Inv. no. SP 618 Cat. no. 342, 344 Inv. no. SP 576 Cat. no. 292 Inv. no. SP 619 Cat. no. 504 Inv. no. SP 577 Cat. no. 299 Inv. no. SP 620 Cat. no. 501 Inv. no. SP 578 Cat. no. 298 Inv. no. SP 621 Cat. no. 505 Inv. no. SP 579 Cat. no. 292 Inv. no. SP 622 Cat. no. 74 Inv. no. SP 580 Cat. no. 303 Inv. no. SP 623 Cat. no. 71 Inv. no. SP 581 Cat. no. 114 Inv. no. SP 624 Cat. no. 75 Inv. no. SP 582 Cat. no. 304 Inv. no. SP 625 Cat. no. 64 Inv. no. SP 583 Cat. no. 305 Inv. no. SP 626 Cat. no. 76 concordances 355

INVENTORY CATALOGUE INVENTORY CATALOGUE NUMBER NUMBER NUMBER NUMBER

Inv. no. SP 627 Cat. no. 77 Inv. no. SP 670 Cat. no. 546 Inv. no. SP 628 Cat. no. 80 Inv. no. SP 671 Cat. no. 561 Inv. no. SP 629 Cat. no. 76 Inv. no. SP 672 Cat. no. 547 Inv. no. SP 630 Cat. no. 589 Inv. no. SP 673 Cat. no. 575 Inv. no. SP 631 Cat. no. 82 Inv. no. SP 674 Cat. no. 547 Inv. no. SP 632 Cat. no. 65 Inv. no. SP 675 Cat. no. 547 Inv. no. SP 633 Cat. no. 83 Inv. no. SP 676 Cat. no. 570 Inv. no. SP 634 Cat. no. 69 Inv. no. SP 677 Cat. no. 547 Inv. no. SP 635 Cat. no. 145 Inv. no. SP 678 Cat. no. 571 Inv. no. SP 636 Cat. no. 84 Inv. no. SP 679 Cat. no. 547 Inv. no. SP 637 Cat. no. 66 Inv. no. SP 680 Cat. no. 572 Inv. no. SP 638 Cat. no. 85 Inv. no. SP 681 Cat. no. 548 Inv. no. SP 639 Cat. no. 553 Inv. no. SP 682 Cat. no. 547 Inv. no. SP 640 Cat. no. 563 Inv. no. SP 683 Cat. no. 547 Inv. no. SP 641 Cat. no. 558 Inv. no. SP 684 Cat. no. 565 Inv. no. SP 642 Cat. no. 558 Inv. no. SP 685 Cat. no. 559 Inv. no. SP 643 Cat. no. 554 Inv. no. SP 686 Cat. no. 549 Inv. no. SP 644 Cat. no. 558 Inv. no. SP 687 Cat. no. 550 Inv. no. SP 645 Cat. no. 555 Inv. no. SP 688 Cat. no. 547, 548, 551, Inv. no. SP 646 Cat. no. 551 554, 558, 566, 571 Inv. no. SP 647 Cat. no. 560 Inv. no. SP 689 Cat. no. 566 Inv. no. SP 648 Cat. no. 569 Inv. no. SP 690 Cat. no. 577 Inv. no. SP 649 Cat. no. 556 Inv. no. SP 691 Cat. no. 578 Inv. no. SP 650 Cat. no. 557 Inv. no. SP 692 Cat. no. 555 Inv. no. SP 651 Cat. no. 560 Inv. no. SP 693 Cat. no. 554 Inv. no. SP 652 Cat. no. 574 Inv. no. SP 694 Plain veneer not catalogued Inv. no. SP 653 Cat. no. 573 Inv. no. SP 695 Small veneer fragments not Inv. no. SP 654 Cat. no. 562 catalogued Inv. no. SP 655 Cat. no. 552 Inv. no. SP 696 Small veneer fragments, Inv. no. SP 656 Cat. no. 560 most plain, not catalogued Inv. no. SP 657 Cat. no. 552 Inv. no. SP 697 Cat. no. 67 Inv. no. SP 658 Cat. no. 564 Inv. no. SP 698 Cat. no. 100 Inv. no. SP 659 Cat. no. 146 Inv. no. SP 699 Cat. no. 495 Inv. no. SP 660 Cat. no. 291 Inv. no. SP 700 Cat. no. 9 Inv. no. SP 661 Cat. no. 291 Inv. no. SP 701 Cat. no. 9 Inv. no. SP 662 Cat. no. 594 Inv. no. SP 702 Cat. no. 78 Inv. no. SP 663 Cat. no. 594 Inv. no. SP 703 Cat. no. 603 Inv. no. SP 664 Cat. no. 590 Inv. no. SP 704 Cat. no. 490 Inv. no. SP 665a Cat. no. 591 Inv. no. SP 705 Cat. no. 491, 596, 608 Inv. no. SP 665b Cat. no. 592 Inv. no. SP 706 Cat. no. 479 Inv. no. SP 666 Cat. no. 107 Inv. no. SP 707 Cat. no. 483 Inv. no. SP 667 App. 2 BV. 3, BV. 11 Inv. no. SP 708 Cat. no. 485 Inv. no. SP 668 Cat. no. 557, 563, 569, Inv. no. SP 709 Cat. no. 488 594 Inv. no. SP 710 Cat. no. 494 Inv. no. SP 669 Plain veneer not catalogued Inv. no. SP 711 Cat. no. 483 356 appendix 5

INVENTORY CATALOGUE INVENTORY CATALOGUE NUMBER NUMBER NUMBER NUMBER

Inv. no. SP 712 Cat. no. 484 Inv. no. SP 738 Cat. no. 128 Inv. no. SP 713a Cat. no. 492 Inv. no. SP 739 Cat. no. 22 Inv. no. SP 713b Cat. no. 493 Inv. no. SP 740 Cat. no. 23 Inv. no. SP 714 Cat. no. 487 Inv. no. SP 741 Cat. no. 16 Inv. no. SP 715 Cat. no. 109 Inv. no. SP 742 Cat. no. 22 Inv. no. SP 716 Cat. no. 499 Inv. no. SP 743 Cat. no. 567 Inv. no. SP 717 Cat. no. 496 Inv. no. SP 744 Cat. no. 349 Inv. no. SP 718 Cat. no. 102 Inv. no. SP 745 Cat. no. 568 Inv. no. SP 719 Cat. no. 68 Inv. no. SP 746 Cat. no. 576 Inv. no. SP 720 Cat. no. 102 Inv. no. SP 747 Cat. no. 483 Inv. no. SP 720b Cat. no. 14 Inv. no. SP 748 Cat. no. 97 Inv. no. SP 720d Cat. no. 497 Inv. no. SP 749 Cat. no. 322 Inv. no. SP 720e Cat. no. 498 Inv. no. SP 750 Cat. no. 323 Inv. no. SP 721 Cat. no. 3 Inv. no. SP 751 Cat. no. 324 Inv. no. SP 722 Cat. no. 4 Inv. no. SP 752 Cat. no. 139 Inv. no. SP 723 Plain veneer not catalogued Inv. no. SP 753 Cat. no. 86 Inv. no. SP 724 Plain veneer not catalogued Inv. no. SP 754 Cat. no. 343 Inv. no. SP 725 Cat. no. 483 Inv. no. SP 755 Cat. no. 6 Inv. no. SP 726 Cat. no. 489 Inv. no. SP 756a Cat. no. 609 Inv. no. SP 727 Cat. no. 111 Inv. no. SP 756b Cat. no. 108 Inv. no. SP 728 Cat. no. 103 Inv. no. SP 757c Cat. no. 581 Inv. no. SP 729a Cat. no. 88 Inv. no. SP 757e Cat. no. 331 Inv. no. SP 729b Cat. no. 87, 91 Inv. no. SP 757f Cat. no. 331 Inv. no. SP 730a Cat. no. 86 Inv. no. SP 757h Cat. no. 593 Inv. no. SP 730b Cat. no. 92 Inv. no. SP 757j Cat. no. 85 Inv. no. SP 731 Cat. no. 98 Inv. no. SP 757k Cat. no. 37 Inv. no. SP 732 Cat. no. 89 Inv. no. SP 757l Cat. no. 85 Inv. no. SP 733 Cat. no. 70 Inv. no. SP 758 Cat. no. 479 Inv. no. SP 734 Cat. no. 100 Inv. no. SP 759 Cat. no. 481 Inv. no. SP 735 Cat. no. 99 Inv. no. SP 760 Cat. no. 480 Inv. no. SP 736 Cat. no. 6 Inv. no. SP 761 Cat. no. 482 Inv. no. SP 737 Cat. no. 110 LISTS OF IVORY AND BONE OBJECTS

Catalogue numbers for objects veneered with both ivory and bone are included in both lists.

IVORY OBJECTS Cat. nos. 1-2, 86-97, 113-131, 283-291, 351-427, 506-516, 519, 521-528, 530-532, 534-535, 540- 545, 551, 553-557, 561-573, 579-580, 594-611, 613-620, 631-646, 648(?), 649-663, and I.V.1-58 (Appendix 2)

BONE OBJECTS Cat. nos. 3-85, 98-112, 132-282, 292-350, 431-481, 483-505, 517-518, 526-528, 532-533, 536-539, 546-550, 552, 558-560, 574-578, 581-593, 612(?), 648, and B.V.1-30 (Appendix 2) plates 1

PLATES 2 plates plates 3

Pl. I.1 View toward northwest from apse of apsidal room showing entrance steps, fountain 4 plates

Pl. II.1 Scanning electron micrograph of bone fragment (´ 80)

Pl. II.2 Scanning electron micrograph of bone spiral (´ 1500) plates 5

Pl. II.3 Striated reverse of ivory veneer, Cat. no. I.V.23

Pl. II.4 Microprobe analysis of bone fragment 6 plates

Pl. III.1 Seated old philosopher, low relief plaque; ivory, Pl. III.2 Seated young philosopher, low relief plaque; ivory, Cat. no. 1 (´ 2) Cat. no. 2 (´ 2)

Pl. III.3 Seated eros, incised relief plaque; bone, Cat. no. 3 Pl. III.4 Eros holding basin, incised relief plaque; bone, Cat. no. 4 plates 7 Pl. III.5 Curved Panel, preserved fragments; bone (1:2) 8 plates

Pl. III.6 Curved Panel, enthroned figure; bone, Cat. no. 5 plates 9

Pl. III.7 Curved Panel, attendants; bone, Cat. no. 15

Pl. III.8 Curved Panel, attendants; bone, Cat. no. 16 10 plates

Pl. III.9 Animal Panel I, hunting dog in landscape; bone, Cat. no. 46

Pl. III.10 Animal Panel I, bird; bone, Cat. no. 52

Pl. III.12 Outstretched Arm Panel; ivory, Cat. no. 86 Pl. III.11 Animal Panel II, eros and bird; bone, Cat. no. 70

Pl. III.13 Beautiful Head Panel, female figure; ivory, Cat. no. 93 (´ 2) plates 11 Panel, preserved fragments; bone Thiasos Pl. III.14 12 plates Mosaic; Argos, Villa of the Falconer (Photo: Courtesy Prof. Gunilla Åkerström-Hougen) Thiasos Pl. III.15 plates 13

Pl. III.16 Hunting Scene, male figures; bone, Cat. no. 111 (´ 2)

Pl. III.17 Diamond-bordered Panel; ivory, Cat. no. 113 14 plates

Pl. IV.1 Ring 1; bone, Cat. nos. 147-152 plates 15

Pl. IV.2 Ring 5; bone, Cat. nos. 167-172 16 plates

Pl. IV.3 Spiral Strips; bone

Pl. IV.4 Tondo Plaque; ivory, Cat. no. 283 plates 17

Pl. IV.5 Flower Circles; ivory, Cat. nos. 284, 285, 286, 287, 288 (left to right) (´ 2)

Pl. IV.6 Rectangle, Diamond and Oval Border; bone, Cat. no. 292

Pl. IV.7 Quatrefoil Border; bone, Cat. no. 332 18 plates

b Pl. IV.8a-b Casket, side view (top), lid (bottom); Cairo, Coptic Museum, Inv. no. 9060-9063 (Photo: Museum Curatorial Department) plates 19

Pl. IV.9 Scale Border; bone, Cat. no. 335 (right), 336 (left)

Pl. IV.9a Scale Border; bone, Cat. no. 337

Pl. IV.10 Foliated Spiral Border; bone, Cat. no. 346 20 plates

Pl. V.1 Erotes Arcade and Corinthian Order; wood, bone, ivory (1:2) (Veneer over arch at right incorrectly placed.) plates 21

Pl. V.2 Chest; Qustul, Tomb 14; ivory, wood (Photo: Unknown) 22 plates

Pl. V.3 Egg-and-Dart Molding in situ; ivory plates 23

Pl. V.4 Straight Egg-and-Dart Molding; ivory

Pl. V.5 Bases and Capitals, ivory; Blocks, bone, of Corinthian Order 24 plates

Pl. V.6 Corinthian Capital; ivory (´ 2)

Pl. V.7 Column Bases and Shaft; ivory, wood plates 25 Pl. VI.1a Concordius Sarcophagus; Arles, Musée d’art chrétien, Inv. no. 5 (Arles, de l’Arles Antique–Photo: M. Lacanaud, © Musée des Beaux-Arts de Dijon) 26 plates Pl. VI.1b B. Martin, © Musée des Beaux-Arts de Dijon) Detail, right; Concordius Sarcophagus; Arles, Musée d’art chrétien, Inv. no. 5 (Arles, de l’Arles Antique–Photo: plates 27

Pl. VI.2a Carrand Diptych; Florence, Museo Nazionale del Bargello, Inv. no. CAR 326 (Photo: Gabinetto Fotografico, Firenze; permission of Soprintendenza per i Beni Artistici e Storici) 28 plates

Pl. VI.2b Detail, top; Carrand Diptych; Florence, Museo Nazionale del Bargello, Inv. no. CAR 326 (Photo: Gabinetto Fotografico, Firenze; permission of Soprintendenza per i Beni Artistici e Storici) plates 29

Pl. VI.3 Relief of Saints Peter and Mark; London, Victoria and Albert Museum, Inv. no. 270-1867 (Photo: V & A Picture Library, Neg. 37960) 30 plates

Pl. VI.4 Dijon, Musée des Beaux-Arts, Inv. no. CAT 326 (Photo: MUSÉE des BEAUX-ARTS de DIJON, OA 621) plates 31

Pl. VI.5 Crossed-leg Chair, exterior view; ivory, wood, Cat. nos. 519 (top right), 520 (lower left), and 521 (lower right) (1:4)

Pl. VI.6 Crossed-leg Chair, interior view; ivory, wood, Cat. nos. 519 (top left), 520 (lower right), and 521 (lower left) (1:4) 32 plates

Pl. VI.7 Crossed-leg Chair, interior view; ivory, wood, Cat. nos. 522 (right), and 523 (left) (1:4) plates 33

Pl. VI.8 Crossed-leg Chair, exterior view; ivory, wood, Cat. nos. 524 (left), and 525 (right) (1:4)

Pl. VI.9 Crossed-leg Chair, interior view; ivory, wood, Cat. nos. 524 (right), and 525 (left) (1:4) 34 plates

Pl. VI.10 Crossed-leg Chair, exterior view; ivory, bone, wood, Cat. nos. 526 (left), and 527 (right) (1:4)

Pl. VI.11 Crossed-leg Chair, interior view; ivory, bone, wood, Cat. nos. 526 (right), and 527 (left) (1:4) plates 35

Pl. VI.12 Crossed-leg Chair parts; ivory, bone, wood, interior view, Cat. nos. 528 (lower left), 529 (lower right), 530 (top right); exterior view, 531 (top left), and 532 (top center) (1:4) 36 plates Pl. VI.13a-c Stretcher, crossed-leg chair; ivory, wood, Cat. no. 540 (1:2) a b c plates 37 th from left), and 544 (right) (1:2) Pl. VI.14 Stretcher fragments, crossed-leg chair; ivory, wood, Cat. nos. 543 (left), 541 (second and third from left), 542 (four 38 plates Pl. VI.15a-b Stretcher, crossed-leg chair; bone, wood, Cat. no. 546 (1:2) a b plates 39

Pl. VI.16 Decorated Veneer, stretcher, crossed-leg chair; bone, Cat. no. 547

Pl. VI.17 Decorated Veneer, stretcher, crossed-leg chair; ivory, Cat. no. 553

Pl. VI.18 Decorated Veneer, stretcher, crossed-leg chair; bone, Cat. no. 558 40 plates Pl. VI.19a-b Dolphin exterior and interior views, arm of crossed-leg chair; ivory, wood, Cat. no. 579 (1:2) a b plates 41

b Pl. VI.20a-b Dolphin Fragment; exterior and interior views, arm of crossed-leg chair; ivory, wood, Cat. no. 580 (1:2) 42 plates

Pl. VI.21 Veneer, fish design, arm of crossed-leg chair; bone, Cat. no. 581

Pl. VI.22 Veneer, fish design, arm of crossed-leg chair; ivory, Cat. nos. 594 (top), 597 (bottom) plates 43

Pl. VI.23 Veneer, fish design, arm of crossed-leg chair; ivory, Cat. no. 610

Pl. VI.24 Veneer, fish design, arm of crossed-leg chair; ivory, Cat. no. 611

Pl. VI.25 Compound Molding; ivory, Cat. nos. 613-618 44 plates Pl. VI.26a-b Board with attached rod; ivory, wood, Cat. no. 631 (1:2) b a plates 45 Pl. VI.27a-d Board with attached rod; ivory, wood, Cat. no. 632 (1:2) a b c d 46 plates Pl. VI.28 Veneer from rod; ivory, Cat. nos. 633 (left), and 634 (right) (1:2) plates 47

Pl. VI.29a Flat Panels in situ (top center); ivory, wood

Pl. VI.29b Flat Panel at time of excavation; ivory, wood, Cat. no. 636 48 plates

Pl. VI.30 Veneer; ivory, Cat. nos. 639-645 (1:2) plates 49

ab c Pl. VI.31a-c Cabriole Leg; ivory, wood, Cat. no. 646 (1:2) 50 plates

Pl. VI.32 Cabriole Leg, untreated; wood, Cat. no. 647 plates 51

c Pl. VI.33a-c Cabriole Leg; bone, wood, Cat. no. 648 (1:2) 52 plates

Pl. VI.34 Stepped Stretcher; ivory, wood, Cat. no. 662 (1:2)

Pl. VI.35 Stepped Stretcher; ivory, wood, Cat. no. 663 (1:2)

Pl. VII.1 Lunette Mosaic, Mausoleum of Galla Placidia, Ravenna (Alinari; neg. no. 18623) plates 53

Pl. VII.2 Ms. Amiatino 1, c. Vr; Florence, Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana (Microfoto–s.r.l.; with permission of the Ministero per i Beni e le Attività Culturali) 54 plates

Pl. A-2.1a Appendix 2, Ivory Veneer; Cat. no. I.V.1 (1:3)

Pl. A-2.1b Appendix 2, Ivory Veneer; Cat. no. I.V.1, detail (1:1) plates 55

Pl. A-2.2 Appendix 2, Bone Pl. A-2.3 Appendix 2, Bone Veneer; Cat. no. B.V.19 Veneer; Cat. no. B.V.23 56 plates general index 357

GENERAL INDEX acanthus, 165, 292 Aristophanes, fourth-century sophist, 312 acroterion. See finial Arles (anc. Arelate), Musée Lapidaire d’Art Chrétien, 233; Adam, 51 Concordius sarcophagus, 159, 210, 277; Pls. VI.1a– Adana, Eski Eserler Müzesi (Turkey), 288 n. 54 b. See also Lateran Basilica, fastigium adhesive, 23, 26, 117, 131, 160, 175, 176, 179, 180. See armarium, 157, 205, 211, 249, 250, 251, 275, 276, 280, also glue 281–92, 291 Fig. VII.2, 293 Fig. VII.3 Adrianople (mod. Edirne, Turkey), battle of, 10 Armerina (Sicily). See Piazza Armerina aedicula, 97, 157, 287 Arsinoe (mod. Medinet el-Fayum, Egypt), 300 Africa, North, 14, 15, 16, 20, 21, 28, 40, 56, 57, 60, 66, Artemas, Lucius Atilius, 283 103, 104, 205, 207, 277, 292, 302, 309 Asia Minor, 1, 22, 208, 294, 313 Agrigento (Italy), Museo Archeologico Regionale, 206 Ashkelon (Israel), 301 n. 5 Aspar Ardabur, Flavius, Missorium of, 39, 304 Akhmim (Egypt), painted chest, 97, 288 Asturius diptych, 207 n. 17 Alaric, 10, 210 Aswan (anc. Syene, Egypt), Nubia Museum, 305 Alexandria (Egypt), 13, 14, 19, 24, 28, 35, 157, 295, 297, Athenaeus of Naukratis, 311 299, 302, 303, 336 n. 19; bone carving workshop, 166, Athena Parthenos, 336 297, 298; Graeco-Roman Museum, 25 n. 116, 166, Athens, 10, 294; Agora, 8, 18, 43, 280 n. 15, 305, 336; 298, 300 n. 127 Areopagus, 310; Benaki Museum, 24, 44, 53, 57, 58, Algiers, Musée National des Antiquités, 105 n. 46, 288 65, 66, 67, 114, 118, 160, 166, 298; Byzantine n. 52 Museum, 25; Kanellopoulos Museum, 102 n. 19 Ammianus Marcellinus, 9, 276 n. 5 Atticus, Titus Pomponius, 311 amorini. See erotes Augustine, St., 13, 209 Anastasius diptych, 160, 161 n. 21 Aumale (Algeria), 105 n. 46 Andropolis (Egypt), 297 Ausonius, 210 n. 35 animal(s), 31, 67, 104, 292, 294. See also individual animal Avar invasion (ca. 587), 6 names Avignon, Musée Calvet, 207 n. 17 Animal Panel I, 50–56, 281, 290, 294, 306; cat. nos. 46– Axum (Ethiopia), 15, 295 69; Pls. III.9–.10 Animal Panel II, 56–60, 281, 290, 294, 306; cat. nos. Babylon (Old Cairo, Egypt), 298, 301 70–85; Pl. III.1 Ballana (Sudan), 8, 28, 296 n. 87, 305 Ann Arbor, Mich., Kelsey Museum of Archaeology, 25 n. 115, 130, 250 n. 65; Ruthven Collection, 18 n. 35, Baltimore, Md., Walters Art Museum, casket with bone 19, 20 n. 57 plaques, 26 n. 123, 34, 66, 73, 97, 157 n. 5, 160, 166, Anthemius diptych, 160 289 Antinoopolis (mod. Sheikh Abada, Egypt), 299, 303 Barberini diptych, 17 n. 29, 61 antler, 334 Barnett, Richard D., 334, 335 Aphrodisias (Turkey), Severan sarcophagus, 208, 280 n. Basileus diptych, 61, 275 n. 4 14 basket, 34, 335 Apollo, 66 bear(s), 50, 52 apsidal room. See Kenchreai, apsidal room bed(s), 14, 19, 206, 211, 249, 250, 275, 283, 310 Apuleius, 205 n. 1 Behnesa (anc. Oxyrhynchus, Egypt), 166, 300, 302 arcade(s), 31, 289, 290, 292. See also aedicula bench(es), 206 arca. See chest(s) Berenice (Egypt), 15 arch. See Egg-and-Dart Molding Berlin, Ägyptisches Museum, 57; Staatliche Museen, 32, Architectural Blocks, 175–83, 276, 288; cat nos. 431– 73, 99, 157, 207, 286 n. 46, 288 n. 53, 289 n. 59, 478 299, 300 Architectural Moldings, 190–1; cat. nos. 506–515 Beautiful Head Group, 63–64; cat. nos. 93–97; Pl. III.13 Areobindus diptych(s), 51 n. 64, 140 bird(s), 31, 50, 51, 56, 57, 58, 71, 284, 292, 294, 298, Argos (Greece), Villa of the Falconer, mosaic of Thiasos 299; dove, 56, 57; plover, 56; spotted crake, 51 scene, 65, 67, 304, 309; Pl. III.15 bisellium. See bench 358 general index bitumen, 26, 176 Ceraunus, M. Virtius, 98 n. 15 blocks, bone. See Architectural Blocks chair(s), 14, 205, 276, 297. See also cathedra, sella curulis; Bloomington, Ind., Indiana University Art Museum, 39 cabriole leg, 6, 205, 249–54, 276, 281, 282; cat. nos. Blemmyes, 305 646–661; chair legs, 215–23; cat. nos. 519–539; chair boar, 53, 292 stretchers, 224–32; cat. nos. 540–578; crossed-leg, 97, board(s), 214, 244–7, 278, 280, 281; cat. nos. 631–635; 205, 207, 208, 209, 210, 211, 212, 213, 214–44, 256– Pls. VI.26–.28 62, 275, 277–9, 305, 312, 279 Fig. VII.1, 328; Pls. Boethius diptych, 235 n. 51 VI.5–.18; footstool, 206; high-backed, 32, 33, 37, 278; bole, 25 n. 114 stool, 14, 33, 206, 207, 211, 250; stretchers, 254–5; Bologna, Museo Civico, 32 cat. nos. 662–665; Pls. VI.13–18, .34–.35; throne, 206, bone, 13, 14, 17, 18, 19, 20, 27, 28, 31, 299; cancellous, 278 17, 109, 110 charioteer(s), 60, 61 book(s), 205, 276, 285–6, 294, 310. See also library chest(s), 96, 130, 157, 205, 233 n. 43, 247, 250, 275, bookcase. See armarium 280 n.15, 282, 283, 286, 288, 289 boot(s), 37. See also shoes Chinitsa (Greece), 8 n. 22 border(s). See also frames Chiusi (Italy), 16 Boscoreale (Italy), 38 Christianity, 6, 10, 301, 303, 306 Boston, Museum of Fine Arts, 208 chryselephantine sculpture, 335–6 Breckenridge, James D., 306 chronology. See dating Brescia Casket (so-called Lipsothanek), 208, 233 Cicero, Marcus Tullius, 285 n. 40 Brescia, Museo Civico Christiani, 160, 208 n. 20; Museo circus scenes, 38, 41, 292 Romano, 235 n. 51 Çirga (Turkey), silver chest, 288 bronze, 207, 275 n. 1, 286 Cirta (mod. Constantine, Algeria), 205 n. 1 Brooklyn, N.Y., Brooklyn Museum of Art, 46, 296 n. 91 cista. See casket Claudian (Claudius Claudianus), 10 Brummer, Joseph, Collection, 103, 209 Claudius Herculanus, 41 bucolic scene, 51 clothing, 40–41, 60, 304, 306–7; chlamys, 184, 186, 187, Budapest, Magyar Nemzeti Múzeum, 288 n. 56, 290 n. 188; orbiculus, 40, 41, 63, 69, 307; paludamentum, 36, 63 68; segmentum, 69; toga praetexta, 41; toga picta, 41; tunic, bud(s), 142, 143, 224, 278, 298 69, 307. See also textile Byzantium. See Constantinople codex. See book(s) Codex Amiatinus, 284, 286; Pl. VII.2 cabinet, 96, 97, 211, 250, 282. See also armarium Codex Chisianus, 209 cabinetmaking. See woodworking Codex Vindobonensis, 209 cabriole leg(s), 249–54, 276, 281, 282, 290; cat. nos. 646– collegium of ivory workers and citrus wood workers, Rome, 661; Pls. VI.31–33. See also armarium, chair(s) 29, 207 Cairo, 298, 299, 300, 303; Church of St. Barbara, door, Cologne (anc. Colonia Agrippensis), 206; Römisch- 32; Coptic Museum, casket, inv. no. 9060-9063, 24, Germanisches Museum, 56 32, 44, 66, 131, 139, 140, 191, 298, 299; Pl. IV.8; color. See pigment Egyptian Museum, 300. See also Babylon, Fustat Column(s), 157, 158, 281, 289; cat. nos. 426–430 Calendar of 354, 41, 46, 307 Column Bases, Attic type, 170–4, 281; cat. nos. 402–425 Cambridge, Fitzwilliam Museum, 131 Columns (shafts), 174–5, 290 camel(s), 17, 18, 19, 27–28, 299 Compound Molding, 241–2, 278; cat. nos. 613–620; Pl. capsa, 214 VI.25 carpentry. See woodworking Concordius sarcophagus, 210, 278; Pls. VI.1a–b Carrand diptych, 51, 53, 210, 211, 233; Pls. VI.2a–b conservation, 332 Carthage (Tunisia), 19, 28, 102, 295, 310 n. 206; Antonine Constans, 304, 306 Baths, 104; Circus, 18; Maison des Chevaux, 104; Constantine I, 210; Edict of 337, 299 n. 120, 305, 306, Maison du Paon, 104, 292 307 casket(s), 96, 139, 205, 275, 278, 280, 282, 283, 298, 299, Constantinople (city), 61, 297, 301; court of, 14; Obelisk 302 of Theodosius, 308 Casson, Lionel, 285 Constantinople, Constantinopolis (personification), 31, Catervius, Flavius Julius, 207 n. 12 37, 39, 143, 303–4 cathedra, 206, 207, 209, 210, 312. See also chair Constantius II, 9, 104, 303, 306, 307, 312 of St. Peter, Rome, 157 n. 1 consular diptych(s), 16, 17, 51, 61, 131, 140, 160, 161, Centcelles (Spain), villa, 38, 40 207, 275, 301 general index 359

Coptos (mod. Quft, Egypt). See Quft ebony, 97 copy book(s), 64 n. 88, 277 Eden, Garden of, 51 Corinth (Greece), 1–11, 312, 336 n. 16; East Theater Egg-and-Dart Molding, arch of, 157, 159–65, 280, 282, Street, Building 3, 27; harbor, 1–11; Isthmia Museum, 279; cat. nos. 351–378; Pl. V.3; Fig. VII.1; 246 n. 61, 332; Isthmian canal, 1; temple of Isis, 4, Egypt, 1, 15, 17, 19, 21, 22, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 30, 38, 6, 8, 9; warehouses, 2. See also Kenchreai 45, 57, 65, 66, 67, 113, 118, 157, 159, 166, 208, 209, Corinthian Capitals, 165–9; cat. nos. 379–401 215, 244, 246, 247, 275, 276, 285, 294, 295, 296, 297, Corinthian order, 140, 157, 158, 165–9, 175, 191, 192, 299, 300, 301, 302, 303, 305, 306, 312, 313 251, 281, 282, 283, 288, 289, 290, 297, 303; Pls. V.1, El Djem (anc. Thysdrus, Tunisia), House A from Terrain V.5, V.6, V.7 Jilani Guirat, 104; Maison de la Procession diony- Cosa (Italy), shrine of Bacchus, 10 siaque, 104, 107, 207 n. 17; Maison des Muses, 104 couch, dining (lectus). See bed(s) Elephantine (Egypt), 15 Council of Ephesus (431), 14 Eleusis (Greece), 30 crocodile, 73 El Ruedo (Almedinilla, Cordoba, Spain), 309 Crossed-Leg Chairs, 214–44. See also chair El Shurafa (Egypt), 131 Csásczár (Hungary), 288 n. 56 Emery, Walter E., 286 cupboard. See armarium Ephesus (Turkey), 20, 39, 294 n. 74 cupids. See erotes erotes (amorini, cupids), 20, 31, 33, 35, 56, 57, 65, 131, curule chair. See sella curulis 158, 184, 186, 187, 188, 189, 281, 282, 299, 306, 307 Curved Panel, 36–50, 281, 290, 292, 303, 304, 307, 312, Erotes Arcade, 140, 157, 158, 184–9, 281, 282, 283, 288, 313; cat. nos. 5–45; Fig. III.3a; Pls. III.5–.8 289, 290, 292, 294; cat. nos. 479–505; Pl. V.1 cushion, 32, 33, 307 Erotes Incised Plaques, 33–6, 290, 294, 307; cat. nos. Cutler, Anthony, 25, 27 n. 131, 282 n. 18, 335 3–4; Pls. III.3, III.4 Cyrenaica, 207 n. 17 Esquiline Treasure, 43, 44, 73, 140, 208 n. 20, 304 n. Cyril, St., 14, 297 154 Eugenius, 304 Dakleh Oasis (Egypt), 295 Eunapius, 10 n. 45, 210 n. 35 Darmstadt, Hessisches Landesmuseum, 207 n. 17 excision, 24, 60, 65, 69, 189, 297. See also resin, wax, dating, 4, 7–10, 281, 301–8 woodworking Decorated Rings, 95–117, 276, 282, 283, 286, 287–8, 290, 292, 294, 300; cat. nos. 147–191; Pls. IV.1–.2 fasces, 39 Deilakis, Charalambos, 332 Delphi, 336 Fayum (Egypt), 26 n. 128, 28, 295, 299, 301, 302 Demosthenes, 29 feather pattern, 103, 141 Devreese, Robert, 285 n. 38 finial(s), 289, 290 diamonds-and-billets pattern, 184–9 fish, 31, 72, 211, 213, 215, 235, 241, 294 Diamond-Bordered Panel, 69–71, 282, 292; cat. nos. 113– Fish Design Veneer, 234–40; cat. nos. 581–612; Pls. 115; Pl. III.17; Figs. III.103–105 VI.21–.24 Dijon, Musée des Beaux-Arts, ivory relief of Christ and fish skin, 26. See also woodworking Apostles, inv. no. CAT 326, 211, 233, 277, 280; Pl. Flavius Hermogenes, 9 VI.4 Florence, Museo Archeologico, 16 n. 27; Biblioteca dining room(s), 309–11. See also stibadium Laurenziana, Codex Amiatinus, 209, 284 n. 31; Pl. Diocletian, 25 n. 116, 276 n. 5, 302, 303 VII.2; Museo Nazionale del Bargello, Carrand Dion (Greece), 206 n. 5, 210 n. 35 diptych, 51, 159 n. 11, 210, 211; Pls. VI.2a–b Dionysus, 20, 31, 64, 65, 66, 140, 210, 292, 296, 300, flower(s), 59, 71, 75, 95, 96, 98, 99, 100, 101, 105, 106, 304, 307; thiasos, 31, 64–65, 67, 69, 103, 292, 294, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 115, 116, 131, 132, 297, 300, 301 133, 146 Fig. IV.11, 166, 288, 290, 300, 307 Dioscurides, 209, 211 Flower Circles, 131–3; cat. nos. 284-291; Pl. IV.5 dog, 50, 52, 292 Foliated Spiral Border, 142–4, 278, 294; cat. nos. 345– dolphin(s), 31, 206, 210, 211, 212, 215, 216, 217, 232, 350; Pl. IV.10 233, 235, 241, 278; cat. nos. 579–580; Pls. VI.19– foliated spiral pattern, 72, 143, 300, 303, 307. See also .20; Fig. VI.1. See also fish spiral door(s), 7, 283, 284, 286, 288, 290 footstool, 32, 33, 42 Dougga (anc. Thougga, Tunisia), 294; Maison à fountain court. See Kenchreai, apsidal room Trifolium, 104 frond(s), 224 Dunbabin, Katherine M.D., 277 n. 7 fruit, 95. See also grapes, pomegranates dying, 25 360 general index fulcrum, 206, 232, 283 Hermogenes, Flavius, 312 furniture, 205, 207, 275, 276, 277, 292, 294, 295, 297, Hermopolis Magna (mod. Ashmunein, Egypt), 25 n. 111, 301. See also armarium, bed, chair, stibadium, throne, 286 n. 46, 303 etc. Hermopolis Parva (mod. Damanhur, Egypt), 296 Fustat (Old Cairo, Egypt), 303 Heuresis (personification), 209 Hilarius, Pope, 209 Galen, 209, 211 n. 40 Hildesheim, Pelizaeus-Museum, 25 n. 111, 297 n. 95 garland(s), 104, 106, 184, 18, 187, 188, 189, 292. See also hinge(s), 288 wreaths hippopotamus. See ivory Gaul, 301, 304 Horae (personifications), 105 Gebel Adda (Sudan), 296 horn, 333-4 Gebhard, Elizabeth, 310 n. 212 hunt scene(s), 34, 35, 37, 38, 50, 51, 52, 56, 60, 61, 66, Gesta apud Zenophilum consularum, 205 n. 1, 276 n. 5 68, 69, 70, 292, 294, 306 Gilbert, Allan S., 30 n. 160 Hunting Scene, 68–69, 294; cat. nos. 111–112; Pl. III.16; gilding, 25, 205 Figs. III.102–103 Giza, 73 Hygeia, 32 Glasgow, Hunterian Museum, 207 n. 17 hydroxyapatite, 15 glass, 14, 23, 24 n. 108, 56, 133, 277, 333 n. 1. See also opus sectile panels Iasos (mod. Kiyikislak, Turkey), 294 n. 74 glue, 26, 95, 214. See also adhesive Igel, 233 Gnecchi, Francesco, 304 Ilias Ambrosiana, 250 gold, 207 Incised Bone Plaques (erotes), 33–6; cat. nos. 3–4; Pls. Gorsium/Herculia (mod. Föveny, Hungary), 104 III.3-.4; Figs. III.3-.4 Goths, 10 incision, 24, 296, 297, 298, 299–301, 305 grapes, 96, 107, 114, 116, 286, 307 India, 14, 15 grass tuft(s), 35, 42, 43, 44, 50, 52, 54, 55, 56, 59, 69, inlay, 24, 25, 26, 205, 295, 298, 299. See also niello, wax 224 Intercisa (Hungary), 288 n. 56, 289 Grado (Italy), 35 isinglass, 26 Gratian, 7, 10, 304 Isis, temple of, 4, 9, 308 Gréau, Julien, 42 Istanbul (Turkey). See Constantinople Greece, 17, 294, 302, 312, 313 ivory, 13, 14, 15, 16, 27, 29, 31, 294, 295, 333–7; Grimm, Günter, 297 n. 104, 298 conservation, 332; elephant, 14, 16; lines of Owen, Grose, David F., 23 n. 91 16; lines of Retzius, 16; hippopotamus, 16 nn. 22, 21; gum arabic, 26 molding, 17, 333–7; morphology, 15 n. 20; plaques, Guntharius, 310 n. 206 31; softening, 17, 333–7 Ivoryton, Conn., 335 n. 15, 337 n. 22 Hadrian, 29, 311 ivy, 286 Hadrumetum (mod. Sousse, Algeria), lead cult cabinet, 97, 288 Jerome, St., 205 n. 1 Halieis (mod. Porto Cheli, Greece), 8 Johnson, Bradford, 30 Hama Treasure, 140 Jovian, 9–10 Harvey, Paul, 205 n. 1 Julian, 9, 40, 301, 312 Hawara (Fayum, Egypt), 299 Justinian, 10 Hayes, J.W., 8 Juvenal, 15 head(s), human, 95, 96, 101, 102, 103, 113, 114, 185, 306 Kaiseraugst (anc. Augusta Raurica, Switzerland), 232, Helwan (Egypt), 99, 300, 301 289 n. 59 Hemans, Frederick, 310 n. 212 Kaiseraugst Treasure, 232 n. 43, 235, 241 Hemmoorer basins, 103 Kalabsha (Egypt), 305 Hendrie, Robert, 333 Karanis (Egypt), 35, 130, 250 Heraclea (anc. Perinthus, Greece), 299 Karanog (Sudan), wood chest, 296 Heraclius, 333 Kellia (mod. Kôm Qouçoûr ‘Isâ, Egypt), 159 Herculaneum (Italy), 21 n. 21, 249, 250, 275 n. 1, 282 Kenchreai, 1–11; apsidal room, 2–3, 29, 275–6, 280, 308– n. 17, 283; House of the Wooden Shrine, 251, 254 13, Pl. I.1; excavations, 1–11, 277; temple of Isis, 4, n. 77, 283, 289 9, 308 general index 361

Kerma (Sudan), 26 n. 122 manus velatae, 40 kibotos, kibotion, 205 n. 1. See also armarium mappa, 39, 40 Kiilerich, Bente, 306 mask(s), 102, 103, 114, 289 kiste, 205 n. 1 Mas’oudi, 16 n. 24 Kom el-Ahmar (anc. Hierakonpolis, Egypt), 296 mass production, 95, 96, 98, 215, 295 Kom el-Dikka, Alexandria (Egypt), 157, 297 Memphis (Egypt), 295, 301 Kom el-Nigili (in Beheira, Egypt), 298 Menzel, Heinz, 103 Kom Ombo (Egypt), 28 Meroe (Sudan), 296 Kounoupi (Greece), 8 Milan (anc. Mediolanum), 301; Bibliotheca Ambrosiana, Kraeling, Carl H., 297 250 n. 66 Mildenhall Treasure, 43, 102, 103 Lampadii diptych, 160 miltos, red, 7 lamp(s), 1 n. 2, 8, 294 n. 74 months (personifications), 102 landscape, 31, 50, 51, 56, 68, 306 Murecine (mod. Moregine, Italy), 309 n. 198 Langnau (Switzerland), Labor für Quartäre Hölzer, 29 mosaic floor(s), 7, 57, 96, 103, 104, 116, 140, 141, 205, Lapatin, Kenneth, 24, 27, 333, 334, 335, 336, 337 276, 277, 292, 294, 304, 305, 309, 310 Lateran Basilica, fastigium, 209–10. See also Arles (anc. Moscow, National Museum of Fine Arts, Pushkin Arelate), Musée Lapidaire d’Art Chrétien; Concordius Museum, 208 n. 25 sarcophagus, 159, 210, 277; Pls. VI.1a–b mummy portrait panels, 246 laurel, 101, 104, 105, 116, 292 Munich, Ägyptische Sammlung, 20 n. 54; Staatliche leaf pattern, 95, 96, 101, 105, 106, 107, 108, 112, 113, Sammlung Ägyptischer Kunst, 51 114, 115, 116, 117, 142, 143, 165, 224, 290, 292 Münster, Westfälisches Museum für Archäologie, 250 leather, 207, 208, 209, 211, 214, 277, 280 Murano diptych, 39 lectern, 214, 282, 289 n. 57 Muse(s), 104 Muziris (India), 13 n. 3 lectus. See bed, stibadium Myos Hormos (Egypt), 15 Leiden, Rijksmuseum van Oudheden, Simpelveld sarcophagus, 29, 206, 284, 289 n. 62 nail, 101 leopard, 37, 46, 64, 65. See also panther nail hole, 101, 112, 113, 114, 118, 214, 216, 242, 254 Libanius, 205 n. 1, 210 n. 35, 276 n. 5, 312 Naples, Museo Archeologico Nazionale, 98, 283 n. 22. Liber Pontificalis, 210 n. 36 See also Herculaneum, Pompeii library, 205, 209, 250, 276, 284, 311 Naukratis (Egypt), 294, 297, 303 lion, 50, 52, 292 Nauplion Museum, 332 Liverpool, Merseyside County Museums, 159 n. 11 Nepos, Cornelius, 311 lock, 287 Nepotian, 304 Lollianus of Ephesus, 312 Newton, Sir William, 336–7 London, British Museum, 32, 43, 45, 102, 185, 232 n. New York, N.Y., The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 61, 43, 233; Victoria & Albert Museum, relief of Saints 100, 104, 159, 184, 185, 209, 286 n. 41 Peter and Mark, inv. no. 270–1867, 35, 70, 157 n. niello, 25 1, 160, 166, 211, 233; Pl. VI.3 Nilotic motifs, 6. See also landscape lotus, 143, 298 North Africa. See Africa, North Low Relief Ivory Plaques (Seated Philosophers), 32–3; Notitia Dignitatum, 41, 286 n. 42 cat. nos. 1–2; Pls. III.1, III.2 Noubades, 305 Luxor (Egypt), imperial cult room, 28, 38, 41, 44, 296, Nubia, 15, 17, 21, 28, 97, 286, 295, 296, 305 303 Nuceria Alfaterna, 98 n. 15

Macedonia, 312 Oberaden, Roman fort near, 250 Mâcon Treasure, 41 olive branch, 184 MacGregor, Arthur, 336 Oliver, Andrew, 103 n. 31 Macrobius, 310 Olympia (Greece), workshop of Phidias, 14 n. 9, 19, 29, maenad(s), 64, 65, 102, 103, 185, 292 333 n. 1, 336 Magnentius, 304 opus sectile glass panels, 2, 6, 7, 30, 42, 276, 294, 308, Mainz (anc. Mogontiacum), Landesmuseum, 65, 66, 67; 313; wood shipping crates, 21, 313 Römisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum, 61, 288 n. Orpheus, 51 56, 290 n. 63 Ostia, 209, 232 n. 43; sarcophagus of Lucius Atilius Malibu, Calif., The J. Paul Getty Museum, 106 n. 47 Artemas, 283 362 general index

Outstretched Arm Group, 60–63, 281, 290; cat. nos. 86– pottery, amphorae, 7, 8, 305; analysis, 7–8; fine wares, 92; Pl. III.12 8; lamps, 6, 7, 8; red slip wares, North African, 277 Oxford, Ashmolean Museum, 66 Praetextatus, Vettius Agorius, 312 Oxyrhynchus (mod. Behnesa, Egypt), 166, 300 Pratt, Read & Company (Ivoryton, Conn.), 337 Priene (mod. Gullubahce, Turkey), 294 n. 74 Pack, Roger A., 285 Princeton University, The Art Museum, 20 n. 55 Palladius, 22 n. 77 Probianus diptych, 39, 160, 286 n. 43 palm, 39, 41, 42, 44, 184, 185, 187, 188, 189. See also Probus diptych, 275 n. 4 trees Proclus of Naukatis, 294 Palmyra (mod. Tadmor, Syria), 209 Procopius of Caesarea, 310 n. 206 Pan, 65, 103, 292, 296 Projecta casket, 43, 208 n. 20, 308 panels, glass. See opus sectile panels provenance, 294–301 panther, 65, 67. See also leopard Pseudo-Lucian, 205 n. 1 papyrus, 285–6, 294 Ptolemais (Egypt), 297, 303, 305 Paraetonium (mod. Marsa Matruh, Egypt), 303 Ptolemais Theron (Egypt), 15 Paris, Bibliothèque Nationale, 157 n. 1, 160, 211 n. 40; pumice, 26 Musée National du Moyen-Age Thermes de Cluny, 140; Musée du Louvre, 20 n. 54, 35, 51, 65, 70, 206, Quatrefoil Border, 139–40, 281, 294; cat. nos. 332–334; 209, 244, 247 n. 63 Pl. IV.7 Parrish, David, 105 n. 46 Qasr Ibrîm (Sudan), 296 pastoral scene(s), 103 Quft (anc. Coptos, Egypt), 15, 296 patera, 60 Quseir al-Qadim (Egypt). See Portus Albus pattern book(s), 277. See also copy book(s) Qustul (Sudan), 8, 305; chest from Tomb 14, 25, 26 n. Pausanias, 4, 334 122, 96–97, 130, 131, 157, 251, 275, 286, 287, 289, peg(s), 209, 214. See also pin(s) 290, 296, 305; Pl. V.2 Pergamon (mod. Bergama, Turkey), 294 n. 74 Periplus Maris Erythraei, 15 Rabbula Gospels, 209 Petrie, William Flinders, 299 Radegunda, so-called lectern of St., 289 n. 57 Petronius, Gaius, 309 n. 196 Ravenna, Mausoleum of Galla Placidia, mosaic of Saint Phidias, 334, 336. See also Olympia Lawrence, 284, 285; Pl. VII.1 Philadelphia, University Museum, 26 n. 122, 296 n. 90 Philae (Egypt), 305 n. 165 reading desk. See lectern philosopher(s), 31, 32–3, 159, 206, 207, 209, 280, 281, Rectangle, Diamond, and Oval Border, 133–9, 281, 292, 294, 312 294; cat. nos. 292–331; Pl. IV.6 Philosopher Ivory Relief Plaques, 32–3, 281, 289, 312 red slip wares, North African, 277 n. 230; cat. nos. 1-2 Reese, David S., 27 Philostratus, L. Flavius, 210 n. 35, 294, 334, 335 repair, ancient, 101 Piazza Armerina (Italy), 35, 141 resin, 8, 26, 36 pigment, 25, 66, 186, 205, 225, 230, 232 rhetoric, four chairs of, 210 pin(s), 14, 207, 295, 297. See also peg(s) rhinoceros horn, 20 plank(s). See board(s) ribbon, 184, 186, 188 plaques, 29 ring(s), 235. See Decorated Rings, wreath(s) Pliny the Elder, 13 n. 1, 14 n. 9, 21, 22 n. 77, 24 n. 107, Robertson, Andrew, 336 n. 20 25, 286 n. 40 rod(s), 244, 278, 280; Pls. VI.26–28 Pliny the Younger, 311 Rodziewicz, Elzbieta, 166, 295, 298, 302 Plutarch, 334, 335 Roeder, Gunther, 297 Poitiers, Abbaye Sainte-Croix, 289 n. 57 Roma and Constantinopolis diptych, 143 Polish Center of Mediterranean Archaeology, 297 Rome (city), 294, 301; Antiquarium Comunale, 19 n. 43, polyethelene glycol (PEG), 30 57, 131, 139, 141, 142, 160, 225; Atheneum, 311; pomegranate(s), 96, 107, 115, 116, 143, 224, 307 Catacomb of San Callisto, 70; Circus Maximus, 41; Pompeii (Italy), 38, 250, 283, 309 n. 198; House of the Esquiline Hill, 66, 305; Forum Romanum, 38; House Menander, 283, 286; House of the Vettii, 282 of the Symmachi, 311; Museo di S. Sebastiano, 159 Pore´, cathedral of Eufrasius (Croatia), 233, 241 n. 12; Museo Nazionale Romano, 208 n. 20; Palatine Portus Albus (mod. Quseir al-Qadim, Egypt), 295, 296 East workshop excavations, 14 n. 9, 18, 27 n. 137, Portus Magnus (mod. Saint-Leu or Bettioua, Algeria), 29, 119, 131; Palazzo dei Conservatori, 251; Palazzo 140 Sanseverino, 208 n. 20; Sant’Agnese, 43; Sta. general index 363

Costanza, 43, 51, 159; Sta. Maria Antiqua, 207 n. solium, See also chair 12; Sta. Sabina, 208 sophist. See philosopher Rome, Roma (personification), 31, 37, 39, 44, 143, Sousse (Tunisia), 140. Museum, 104 303–4 Speyer, 103 Rosarno Medma (Italy), 97, 286 spiral pattern(s), 9, 133, 142, 143, 224, 225 Ross, Sir William Charles, 336–7 Spiral Strips, 117–30, 281, 282; cat. nos. 192–282; Pl. Rothaus, Richard, 232 IV.3 Rufus Probianus, diptych, 46 staining, 205 Ruhlmann, Jacques-Emile, 337 Statius. M. Cornelius, 209 n. 27 Ruthven Collection. See Ann Arbor, Mich. Stern, E. Marianne, 23 n. 91 stibadium, 102, 206, 211, 249, 276, 308, 310, 311 ’abak (Slavonia), 102 Stilicho, 10 Sagalassos (Turkey), 18 striations, from tools, 23, 31, 35, 49, 117, 131; Pl. II.3 St. Clair, Archer, 19, 302, 334 n. 6 Stobi (Macedonia), 310–1 Saint-Leu (anc. Portus Magnus, Algeria), 140 stool(s), 14, 33, 206, 207, 250 St. Petersburg, Hermitage Museum, 35, 51 Strabo, 21 Sakkara (Egypt), 299, 300, 301, 302 stretchers, chair, 224–32, 254–5, 278; cat. nos. 540–578 Salinae (mod. Droitwich, U.K.), 157 Strzygowski, Josef, 19, 299 Sarasota, Fla., Ringling Museum of Art, 42, 46 sunburst pattern, 40, 41, 47, 307 satyr(s), 64, 65, 102, 103, 105, 185, 292, 297 swastika pattern, 95, 96, 98, 99, 101, 108, 109, 110, 111, Scale Border, 141–2, 294; cat. nos. 335–344; Pl. IV.9 112, 288, 290, 292, 300, 303 scale pattern, 63, 141 Syene (Egypt), 15 scanning electronic microscopy (SEM), 20, 30; Pls. II.1, Sylvester, Pope, 210 n. 36 II.2 Syria, 1, 185 n. 31, 211, 294 n. 74, 301 Scenas Mandras (mod. Shurafa, Egypt), 301 syrinx, 64, 300 Schiering, Wolfgang, 336 Schedia (mod. Kafr ad Dawwar, Egypt), 298 Tabarka (Tunisia), 97 Schloss Schwarzau (near Neukirchen, Austria), 206 n. 3 table, 102, 250, 282 Schmitz, Bettina, 25 n. 111 tetrarch(s), 38, 40, 44 Schoch, Werner H., 29 textile(s), 34, 35, 39, 41. See also clothing scrinium, 205, 206, 214, 280, 286, 288, 289, 290. See also Thebes (Egypt), 28. See Luxor chest(s) Scriptores Historiae Augustae, 311 Theodosian Code, 299 n. 120 scroll, 32, 33 Theodosius I, 10, 305, 307; Missorium of, 38, 40, 41, seasons (personifications), 33, 34, 102, 103, 104, 105, 292, 45, 63, 307, 308; Obelisk of, 61, 308 294 Theophilus, 333 sede, 206 n. 5. See chair Theophrastus, 21,313 sella castrensis, 207, 208, 211, 275 n. 1, 305 Thessaloniki (Greece), 25 sella curulis, 38, 97, 131, 143, 160, 206, 207, 208, 233 Thiasos Panel, 64–68, 69, 277, 281, 290, 294, 304, 307; Seleucia-on-the-Tigris (mod. Tel Umar, Iraq), 24–5 n. cat. nos. 98–110; Fig. III.91; Pl. III.14 108, 133 Thil Treasure, 102 Seneca, 21 n. 72, 250 Thimme, Danae, 191 n. 35, 332 Sevso Treasure, 22, 25, 34, 35, 43, 44, 45, 52, 69, 102, Thimme, Diether, 184 n. 30 131, 140, 185, 208 n. 20, 292 Thina (Tunisia), 141 Sfax (Tunisia), Maison des Océans, 104 Thomas, Thelma K., 299 n. 120 shelves, 214, 280, 289 Thorburn, Robert, 336–7 shoes, 37, 307. See also boots thronos. See cathedra Sidonius Apollinaris, 206 n. 5, 210 n. 35, 310, 311 Thuburbo Majus (Tunisia), Maison des Animaux, 116; Sieglin, Ernst von, Collection, 298 Maison du Char de Vénus, 235 n. 55 Silenoi, 102 Tiberius, 28 n. 145 Silenus, 64, 65, 103, 185, 292 Toledo (Ohio), Toledo Museum of Art, Seleucia on the silver, 96, 140, 205, 206, 208, 275, 276, 277, 288, 290 Tigris excavation, 24–25 n. 108 n. 64, 292, 294 Tolentino, Cathedral (Italy), 207 n. 12 Simpelveld, sarcophagus from, 206, 284, 289 Tondo Plaque, 130–131, 281, 282, 290; cat. no. 283; Pl. Sinai, Monastery of St. Catherine, 157 n. 1 IV.4 sodalicium of dice and ticket makers, 29 tool(s), 22–4. See also woodworking 364 general index torque, 61 Viminacium (near mod. Belgrade, Serbia), 102 tortoise shell, 20 Visigoths, 10 Toulouse, Notre Dame de la Daurade, 159 Vitruvius, 158, 205 n. 1 Toynbee, J.M.C., 304 Volbach, Wolfgang Fritz, 211, 302 Traprain Law, Treasure of, 102, 140, 141, 235 tree design, 296 n. 87 Washington, D.C., Dumbarton Oaks Collection, 32, 36, tribunal scene, 38, 41 51, 69 Trier (anc. Augusta Trevirorum), 301; Landesmuseum, wax, 13, 24, 25, 36, 205, 298, 299, 300 289 n. 59; Museo Simeonstift, 307; Original- und Werden book case, 286 n. 43 Abgußsammlung der Universität Trier, 113 Wilkinson, J.G., 41 Trinquetaille (near Arles), 233 n. 43 Williamson, Alice, 337 n. 20 Tübingen, Universität Sammlung, 143, 160, 298 n. 110 wing(s), 34, 36 Tunis, Bardo Museum, 97, 104, 116, 206 n. 3, 207, 235 wood, 7, 11 n. 47, 13, 21, 29–30, 277, 285; acacia, 21; Tyche, 102 alder, 21; ash, 21–22, 30; boxwood, 21, 22; carob, 21; cedar, 21; citrus (thyon), 21; conservation, 29–30, 277, Ulpian, 13 278, 332; cypress, 21; doum palm, 21; ebony, 21; holly, Utica (Tunisia), Maison de la Chasse, 104 21; ilex, 21; limewood, 21; nut-wood, 22, 21; pine, 21; poplar, 21; sycamore fig, 21; terebinth, 21 Valens, 7, 10, 304, 305, 312 Wood Blocks, 242–4; cat. nos. 621–630 Valentinian I, 7, 10, 276 n. 5, 290 n. 63, 304, 312 woodworking, 22–4; chisel, 24; draw knife, 22, 23; file, Valentinian III, 210 n. 36 23, 26, 175, 178, 179, 180, 181, 182, 183; fish skin, vase, 38, 41, 43, 73, 74 24 n. 102, 26; jig, 117; lathe, 22–3, 95, 96, 131, 337; Vatican, Biblioteca Apostolica, 39, 46, 47, 70, 209; mortise, 23; pumice, 26; rasp, 24; round-shaver, 23 Lateran Basilica, 209–10; fastigium, 210; Museo Pio n. 97; saw, 23, 175; shaver, 23 Christiano, 207 Worcester, Mass., Worcester Art Museum, 306 n. 177 vellum, 286 wreath(s), 34, 60, 61, 103, 104, 116, 131. See also garland veneer(s), 6, 24, 25, 29, 244–6, 247–9, 286, 321–37 Verona, Kapitelbibliothek, 160 n. 20 Xenophon, 50, 294 Vienna Genesis, 209, 233 Vienna, Kunsthistorisches Museum, 67, 102 n. 24, 143 Zosimus, 9, 10 n. 74; Nationalbibliothek, 209