In Search of Protection and Livelihoods

Repub

ROYAL DANISH EMBASSY l ic

o f

Keny a

IN SEARCHOFPROTECTION

ROYAL DANISH EMBASSY

RROo

AND LIVELIHOODS

Dadaab RefugeeCampson

Repub

Environmental Impactsof

Socio-economic and f

Keny

Host Communities

September 2010

2 Acknowledgements Photo credits: MartinEnghoff, MatthewOwen Alex Obara Matthew Owen Gildestad Bjørn Abdi Umar Bente Hansen Martin Enghoff rest, andwithouttheirinputstheworkwouldsimplynothavebeenpossible. South in individual interviews and group discussions is the foundation on which the study findings Wajirand Lagdera Fafi, fromresidentsordinary and leaders Finally,of participation generous the Refugee Norwegian Council and,aboveall,theDanishRefugeeCouncil. the Refugees, for Commissioner High Nations United the Society, Cross Red Kenya the Affairs, Refugee of Department the particularly Dadaab, around and in working agencies the by provided support logistical the recognise to like also would members team The Kusimba, Peter and Kenya’s Embassy CommissionerforRefugeeAffairs, isespeciallyacknowledged. Norwegian Royal the at Moe Cathrine Siv Nairobi, in Embassy their input to various draft reports. The leadership of Betina Gollander-Jensen at the Royal Danish and participated in developing the Terms of Reference, guided the research direction and offered Group Advisory Study the on sat who those all to grateful are team study the of members The Acknowledgements 3.3.5 Whatisthestatusofaccess toelectricityandcommunication? 3.3.4 Howhasaccesstotransport changed? 3.3.3 Howisaccesstohealth servicesandsanitation,howhasitchanged? 3.3.2 Whatisthestatusofeducation inthehostarea? 3.3.1 Howisaccesstowater andhowhasitchanged? 3.3 Impactsonsocialinfrastructure andservices 3.2.8 Howisrelief foodreaching people? 3.2.7 Whatisthesignificanceofemploymentforhostcommunities? 3.2.6 Whatisthenature offirewood andbuildingmaterialcollection? 3.2.5 Whathavebeentheexperiencesoffarming? 3.2.4 Howisgrazing,browsing andlandmanaged? 3.2.3 Whoownsthelivestockandhowmany? 3.2.2 Whatdevelopmentscanbeseeninpastoralproduction? 3.2.1 Howdohouseholdsdiversifylivelihoodsandmakealiving? 3.2 Impactsonlivelihoods,production andnaturalresource management 3.1.10 Developmentchallengesinthehostarea 3.1.9 Developmentprocesses, actorsandinitiativesinthehostarea 3.1.8 Whatare thepush,pullanddeterrent factorsinthehostarea? 3.1.7 Whatsocialinteractionandlocalpoliticsare atplay? 3.1.6 Howdonegotiationsfunctionbetweenhostandrefugee stakeholders? 3.1.5 Howmanyfrom thehostcommunityare registered asrefugees? 3.1.4 Clans,accessandinteraction–Howrelated are thehostandrefugees? 3.1.3 Howare refugee andhostcommunityidentitiesdefined? 3.1.2 Whoismobileandwhosettled? 3.1.1 Whatare thelocalpopulationdynamics? 3.1 Hostcommunityandhost/refugee identities 3. StudyFindings 2.4 Socio-economicSituation 2.3 SoilsandVegetation 2.2 Topography andClimate 2.1 Location 2. Background andContext 1.4.4 StudyLimitationsandRisks 1.4.3 Factorsimpactingchoiceofstudymethodology 1.4.2 Approach 1.4.1 Organisation 1.4 Methodology 1.3 Definingthehostingarea 1.2 Objectives 1.1 StudyBackground 1. Introduction Executive Summary Contents

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...... 1 2 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 0 9 7 7 7 6 6 5 5 5 4 4 4 3 2 1 0 0 9 6 6 5 5 4 4 3 3 0 0 0 0 9 9 8 7 6 5 5 4 4 3 3 3 Contents 4 Contents 5. Recommendations 4. Conclusions 3.12 Hostcommunitysupportprojects 3.11 Environmental impacts–overview 3.10 NGOenvironmental activities 3.9.3 Whatimpactsare seenfrom mudbrickproduction? 3.9.2 Whatare theimpactsofsanitationfacilities? 3.9.1 Howissolidwastemanagedandwhatare itsimpacts? 3.9 Camp-basedenvironmental issues 3.8.2 Whatare theimpactsonwildlifeinarea? 3.8.1 Whatare theimpactsongrazing? 3.8 Impactsongrazingandwildlife 3.7.4 Discussionofwaterimpacts 3.7.3 Whatare thetrends inborehole waterlevels? 3.7.2 Whatistherateofaquiferrecharge? 3.7.1 Whatisthescaleofaquiferabstraction? 3.7 Impactsonwaterresources 3.6.7 Howisorganisedfuelsupplymanaged? 3.6.6 Whatare thetrends inbiomassimpacts? 3.6.5 Findingsofsatelliteimageanalysis 3.6.4 Whatisthestatusofwoodyresources andhoware theyimpactedbyharvesting? fencing? 3.6.3 Whatistheimpactofthorn 3.6.2 Whatistheimpactofpole-woodharvesting? 3.6.1 Whatistheimpactofﬁrewood collection? 3.6 Impactsonbiomass 3.5.10 Whatare theimpacts beyondtheimmediatehostingarea? 3.5.9 Whatisthecombinedeconomicimpactonhostingarea? 3.5.8 Howare economicimpacts experiencedbydifferent wealthcategories? 3.5.7 Whatisscaleandnature ofinvestmentsincampoperationanddevelopment? 3.5.6 Whatistheeconomicimpactofdirect campoperationsonthehostarea? 3.5.5 Whatistheincomefrom employmentandremittances? 3.5.4 HowhastradeinDadaabtowndeveloped? 3.5.3 Whatisthevolumeoftradeandhowdoesitimpactonhostarea? 3.5.2 Howare thefoodprices andwhatistheimpactofsubsidisedfood? 3.5.1 Whatistheincomefrom pastoralproduction? 3.5 Economicimpacts 3.4.3 Whatdevelopmentinleadershipstructures hastakenplace? 3.4.2 Howsecure dohost communitiesfeel? 3.4.1 Whatare theimpacts related togenderandage? 3.4 Impactsonsocialstructures andinstitutions 3.3.6 Howconcentratedisaccesstosocialservices? 4.4 OverallImpacts 4.3 Environmental Impacts 4.2 EconomicImpacts 4.1 Socio-EconomicImpacts List ofAnnexes (underseparatecover) 4.5 Impactsonrefugee/host area development

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...... 6 5 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 46 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 5 5 5 5 5 8 8 7 7 7 7 6 6 5 4 4 3 3 3 2 2 2 1 1 0 9 9 7 6 4 2 1 1 0 0 9 7 7 5 5 4 2 0 9 9 9 9 8 8 7 5 0 9 9 6 3 7 7 Table 21:Statusofrangelandwithincreasing distancefrom camps Table 20:Estimatedwaterconsumptionofcamp-basedlivestock Table 19:Estimatedabstractionfrom Mertiaquifer(2002and2010) Table 18:SummaryofDadaabfirewood supplyprogramme, 1998-2010 Table 17:Total usablebiomassandsustainableyield Table 16:Summaryfindings,rangelandplotsamplingsurvey Table 15:Pole-woodconsumptionintheDadaabcampsandhostingarea Table 14:Firewood consumptioninDadaabcampsandhostingarea Table 13:Total hostcommunitybenefits(USDmill./yr.) Table 12:Useofopportunitiesaccording tocashincomegroups Table 11:AgencyandUNfundingforhostcommunitydevelopment(USDmill.) Table 10:Fundingfortherefugee operationandhostcommunityinitiatives(USDmill.) Table oflocalbusinesses 9:Annualturnover Table 8:Businessesestablishmentsintherefugee campsandDadaabtown Table 7:Estimatedscaleandsavingsfrom goodsimportedthrough Somalia Table 6:Benefitsforhost-communitymembersreceiving refugee foodrations Table 5:Savingsinhostcommunitiesarisingfrom thepurchase ofre-sold refugee foodstuffs Table 4:CommoditypricesintheDadaabrefugee campsandelsewhere inKenya Table 3:Estimateofrefugee rationcard ownershipintheDadaabhostcommunity Table 2:Dadaabhostcommunitypopulationsandpopulationdensitybydistancefrom nearest camp Table 1:Populationsofhostcommunities Tables Figure 6:Mapshowingextent ofMertiaquifer Figure 5:Contractedfirewood supply(1998-2010) Figure 4:ClassifiedLandsat imagesfrom 1987and2010 Figure 3:Chartshowingpopulation densityagainstdistancefrom thecamps Figure 2:Mapshowingrefugee camplocationsandstudyarea Figure 1:Dadaablocation map Figures

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.. 4 4 4 4 2 2 2 5 5 5 2 1 1 7 6 6 5 5 5 5 5 48 4 4 4 4 4 6 2 0 7 4 2 1 0 7 7 6 3 3 2 1 1 0 5 2 1 9 7 5 2 5 3 5 Figures and Tables 6 Acronyms and Abbreviations Acronyms andAbbreviations WFP WB WASDA UNHCR UNEP UNDP TLU SAG RUMC RRDO NRC NEMA LWF GTZ GoK FaIDA EU DRC DRA DfID Danida CDF ALRMP (United Nations)World Food Programme World Bank Wajir SouthDevelopmentAssociation United NationsHighCommissionerforRefugees United NationsEnvironment Programme United NationsDevelopmentProgramme Tropical LivestockUnit Study AdvisoryGroup Resource UtilisationMonitoring Committee Relief, ReconstructionandDevelopmentOrganisation Norwegian RefugeeCouncil National Environment ManagementAuthority Lutheran World Federation Agency forTechnical Cooperation) Deutsche GesellschaftfürTechnische Zusammenarbeit ofKenya Government Fafi IntegratedDevelopmentAssociation European Union Danish RefugeeCouncil Department ofRefugeeAffairs Development (UK) DepartmentforInternational DevelopmentAssistance Danish International Constituency DevelopmentFund Arid LandsResource ManagementProject (German ExecutiveSummary 9.600 km refugee camps and host communities for in-depth analysis of impacts, encompassing an area of Defining the hosting area sustainable the improving for recommendations presence oftherefugees. provide to was study the options, these on assess options for addressing the negative impacts and optimising the positive elements. Based and Identify (3) and area; surrounding the on camps the of impacts environmental the Assess (2) large; at Kenya and community host the on have camps refugee Dadaab the that challenges Objectives a process. the and Affairs Refugee Danish andNorwegianembassiesinNairobi, toprovide theinformationnecessarytoguidesuch of Department by commissioned therefore was community host the on camps the of impacts the of study A process. decision-making informed well a requires this but issues, community host to approach agency) development and humanitarian (GoK, joint a developing for scope is There Dadaab. around districts the in services of provision the on (GoK) Kenya of Government the and NGOs agencies, UN donors, from attention increased been has areasremains scanty, morebecome apparent,have thereimpacts the As anecdotal. largely and last 18 years, knowledge of their social, economic and environmental impacts on the surrounding 270.000 around predominantly Somali accommodate refugees. In spite officially of extensive investments which in sustaining the Ifo, camps over the and Hagadera Dagahaley, of camps three Introduction increased tenfold and since 1999 the annual growth rate has been 11,7%, driven mainly by in- by mainly driven 11,7%, been has rate growth annual the 1999 since and has tenfold increased population host the 1989 Since Province. Eastern North growth for population average the significant of excess seen in well has area The people. 148.000 least at comprises camps relationships. and identities clan population, Host details): for 4 and 3 chapters (see follows as summarised are conclusions and study’sfindings The main communities, refugees andagenciesinvolvedinthearea. Thisisclearlynottheintention. take to used better informed not decisions, arethey could findings be used these to if undermine functional that relationships risk between host a is there and area the in situation the on views local of nature the established to counter run findings the of Some activities. economic identities, of scale the and livelihoods refugee/host dynamics, population locations, community host host community. The study team therefore had to develop its own methodologies for determining areathe Dadaab relatedand the conditions to socio-economic and trade on information general Study limitations and risks methodologies thatincludedanumberofquantitativeandqualitativeresearch approaches. assessment and survey environmental and economic social, utilising experts international and field survey in the Daadab area over 14 days in April 2010. It was undertaken by a team of national Methodology. 2 inFafi,LagderaandWajir SouthDistricts. . The objectives of the study were to (1) Assess the social and economic benefits and . The Dadaab refugee complex in Kenya’s North Eastern Province comprises the comprises Province Eastern Kenya’sNorth in complex refugee Dadaab The

The study comprised desk review of literature, meetings with stakeholders and stakeholders with meetings literature, of review desk comprised study The . The study identiﬁed a 50 km radius of routine interaction between the . A key study limitation was the lack of published statistics and more

The host population within 50 km of the of km 50 within population host The 7 Executive Summary 8 Executive Summary communities report improved access to education facilities and to water for people and livestock infrastructure,security.social and to services Access immediate surrounding ofthecamps,where resource competitionismostacute. the on development over-focus to tendency a is there and predict to hard are services of need in population host the in increases short-term, typically and uncertain are presence) camps’ the for and funding donor for (both horizons time as planning in difficulty include area Dadaab the in challenges Development relief. food of programme Cross/WFP Red Kenya the and health in Project, the UN Kenya host community project, the Kenya Red Cross/Danish Red Cross initiative implemented by humanitarian organisations in addition to the Arid Lands Resource Management area host the in projects development various are There refugees. of presence the from arising opportunities development numerous the on capitalising referencesto no make and community plans list a variety of proposed investment activities but do not analyse the specific situation in each have been created by the sub-division of larger districts since 2007. Their respective development Development processes, actors, initiatives and challenges. rations toavoidcompletedependencyonlivestock. refugee and/or relief food local to access have they that ensure households community host all and diversified are Livelihoods refugees. by owned livestock the than more times many is This host the by owned community is estimated to livestock be 80-100.000 camels, 200-250.000 of cattle and 300-350.000 shoats. number The Dadaab. from far areas in year the of part during herd their of part mobile in order to optimise pastoral production,keeps with a significant proportion of livestock foraging (shoats) goats or sheep few a than more with community host the in Many households sell livestock products to the camps or to other local people. Virtually everyone livelihoods community Host high levelofcompetitionforaccesstonaturalresources. the locally,and land owns which clan a to belong to need the are migrants potential for factors than in other comparable places; and the existence of more employment opportunities. Deterrent the opportunity to register as a refugee and receive a ration card; the better availability of services factors Pull area. Dadaab the include: the availability to of cheap food due from people distribution in the camps bringing and imports via Somalia; factor push key a been have and dynamics deterrentfactors. and pull Push, elsewhere inKenya,primarilytoseekabetterlivelihood.Theyare notrefugees. from in moved have who others and originally area cards host the ration from are who holding people both Those include none. having others and cards multiple with having unequal, households rather some is households among distribution Their cards. ration refugee holding are (27%) km 50 within members community host 40.500 least at that believed is it level, settlement community. host among holders card ration Refugee are significant. major become have host/refugeeand centresamenities, camps social the and within shops interactions services, for camps The camps. the in live who those and members community host between developed been have rights of division of systems Complex border. international the of side either land of swathes large across use resource to approach common-property a with a share populations common language, culture and religion, two and in many cases clan and sub-clan The identities, together intertwined. are identities their and closely overlap communities refugee and host that found also study The Kenya. of areas Somali ethnic other from migration .

Livelihoods in the host community are overwhelmingly pastoral. overwhelmingly are community host the in Livelihoods

Recurrent droughts have had profoundRecurrentpopulation effectshad droughtson have The vast majority of people in the host the in people of majority vast The

ae o a aeu assmn at assessment careful a on Based

The three districts hosting refugees groups. The supply of wood to the camps has become highly commercialised and is dominated by and host community populations is very significant, with more or less equal camp the total from materials building demand and firewood for demand from combined The depleted. both completely browseresourcepastureand being the without place taken nevertheless has numbers livestock total in increase significant The patterns. grazing and mobility on impacts negative having is this resources natural on Impact development. business and water,sanitation health, education, environment, reduction, security,conflict food in working currently programmes 12-15 with 2010, in million 5,5 USD to 2007 in million 2 USD around from rose initiatives community host for support Direct 2010. in million 100 USD reach to projected is and 2009 in million 82 USD to 2007 in million of 44 USD cost from grew operation The this operation. refugee the supporting agencies and donors from come area Dadaab investments. community host and operation Refugee Kenya. of parts comparable other in than Dadaab in higher (50-75%) significantly are labour unskilled an with for rates operation, wage Local activities. refugee trade to related communities the host in created jobs to 500 additional way some in related employment fixed have persons local 600-750 that estimated is It million. 25 USD around be to estimated is alone businesses based camp- the of turnover Annual town. Dadaab in 370 further a with goods, of kinds all in trading and shops large to traders petty from ranging camps the in businesses 5.000 aroundare There Kenya. in elsewhere than Dadaab in cheaper upmarket are goods and smuggled of drinks Prices fruit goods. consumer pasta, milk, powdered sugar, as such value unit high with Somalia employment Tradeand Province.in NorthEastern annually.aroundto equates this basis capita per a On income capita per annual average of 25% community,referencehost the the year,as for 2010 operations using million 14 arearoundUSD related and camps the of benefits economic total The million). 0,5 (USD million 35 KSh least at be to estimated is NGOs and UN the fromfor contractors assignments local to accruing income annual The annum. per million) 4,9 (USD million 363 KSh is traded) was it (if community host the by received rations food refugee of value estimated the while million) 1,7 (USD million 123 KSh at estimated area host the in purchase food on saving annual total a in result prices food lower The Somalia. via imports illegal and refugeesregistered as locals by food free to access rations, basic of than in price other towns in arid and The semi-arid parts of Kenya. The million). main reasons are the 3 re-sale of WFP (USD million 218 KSh commodities such as is maize, rice, wheat, sugar camps and cooking oil is refugee at least 20% lower the in the camps to sales milk and Economic impact national securityandtheofhumanitarianworkersfelloutsideremit ofthestudy. of Questions crime. of level the affecting be to felt not is refugees of presence the and good as situation security the rate generally community host the host of in Residents in. increase factored considerable is population the if even camps, the to close especially Kenya, in settlement pastoral of areas other to compared high is services social of host availability community.overall The the to available services camps transport of the reach of and frequency presence the The improved people. dramatically has local by charge of free accessed be may town Dadaab and camps the in hospitals agency-equipped the and Dadaab in working agencies by improved been have communities host for catering services Health camps. the of establishment the since . The estimated annual income accruing to the host community from livestock . Wholesalers inside the refugee camps import basic commodities via commodities basic import camps refugee the inside Wholesalers .

The host area has seen a steep rise in human settlement and settlement human in rise steep a seen has area host The

The majority of funds flowing into the into flowing funds of majority The 9 Executive Summary 10 Executive Summary mobile andthesettled groups. the between links close areathe host productionand the pastoral in of importance overall the to due population settled and mobile the both of majority the reach can mobility.support all, Such above and, trade mobility.pastoral production, pastoral and developing on more production focus should communities pastoral on support community host Focus are elaboratedbysector in Chapter5: recommendations The Group. Advisory Study the by refinement further and discussion for basis Below is an abbreviated summary of the study’s priority recommendations, which should form the or government. agencies other of initiatives the with coordinated weakly generally and focused sector single are rather than self-reliance. Agencies tend to finance and oversee their own discrete projects, which in the area is being overlooked and the nature of current support risks creating further dependency pastoral production and its associated strategies of mobility. Hence the key livelihood opportunity to support little been has there and settlements, in services social of delivery and infrastructure projectsupport. community Host as exemplifiedbythesignificantin-migrationtoarea. vicinity of the camps. Overall, the study identifies significantly more positive impacts than negative, immediate the in competition grazing with together materials building and firewood of depletion distributed to access to improvements,service and opportunities economic food, relatelargely impacts negative while to relate impacts Positive negative. and positive both and complex are The balance of positive and negative impacts in termsofenvironmental rehabilitation, outsidesettlements. unreliableand soils poor climate, programmesthese what limit rainfall achieve to able been have gardening and irrigated horticulture, environmental working groups and awareness-raising. Harsh fuels, alternative distribution of tree seedlings, establishment of woodlots and greenbelts, kitchen supply,firewoodand improvements including efficiency agencies, fuel development and refugee projectsEnvironmentalsupport rates, whichexplainstheminimaldrops recorded inlocalborehole levels. abstraction current at centuries many last to underground stored water sufficient be to believed factor.contributing a however,is is, Therecamps the of presence the and recharge of rate likely the exceeds slightly therefore discharge water of rate m3/yr.The M 4,5 around is study the of estimate best the but quantify to difficult is m3/yr.Recharge M 4,6 at estimated is aquifer this aquifer.Merti Totalthe frominto abstraction tap - Isiolo Wajirand Garissa, of portions large with Impacts on water resources. spatially restricted inanarea ofinherently lowresource value. is hardy and resilient and the impacts of the camps in purely environmental terms are serious but environment the Nevertheless, so. area’sdo the to in reductioncontinue major will a population) (without and camps the fromoutwards spreading is which 1990s, early the since ongoing been has that degradation environmental of trend general a undergoing is area host The of resources. communality upon depends that production of mode pastoral a undermines and alienation limited, but is enclosing portions of fencing the rangeland contributes greenbelt to an undesirable for process of bushes resource thorn using of impact environmental The individuals. influential by many host community members, however, who report that supply contracts benefit only a few an average of 11% of estimated camp consumption over the 12 years of its operation. It is disliked harvesters based in the camps. A programme of agency-managed firewood supply has provided The boreholes that supply water for the refugee operation - together . A number of environmental projects have been supported by supported been environmentalprojectshave of number A

Host community projects have focused on the upgrading of upgrading the on focused projectshave community Host . The impacts of the camps on the host community upr t host to Support h lc o pltcly ibe lentvs o huig eues n te aes etnin f the of extension areas, other in existing camps oranewfourthcamp intheDadaabarea islikely tobeneeded. refugees housing for alternatives viable politically of lack the exist that capacity logistical and administrative established the Given refugees. However, under the current encampment encampment. to policy,subject not wereadditional they space if is applied and likely enhanced to significantly be be could requiredrefugees for housing of capacity productive The refugees. Dadaab the towards policy encampment the re-evaluates GoK that recommended is it future, near the in solved be to likely not Somalia from emanating Re-evaluate encampment policy. situation showsthatanofficiallyclosedborder isdoinglittletoregulate tradeandmigration. clear be benefits fromwould re-opening there the borderrefugees, and vulnerable legalising the to ongoing trade presentsand movements. frontier The current closed a that problems the and border the across people of movements significant the trade, this of regulation lax the Somalia, Aim at opening the border with Somalia. away tocounter-balance theover-development oftheimmediateDadaabarea. km 50-100 investment of ring displaced a for aiming camps, fromthe away further communities in investments prioritise should support futurearea, host the for planning camps. from away services in investments Direct crisis suchasDadaabshouldbesourced from longer-term fundingallocations. protracted a for financing Humanitarian approaches. implementation joint and horizons planning longer-term develop should agencies Humanitarian camps. the to linked services support and trading production, develop further to communities host enable to interventions their tailor and development, local driving in operations humanitarian associated the and presence refugee the of importance the recognise should agencies Development term. longer the over interventions development from integrated towards moving horizons introduced, planning short-term be with work. should thinking humanitarian-style area hosting development the in and working to humanitarian approach developmental between integration further Promote GoK, possiblyatthelevelofprovincial administration. natural resourceand management. Such an agency should support work at inter-district level under pastoral the leadership of in competencies significant with and areas targeted the develop to appointed or mandated agency an through support community host proposed the direct to agency. development community host a of development Support “Locality DevelopmentFund”foreachcommunity. and the Land) Policy. Efforts should therefore be made to support localised planning and implementation, Semi-Arid and Kenya’s(Arid to ASAL and plans development district to turn in linked are which facilitated by an approach based on host community locations and their own planning be processes, can This coordinated. better be should agencies humanitarian and development GoK, from modalities. implementation focus and support Coordinate development partners,withGoKtakingaleadingrole. key among approachcoordinated a developing for basis the form should strategy The linkages. economic and trade of development further for potential the unleash to seek should and camps, the and settlements host the of interdependency the recognise should strategy This agencies. humanitarian from hand-outs than rather support livelihood viable on focuses which required is development. community host for strategy a Develop common pooling of funds by development and humanitarian agencies into some form of With the With camps now over 18 years old and the refugee crisis Given the significant amount of trade taking place with n odcig ogrtr development longer-term conducting In

An overall area development strategy development area overall An

upr t hs communities host to Support Efforts should be made be should Efforts mobile s in Dadaab and Dadaab in s services and in and services more A 11 Executive Summary 12 Executive Summary Livestock tradingin the Dadaabarea that are perceived tofavourelitesattheexpenseofresource owners. implementation of systems change and thinking new of need structuresentrenchedin operating breakto refugeeprogramme. firewoodSeek the supply managing for programme.modalities implementation firewood existing the implementing of ways alternatives Seek represented intheprocess. under-representedgroupsand mobile women, structuresareleadership appropriately traditional for planning,managingandenforcing thewayinwhichnaturalresources are used,ensuringthat District Environment Committees and Community Environment Committees to build their capacity resourcenatural environmentand local committees. to support Expand food at introduced be should data distribution points.Thiswillbeaverysensitiveprocess. biometrics with cards of use The refugees. as registered have who locals de-register to programme a initiate should UNHCR, with Refugee cooperation in Affairs, of Department The investigated. be also should rations refugee providing for system needs-based more a developing for Options handicapped. or elderly sick, be to proven unless - distributions food at present actually are holders card ration that ensure to system a developing to host communities through acquisition of refugee ration cards should be carefully decreased by food. order to of decrease dependency levels provision and reduce needs-based the Dadaab pull factor, and the ownership provision of cardfree food ration community host Address members. community host and refugees both benefit activity.would economic This of level sizeable centrea with urban major a as status its recognises that trade. area and Dadaab the enterprise for for planning development importance its of light in area Dadaab the for Plan Expand support to support Expand dniy new Identify Undertake In Figure 1:Dadaablocationmap Somali refugees. SeeFigure 1foralocationmap. predominantly 277.000 around accommodate officially which Ifo, camps and three Hagadera Dagahaley, of the comprises Province Eastern North Kenya’s in complex refugee Dadaab The 1.1 StudyBackground 1. Introduction 13 Introduction 14 Introduction camps and 100 wide x 120 km long (9,600 km (9,600 long km 120 x wide 100 and camps This camps. the with alignment in fromnorth-south slightly circle,tilted the a than rather oval an fromas mapped was km 50 as defined was study the of purposes the for interaction regular and routine of limit the maps, of analysis and reviewliterature observations, interviews, initial on beyond this distance; economic impacts are being felt as far away as Garissa and Nairobi. Based impacts community host from indistinguishable were and increasing, is this although radius, km 50 a to confined largely were impacts environmental km; 30-40 within clearly most found were impacts socio-economic context, this In refugees. and hosts between interactions routine the to identify the immediate impacts of the camp operations on the surrounding area and to analyse There are many ways to define the Dadaab hosting area and host community. This study sought 1.3 Definingthehostingarea The fullstudyTerms ofReference are inAnnexB. 4. 3. 2. 1. The specificobjectivesoftheimpactstudywere to: 1.2 Objectives PROVIDE s the impactsofDadaabcampsonsurrounding area. Thestudywasintendedto: in Kenya, the GoK and the Embassies of Denmark and Norway agreed to commission a study of Following the recommendations of a 2009 Review of the Danish-funded Regions of Origin Initiative around Dadaab.This,however, requires informeddecision-making. communitieswith working forhumanitarianpartners developmentand GoK,between approach (ALRMP).Suchinterventions arenotalways coordinated andthere scopeisfordeveloping jointa KenyaRedCross Society, CAREInternational andtheAridLands Resource Management Project Team approach to development in the area and bilateral interventions of organisations such as the services in the refugee-affected districts. Recent response efforts have included a joint UN Country attention from donors, UN agencies, NGOs and the Government of Kenya (GoK) on largelyanecdotal.andimpactsthesebecomethe morehaveapparent,As increased beenthere provisionhas scantyof remains areas surrounding the on impacts environmental and economic social, their of In spite of extensive investments in sustaining the camps since their establishment in 1991, knowledge community settlements. host all of locations the pinpoints reliably which available map only the is and team study the of SERVE s PROVIDE ELIMINATE s s

provide recommendations forimproved sustainablepresence oftherefugees. elements ofthesocio-economicimpactcamps;and positive the optimising and impact negative addressingthe for options assess and identify assess the on thehostcommunity; assess the in andaround theDadaabrefugee camps; host andrefugee groups; protracted periods. AS A INSPIRATION AN PLATFORM MYTHS social and economic beneﬁts and challenges environmental impacts ENTRY AND POINT FOR FOR FACILITATE JOINT SIMILAR FOR EVIDENCE BASED A HARMONISED AREAS AN INFORMED AROUND ofthecampsonsurrounding area; APPROACH 2 DECISION MAKING DIALOGUE ). Refer to Figure 2, which is based on the work the on based is which 2, Figure to Refer ). THE WORLD ON TO HOSTING INTEGRATED THE CAMPS AND of the Dadaab refugee camps LARGE PROGRAMME ACTIVITIES AND REFUGEE THEIR POPULATIONS ADDRESSING IMPLEMENTATION IMPACTS AND BOTH OVER CMY CY MY CM K Y M C figure 2.pdf24/08/201011:32:08 1 operations andSomaliculture andsociety.humanitarian pastoralism, and development drylands in expertise incorporated also team The covered assessment. expertise economic as socio-cultural, well as management, and team’sappraisal institutional assessment, and socio-economic biomass The and enumerators. rangeland survey, and and management interpreters environmental local by supported experts, Kenyan two and consultants international four comprising team a by out carried was study The 1.4.1 Organisation 1.4 Methodology Lagdera (in Liboi and Dadaab as seen been traditionally have Divisions refugee-hosting The White =hostcommunityvillages,greencamps,yellowDivisionalboundaries,straightinternationalborder Figure 2:Mapshowingrefugeecamplocationsandstudyarea included withinthestudy. just as much part of the host area, its boundary being only 3 km from Dagahaley camp, and was is District South Wajir in Division However,Sebule District). Faﬁ (in Jarajila with together District) Dadaab Districthas recently beencarvedfrom Lagdera. 1

15 Introduction 16 Introduction s s The methodologyforthesocial/socio-economiccomponentcomprised: Social/socio-economic component 1.4.2 Approach the team. within discussed and compared continuously were Results camps. the in markets and Sebule Dadaab, in impacts economic of assessment on focussed one and communities selected the in assessment socio-cultural and socio-economic the on focussed one studies), consumption biomass camp-based for and assessments environmentalfield the requiredfor as the dividing turn (in assessment on focussed one survey: field the for teams three into split team study The C forthestudyitinerary. Annex to below.Refer further outlined as camps, the from km 50 to up plots sample rangeland Additional surveys were undertaken in the refugee camps (with a focus on their markets) and in 40 of Abak Khaile, Matheghesi, Alinjugur, Welmerer, Borehole 5, Hagarbul, Sebule and Dadaab town. locations eight the in 2010 April during undertaken was report,study inception field the main the in outlined methodology agreed an on Based discussed. and produced was report inception an and (SAG) Group Advisory Study the to made was presentation a Dadaab, and Garissa Nairobi, in convened were meetings various gathered, was information baseline tested, and developed was methodology the which during 2010 February in phase inception an with began study The

1UESTIONNAIRE s 1UESTIONNAIRE s were developedinEnglishandtranslatedintoSomali: qualitative in-depth 15 of average an interviews as and well as one or towns) two focus group discussions Sebule were held. Two and survey instruments Dadaab in (lower survey questionnaire-based quantitative, a in included were households of 5-7% and site each at study sites, representing different as distances from the refugee sampled camps. One or two randomly days were spent were sub-locations associated and settlements community host 20 of out eight Hence focus. to had clearly methodology the complex interactions, and issues uncover to sought that study a areas. and 148.000 surroundingleast at of and population host a settlements With sampled in meetings community and discussions Field study: consulted. of range wide a relevant with stakeholders. Refer held to also Annex wereD for Meetings a NGOs. list and of those agencies met UN and from Annex E and for levels the documents district and regional national, at government from materials other and documents reports, Desk study, meetings, and review of accessible information: additional 115 randomly-selected households representing different sections of each village qualitative questionnaire was introduced through semi-structured, in-depth interviews in an The total. to in questionnaires 398 completed and trained socio-economist, and leader team werethe of experience survey with volunteers administer the quantitative household survey in Cross the eight sample sites, under Red the supervision Kenya Locally-based economic andenvironmental questions);(seeAnnexF) economic, economicandenvironmental questions);(seeAnnexG) The field study consisted of quantitative and qualitative interviews, focus group FOR FOR QUANTITATIVE QUALITATIVE DATA DATA COLLECTION COLLECTION INCLUDING ALSO INCLUDING SOCIO CULTURAL The desk study was based on SOCIO CULTURAL SOCIO ECONOMIC SOCIO 2EVIEW s for J Annex (see details): components following the comprised methodology study environment The Environment component different sources. information, and this was addressed through biased careful cross-checking between potentially data supplied from validate to need the was challenge particular A team. the by town, collected be to Dadaab on primarily focussed had data study most and scarcewere fieldwork statistics Official camps. the in markets and town Sebule economic The were collection. persons data local in and businesspeople, employed with interviews guide to used Garissa. were and Questionnaires Nairobi Dadaab, in partners implementing their and organisations donor UN camps, agencies, refugee the in businesspeople and members community host leaders, elected agencies, government with conducted were interviews and review economist team extensive the by an literature of included also study the of component economic The terms. monetary in and the operations of the agencies were campsidentified, refugeeand as the far of as existence possible the quantified and by evaluated caused impacts economic indirect and direct main The Economic component s 2 3AMPLING s )NTERVIEWS s #OMPARISON s &OREST s a sample of communities from which results could be extrapolated. Due to the complexity of the of fromcomplexity communities the of to resultssample Due which a extrapolated. be could on focus to stage inception the at decided was area,it hosting the in population large the Given 1.4.3 Factorsimpactingchoiceofstudy methodology

Lutheran World Federation. GTZ: and analysed(seeAnnexesHIrespectively). developed also were questions cross-response 45 some and produced was questions all Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). A general percentage-wise response to analysis: Data further attentionorcross-checking. of need in issues specific on information triangulate to used were discussion group Focus study team members with the assistance of trained interpreters familiar with Somali culture. 1 took These categories. wealth different and (CARE), environment (GTZ), shelter(NRC)andcampmapping(LWF) plans, budgetsandevaluationreports. technical audits, reportssupply,fuel on programmes,shelter and waste solid status, aquifer work NGO and and assessments and impact assessments environmental UNHCR-funded security data, food census plans, development district GoK including: measures, volume oftrees, speciesmix,humanimpactsanddeadwoodavailability. and fencing,asabasisforextrapolationtotheother camps. the campenvirons. Deutsche Gesellschaft für TechnischeZusammenarbeit für Gesellschaft Deutsche SURVEY OF STUDIES WITH AVAILABLE OF ON h dt fo te uniaie usinars ee nlsd sn the using analysed were questionnaires quantitative the from data The OPERATIONAL SATELLITE IN )FO RANGELAND LITERATURE CAMP IMAGERY STAFF ON ON PLOTS REFUGEE RESPONSIBLE FROM ENVIRONMENTAL FROM FUEL ; NRC: Norwegian Refugee Council; LWF: Council; Refugee Norwegian NRC: ; CONSUMPTION AND FOR ½ REFUGEE KM to 2 hours each and were conducted by conducted were and each hours 2 to STATUS FROM TO REGISTRATION THE DETERMINE LIVESTOCK REFUGEE CAMPS OWNERSHIP IMPACTS 5.(#2 2 LAND TO . DETERMINE COVER AND WATER CONSTRUCTION CHANGES MITIGATION STANDING SUPPLY IN 17 Introduction 18 Introduction “compensation” for the negative impacts of refugees. There is a risk that any findings from this from findings any that risk a is There refugees. of impacts negative the for “compensation” as provided be must that support for requests of lists long generate to tends communities host and agencies humanitarian between dynamic the of nature The progressed. study the as found in public and at the initial superficial level painted a very different picture of impact than the reality information. It became apparent that much of the information provided by host community leaders Results from the fieldwork gave a consistent picture of impacts with only a few cases of contradictory estimates andhavemarginsoferror. are figures that stated be also should it but area, host the in changes demographic and social figures.these of estimates resultedown Thisinto its insights new make to in had team study the The lack of reliable information on host community population, distribution and status meant that were double-checkedandconservativeestimateswere alwaysused. figures that ensured study However,errors.the amplifying of risk a brings always samples from Generalising impacts. of estimation the for approach bottom-up a use to chose team study the relationin especially information, statistical published of lack the to Due trade, and economics to 1.4.4 StudyLimitationsandRisks avoided possible respondentas bias. far as that methods quantitative using made also were camps the within consumption biomass refugee of measurement and holdings livestock refugee of Estimations influence. human of independent methodologies on was assessment environmental the in focus primary the questionnaire, community the in included were use resource Although natural on recorded. questions were interference human of evidence and composition species biomass, dead usable biomass, standing live which on plots rangeland 40 of sample targeted a assess to environmental aspects of the study. The team therefore made use of empirical measurement tools negative the the on in important wereespecially techniques monitoring objective that refugeesmeant of impacts exclusively almost focus to communities host among tendency observed An influenced bytheexistenceofrefugee campsandtheirassociatedoperations. differentthe of importance werethe they which to extent the sources and incomes household of host of assessment trade and sales of the produce was first addressed, for and was followed by used quantitative determination of was work, from revenues activities, economic of picture approachgeneral The activities. economic community two-step a refugees, interaction and economic to hosts related questions between any on answers biased receiving of risk the Given had tobecollectedinthecommunitiesthemselves. development historical and trends conditions, socio-economic on information the of most that to the Somali border were ruled out. The paucity of existing data on the host communities meant The selection of sampling sites was also influenced by the security situation, and settlements close supervise theirwork. could who members, team study the as sites same the in worked and enumerators recruitedas favoured the use of locally-based enumerators. Village-based Red Cross volunteers were area Dadaab thereforethe of circumstances specific very the and situation refugee politicised heavily The responses forvalidationpurposes. triangulate to made was effort significant a and methods survey qualitative on focus added an had study the questions, some to responses the in bias of likelihood a and studied be to issues aaae cm ad s fre cniuto o te ws N’r Rvr ht ie o Mount on rises that River Kenya. TheLagh Derafloodsperiodically andinundatesparts ofDagahaleyandIfo. Ng’iro Ewaso the of continuation former a is and camp Dagahaley of north immediately passes which plain, flood Dera Lagh the is feature geographical main The east. to west from downwards slopes generally terrain surrounding the while lowest, the being Ifo a.m.s.l., m 120-130 at lie themselves camps The (a.m.s.l.). level sea mean above m 190 and The area within 50 km of the camps is mostly flat or gently undulating with elevation between 110 2.2 TopographyandClimate 1991 andhostprimarilySomalirefugees. since existed have camps refugee The system. livelihood dominant the being pastoralism with the former Wajir District. All fromthree are in Kenya’s kilometres North Eastern Province and are few arid to semi-arid, a is within borderSouth Wajir and District Garissa former its the within are Lagdera and that Fafi camp. Dagahaley sense the in district refugee-hosting a also is South Wajir Districts. Fafi and Lagdera in other each to close located are camps refugee Dadaab The 2.1 Location 2. BackgroundandContext not beingproperly utilised in developmentplanningfortheDadaabarea. study the of risk a thereis otherwise SAG, the carefullyaddressedby be to presentedneed and Lastly, the ownership of the study findings and the way in which the recommendations are finalised the statusandidentitiesofrefugees. determining processesfor open possible most the to contribute commerce,and and movement refugee on controls of border,relaxation the of opening for argue to used are findings the that society.hopes vibrant team a createThe to interaction economic the and trade open of for importance and protection to refugees genuine of right the for advocates refugees. strongly team Somali study of The protection to right the questioning and sentiment anti-Somali fuelling risk findings these of Some refugee/hostidentities. determining in difficulties the and forth, and back people of movement and cross-borderinteractions significant the closed), officially is border the The study also looked at the sizeable trade relationships with Somalia (which are illegal as long as supporting thosecommunitiesthatpromotes self-sufficiencyratherthandependency. of differentway a for argue to but realising,are they that benefits un-quantified previously the of team to endorse any reduction in support to host communities that might appear justified in light compensation to host communities for the hosting of refugees. It is not of the intention of the study issue frequently-raised the perspective into put hostingand impacts, the negative for their as camps well the as area, of benefits significant the on light new shed they as communities, findings risks creating a more difficult relationship between GoK, humanitarian agencies and host vibrant economic interactions that the and the refugees, camps as registered have being community stimulated. host Disseminating the from these people of unprecedented numbers large area, For example, study findings include the sensitive issues of large-scale influx of settlers to the host something thattheSAGwillneedtobeprepared for. is this and rejected, be may relations refugee/host of view entrenched the contradict that study 19 Background and Context 20 Study Findings both for people in the settlements and for those more mobile, and were triangulated through triangulated were and mobile, more those for and settlements the in people for both collected were Figures census. 2009 the for enumerators as acted had who those by provided selected data and leaders local with throughinterviews and camps, randomly fromthe distances various at villages eight in interviews household through established were figures Population above. 2 Figure in shown is team study the by developed map settlement resulting The images. and officers government with interviews through knowledgeable local people, plotting of food established distribution points and analysis of maps and satellite were villages of locations The host communityvillagesandthesizeofpopulation withinthe50kmstudyzone. host the of map accurate community settlementsexistseither. Amajorinitialtask wastherefore No toestablishthelocationof census. 1999 the from data extrapolated using were agencies international and GoK both and study the of time the at released been not had results census 2009 The area. camp-hosting the in people the of number the on figures reliable no are There 3.1.1 Whatarethelocalpopulationdynamics? 3.1 Hostcommunityandhost/refugeeidentities 3. StudyFindings least at of total 148.000 peopleare nowliving inthehostingarea, notincludingthecampresidents. A beyond. and area hosting refugee the within mobility practising people and community comprises both people who are settled in 20 major villages within 50 km of the camps host The experienced. been has population of influx major a as figure this double than moreare Dadaab around densities actual but people/sq.km, 7 around of density population low a have would area an such Normally pastoralists. Somali ethnic are area study the in living people The 2.4 Socio-economicSituation for sourcing buildingmaterials andfuel. the poorest sandy soils ( have east and north the areasto the while camps, the of west and south the to mostly lie which loamier the low rainfall and a lack of nutrients mean that growth rates are slow. The most productive soils are area’sremainderthe The of vegetation. thicker support but bush, dense visibly sustain may soils ( soils clay the of Dagahaley.Some near Dera Lagh the by cover.vegetation likely The of indication general a gives K) Annex area(see the of map soil the so cover land of determinant suggest, and 14 different landscape classes have been identified (IRD, 1999). Soil type may is observation the casual main as scrub, dryland of sea homogenous a in situated not are camps The 2.3 SoilsandVegetation 34 from range temperatures daily Maximum downpours. heavy isolated in often pattern, bimodal a in falling mm 325 of Garissa at rainfall annual mean with arid, as classified areais The between June and August to 38 to August and June between with high rates of evapo-transpiration, interspersed with occasional flooding in poorly drained areas. poorly in flooding occasional with interspersed evapo-transpiration, of rates high with ber gudud ber and most refugee wood harvesting takes place in these morerefugeethese most in and place takes areasharvesting fertile wood raama adable ) and are less fertile, less productive and hence the least attractive o C in February and March. The climate is therefore hot and dry and hot therefore is climate The March. and February in C clay soils are generally the most thinly vegetated, exemplified vegetated, thinly most the generally are soils clay kunia ) found along other valley floors valley other along found ) o C sq.km. RefertoTable 2andFigure 3below. people/ 7 approx. of Province Eastern North of areas rural other for average an with compared km, people/sq 15 now is range km 0-50 acrosswhole density the average The fromcamps. the Population density is highest within 10 km (66 people/sq.km) and declines with increasing distance Table 1:Populationsofhostcommunities households. Thepopulationfigures are showninTablecommunity 1. host 20.000 approximately are there hence people 7-8 of size household average an found study The operation. support refugee the of initiation the since tenfold increased has population host the thus 15.000, around be to reported was figurepre-refugee 1989 The p.a.). annual growth rate an of 11,7% with p.a. (compared41.000, with of the level average for 1999 North estimated Eastern Province the of from 3,7%. population in rise significant a seen has area camp-hosting the that suggests This village. any in settled permanently not pastoralists mobile the of km 50 are 40% and settlements within in are 60% approximately whom of people, 148.000 population least at is camps the that established was it approach, triangulated this Using sources, thestudyalwaysusedmostconservativeestimates. to confidence with applied other,the of populations the estimate discrepanciesof between event the be In villages. non-visited therefore could figures distribution food The villages. selected eight the in well corresponded figures census provisional the and populations reported locally communities, host the reliefcommunity.to food each figuresfor in distribution food food for The distribution and interviews with those involved established the percentage of people being targeted independent interview. Food distribution figures were provided by the NGOs responsible for WFP Total: Sabuli Liboi Jarajilla Dadaab Division

Hagarbul B Welmerer Yumbis Alinjugur Borehole 5 Hagarbul Alikune Kumahumato Saredho Abak Khaile Welhar Matheghesi Weldoni Dadaab Labasigale Dagahley sub-location Settlement/ Shimbirbul Sabuli “Darfur” Kulan closest camp(km) Distance to 27 25 37 42 31 19 10 42 34 27 25 23 17 13 11 3 1 6 2 0 Estimated total population 147.898 25.000 10.000 10.000 19.000 10.160 2.313 3.000 6.053 6.918 5.378 6.918 4.000 6.000 2.162 8.000 3.026 3.459 6.918 7.000 2.594 21 Study Findings 22 Study Findings hr rte ta i ohr ra cnrle b ter u-ln wih r frhr wy Ti is This away. further are which sub-clans despite the fact that this is their the area where negative environmental by impacts are most pronounced. controlled areas other in than rather there converge to chosen have people that suggests refugeecamps the to pronouncedclose most is are grantedaccessforgrazing,waterandsettlement.Thefactthatthepopulation concentration host the of majority the population. These sub-clans inhabit large areas beyond for Dadaab where fellow sub-clan members account South) Wajir in Magarbul and Fafi in Abdwak Lagdera, in of rights have clans Aulihan (the respective sub-clans Ogaden Three Dadaab. their of vicinity immediate wherethe necessarily not access, area wider the to refers generally this that found was it area”, “local the from originate they that state members community host most Although locations towhichtheycouldhavemigrated. many alternative from a much in wider moved region, deliberately have choosing people to settle many in the that camp-hosting and area rather ago than the years 15 than less area Dadaab the in settled of them 70% than more that suggest members community host with Interviews trend. this of driver key the is In-migration camps. the to closest seen been has increase population strongest The Figure 3:Chartshowingpopulationdensityagainstdistancefromthecamps camp Table 2:Dadaabhostcommunitypopulationsandpopulation densitybydistancefromnearest Distance Distance Density (persons/sqkm) Area (sqkm,oval) Total hostpopn. Population 0-10 km 42.213 0-10 km 42.213 640 66 10-20 km 29.241 1.280 23 0-20 km 71.454 20-30 km 44.231 1.920 23 30-40 km 22.296 2.560 0-30 km 115.684 9 40-50 km 3.200 9.918 3 137.980 0-40km Ave. 0-50 15,4 km Ave. forrural NE Province 147.898 0-50km 7 open to pastoralists and can be crossed with few problems, and the recent rains in south-central effectively are border the of sections large as area, Dadaab the to refugees of much- influx anticipated the for implications profound has finding This availability. range and rain by guided are Movements avoided. are corridors transport and towns main the as long as involved, those for problem security a constituted border international the over forth and back movement this that their extended family in Somalia during all or part of the year, and that no-one interviewed reported of members have households community host all virtually that stress to important especially is It built onaterritory-basedconceptofcitizenry, identity andbelonging. areidentity,that clan state transnational a modern the of boundaries the contradicts often which whichever identity is most beneficial at a particular point assume in to time. Somalis ethnic Nomadic many Somalis allowing fiercely agencies, maintain international the and Somalia and Kenya of into taking population, large this difficult. Confusion has been of exacerbated by the different interpretations identity of identities by the states the clearly society,cross-borderis inherently an down of systems livelihood and pinning history the consideration of method fair a at Arriving necessarily meanthatthiscard matchesthereal identityoftheholder. not does card ration refugee a or card ID Kenyan a of holding The area. their in camps the host hosts in the sense that they were settled as there beforeidentified the refugeesbe arrived truly and explicitly agreedcannot to and years 20 last the during area camp-hosting the to come itself has population community host the of much process;clear-cut a rarely is Somali or Kenyan as pastureavailability.accordingto household Kenya a and defining Somalia So between forth and have often members in families the camps; community host community host households also often overlap; have members of moving back degree intimate and deep a with evolved existence, camps, relationships with ethnic Somali host communities have, over the 18 years of the camps’ swathes of land either side of the international border. large For those across Somalis resourceswho sought to refuge approachin the common-property a with together identities, sub-clan and clan cases many in and religion, and culture language, common a share populations two The matter ofadistinctgroup of refugees arrivingandlivingonthelandofadistincthostcommunity. Host and refugee communities overlap closely and their identities are intertwined. It is not a simple 3.1.3 Howarerefugeeandhostcommunityidentitiesdefined? apply definitiveattributionsofsettledormobile. to misleading it makes mobility,which and settlement of combination complex a upon area depend camp-hosting the in households of majority vast the that therefore is finding overall main The form. some in mobility re-adopt to and production of mode livestock-dependent more a to return to expect production pastoral of out fallen have that households Even cycles. annual and reducing risk, and one that is used at various scales both within households and during seasonal for strategy year.key the a of is part mobility for and mobile aresettlement themselves Combing 41% centres, in settled individuals or households those for Even mobile). are they (if settled or settled) are they (if mobile are that households in relatives having least at or settled, others and mobile members some with divided, are interviews) in-depth the in 90% (around households of majority the that is finding important An mobile. 45% settled: 55% is it away further and mobile 35% settled: 65% to closer is ratio the camps the to Closest livestock. with moving usually are 40% around while villages in settled typically are sub-location given a in population the of 60% 3.1.2 Whoismobileandwhosettled? condition ofthenaturalresources. Clearly there are specific factors attracting people to the camp environs, in spite of the degraded 23 Study Findings 24 Study Findings conservative estimatesand actualfigures maybehigher. community.host the representamong These ownership card ration presentsof prevalence estimated the Table3 surveys, village the on Based camps. the to closer higher is ownership of card incidence The cards. ration refugee holding members have households community host of and a conservative consideration of the figures given, the study established that a large proportion triangulation of information from different informants, focus group discussions, eight direct residents, observation camp the strategically-placed of with interviews each extended in with individuals together villages, ten surveyed least at with interviews independent in-depth, on Based 3.1.5 Howmanyfromthehostcommunity areregisteredasrefugees? is takingplace,exceptinDadaabandSebuletowns. sub-clans of intermingling Minimal District. Lagdera in villages in Alihuans for goes same the and Abdwaks are District Fafi in villages the in households all of 95% than Morearea. the in present sub-clan the with relationship direct a necessitates community host a among Settling camps. the in living are but area, community host the in living not areprotection seeking Dadaab to fled refugeeshave genuine who fromthat clear interviews still is it identities, of blurring the of spite In resources. community host access to clans minority for possible even not or difficult more whereas reportedly is utilised, it are affinities sub-clan if easier is access that implies This to resources. access grazing including access, govern that residents camp with agreements various in engaged are who communities, host the of elders and leaders by lines clan along a regulated extent to large also is resources natural to Access relationships. sub-clan these by possible made been has camps, the into drop-outs pastoral local of incorporation the as well as resources, natural but as fellow clansmen. The acceptance of a large influx of people who are given access to local refugeesas seen fact in arenot whom of many camps, the in people the with common in much share they that clear is it deeper digging but refugees, with interaction any deny to tend initially members community Host communities. ‘refugee’ and ‘host’ the between relations dominate times bad and good in resources of sharing of tradition the and backgrounds clan similar The Ogaden sub-clans,ofwhichtheMagarbulare themostnumerous. they form a large proportion of the Ifo and Hagadera camps. In Wajir South are found another four refugees in Dagahaley and Ifo camps. The majority Ogaden sub-clan in Fafi are the Abdwak, and the of proportion large a form they and Aulihan, the are Lagdera in sub-clan majority The Juba. South, Lagdera and Fafi Districts of Kenya are also found across the border in Middle and Lower Wajir in found sub-clans Ogaden same The Darod. the of sub-clans other by followed camps, Ogaden, part of the Darod confederacy, and they also form the majority population in the refugee arearea host Dadaab the in those of majority The Digil-Mirifle. and Ranhanwein riverine the and Hawiye, and Dir Isaq, Darod, the families: clan large six into divided broadly are people Somali refugees? 3.1.4 Clans,accessandinteraction–Howrelatedarethehost Kenya whohavenoconnectiontopastoralsocietiesintheborder areas. enter to seeking those for implications has this and different however,rather are, posts border official at crossing for modalities The expected. agencies international the seek than Kenya to in refugenecessary it find people fewer that meant have drought, of years three after Somalia, than in the host area. Refugees are seen as getting the better deal as international humanitarian international as deal better the getting as seen are Refugees area. host the in than the in sense strong a is There areas.host community that the camp environment rural provides better services and the economic opportunities as seen comparison in are communities host and place taking are activities urban-oriented the where places as seen clearly are camps The the in place camps and takes is largely significant. refugees The and closer the members host community settlements host are between to the interaction camps, Social the more the interaction. benefits. of range wide a for camps the towards look to inclined naturally is community host the With the Dadaab camps being major centres in the area for services, shops and social amenities, 3.1.7 Whatsocialinteractionandlocal politicsareatplay? cooperation betweenthepeoples,hasgreatly smoothedthestayofrefugees. and intermarriage the and roles, and identities of overlap The income. generate and businesses establish investments, make to able are refugees ambitious and existence, vibrant more a have between the camps and neighbouring villages. As a result, the residents of the camps are able to interactions facilitate and conflicts resolve sides both from Elders contracts. and jobs of division the and camps the within plots business of allocation the rights, resource and land of question vexed the over exist Agreements sub-clans. similar from hail who leaders, local refugee the and the camps of leadership the between basis non-formal a on place takes interaction vigorous agencies, government and humanitarian of milieu the outside But Committees. Environmental established. been have and GroupsWorkingEnvironmental communities include resourceaccess natural address to avenues Formal camp-based and host between resolution conflict and During the long existence of the Dadaab camps, both formal and informal avenues for negotiation stakeholders? 3.1.6 Howdonegotiationsfunctionbetweenhostandrefugee community. eliminate double may registration, it is process unlikely to reduce verification significantly the number refugeeof ration cards held ongoing by the host the although So corruptible. be to system registration Kenyan the perceive they identity,as Kenyan of them deny fact in will card ration a holding that believe not do many that clear also a is It whereas rights. tangible income) less offers cardto ID national converts (which food provides it as sense more makes card ration the other.many,the For holding of one holding between choice a made have members community host many registration, biometric to due difficult more become has time same the at card ration refugee a and card ID Kenyan a holding in although that living stressed be also anyone should It for area. host strategy the survival logical a as seen moreover is It card. refugee a obtain to difficult especially considered not is it and widespread is refugee a as registering of practice The there from otherareas inKenya,primarilytoseekabetterlivelihood.Theseare notrefugees. cards. They include both people who are from the host area originally and others who have moved Thus at least 40.500 people out of 148.000 (27%) within 50 km are believed to hold refugee ration Table 3:Estimateofrefugeerationcardownershipinthe Dadaab hostcommunity Assumes: NGO contractingwhichmakesitmore beneficialtobeofficiallyKenyan). authorities, the repeatedgovernment drive to register people in the Kenyan system and engagement in local business and

50% hold cards from 0-10 km; 30% from 10-25 km; 20% from 25-50 km; 15% in Dadaab town (due to the proximity of proximity the to (due town Dadaab in 15% km; 25-50 from 20% km; 10-25 from 30% km; 0-10 from cards hold 50% (i.e. hostcommunitymembersregistered asrefugees) 0-10 km 14.456 Ration card holders 10-25 km 10.572 25-50 km 15.472 40.501 Total 25 Study Findings 26 Study Findings Apart from health and education, the refugee hosting area is generally underserved by the district ResourceresourcesProjectLands natural Management Arid (ALRMP). and the reportedbe is to funded programmes. The major ongoing initiative in support of food security, livestock, agriculture are clearly seeing better implementation than other sectors and enjoy better support from donor- implementation performance is reported to be limited. However,but the sectors, health and all education sectors in initiatives of range wide a reports plan area.The host the in population the actual of third one than less numbers that population a for in planned are captured services not Hence plan. also the is area host the in increase population significant The process. planning the refugee support operation are apparently not seen as issues and that merit attention in camps the district The communities. host to agencies humanitarian by provided support the capture not does plan the and refugees the of presence the with associated opportunities development significant the upon productively build could that measures communities any propose different or camps the the of around situation specific the analyse not does It vegetation. of over-use the from degradation environmental to relation in camps refugee the of presence the mentions only but activities, planned of range wide a lists 2008 of Plan Development District Lagdera The development plans,althoughitwasnotpossibletoaccessaplanforWajir South. being established of was within Lagdera during (Dadaab) the study out district period. Lagdera fourth and Fafi A have carved developed their Garissa. district of was out carved South were Fafi Wajir and Lagdera 2007-8: while Wajir in created were districts refugee-hosting three The 3.1.9 Developmentprocesses,actorsandinitiativesinthehostarea clans whoownlandlocally, andthehighlevelofcompetitionforaccesstonaturalresources. Deterrent factors keeping people from moving to the host area are the need to belong to one of the of therefugees. as the economy in Dadaab is fully driven by the funding of the refugee operation and the presence factors are common to other urban pull centres of the region, these but there are of also important differences Some opportunities. employment more of existence the and places; comparable other in areathan the in moreservices of availability the items; non-food and receivefreerations and refugee a as register to opportunity the Somalia; via imports and camps the in distribution via subsidy indirect to due food cheap of availability the include: important most The Kenya. of There are also a number of pull factors to the hosting area that are not typical of other ASAL areas livestock holdingsandtheirownassessmentofrelative wealth). fact the poorest, but are actually slightly better off than the average (as exemplified by their larger study revealed that people who have settled the in the host surprisingly villages within but the last five settlement, years are to not in leading factor a relief,also is food Poverty water,services. health with and centres schools in people concentrating factor push major a been have herds population in the Dadaab host community. Droughts and significant reductions in family livestock the on effectsprofound had have recurrentdroughts Kenya, of areas ASAL the in elsewhere As 3.1.8 Whatarethepush,pullanddeterrentfactorsinhostarea? need forcompensationdirected atthehostcommunity. claimed a and camps the presenceof the with problemsassociated stressthe vocally quite and typically politicians community host support, donor and government of form the in constituents for possible deal best in-depth the getting at of aimed naturally politics process local With discussion. a and interview through out drawn be only can and the downplayed of typically presence are the refugees from arising Benefits hosts. to not but refugees to applied are standards district implementation continues to be an important vehicle for development in the Dadaab area work concentrated on the new counties/former greater districts. ALRMP and its close support to and hold on put be might process this adopted been having Constitution new the with however districts, new four the in groups steering district of establishment the for provided being also is Support initiatives. development facilitate and coordinate plan, to supported been have groups the ALRMP offices in Garissa and Wajir. At the level of these two greater districts, district steering and the formation of a number of community development committees. It is being managed from is cited as the key development initiative in the area. It has supported community action planning EU, DFID and Danida. ALRMP has been working in several of the Dadaab host communities and WB, the from support donor likely and million 180 USD of budget expected an with preparation vulnerability. ALRMP is in its second phase running to the end of 2010 and a third phase is under decrease and security food increase will which level community at investments to support and communities of empowerment the on project’sis the focus and agency Arid GoK other lead the and is Lands Kenya Northern of Development of Ministry The Kenya. of districts ASAL all in (ALRMP addresseswhich Europeandevelopment (EU) the Union and World (WB) the Bank by supported Project Management Resource Lands Arid being implementedinthehostingarea are asfollows: humanitarian the by initiatives development Additional implemented A. Annex in described are are They Dadaab. in working initiatives agencies development community host of number A development associatedwiththecampsandhostarea isinpracticeverylimited. arise between host communities and refugees. that GoK issues addressoversight politicians and local regulation and administrations of districts trade the and and business operation refugee the roleareorganisations humanitarian of range a and UNHCR management. camp in implementing important an playing increasingly is and presence its increased has (DRA),which Affairs Refugee of Department the with lies camps the and refugees managing for GoK within responsibility The refugee with associated hosting inanyoftheareas where campsare located. opportunities or impacts addresses not does also but country the in for Wealth and Employment Creation 2003-07 (the Kenyan PRSP) addresses development issues Strategy Recovery Economic Kenyan the level, national the At issues. population host – refugee gives overall guidance for planning for the province and its districts. This Policy does not address Kenya of Lands Arid Semi and Arid the for Policy National 2009 the but Provinceexists, Eastern responsibility.planning that fulfil to it for North the of development the for plan overall specific No GoK has the lead planning responsibility for the host area. The district development plans are a tool developmentefforts.the variousgovernment by underserved be to reported is area refugee-hosting the and refugees the of presence the by No district. the attempts are madetoaddress thespecificdevelopment challengesandopportunitiespresented in operation refugee the or camps refugee the of presence the addresses not that the same team assisted both districts in plan development. As in Lagdera, the Fafi plan does plan forLagdera.Itaddresses thesameproblems and proposes thesamesolutions,suggesting The Fafi District Development Plan was also developed in 2008 and follows the same format as the planning process are mentioned. development provincial any to links no but 2030, Vision for TermPlan Medium the particularly the main providers of project support. The district plan is linked to national policies and strategies, administration and few development initiatives are described. The humanitarian organisations are ). LM i a ao GK initiative GoK major a is ALRMP 27 Study Findings 28 Study Findings behalf of WFP in the Dadaab host area and the NGO WASDA on food reliefALRMP, distributing under for responsibleInitiative is Management DroughtKRCS relief. food WFP basic to health packages.Thishasincludedsupporttonomadic clinicstoservemobilepastoralists. access for Province Eastern North in areas underserved targeting is 2003 in initiated the population, GoK is supporting basic health provision in the Dadaab area. A special programme GoK (and donor) health sector support of healthcare outreach andthisconstitutesanimportantservicetothehostpopulation. change. The KRCS has been the main provider of support to the host community within the area in the communication of HIV/AIDS and sexual reproductive health to promote sexual behavioural needs for the host community. The project health has further basic engaged youths, the both in address and out to of school, activities visit outreach medical monthly on relies population the of half than More constructed. were latrines demonstration and hospital sub-district a to upgraded donor and satellite transfusion centre was constructed in Garissa, the a Dadaab Health Centre was and 2008 January in provincialblood A 2012. completed projectuntil the of continuation a to lead to expected is was phase bridging phase first The 2005. since Dadaab in host communities and refugees both targeting project health integrated an implementing been has (KRCS) interventions. health Cross Red Cross/Danish Red Kenya for developmentsupporttothehostarea. projectvehicle andthe significant slow a implementation become to likely not is rate it mean that significantinstitutionaldelays.toThefurtherextended the beenduechallenges has of but 2010, 4 3 partners. implementing the within capacity of lack a and them being a complicated funding system, deficiencies in project preparation (especially budgeting) 2009concluded that implementation had been very slow. Various reasons were listed, key among WFP,UNICEF, UNDPandUNHCR (collaborating withGTZ). assessmentAn theprojectof Junein MinistryWaterof Irrigation;and ALRMP, MinistrytheEducation oforganisations UN and including Implementationis partially supported by ALRMP. Actual implementation is being carried out by the UNICEF,betweenUNDP.dividedWFP, and is UNHCR budget environment. The rehabilitate the andlivestock their for watersecurity, localimproveandpasturesecure food, own theirproduce to areastargeted the incommunities host empower to designed is projectThe building. peace of intervention include education, water and sanitation, rural roads, environmental conservation and creation as a means to address the inequality between the refugee theandlong-term food hostsecurity ofcommunity. the host community, Otherthrough provision areas of food assistance and asset withbudgeta ofaround USD million2 from the UNand Japan. The overall goal isalso toimprove project.host-community Kenya UN The host area couldbetreated asagrowth axisandreceive aspecificfocusinthethird phase. Dadaab the respect this In added. be will districts arid the in axes growth of number a on focus added An vulnerability. of reduction and livelihoods and production improvedsecurity, food on and holds the possibility of further facilitating development. The third phase will continue to focus the needssomewhatlower thaninotheraridpartsofKenya. the availability of additional free or cheap food sources (from refugee rations or illicit imports) make of Kenya, the food relief is crucial for avoiding outright famine. In Dadaab it is, however, likely that Wajir SouthDevelopment Association. Report ofinteragencyjointassessment missionforhost-communitiesinDadaabandTurkana (2009). Based on food security assessment undertaken in the ASAL of Kenya by the by Kenya of ASAL the in undertaken assessment security food on Based . As part of a national effort to provide health services to Thistwo year project was launched in December 2007 3 The project was extended to finish in July 4 in Wajir South. As in other arid parts h Kna e Cos Society Cross Red Kenya The people awayfrom theimmediatehostcommunityarea closesttothecamps. attract to seek would it as beneficial, be provisionwould service prioritised districts) (throughthe the government which by in approach supplies) comprehensive more water A agencies. and humanitarian Dadaab-based schools facilities, (health services of provision the by over-ridden and this has attracted more people. District-led planning for the distribution of services has been agencies) humanitarian by extent large a (to area the in provided been have Services operation. refugee large-scale the of consequence clear a is area host the in people of concentration The area donotallowforsignificantimprovements inbreeds andinfodderproduction. production can be improved should not be overstated, however, as the conditions in the Dadaab pastoral which to extent The attractive. less becomes area Dadaab the if areas other to moved be can and mobile inherently is by which production, pastoral support to sense further makes it out, phased be to likely point some at is operation refugee the that Given sustainable. locally moderate support be never to will that initiatives agricultural promoting than seek rather improvementsproduction pastoral and this recognise to need efforts Development area. the in failed products in the camps. Alternative production droughts.systems such as agriculture during have reportedly largely animals to livestock for markets fed ready the with associated be closely also is production can of mode pastoral that The food relief cheap of availability local the on and movements livestock large-scale upon dependent is which and area host the in significantly up gone has that production vast a production, the pastoral on that dependent remain note people local to of majority important is it significantly, increased has population host the Although less significantifthephase-outtakesplacegraduallyoveralongerperiodoftime. be will impact The area. the in operation refugee the of out phasing future a repercussionsfrom or free food and access to the markets that the camps provide, there are opportunities likely to be serious local by cheap area to access on Dadaab dependent intimately livelihoods their the with and camps, the to with associated attracted population in increase significant very a With in- significant that expected be migration willtakeplaceifopportunitiesarise,andindeedthisiswhathastranspired. to is it access, facilitate affiliations clan and opportunistic are the for process planning overall an people arecommon, wheremovements Dadaab, arealike pastoral of a province.In the or districts part not is and agencies humanitarian the to left been extent significant a to has population host the to services of provision the hence and processes planning any in captured not is increase population significant the and camps; the by created readymarkets the of use morebeneficial make productionto pastoral support effortsto specific of host community members involved in trade with the camps and within the camps; there are no are, for example, no advisory programmes or micro-finance initiatives to support the large number opportunities, but their response has not been supported and has largely gone unnoticed. There these to respond to quick been have communities Local present. size this of operation an and refugees many so of presence the that opportunities development the on capitalising agencies most immediate and visible problems, and there is little evidence of government and development In opportunities. utilise to Dadaab when this and dilemma has problems resulted address in to a short-term when compensatory decide approach to that addresses difficult only is the it Hence out. phased be will operation support associated the and homeland their to return will refugees the when known be cannot it Dadaab, like situation refugee protracted a in level fundamental a At opportunities. and challenges development of number a experiences area host Dadaab The 3.1.10 Developmentchallengesinthehostarea 29 Study Findings 30 Study Findings to the rations). Diversification of livelihood strategies also includes the education of children in order thattheymightgetpaidemploymentandsupport theirfamily.children of education the includes also strategies livelihood of Diversification rations). the to by being registered as refugees themselves or by sharing with family members who have access distributed by the KRCS or WASDA food reliefand a to large relatives) number with also sharing have through access or to (directly refugee access rations have (either all Hence, rations. refugee and/or relief food local to access have they that ensure also households all and diversified are interviewed of However,livestock. some livelihoods own 87% households of majority vast The livelihood. secondary with pastoral, significant no having overwhelmingly 84% and livelihood primary their are as production pastoral citing households community host the in Livelihoods 3.2.1 Howdohouseholdsdiversifylivelihoods andmakealiving? management 3.2 Impactsonlivelihoods,productionandnaturalresource Water developmentinDadaab area that recognised theimmenseimportanceofrefugee campsandassociatedopportunities. community,refugee-affectedthe for strategy development overall an of part form would but area host immediate the to “compensation” providedas be longer no would support Such camps. to transport ease to support infrastructure and camps, the with associated opportunities business and trading routes,in livestock training along provisionservices, services veterinary contracts, of concentration of population near to the camps. Such opportunities could include firewood supply the refugee operation can be provided to communities further away from the Another development challenge is how to ensure that benefits and opportunities associated with camps, to avoid further very dynamic. is households individual for production pastoral in changes and holding livestock of picture the not trivial numbers and (given arethat the study was These conducted just after a serious shoats. drought) indicate morethat report 17% and cattle more report 20% ago, years five than now one of decreasing livestock numbers per household, 12% of households still report more camels is picture general the although And average. overall the around sizes herds with households of smaller percentage of households with large livestock herds alongside a much larger percentage markedly a now is there and holdings livestock of nature the in changes been also have There to increase livestockholdings. being completely depleted. According to local views, there is still room in average and good years higher.increasepasturean the such without that place seems taken browseIt hasand resource per household, total host community livestock numbers are still estimated to be four or five times holding livestock in drop 50% estimated an alongside years the 20 last in the increaseover population ten-fold human to eight- an With area. the in livestock of number total the in increase substantial a in resulted has households community host of number the in rise large the years, Although average livestock holdings per household have decreased substantially over the last 15 or relief with feeding refugee foodduringthedry periodsoftheyear.facilitate to being reason one round, year all settlement the around kept production.However,pastoral optimising in element vital typically a herdis as the seen of is part Mobility patterns. movement age-old in available, is grazing where on depending border Somali are trekked long distances and a significant numbers of virtually animals are and moved areaback and the forth over in the livelihood everyone with more than a of few sheep or goats (shoats) keeps sourcepart of their herd mobile. Livestock important most the far by is production Pastoral 3.2.2 Whatdevelopmentscanbeseeninpastoralproduction? villages. areas, with basic services like water and schooling usually available within a short distance of the food, services and donor-funded projects is more pronounced than in other comparable pastoral less indicate does it 60-65%, around acute poverty of around Dadaab than in other whole comparable areas. However, a the dependency on free as Province Eastern North for absolute poverty of prevalence rural the to compared directly be cannot findings study the Although all. at livestock no have households of 3% than poor.Fewer being as themselves saw 20% only and with a heavy burden of in-migration. In fact no-one interviewed classified themselves as destitute and memory in droughts worst the of one of out coming area pastoral a for expected be would than pronounced less are levels poverty However, prevails. still poverty widespread livelihood, a together piece to strategies different of range a adopt households community host Although profitable toselllivestockandbuygrain. it make area host the in exchange of Rates meat. and milk of diet pastoralist classical the from away families move to continue changes dietary and increased has market the on Dependence camps orinDadaabtown. the to adjacent immediately communities the in significant only is employment formal to Access transport cart donkey services and such pastoral products provide and the main source of income for 88% of respondents. firewood milk, livestock, include These environs. camp the in immediate settled have who people local other to or camps the to products sell households Many 31 Study Findings 32 Study Findings Only duringtherainyseason are themajorityofthese livestockkeptinthehostarea. community is estimated to be 80-100.000 camels, 200-250.000 cattle and 300-350.000 shoats. host the by owned livestock of number the Meanwhile camps. the in kept are cattle (shoats) 8.000 and sheep/goats 53.000 that estimated and count livestock a undertook team study The to a15-20kmradiusfrom thecamps. the from away camps and grazed by host community members. Thereforekept grazing competition is largely limited are refugees by owned livestock any, if Few, allows. movement daily this and than away morning further grazed each are few very flocks that established large Interviews evening. in the in back out brought taken are camps the of residents by owned Livestock 3.2.3 Whoownsthelivestockandhow many? whether ornotahouseholdisfullypartiallysettled orhasremained mobile. communities, host in pastoralism in involvement sustained of level overwhelming an study,with the by observed not was pastoralism from away livelihoods in evolution However,assumed this assumption that pastoral production and pastoral mobility does not offer a future for many people. agencies there has been a tendency to support development and district as well as humanitarian Among initiatives. support production pastoral some seen communities host have NALEP and ALRMP like programmes specific through only The and area host the limited. in limited is production pastoral support been to administrations district of capacity have trading and products pastoral breeds, pastoral to improvements and and other settlement-oriented infrastructure. Support to veterinary services, mobile social facilities agencies tend to be focussed on schools, clinics, boreholes (for mixed livestock and human use) these from communities host in investments capacity, technical or understanding mandate, of limitations to Due Dadaab. in agencies humanitarian the by implemented initiatives community host various the in support limited very received has life of way pastoral local the the system, livelihood of features prominent most the far by are mobility and production pastoral Although considered necessarytoget livestockherds backtopre-2006 levels. is rains normal with years five threeto of recoveryperiod A 2010. April and January between fell and droughts most such households expect a significant after increase in their holdings again as a result increase of the good rains normally which numbers Livestock respondents. several by Droughts in which large number of livestock die-off are a recurrent phenomenon, as vividly recalled economic enrichment. that shoats are seen more as subsistence animals and facilitate participation in barter rather than benefits from trading. For shoats the picture is greatersomewhat different with of less correlation, realisationindicating the into translates predictably wealth livestock Thus participation. market from income higher with closely correlate cattle and camels of holdings larger that found was It total the number of terms in significant more are they but participating, households of percentage the of terms in access market good with settings pastoral other differentfrom very not are livestock selling livestock at least one per month into one of the camps. The total sales figures for milk and into regional market centres, primarily Garissa, but more than 30% of all households are now also 50% of all households sell milk to the camps on a regular basis. Livestock have always been sold moremushroomedthan and has milk of selling The markets. major their and refugeecamps the supply to specifically developed been have community host the in systems production Pastoral ofhostcommunityhouseholdsinvolved. alternatives to pastoral production, based on the 5 (TLUs) Tropical12,8 of average an own households community host that estimated is It Units Livestock refugeesby figureThis all. at differentsignificantly is from reportednormally that leaders. local by owned not camels with and shoats, for 6 cattle, for 25 of factor a is difference The camps. the residentsthe of morethan much livestock own members community host figuresthat The show study did not investigate the impact of the refugee camps on land sales beyond the defined host the While individuals. influential few very a only involve again and town Dadaab and camps the small number of the a host community elite. by Land sales areareas limited to fenced the areas immediately in around controlled and implemented is it camps, the to close observed been has Likewise pastureland is not generally rented out by local people, and to the extent that this practice circle being paid to tend livestock, except in the camp environs where hired graziers are employed. friends, on the basis of reciprocity. The study found no evidence of people outside this immediate or family close by or them owns which household the of members by tended be may Livestock weakening ofprevious landmanagementsystems. other periods. This is surprising, and could be linked to the significant influx of population and the for orderfodder in conserve season to the reserves of grazing part to during livestock by access given are relationshipaccess to grazing close in the host a area. Nevertheless, with there seem to those be few or - if and any sub-clans - regulations affiliation to same limit the sub-clan of and members clan reciprocity.Only on dependent are grazing to access regulating for Systems increase inoveralllivestock numbersisclearlyacontributingfactor. grazing has generally become less or much less available during the last 20 years. The significant is acknowledged to have recovered significantly during 2010, there is still uniform agreement that and foraging takes place further away, often several hundred kilometres distant. Although grazing however,grazing season dry the During belongs. household particular a which to locations the restrictedlargely to is livestock community host of foraging and grazing season, rainy the During becoming theownersofgrazingland. effectivelyare who individuals few a only of benefit the to range the of privatisation to contribute of the host community as a threat to pastoral production and its essential element of mobility, and and “greenbelts”. Greenbeltsland established grazing with of donor fencing support are the seen by and and experienced by by settlements, water,the and majority camps and the food of expansion cheap/free physical the access to year-round immobile partly herds of some keep to populations around water points with depleted grazing and browsing resources, by the tendency fast-growing by hampered being is system, pastoral the for essential Mobility,so camps. the in based livestock of numbers the than significant herd more much livestock are the which above, by presented sizes indicated are impacts These patterns. grazing and mobility on impacts profoundhaving is this and settlement human in rise steep a seen refugee-hostingareahas The 3.2.4 Howisgrazing,browsingandlandmanaged? diversified livelihoodstosupportthemselves. the 25 TLU threshold but that more than half have fewer than 25 TLUs and must therefore rely on the number of livestock required. The study findings suggest that 40-50% of households exceed half only has community host the that clear is it production, pastoral from entirely itself sustain to Africa East for standards accepted to according TLUs 25 of minimum a needs people 7-8 of The average holding is based on (90.000 camels x 1,1) + (225.000 cattle x 0,7) + (325.000 shoats x 0,1) x shoats (325.000 + 0,7) x cattle (225.000 + 1,1) x camels (90.000 on based is holding average The = 256.500TLUs, dividedby20.000hostcommunity households. 5 , though they may not necessarily be present in the host area. Assuming that a household 33 Study Findings 34 Study Findings the quantitative questionnaire had ever been employed, typically with a government institution, government a with typically employed, been ever had questionnaire to quantitative respondents the all of 12% Only employment. formal any had ever have camps, settlements the those to closest and town Dadaab in except community, host the from people few Overall, 3.2.7 Whatisthesignificance ofemploymentforhostcommunities? members seektosolvetheirenergyneedsinthe most practicalandcost-effective way. community host and residents camp that given situation, this change to going is camps the to charcoal limited Only increasing. is is reportedburning so far, conflict but the increasing distances over which firewood must be transported for potential the and laborious more becoming is a whole, including both the camps and surrounding communities. The local collection of firewood The demand for energy for household use is growing with the increasing population in the area as available resources (see3.6.7formore details). lion’sthe the for competition increaselocal further contracts the and funds available the shareof take chiefs and elders while camps), the from (usually outside from labour because in bring benefitting contractors not are they find who members community host from programme this of programme the of fuel wood purchase and supply to the camps. manage In several areas there is resentment and reduce to sought have collection of area firewood and building Dadaab materials. The most prominent the initiative has been in the organised working organisations Several the in sale for camps orthehostcommunities(furtherdetailsinAnnexL). destined mainly is way this in collected Firewood commercialised. increasingly been has and carts donkey using men by over taken been has process collection greater,the become has sources firewood good to distance the lower.As is firewood collectable of quality between communities close to camps and those further away. However, closer to the camps the firewood, typically every second day. There seems to be no significant difference in the time spent girls in the host communities. Host community women spend two to five hours per trip and collecting women by collection for firewood quality low only leaving settlements, nearby and camps the to close find to difficult firewoodis quality Good camps. the in based firewoodharvesters by buying and selling. However, commercial provision of firewood to the camps is largely carried out its in engaged aregroups both and alike, populations camp and communities host by of members undertaken is materials building and firewood that of Collection (given capita). equal per less more use or latter more the is populations two the from host demand the the 200.000, and perhaps of camps the from materials building communities is and very significant. With a host population of firewoodaround 150.000 and a camp population for demand combined The 3.2.6 Whatisthenatureoffirewoodandbuildingmaterialcollection? likely tobelimitedkitchengardening incompounds,where domesticwastewaterisavailable. is farming aroundViable succeed Dadaab. to unlikely very is farming that aremeans costs high), high cost of growing crops in a dry environment (where irrigation water must be pumped and unit the with together area, the in foodstuffs of cost low relatively The part. take to asked specifically and freeinputs weregiven they because so did they said participated who those and farming of the returns have so far been disappointing. In fact no respondent reported any positive experience part, taken have who those for and farming, of form any werein previouslypeople involved local Farming has been promoted in the host communities by several development agencies. Very few 3.2.5 Whathavebeentheexperiencesoffarming? increase inpopulationandtradeactivitiesaround Dadaab. the of consequence a as risen have Garissa in values rental and prices land that likely is it area, committee to moveelsewhere. water village a by asked be might they over-burdenedand be may supplies certain season dry nearby community). Sometimes nomads bring diesel to pump water for their livestock, but in the a from supply supplementary for agreement an or engine stand-by a having as (such aredeveloped solutions but pumping, in delays cause sometimes diesel of lack and breakdowns Engine In contrast with earlier times, water is no longer seen by host communities as a scarce resource. potable waterthatiswellabovetheaverageforother aridareas ofKenya. investments in water supply infrastructure have afforded host communities a degree of access to boreholeto access have now villages host in significant The distance. walking close within water livestock been troughs have been constructed and in all communities tap-stands visited. have More with than 90% of boreholes those living and initiatives operation refugee the development in active agencies water the by supported Many access. improved reporting respondents of 83% with livestock, and people both for secure more and easier become has water to Access 3.3.1 Howisaccesstowaterandhowhasitchanged? 3.3 Impactsonsocialinfrastructureandservices side-lined. being are need in people some how and rations of distribution the control committees security sharing the of nature The needy. system most varies, but in some places discontent thewas expressed with the manner in for which local food available amount the on impact an have does members community to distribution wide the clearly but not, or true is this if establish to difficult has food relief Kenya, of areas great importance.Community memberscomplainthatthefoodrelief ASAL isinsufficient,however. Itis other in As wealthiest. the to poorest the from ranging relief, food receiving regularly report households interviewed of 100% to close hence members, be well implemented. The food is shared along family and household lines between all community Lagdera) and WASDA (in Wajir South) on behalf of WFP, and the operation is generally reported to and Fafi (in Society Cross Red Kenya the by area Dadaab the in distributed widely is relief Food 3.2.8 Howisrelieffoodreachingpeople? have incomefrom employmenthaveatendencytoinvestitinlivestock. larger livestock holdings than the average, and secondly that people in the host communities who they invest in livestock if they have money. This suggests firstly that those with employment have that stated respondents these of majority a time same the At holdings. livestock average above all are These camels. 40 than more have also 30% Around cattle. 40 than more have 23% and cattle 40 to 10 have experience employment or employment with respondents of 51% Around nurseries orasinstitutionalcooks. dominated and employment opportunities for women are limited, and include employment in tree male- are jobs these of Most in work). NGO jobs, worked (security activities camp-related in or have camps the or work members community host Several camps. the and Dadaab from 10 km than less live 40% experience, employment with members community host of 12% the Of support agencies. community members often cite employment as the most important benefit brought by the refugee Host development. greenbelt and farming the dryland in nurseries, tree FaIDA of operations labour-intensiveand RRDO NGOs local the with work unskilled for opportunities finding now are people Some operation. refugee the to linked agencies with generally camps the to closer but 35 Study Findings 36 Study Findings agency-supported hospitals are available in the event of complications. This is an opportunity that but level community at primarily place takes delivery Child Dadaab. in and camps of the in freecharge accessed are hospitals agency-equipped and camps refugee the in clinics private use lack staff and medicines - an aspect that is important to address. Host community members also villages the in clinics mobile and dispensaries several that given divided, is not or improved has perceptionsRespondents’ Services. Medical facilities of health Ministry to the access whether of host communities, usually in the form of outreach clinics and dispensaries built in cooperation with The development of health services has been supported by the humanitarian agencies working changed? with 3.3.3 Howisaccesstohealthservices andsanitation,howhasit to competeforcertainemploymentopportunities. not is education adult but Dadaab in elsewhereskills available necessary expressedthe communities lack host they and that view the centre training vocational a has NRC town. Dadaab in except high, reportedbe is to communities host in population adult the among rate illiteracy The new families. host districts. These are needed because of in situ population growth and the continued influx of operation. Additional school facilities are prioritised in the government’s development plans for the settled relatives. Only one nomadic school is operating in the with area staying by and school it attend to is families not pastoral of linked part to mobile the from childrenrefugee for possible it community through employed are teachers initiatives using a school fee top-up. The extended family structures typical of communities, the host area make settled recently most and smaller the in typically teachers, provided not has government the Where materials. local and labour of have all supported school construction in the host area, usually alongside community contributions The Ministry of Education, the Constituency Development Fund (CDF) and humanitarian agencies fully are Dadaab in agencies utilised. by offered scholarships and opportunities educational captureto eager are communities Host income. and employment through household the to returns in childrenbring their will of education the what unrealistic)of perhaps expectations (and high have generally Parents sexes. both for prioritised equally now is attendance that seems it rate, higher a at attended boys previously whereas and schools, attend of girls and 85% boys (by Both improved respondents). have to said was education to access areas all in and have school villages primary All a down. settling for reason key a as education gave interviewed those of Most 3.3.2 Whatisthestatusofeducationinhostarea? (further detailsinAnnexM). in the vicinity of the villages. Host communities are paying for water as they do elsewhere in Kenya season dry the spend not do livestock many that means strategy coping a as mobility of use the pastoralists from other districts and changing the use of grazing and forage resources. However, boreholes has influenced pastoral production in the area by decreasing overall mobility, attracting fromwater potable of supply ample preventingThe in resolvingaccess. active andover conflicts facilities surrounding and boreholes was committee the livestock their their in bring nomads when that and maintained that satisfactorily were well, worked generally committee water local tap- their that reported respondents All separate hours. several for often queue, at to have people where system stands different a follows generally water household of Collection livestock. their water can water they when the times with members of of lists members up draw committees are The associations. members community and boreholes manage committees Water as muchinfluenceoverhownewservicesare targeted. to the agencies. People further away and those who are more mobile have not hosting been able to exert for compensation clearly as most demands their voice to able been understood have camps the to close leaders Local tacitly refugees. is this and agencies, humanitarian the from infrastructure social in investments greatest the attract to able been have camps the to closest link between growth in services and growth in the settled population. Those communities settled close a is there and populations settled for cater to designed predominantly are They services. such access to becomes it easier the camps, the to closer The population. in growth significant the consideration into taking even area, pastoralist remote a in expected be normally would that The concentration of social services in host communities is relatively high compared to the situation 3.3.6 Howconcentratedisaccesstosocialservices? communities. host visited the of several in available now are services telephone energy.Mobile solar use also many in installed is energy Solar often services community.charging phone providingmobile shops and dispensaries, and schools mosques, host the in available not otherwise is but sets, generator run privately from camps the of sections in and town Dadaab in available is Electricity 3.3.5 Whatisthestatusofaccesstoelectricityandcommunication? firewood, buildingmaterials,foodandotherproducts toandfrom thecamps. also make limited use of buses to Nairobi and Garissa. Donkey carts are widely used to transport members community Host food. buy or collect and facilities health access relatives, visit trade, buses, matatus, pick-ups and taxis. Commercial transport is used to go to the refugee camps to of form the in transport vehicular of use increased report respondents community host of 80% 3.3.4 Howhasaccesstotransportchanged? constructing sanitationfacilitiesisincreasing. The fast growing population settled in the host communities means that the need for planning and programmes. community host various through agencies support refugee of assistance the with Latrines are seen in all communities although coverage is still very low. Most have been constructed occurrence ofmalariainthecampsare agoodindicator oftheireffectiveness. has transport public decreased of reports and services area.Improvedthese access can people remotewhich with ease the improved also otherwise this in services such of availability the changed profoundly has accessed be can services health where centres as town Dadaab and whether their patients are refugees or host community members. The development of the camps record not do camps refugee the in Hospitals Kenya. of parts arid remote other in exists rarely 37 Study Findings 38 Study Findings to the camps. Intermarriage between refugees and host community members does occur but the There are few female-headed households and these are most common in the settlements closest and thecollectionoffood relief. trade in involved be and centres the in stay while can people older livestock, and children and the women married herd can men unmarried Young opportunities mobility. the and from settlement benefit with to associated able are households that ensure and livelihoods, other and Extended family structures remain strong and govern families’ participation in pastoral production had especiallypositiveimpactsforwomen,asthe mainday-to-daycaretakers ofthefamily. directly by women than men. The easier access to services and transport in the hosting area has more and felt been clearly have food impacts environmental the benefit, cheaper equal of is rations free opportunities, to access economic the Whereas women. and men for differently out and debt idleness, problemsof associated and under-employmentmales resultin settled to of tendency a has This they need to go further for firewood or become involved in additional income-generating (if increasedactivities). even or same the remained have girls and women of those while reduce to tended have boys and men of duties the villages, in settled household of parts or households the For been seeninthisdivisionoflabour. and are responsible for other domestic chores and income-generating activities. Little change has firewood and water for household use, take care of children, handle and trade milk, prepare food trek and trade livestock, and gather and trade firewood commercially, while water,herd,women boys gender-based.stronglyand is Men communities host and in labour of division girls The collect 3.4.1 Whataretheimpactsrelatedtogenderandage? 3.4 Impactsonsocialstructuresandinstitutions Mobile pastoralistmovingcampinDadaabarea khat addiction. The impacts of the refugee camps on host communities play communities host on camps refugee the of impacts The addiction.

6 6 clan competitionisjoinednowbystrugglesamongdifferent interpretations ofIslamic doctrine. and level camp Dadaab at impact an have still Somalia from emanating Differences leadership. elected of system a by extent large a to supplemented been has this but role prominent a play also elders clan refugees, the Among Province. the in people ordinary by experienced security The improved the in factor leadership. contributing a been has elders of clan of roles leadership the of structures GoK within other with integrated increasingly is importance great and of be to continues elders local of role The chiefs. appointed and councillors elected elders, clan traditional of mix a comprise community host the in structures Leadership 3.4.3 Whatdevelopmentinleadershipstructureshastakenplace? not issues perceived toaffect thehostcommunitymembers. security on or area host defined the beyond issues security on data gather not did study border.The Somali the to lead that tracks the on several including maintained, are posts community residents. GoK has increased the police presence in the host area and several police host of eyes the in issue an not aresimply abductions and arms small problemswith associated security much-debated the and area host the in crime of level the affecting negatively be to felt gender-basedand sexual or security areviolence rare.very now presenceThe refugeesof not is about complaints and firewood collect to bush the into go can girls and Women issue. major a was banditry when 1990s the in case the not was which problems, without freely move to able feel People good. as situation security perceivethe generally communities host the of Residents 3.4.2 Howsecuredohostcommunitiesfeel? or howtheycouldparticipate(furtherdetailsinAnnexN). knew about women’s income-generating groups, though most did not know who organised them study was unable to establish its frequency. Female respondents in some of the surveyed villages two thirds of the shoats are supplied by the host community an average of 15 camels and 30 shoats per day in total, and an estimated half of the camels and process They NGOs. and UN the by supported been have which of operation and construction threeall In therecamps are providingslaughterhouses fresh refugeethe for meat the population, linked totheexistenceofcamps. markets to or camps refugee the in products sell now households community host of majority the that found study The Somalia. and north the from in trekked being livestock for catchment purchasing power and are competing with Garissa - especially Dagahaley, which acts as the main of form the milk in and livestock sales. The refugeeproduction camps have developed as major pastoral markets with considerable is income community host to contributor largest the far By 3.5.1 Whatistheincomefrompastoralproduction? 3.5 Economicimpacts existence ofthecamps. be more costly. Most of the sales revenue can thus be considered a net benefit resulting from the would which Garissa, to km 100 further a animals their walk or transport to be would sellers for alternative An million). 1,8 (USD million 133 KSh thereforeat is estimated alone slaughterhouses fromcommunity host the to accruing income annual The 3000). KSh processedmeat the the by KSh 25 000 to 60 000 (with an average of KSh 40 000), and a shoat KSh 1500 to 6000 (average The remaining camels are brought in from outside the defined host area, whereas the remaining shoats remaining the whereas area, host defined the outside from in brought are camels remaining The are reported tobesuppliedbycamp residents. 6 . The price of a camel for slaughter is e facto de recognition 39 Study Findings 40 Study Findings 7 commodities preferred more obtain to sold typically are cereals the of 18% that reports but oil, cooking and WFP distributes foodstuffs in the camps and local communities that include maize, wheat, pulses (i) Re-saleofWFPrations refugees andillegalimports viaSomalia.Thesethree willbediscussedinturn. as registered locals by food to access rations, WFP of re-sale the are reasons main The towns. It is apparent that commodity prices in the Dadaab area are significantly lower than in other dryland Table 4:CommoditypricesintheDadaabrefugeecamps andelsewhereinKenya and compares themwithpricesincomparabledrylandtownselsewhere inKenya. camps the in commodities food basic of prices the be Tablesummarises town. 4 Dadaab can in found others and camps refugee the inside located are traders wholesale of numbers Large 3.5.2 Howarethefoodpricesandwhatisimpactofsubsidisedfood? 25.000 l/day. 20- as large as be could supply milk necessary the refugees, 200.000 of number estimated the on conservatively.Based estimated is volume trade milk The alternative. an be to away far too being Garissa camps, the by provided market consumer the on dependent much very is trade fromcommunity the milk trade host is thus aroundthe KSh 85 for million (USD 1,2 income million) annually.The This share.sizable fresh producers’milk the comprise to assumed be can 80% which of camps, the in l 6000 of sales daily total represents this milk, of 50/l KSh of price a At 600. KSh about of turnover daily a with each women, mostly camps, the inside operate sellers community.host the for sourceincome considerable of a also is milk milk of 500 sale About The summarised inTable 5. are foodstuffs WFP re-sold from communities host by realised savings overall The subsidised. purchases household 50 kg average of maize, an 50 kg that of established wheat and also 5 litres Interviews of camps. cooking oil the every month, in all of wholesalers it fromeffectively oil and wheat maize, of supplies their obtain that villages fromlocal or in camps shops the in items food their purchase households comparable all that established surveys Household than Kenya. in elsewhere locations lower 20% about are prices average that and sales, food cheap these from It is conservatively assumed that 10 000 households in the host community (around 50%) benefit local shops.

Powder milk Cooking oil Wheat flour Rice Maize flour Sugar Commodity WFP PostDistribution MonitoringReport,Nov-Dec 2009,para1.1 7 . This is a conservative figure judging by the volume of such stocks on display in display on stocks such of volume the by judging figure conservative a is This . Somalia WFP foodrations WFP foodrations Somalia WFP foodrations Somalia Primary source Camp price (KSh/kg) 183 50 40 65 90 50 Price differential from otherdrylandtowns (% difference, from –to) 26% 50% 22% 97% 17% 26% 228% 26% 95% 42% 39% 26% Kismayo and accesses the refugee camps using one of the well-established alternatives to the to alternatives well-established the of one using camps refugee the accesses and Kismayo of port the from transport organises traders of Typicallygroup items. a electrical and cosmetics perfumes, clothes, goods, consumer upmarket and drinks fruit sugar,pasta, as milk, powdered Wholesalers inside the camps arrange imports via Somalia of commodities with high unit (iii) Cheapgoodsimported through Somalia value such it willbeonlyafewmembersandinothersmostmembers. members of a household appearing on a ration card will vary significantly, so in some of households number The sold. or consumption personal for used member,whether household host per 9000 40.000 estimated an to KSh or rations million) 4,9 (USD million 363 KSh of free subsidy annual an constitutes members community of distribution that suggest estimates The prices. items of diversity a camp refugee comprise per as values assigned are rations which These camps. the in monthly twice rations, distributed food WFP the on based are calculations These Table 6:Benefitsforhost-communitymembersreceivingrefugeefoodrations intended forrefugees.services Tableother 6summarises whatthisrepresents intermsoffree foodvalue. and distributions food WFP the from benefit therefore and cards ration refugee hold members community host 000 40 that estimated conservatively is it above, elaborated As (ii) Registrationofhostpopulationasrefugees tobenefitfrom WFPfood per householdforthehostpopulation,compared withthecostoflivinginotherpartsKenya. 12.300/yr purchasesKSh food or on million) saving 1,7 annual (USD total million The 123 KSh is Table 5:Savingsinhostcommunitiesarisingfromthepurchase ofre-soldrefugeefoodstuffs Note: Salt (kg) soyablend(kg) Corn Cooking oil(l) Beans (kg) Maize (kg) Wheat flour(kg) Food item Total annualsavings(USDmill.) Total annualsavings(KShmill.) Total monthlysavings Oil Wheat Maize Commodity

Assumes averagepricedifference of20%and10.000householdsbenefitting. 5 litres 50 kg 50 kg Bulk size 0,005 0,045 0,030 0,060 0,210 0,210 per day WFP ration(kg/person) Camps 0,2 1,4 0,9 1,8 6,3 6,3 per month Price perkg 90 50 40 Total annualsavings(USD mill.) Total annualsavings(KSh mill.) Elsewhere Price perunit 115 Beneficiaries 60 48 (KSh) Total 40 90 30 40 50 (KSh/kg) Savings Sales value(KSh/person/yr) 25 10 8 (KSh/mth) Savings 40.000 1025 9072 3024 3780 123 125 500 400 363 648 972 648 1,7 4,9 41 Study Findings 42 Study Findings Table 7:EstimatedscaleandsavingsfromgoodsimportedthroughSomalia Table 7. with goods from Somalia each day. The implied savings for host communities are summarised in crossings border seven of average an implies still it Nevertheless, used, being alone. are lorries camps t. 10 the that assuming in food of t./yr. 54.000 of distribution WFP the to small compared be still would This basis. annual an on t. 25.000 constitute could it camps, the in shops in stocked quantities the from Judging estimate. to difficult is goods smuggled of volume The taxes, whilebribeswillhavetobepaidalongtheroute. for those commodities imported through Somalia. A major part of this saving comes from avoided somewhat more (see Table 4). In Somalia this simplified analysis an throughaverage saving of KSh 30/kg importing is applied milk powdered for and by 30/kg KSh be could rice realisedon savings The 25/kg. KSh average thus savings could The Kenya. in elsewhere 80-90/kg KSh with part of the local diet. The price from wholesalers in the camps is as low as KSh 60/kg, compared Sugar can be selected as a representative smuggled commodity since it constitutes an important opportunities inthecampsalongsiderefugees. trading the of use makes community host The Kenya. in found otherwise not brands represent the camps come in through Somalia, since many lack Kenyan Bureau of Standards labelling and officially closed border crossings. There is evidence that large portions of the commodities sold in Groceries dealing in both wholesale and retail represent the largest group of traders in Dadaab Dadaab in traders of group largest the represent retail and wholesale both in dealing Groceries vendors wasidentified. and shops 370 of total small relatively a settlement, population host principal the town, Dadaab In cities. major by matched be only can that figure a shops, 5000 around have camps the total, regularin would and electricals) or concreteor brick permanent in located be towns In buildings. items fashion as (such goods upmarket of selections morelarge display They traders. petty than much are many and outlets of types all covers This 2800. than more has Hagadera while each, shops 1000 least at have Ifo and Dagahaley that show study the under commissioned Counts 3.5.3 Whatisthevolumeoftradeand howdoesitimpactonhostarea? such goods. of consumption the of share its of basis the on Dadaab, around be population host could the mill.) benefiting 1 (USD 10% About beyond. and Garissa also but camps, refugee the only not (USD 10 million) p.a. The imported goods are spread to consumers over a large area that includes On these assumptions, imports through Somalia save consumers in Kenya about KSh 750 million Table 8. Table trade, clothes the in primarily Women 35 are only in represented versus Dadaab. alone 500 with in Hagadera sellers, 800 than more and sellers milk 500 over areThere all. in 1600 over with camps, the and Savings forthehost-community Share tothehost-community Annual savings Annual savings Savings onimports Imported quantitiesannually khat distribution and milk and meat sales. The data are summarised in in summarised are data The sales. meat and milk and distribution 10,1 USDmill. 750 KShmill. 1,0 USDmill. 30 KShs/kg 25.000 t 10% khat

Table 8:Businessesestablishmentsintherefugeecamps andDadaabtown water suppliesandsanitation facilities. as such infrastructuremore for need the to and camps, the of population the businesses to contribute thus Non-refugee opportunities. business seeking non-refugees of influx the facilitated have camps, the running authorities the the of control the for outside regulations, informal aside Such camp. set land the to access regulate and ownership exercise to clan community host the of ability the of result a presumably is This there. community business the of half than morefor account may they and numbers large in traders non-refugee hosts particular in Dagahaley In the camp market areas, vendors from the host community put up shops alongside the refugees. in DadaabtownisestimatedatUSD1,3million. and the milk trade USD 1,2 million, while the combined annual turnover of the business p.a. million community 1,8 USD for accounts alone trade meat The creation. job and income of source a as The figures for economic turnover further illustrate the importance of trade with the refugee camps Table 9:Annualturnoveroflocalbusinesses Dadaab townmobilisesonly5%ofthetradeinarea (seeTable 9). while million, 14 USD with largest the being Hagadera camps, USD three of the to for type annually amounting million activity same 25 trade the and in business a than is camps result The the town. in Dadaab in larger establishment somewhat be to found was average the and owners shop with interviews of basis the on estimated was businesses these of turnover Annual based business activity is substantial, conservatively estimated at more than 500 jobs across jobs 500 than more at estimated conservatively substantial, is activity business based camp- by members community host for created employment The tables). preceding (see town The hostpopulationbusiness communityofDagahaleycouldthusbelarger thanthatofDadaab Total (USDmill.) annualturnover Total (KShmill.) annualturnover Other restaurants Hotels, Hardware stores electrics Telephones, Milk distributors Taxi, matatu Khat sellers Clothes, shoes retail wholesale and Groceries, businesses Total numberof Dagahaley 1026 19% 12% 15% 28% 5% 4% 4% 5% 8% Dagahaley 1081 406 15% 14% 11% 35% Percentage 5,5 8% 3% 3% 3% 8% Ifo 426 5,8 Ifo Hagadera 2820 14% 15% 18% 12% 27% 4% 2% 7% 1% Hagadera 1054 14,2 Dadaab Total 12% 55% 374 2% 2% 1% 8% 6% 9% 6% Dadaab 1,3 95 1981 Total 5301 1620 5301 Total 26,8 806 268 150 270 538 222 810 617 No. 43 Study Findings 44 Study Findings as M-Pesa and Zap) and a number of Hawala agencies have a loyal clan base and offer sh offer and base clan loyal a have agencies Hawala of number a and Zap) and M-Pesa as have established branches in Dadaab, although formal money transfer services are available (such The lack of capital for extension is often mentioned as a problem by local shop owners. No banks supply.UNHCR the of tapping from partly comes town Dadaab in supply electricity The market. local the at strictly aimed level artisanal an at undertaken are trades petty other and making furniture Tailoring,failure. generator of because closed temporarily has employees ten with plant bottling Dadaab has very little industrial production and most of the business people are traders. A water developments ongoingorplannedinthearea. large other no are There camps. refugee the to indirectly or directly related main activity the the is driver and community business local the within optimism considerable reveal findings The development. recent a is growth business the hence years, ten last the within 75% about and down or relocate. Almost half of businesses in the town were established during the last five years close to planning was interviewed one no and opportunities business declining foresee them of None levels. activity stable anticipate 30% about expansion; own their for plans with future, the in activity increased expect 70% that revealed types different of businesses 30 with Interviews people. local by owned are 70% over which of town, the in counted were vendors and shops 370 of total A developers. by speculation to due premium a at hands changing is road main the along land and rapidly rising are prices Property centre. regional busy a to shelters rudimentary of cluster a from years, 18 last the over significantly developed has town Dadaab that clear is It 3.5.4 HowhastradeinDadaabtowndeveloped? volumes ofkhattradethanthoseestimatedhere. sourcesreportSome larger camps. the and Dadaab between purchasingpower and in population difference the of indicator an is differential consumption This town. camps Dadaab the in in 4% on only going with is trade this of bulk the sellers, of number the of basis 2,7 the (USD On million million). 198 KSh of trade khat the in turnover annual total to amounts This counted. Khat last decade. that 80% of people in the host community have increased their use of public transport during the shows survey household The tracks. smaller on taxis/matatus shared or roads main the buses along either transport, commercial of form some using accessed are area host the in villages Most settlements. local to/from and camps the between traffic vibrant indicating 90, Ifo and 30 In addition, Dadaab town hosts 22 taxis, pick-ups and matatus, while Dagahaley has 80, Hagadera their movementisofficiallytightlyregulated. though even - refugees the among activity Hagadera) travel extensive indicating (especially town, Dadaab camps than rather refugee the in located are offices booking The day. typical a on camps fromthe or and to Dadaab travel people 800 over thus passengers, 60 of capacity a has through Dadaab town each day en route to Nairobi and five to Garissa, all with returns. Each bus There are seven bus companies operating in the Dadaab area. Two scheduled connections pass camps andthetradethattakesplaceincampmarkets. the from benefit direct a is population local the for creation job This million). 0,5 (USD million 35 KSh of income annual total a to up adds which 200/day), (KSh wages of level the to estimated be can involved person each for salaries or sales from earnings net daily The camps. three the elr hv a unvr f t es Kh 0 ec pr a, n oe 80 elr cn be can sellers 800 over and day, per each 700 KSh least at of turnover a have sellers ort- host communityprojects supportedbyUNHCRthrough NGOs. international with involved directly are Twothese (WASDA). of South Wajir (FAIDA) and Fafi (RRDO), Lagdera of refugees toKakumaandfuelsupplycontracts.There are alsothree localNGOsestablishedin USD 0,5 million p.a. There are also occasional larger contracts, among others them the transport at estimated be can NGOs and UN the for assignments from contractors local such to incomes in working often Dadaab, offices. They often organise works by sub-contracting in or hiring people on a short-term basis. The business contracting the in combination with other activities like grocery shops, hotels and companies transport, and some without fixed 15 around are There relocation ofrefugees). the and camps the to transport (including services freight and items, household and foodstuffs operation. refugeeof delivery works, repair fences, the and houses of in construction the mainly comprise engaged contracts The agencies non-governmental the to deliveries or works for Some of the businesses in Dadaab have responded to invitations for tender and obtained area? contracts 3.5.6 Whatistheeconomicimpactofdirectcampoperationsonhost such receiving are 5% around Only remittances andtheseare concentratedinDadaabandclosetothecamps. Kenya. of parts other in from members remittances family receive from or households abroad community host any hardly that established study The annually. Levelofwagesisaddressed in3.5.6below. stafflocally-based these to accruing wages total aroundThe be addition. may in million 0,8 USD fixed employment related in some way to the refugee operation, the more temporary jobs coming with persons local 600-750 be could there total In hospitals). the counting (not basis permanent a on NGOs the with working be could community local the from persons 200 some Altogether growing emphasisonhost communityprojects. a and NGOs national of engagement increased the with rise the on be may NGOs for working daily operations as “incentive” workers. While relatively few in number, local community members their in refugees employ generally camps the in working NGOs Other hospitals. camp two other from the local area (in addition to other Kenyans and refugees), and the situation is similar for the Internationa The population. local the for opportunities work significant offer camps the inside hospitals The share issaidbylocalpoliticianstobesmaller. this community,although local the from come area Dadaab the in serving staff the of 75% that as guards for the Dadaab agency compound, camp-based facilities and the airstrip. It is claimed community. host The UN-contracted the security company fromis a come major employer with to 250 individuals reported acting are 40% around whom of 45, has in WFP staffand area 130 Dadaab the has UNHCR contracts. firewood the of some through as well as groups disabled direct through community host the support labour.unskilled of particular employment, createdbeen has Employment and women youth, for partners implementing their and WFP UNHCR, 3.5.5 Whatistheincomefromemploymentandremittances? seems tohaveworkedbetterfortherefugees thanthehost-population(Nzyuko,2008). term credit to reliable customers. Micro-credit was introduced by CARE with Danish support, but l Rescue Committee (IRC) runs the hospital in Hagadera and employs about 100 staff 45 Study Findings 46 Study Findings 8 split funding 50:50 a of policy the introducing recently (DRC) agency one with initiatives still represent a small proportion of total budgets, although they are gaining importance by refugee support agencies who have extended their assistance to the surrounding area. These reviewidentifies 12-15 brief host community initiatives A underway pressure.at present political (see Annex and A). Most aredemands being community run to response a as and needs actual meet to order in both increasing, been has initiatives community host for support of scale The Table 10:Fundingfortherefugeeoperationandhostcommunityinitiatives(USDmill.) refugee operationissummarisedinTable 10. the to linked funding total The donors. fromdirectly financing receive also NGOs some although partners, implementing as NGOs engage turn in which UNHCR, and WFP through channelled aremostly funds The 2010. in million 100 reachprojectedUSD to is and 2009 in million 82 USD roseoperation this to refugeeof 2007 the fromcost in supporting The million operation. 44 USD agencies and donors fromthe areacomes Dadaab lion’sthe The into flowing funds the shareof development? 3.5.7 Whatisscaleandnatureofinvestmentsincampoperation hospital). camp Hagadera the of operations the as hampered seriously (e.g. which 2010, rises in pay IRC by seeking experienced workers among witnessed actions other and strikes several which important most high, be to tend the agencies other and UN with work for rates wage constitute of Expectations that. of cause certain for activities camp refugee The refugees. as registered people including Wakambaand from(e.g. work) labour outside construction in for bringing often others, to sub-contracted frequently are companies 400. local to KSh given over contracts demand that report may NGOs Dadaab in locals day, per 200-300 KSh are labour unskilled for Local wage rates are high in comparison with other parts of Kenya. While regular rates elsewhere 2009 andMarch 2010toeasethesetensionsand solicit project ideasfordonor consideration. agencies in their operations. Host community forums were organised by Conflict resolution has been necessary as local community actions have sometimes hindered the Cross,work onlywiththehostcommunity. Red Kenya the and NGOs local the like organisations, few A 2010). in million 0,6 (USD population local the from camps refugee the for firewood of purchase organised UNHCR/GTZ the as such communities, both benefit to designed are activities Some activities. overlapping of cases with based, reduction, agency single and sector-wise been largely has conflict assistance to development. approach The security, business and food sanitation, water, on health, education, concentrated management, environmental currently are initiatives community Host operation. refugee the for budget its than more far increased has budget community host its and assets, allocated 8% of its 2010 budget to host community support in the form of food items and durable

Total (refugees +host) Direct fundingtoNGOs WFP Total UNHCR UNHCR partners UNHCR ownexpenses Provider Danish RefugeeCouncil project document, 2010-11. 2007 44,6 34,2 20,5 13,7 1,4 9,0 2008 79,8 35,0 40,9 24,1 16,8 3,9 UNHCR in Garissa in April 2009 82,8 25,0 53,1 29,0 24,1 4,7 8 , while WFP has WFP while , 100,1 2010 10,2 52,0 38,0 21,6 16,4 icse aoe () iet eet fo cm spot prtos () an fo business from parts Gains (2) four operations; the support comprises camp from community benefits host Direct the (1) on above: discussed camps the of impact economic total The 3.5.9 Whatisthecombined economicimpactonthehosting area? Table 12: Useofopportunitiesaccordingtocashincomegroups are under-represented. SeeTable 12. main their having poorestthe and categories richer producerefugeethe domestic the while for in camps, markets households those among over-represented is month) per 2000-6000 (KSh make use of the opportunities associated with the refugee camps. The low-middle income group The information collected during this study shows that not only well-off individuals or households categories? 3.5.8 Howareeconomicimpactsexperiencedbydifferentwealth in 2010. the capital accumulated during this period will generate additional benefits worth USD 1,2 million returns 7% with 2007-2010, years consideredthe herebenefits cover community host the while So 7%. of return of rate annual an generate could they targeted, arewell investments these that accruing to the local population over the whole lifetime of specific items benefits annual of in year’sresult infrastructure.each will of investments result a Assuming as accumulated capital The mill. 7,3 USD exceeds 2010 in and increasing been has expenditure community host that clear is It Table 11:AgencyandUNfundingforhostcommunitydevelopment (USDmill.) of therefugee operationbudgetthatalsobenefitsthehostcommunity. share 2% estimated the with projects community host for funding direct the Tablecombines 11 exists. Thesepotentiallysignificantfuture benefitsare notconsidered fornow. willingness and need a that extent the to sustained be all can system supply electricity the and useful life after the closure of a have will compounds the NGO and UN the in camps. facilities and infrastructure camp of Buildings, elements Some fences, warehouses, boreholes, slaughterhouses to allocated is investments thathaveimmediatebenefitsforthelocalhostpopulation. operations refugee for budget annual net the of 2% that assumed is it analysis economic this of sake the For users. for expensive and access to hard be can services medical area has free access. This is an exceptional opportunity compared the with in everyone elsewherewhich to hospitals in camp three Kenya, the example where for population, local the serves also in permanent local infrastructure. In many cases, infrastructure established for the refugee camps Although recurrent costs tend to dominate agency budgets, some of UNHCR’s funds are invested Household income(KShpermonth) Total financingfordevelopment Investment share ofrefugee program (2%) Total hostpopulationinitiatives Direct fundingtoNGOs UNHCR WFP Provider Share ofhostpopulation Share withmainmarketinrefugee camps <2000 25% 14% 2007 2000-6000 2,3 0,6 1,4 0,3 3,1 0,8 58% 75% 6000-12000 2008 1,7 0,7 0,6 0,4 3,3 1,6 12% 9% 2009 2,5 0,6 1,8 0,1 4,1 1,6 >12000 2010 6% 2% 5,5 0,8 0,4 4,3 7,3 1,9 47 Study Findings 48 Study Findings o Kna s woe GP e cpt i 20 ws siae a UD 912, USD at estimated was 2009 in capita per GDP whole, a as Kenya For 11 10 9 poverty absolute in living were operations refugee ProvinceKenya’sthe had Eastern North time that At 1992. in launched proportionpeople highest of before outset, be the at possibly poor very could also operations was area refugee this the but extended, of community local the on impacts economic The input totheiractivities. link in the multiplier chain. Local contractors are employed to some first extent, creating the a demand are for camps refugee the inside established and town Dadaab in traders local of number rising The increase. to likely are and important locally very nevertheless are sales meat and Milk area. Dadaab the outside from realised are operation camp the for services and goods of delivery of terms in impacts sizeable most The community. business Dadaab the of sophistication limited operation extend well beyond Dadaab and in fact are locally limited by the relatively small size refugeeand the of impacts economic the discussed, previously As indirect. and direct both impact, readilymost the on economic based of estimate forms conservative identifiable a is mill. 14 USD accumulation ofinvestedcapital. the and population host the of size the refugees, of number the initiatives, community host and been likely most have benefits increasing The in recent benefit. years, commensurate capita with the per rising budget annual allocations for 95 refugee operations USD a into translates which year,reference the as 2010 with mill. 14 USD about to amount benefits annual combined The Table 13:Total hostcommunitybenefits(USDmill./yr.) from investments.Theseare summarisedinTable 13. opportunities in camp markets; (3) Indirect benefits from reduced prices of goods; and (4) Returns line, Across 25%. Kenya’sconstitute ASAL would areas, more impact than 60% of population the population exists on host income levels below estimated that poverty the that of and comparison, for relevant more be could day per 1 USD of line poverty however,Province,the Eastern North arid the For 10%. constitute will population host local the for impact economic capita per annual

(4) Investments (3) Indirect (2) Business (1) Direct Nature ofbeneﬁts

page iii. National Policy for the Sustainable Development of Arid and Semi Arid Lands in Kenya (November 2009), Kenyan EconomicRecoveryStrategy (2004):page9. World MonetaryFund(IMF) Economic OutlookDatabaseApril2010, International 11 meaning thatmanyhave substantiallyless. 9 and it still ranks lowest in UNDP’sin lowest ranks still it and (UNDP). Index Development Human Returns ondevelopmentprojectsReturns Savings onimportsfrom Somalia Savings onthepurchase offoodstuffs Host-population inrefugee campbusinesses Sale ofmilk Sale ofanimalsforslaughter Value ofdistributedfoodrations Firewood sales Incomes tolocalcontractors Employment andwages Total annualbenefits (USD mill./yr) Value 1,2 1,0 1,7 0,5 1,2 1,8 4,9 0,6 0,5 0,8 10 u o ti the this of out (USD mill./yr) Total 14,2 1,2 2,7 3,4 6,8 12 Women atwaterpointinDadaabarea scale andvalueofthesee The operations. refugee the through items other and food and Somalia through commodities of influx the of effects The the community.indicating Kenya, in elsewhere than business lower are goods consumer diversified of prices and vibrant a has town the and high are prices flourishing, property is Garissa Mombasa. and Nairobi Garissa, in realised are and area, immediate the companies. Significant direct benefits from the purchase of goods and WFP,of behalf on food services of transport large-scale thereforeare reachthe outside generally Dadaab-based of fall outside the as such camps, refugee the of operations the with connected contracts lucrative most The 3.5.10 Whataretheimpactsbeyondimmediatehostingarea? favourably incomparison. of economic benefits of the refugee operation for the Dadaab host community impact comes out period. The ASAL programme will bring additional direct benefits such as employment. The scale accruing to the population benefits recurrent would the be then 7%, worth of USD return annual 28 an per yield capita investments such annually that by assumed the is it end If of investment. the infrastructureinvestment significant includes and sectors many covers programme ambitious inhabitants. million 10 with area an acrossrevenue) government annual of (10% years ten GoK launched a programme in 2009 to spend KSh 300 billion on ASAL development over the next page iv. National Policy for the Sustainable Development of Arid and Semi Arid Lands in Kenya (November 2009), conomic impactswere notestimatedbythestudy. 12 This 49 Study Findings 50 Study Findings free ofchargeunderorganisedaccessarrangements accepted still is harvesting wood for area hosting the to access that suggests also It business. than more sales wood make 14,5% only firewoodthe in harvesters camp-based of dominance the confirms This supply month. per twice those among and firewood, of sale the in involved The quantitative household survey results suggests that only 10,9% of area residents are directly refugees andresource-owning locals. any complicating refugees, by operated simple distinction between the collectors though and those who live people, in the hosting area as local fuel-harvesting by owned reportedly are carts in km 30-50 protection.Many 15-strongfor to travel up convoys in travelling usually wood, dead and suitable searchof bush the in nights three or two spend They GTZ). to (according carts rare. Fuel supply has now become a major is commercial enterprise wood involving an of estimated 3000 donkey head-loads carrying children and women of sight the and ceased virtually has As further confirmation of increased energy shortage, personal collection of firewood by refugees 13 Table 14:FirewoodconsumptioninDadaabcampsandhosting area Province.Eastern North within Garissa to only second demand, energy wood of focus concentrated and large a is TableDadaab to Hence (refer 14). radius km 10 a within used is which of 66% t., 000 138 to demand annual combined brings km 50 within living people local Adding t./yr. 000 73 around still is camps three the in consumption total use, firewood in reduction capita per the of spite In wood (seeAnnexJforsurveymethodologyandresults). among non-campresidents isestimatedat1,2kgp.p.p.d.astheyhaveslightlyeasieraccessto energy. This trend was also highlighted during interviews with camp residents. Fuel consumption of the supply chain, which has obliged users to become more economical in the way they manage (p.p.p.d.) in 1998 to 1,0 kg today. This is a clear sign of increasing shortage and refugee commercialisation The day per person reducedper has fromkg consumption 1,5 average that camps. found survey household Dadaab the around harvested resource significant most the is Firewood 3.6.1 Whatistheimpactoffirewoodcollection? 3.6 Impactsonbiomass Note: Group Locals Refugees

Otherwise more localpeoplewouldhavebeen foundsellingwoodtothecamps.

conservative estimateofthenumberlocalsholdingrefugee cards. a and verification ongoing UNHCR’safter on predictions based assumed, is residents camp 200.000 of figure working A Estimated popn. 147.898 200.000 (kg/day) firewood consumption Per capita 12 10 Total 13 . (t/yr) consumption Total firewood 137.799 91.489 73.000 64.79 Remarks 0-10 km(refugees + 0-50 km(refugees + 147.898 locals) 42.213 locals) poles, fence posts and cross-pieces from from coming usually uprights taller with firewood, for than species-specific more even is poles for demand that suggests survey quantitative The Table 15:Pole-woodconsumptionintheDadaabcampsandhostingarea km, 81%beingconsumedwithina10kmradius.SeeTable 15. 50 within consumption local including t/yr 32.000 and camps the is from t/yr 23.400 at and estimated high remains therefore poles building for Demand re-built. or repaired being structures existing replace or shelters new for with demand total pace satisfy not keep do and only growth population can internal houses mud-brick construct to LWF and NRC of programmes The with more long-lastingstructures assoonpossible. temporary replace to seek also arrivals New pens. animal and enclosures, wealthier refugee families to have three or for four living huts in addition to kitchen shelters, common shower and latrine is it and structures permanent more and larger build to continued have residents camp Long-term fencing. compound and building for used widely are poles Wooden 3.6.2 Whatistheimpactofpole-woodharvesting? to operatorsinterviewed. kg), with most deliveries destined for particular customers rather than the open market, according 3,1-3,8/ KSh to (equivalent 1200-1500 KSh from range cart per Prices measured. was load per cart of wood has risen by 20% since comparable research in donkey the 1990s a and of an average weight of The 390 kg alternatives. lucrative) less (and inferior with return than rather species, spinosa for order) declining (in preferenceconsumer revealed survey quantitative the and species-specific is demand Firewood y 65 o rsodns n h hueod uvy, with survey), household the in respondents of 96,5% by Thorn fencing around green belts and seasonal farms is dominated by 3.6.3 Whatistheimpactofthornfencing? markets ofeucalyptuspolesfrom centralKenyaand somalensis. (now enclosing 898 ha according to GTZ) may outweigh its benefits. The greenbelt programme greenbelt The benefits. its outweigh may GTZ) to according ha 898 enclosing (now greenbelts within land of enclosure continued of however,drawbacks the concern, that is There allow the source tree to continue growing and the impact is therefore extensive but not dramatic. commonly used (named by 82,6% and 63,5% respectively). Branches are harvested selectively to Note: Group Locals Refugees

average numberandstyleofdomesticstructures. of observation on based residents, camp of that half use to assumed people local with (1998), Owen from data Demand (see Annex O for Somali names). Donkey carts travel great distances to locate these locate to distances great travel carts Donkey names). Somali for O Annex (see A local shortage of construction timber is indicated by the widespread sale in camp in widespreadsale the by indicated is timber construction of shortage local A Estimated popn. 147.898 200.000 Cordia sinensis, Acacia tortilis, A. reficiens, Terminalia obicularis Terminalia reficiens, A. tortilis, Acacia sinensis, Cordia consumption (kg/day) Per capitapole-wood Cordia sinensis 0,16 0,32 Acacia tortilis Acacia Total Terminalia and withies from the shrub consumption (t/yr) pole-wood Total cca reficiens Acacia polesfrom SomaliaandIjara. or Terminaliaspp. 25.825 31.997 23.360 Commiphora spp. 8.637 and tukuls Remarks 0-10 km(refugees + 0-50 km(refugees + (domed huts) (domed . tortilis A. , intermediate , 147.898 locals) Phyllanthus 42.213 locals) (named and also T. 51 Study Findings 52 Study Findings Source: Note: s be summarisedaccording todistanceasfollows: can findings The respectively). Q and P Annexes in aretrends these illustrating charts summary and away,progressivelydata increasefurther damage reduces(raw all human of evidence while from the camps. The number of trees, species variety, standing volume and dead wood availability The data show a consistent trend of reducing environmental degradation with increasing distance Table findings,rangelandplotsamplingsurvey 16:Summary The findingsoftherangelandsamplingstudyare summarisedinTable 16. trend ofdegradation,directional differences remain important. average the presents report this while So Yumbis). of west and Saredho of (south south-west the to and Alikune) of south and Welhar of (west north-west the to remainingresources woody however,valuable are, There harvesting. worth value of trees few now are there and ago long as are those in the uninhabited block beyond Weldoni in the east, where dead wood was exploited deep sandy resourcesareasthere.those go in to worthwhile it arefind The harvesters fewer so valuable less areas. Human impacts to the east and north of the camps are generally less severe, because the The pattern is not the same in all directions because the richness of resources camps. is the fromoutwards spread not to continues the which and same 1990s, early the in since ongoing all been has which degradation environmental of trend general a confirms plots rangeland of survey The by harvesting? 3.6.4 Whatisthestatusofwoodyresourcesandhowaretheyimpacted is reliant uponcommunalityofresources. an undesirable process of resource alienation and undermines a pastoral mode of production that groupscommunity removed.fences live have to specifically enclosureThe to contributes land of by raised been have funds and Hagadera) of north and Ifo of west (e.g. use personal for land of blocks enclosing individuals powerful with conflicts had have people Local benefit. own their for only greenbeltsthe the exploit to arecaretakers,permitted who appointed areapparent the beneficiaries and year each enclosed being are land additional of areas significant But close. ever should camps the if regeneration for banks seed as aside land set to effort agency an as began Distance from camp >40 km 30-40 km 20-30 km 10-20 km 0-10 km for those who collect for themselves, 48% take more than 90 minutes per trip. There is There trip. per minutes 90 than more take 48% themselves, for collect who those for and firewood, their buy zone this in members community host of 65% that found survey quantitative scarcity,the of indicators further As km). 40 beyond area the for average the evl dgae ad vrg sadn vlm rdcd o 5 m 15 to reduced volume standing average and degraded heavily been has vegetation Dera, Lagh the of north species low-value of stands dense to mainly

Survey conductedon40plotsaround Dadaabforcurrent study. Woody biomassrefers tolivevolume>2cmsize. KM raama AREA Trees perha 448 271 394 362 272 soils across the Lagh Dera in Sebule Division are especially low in productivity, KM 2 Species perplot ): Although there are still over 270 trees per ha in this zone, due zone, this in ha per trees 270 over still are there Although 9 8 9 8 7 Woody biomass(m ha) 46 27 25 22 15 3 / (t/ha) Usable deadwood 2,56 1,89 1,28 0,87 0,14 3 h (7 lwr than lower (67% /ha ha Cut stemsper 216 519 16 33 - s s s s ha) and standing volume rises to 46 m 46 to rises volume standing and ha) the sandiersoilretains lesswater. over degraded land around Ifo and Dagahaley, but is unlikely to spread around Hagadera as been have areas Some invaded by stems. prime their for harvested heavily been have or small are treesvaluable as such neglecta Boswelia coriacea, Boscia africana, Commiphora stems perha).Nospeciesofcommercial valuearezone isdominatedby left andthisinner cut 500 (over damage human of evidence abundant remainingand wood dead no virtually to walkmore than90minutes tosource fuel. have still zone firewoodthis community in host collectors of 35% and 2000a) Blondel, (see t. 120.000 to t. 290.000 from 2000, since 60% by declined also has km 20 within wood dead usable of amount The degraded. measurably been has zone this in biodiversity so camps, the from km 50 than km 20 at recorded species trees fewer 30% are There spp. of examples scrubby are remain what and pruned heavily or removed been have trees marketable most But cut-line. or road a tortilis A. still considerable evidence of human impact. A few large specimens of is there and changes hardly diversity However,species 50%. almost by volume standing 20 km zone, with just 25 m 25 just with zone, km 20 10- the from improvement minimal only show diversity species and volumes standing but affected byasmallsamplesize(onlytwoplots). probably data slightly,the down go to appears diversity species and trees of number The harvested. potentially and found be can wood dead of t/ha 1,9 and radius) km 10 a within self- who those among and collect, thepercentage having towalkmore than90minutesdrops to30%. it) buying than (rather firewood own community their host collect of members 53% that means distances these at wood of availability relative The of dead wood on the ground, usable but not considered valuable for commercial collectors. t/ha 1,3 around is There range. harvesting their expanded have operators cart as material commerciallyall stripped of has been decade it last the over construction and fuel valuable would have been a virtually untouched area accessible only to occasional donkey carts, but species variety. similar population densities, the standing volume would be similar but there would be greater Provincewith Eastern North of parts other In specimens. valuable most their for harvested selectively been have areas these that apparent still is it found, be to value commercial of walking distance. Nevertheless, with an average of only nine species per plot and few trees minute 90 a within needs firewood their meet can zone this in members community host of 95% cut. been have stems live that evidence limited and wood dead usable of t/ha 2,5 KM KM KM KM AREA remain, perhaps considered too risky a target for harvesters due to proximity to proximity to due harvesters for target a risky too considered perhaps remain, AREA AREA Prosopis juliflora AREA KM KM KM C.sinensis, Acacia senegal Acacia C.sinensis, 2 KM ): 2 2 ):

): Above 40 km there are significantly more trees (almost 450 per 450 (almost trees more significantly are there km 40 Above At these distances the evidence of tree cutting drops significantly

2 and are becoming impenetrable. 3 Standing volume continues to rise in this zone (now double that ): /ha and an average of nine species per plot. Up to 2000 this 2000 to Up plot. per species nine of average an and /ha h dniy f re oe rss y 3 i ti zn and zone this in 33% by rises cover tree of density The 3 /ha, with the land heavily vegetated. Therearevegetated. over heavily land the with /ha, abri, hmu, Commiphora Rhamnus, Dalbergia, and A.reficiens and Prosopis Grewia tenax Grewia do occur,do specimens the Acacia reficiens will continue to take and . Wheremore. Boswelia and 53 Study Findings 54 Study Findings stock is the annual yield, which ranges from 0,51 standing to the 1,57 degrading without t/ha/yr harvestable (air-dry)Also harvesting. with for increasingavailable still distance are wood dead of of clearings.Thetwoimagesthatwere compared are showninFigure 4. been rain in January 2010 and it is likely that the second image was affected by the grassing over 15 14 km 9600 entire the Considering Table 17:Total usablebiomassandsustainableyield yield availablefrom annualgrowth. Table 17 summarises standing biomass in the different distance bands and estimated sustainable Source: Datafrom previous table,basedonsurveyof40plotsaround Dadaab. in the 2010 scene and the susceptibility of image interpretation to seasonal effects seasonal to interpretation image of susceptibility the and scene 2010 the in This quantified. be could camps the cloud of scattering a post-2003, sensors Landsat of the of deterioration to due provedchallenging km 20 within changes cover land that hope the in J, Landsat images from 1987 and 2010 were compared using the methodology described in Annex 3.6.5 Findingsofsatelliteimageanalysis closer tothecamp.These,indeed,are thetwoparalleltrends thatare currently beingobserved. specimens live remaining few the harvesting by or away km 45 least at going without seek they species the find cannot harvesters consumption, of excess a in and well areaapparently surroundingyield sustainable the in biomass of amount large a be may there while So acceptable. merely is that wood not price, highest donkey the attract will that the wood back bring commercialised, must operators cart highly now chain supply the with but consumption, personal for enough good be might They pole-wood. or fuel commercial as 50 acceptable considered within are remain km that trees the of few very that is however,environment, the for problem The off-take. within 50 km is added, the total wood requirement is still only 169.777 t/yr, well within sustainable camp demand for firewood and pole-wood of 96.360 t/yr. Even if demand from local settlements wood canbesustainably harvested eachyear.of Thesefigures comparet. favourablywithcombined M 1,03 of total a radius, km 50 the within (air-dry) t. M 21,42 of stock standing on Based Assumes: Radius 40-50 km 30-40 km 20-30 km 10-20 km 0-10 km

Comparablewitharecent estimateofbiomassyieldforDadaab of0.4-1.5t/ha/yr(Milimo,2009). affected by whetherornotithasrecently rained. stronglysignatureis spectral the and disproportionateweighting a have shrubs and grasses of is condition the So classiﬁed. scene each way the on effect signiﬁcant a has cover ground low-level of condition canopy,the tree open very a With

1,4 m 3 /air-dry t.;annualyield=4,8%ofstandingstock( Area (sqkm) 9600 3200 2560 1920 1280 640 woody Standing (cu m) biomass 29.989.902 14.642.809 6.869.701 4.734.093 2.783.100 960.200 2 oval-shaped zone from 0 to 50 km from the camps, 1,67 M t. M 1,67 camps, the from km 50 to 0 from zone oval-shaped (air-dry t) biomass woody Standing 21.421.359 10.459.149 4.906.929 3.381.495 1.987.929 685.857 Western andSsemakula,1981 (air-dry t/ha) Annual yield 1,57 0,92 0,85 0,75 0,51 (air-dry t) Annual yield 1.028.225 ). 502.039 235.533 162.312 95.421 32.921 (t) Total deadwood 15 . There had There . 1.671.661 819.966 484.850 246.525 111.212 9.109 14 . higher resolution imageryfrom more sensors(e.g.SPOT orASTER). modern and reliable results, employing manual digitising (rather than unsupervised classification) and using the forest plot survey. More sophisticated remote sensing investigation might yield more revealing The satellite image analysis does not add significantly to existing understanding and the findings of temporary a creating clearings in impression ofthickervegetation. grass fresh with area, in image rainfall 2010 recent the reflects of this part that southern possible the is It degraded. been have to expected been have would it when (28%) significantly increased have to seems Bush Dense Medium as described category the cover,as vegetation denser to comes it when clear less is picture The expected. be might as 25%), by reduced has woodland (bushy vegetation denser of expense the at (15%) significantly increased has woodland scattered of area The town. Dadaab of southwest the to and Hagadera Dagahaley,around and Ifo between seen be can land of up opening Meanwhile Ifo. and Dadaab between land the colonising vegetation as well as ground, open previously on camps Dagahaley suggests and Ifo the afforestationof subsequent and construction images to attributable is this the of comparison visual but surprising, perhaps is This 1987. since camps the of km 20 within ground open in reduction 19% a been has there that suggests analysis The Jan 1987 Figure 4:ClassifiedLandsatimagesfrom1987and2010 C c o o l d o e u

ap,bitu ra,dnebs 2 26 -5% Scattered woodland Bushy woodland 216 Bushland 226 Medium densebush Camps, built-upareas,densebush Open ground D e s c r i p t Dagahaley i o n Dadaab Ifo

Hagadera A r 1 1 e 4 41 +28% 441 344 9 12 -19% +15% 162 -25% 365 +3% 198 323 317 414 431 404 9 9 a 2 8

c 0 7 o

v e r e d 1 2

9 0 ( Feb 2010 k 2 1 m 0 0

2 )

C h a Dagahaley n Dadaab g Ifo e

Hagadera 55 Study Findings 56 Study Findings nearby communitieshave effectively become. These are trends typical of any large urban settlement, which is what the Dadaab camps and the INCREASED s PROBABLE s GREATER FURTHER s INCREASED s A s EVER INCREASING s s will bring: the population of the camps and nearby settlements is reduced, it can be expected that the future cannot go down by more than a further 10-15% if users are still to enjoy cooked food. So unless Market forces have already catalysed significant conservation measures and firewood consumption for browse of source valued a camels andgoats. traditionally is It camps. the of km 50 within eradicated but all rangeland. the of stability the and browse pasture, on impacts unquantifiable have will This species. insect pastoralists over some 10 000 km The selective harvesting of desirable tree species is permanently altering biodiversity and affecting more for case the distant communities. less is This resources. their of degradation and contracts) supply firewood between trade-off of and degree investments infrastructure products, some livestock their for realisemarkets as (such least benefits economic at camps the to closer living harvesting, those wood whereas of impacts negative the only experience They away. furthest live who those to relatedfor one-sided most is but area camp-affected specifically the in those all resentmentby felt is This harvesting. biomass generating is controls access traditional of weakening The use violencetoresist attemptstostopthem. sometimes who harvesters, emboldened have rulings court favourable and backers connected Well- foreigners. to apply not does Act Forest the that grounds the on trees live harvesting for are few members groups of the Organised host community seen. derive benefit. A be recent court already ruling released can a fromcommercialonly reportedlySomalia, in which charcoalvia engaged productionexport for refugees controlsarrested access clan-based of weakening The into more distantlocations,beyondthoseforwhichaccesshasbeenarranged. becoming hard to sustain as shortage of the most desired species pushes donkey cart operators are arrangements such but negotiations, access for conduit formal a provide to mid-1990s the in Groups Working Environmental of convening the survey.facilitated household GTZ qualitative which specify the zones that may be exploited. Such relationships were documented through the and affiliation, clan of basis camp-based the elders have on long-standing granted arrangements with is representatives harvesting of wood the indigenous for clans areas particular to Access 3.6.6 Whatarethetrendsinbiomassimpacts? the camps. to thedetrimentofwidercommunity; Somalia; and CONTINUED Terminalia spinosa WEAKENING BENElTS INTRODUCTION CUTTING PRODUCTION RISE HARVESTING ACCRUING IN OF OF WOOD LIVE CLAN BASED OF OF , forexample,istargetedbecauseofitshighdensityandhasbeen TREES CHARCOAL LORRIES PRICES TO DISTANCES A 2 by changing the ecological balance of plant, animal, bird and SMALL IN ACCESS TO FULLY NUMBER SUPPLY PRIVATISED ARRANGEMENTS OF BOTH INDIVIDUALS OPERATIONS THE CAMPS LEADING WELL FOR POSITIONED AND TO TRANSPORTING MORE MARKETS CONmICT IN THE IN WOODFUELS 'ARISSA WOOD TRADE AND T o Figure 5:Contractedfirewoodsupply(1998-2010) Table ofDadaabfirewoodsupplyprogramme,1998-2010 18:Summary 5 Figure and Table18 illustrate. as mid-2010, by camps the to supplied been have will wood of t. 000 93 2001). Consulting, (CASA communities local refugeesand resource-basedbetween conflicts reducing of third a then and added later was rehabilitation environmental of objective second a from UNHCR. This was initiated to address rape and violence against women and girls, although GTZ has been managing a programme of firewood supply to the camps since 1998 with funding 3.6.7 Howisorganisedfuelsupplymanaged? Source: 2010 2009 2008 2007 2006 2005 2004 2003 2002 2001 2000 1999 1998 Year

2004). Firewood consumption for 1998 from Owen (1998), reduced in linear fashion to 2010 measured figure of 1.0 kg 1.0 p.p.p.d. of figure measured 2010 to fashion linear in reduced (1998), Owen from 1998 for consumption Firewood 2004). research (1998- internet and (2005-2010) fromrecordsFirewoodUNHCR populations supply Refugee Dadaab. fromGTZ 93.060 4.525 489 9.405 9.053 5.142 9.458 9.411 12.716 11.041 8.761 9.322 5.999 2.265 distributed (t) Firewood popn. Average refugee 272.029 270.638 204.646 168.227 136.671 135.354 138.618 134.552 136.445 120.000 123.138 110.000 108.827 person (kg/day) Ave. consumptionper 1,13 1,17 1,21 1,25 1,29 1,33 1,38 1,42 1,46 1,00 1,04 1,08 1,50 overall (t/yr) Ave. consumption 102.899 905.200 69.078 58.199 59.697 63.244 63.436 66.403 60.225 63.673 58.552 99.291 80.920 59.583 % supplied 11% 13% 16% 15% 20% 17% 15% 15% 10% 12% 9% 4% 5% 0% 57 Study Findings 58 Study Findings of tenders involves 362 contracts 362 involves tenders of round latest The elite. local the to accrue to seem now benefits primary the progressreports, in the price payable for wood. Although the original social and environmental objectives are still cited of the firewood programme, and it was suspended altogether in 2009 in a high level dispute over politicisation increasing to led have contracts supply the for available money of sums large The 25-#S s HARVESTING s MONITORING s h 3100/t Shs of camps the in firewood for price current the comparedwith as GTZ, through 8000/t paid Shs being now of price delivered a with only refugees, the by implemented being already system lorries. The firewood supply programme has hence become a formalised version of the the harvesting to accessible sites collection centralised to wood now bring to camps harvesters the from carts contracted hire simply the and outwards moved have carts donkey the as down broken has impact camps’ the disperse to system This lorries. using locations distant more and carts using harvested be would areas closer areas that meaning the carts, donkey camp-based beyond by frequented lay originally transporters contracted the by targeted zones harvesting The take wood from Yumbis?to authorised be remains, wood dead no where Alinjugur, from contractor a should Why affected: areas the in living people among resentment creates understandably and motivations political of indication an is eliminated been long has wood dead which from Fafi and Dadaab in Locations several areawardedto contracts harvesting that fact The million. 36 KSh of cost total 19 18 17 16 TENDERING s 2005b) were reporting that: collected. However, by 2005 the Provincial Environment Officer and Provincial Forester (see GoK, was wood dried only ensured Groups Working Environmental that and requirements protection Committees Monitoring Use frequentagreedmade with (RUMCs) compliance verify to sites harvesting to visits environmental Resource and Monitors Use Resource that contracts, firewood purchase from benefiting were communities host that 2002 in reported mission agency joint A the programme andpeakedat20%in2003. Organised firewood supplyhasaveraged11%ofestimatedconsumptionoverthe12years room forimprovement. upre iiitvs ht net cs drcl it te oa eooy ma ta i wud be would it that mean economy,out phase to difficult local the into directly cash injects that initiatives supported agency- few the of one is it that fact the and programme supply firewood the of nature political few.The a only by realised are benefits the community,while the areacross right contracts resented and harvesting felt firewood the of impacts negative that established communities host utfid n ihr niomna o poeto grounds protection or environmental either on justified

There now beinganaverageofonerecorded rapeincidentper year, generallyunrelated tofuelcollection. Half thecontractsare forharvestingandtheotherhalftransport. expenses ofother factors”(Ndibalema,2008) the interestsprevailingat personal and political for potential with complex is issue the interestand vested of lot a “Thereis KES 1200per390kgcart-load. of deliberate bias or because they could not co-ordinate properly with gatherers due to due logistical constraints. gatherers with properly co-ordinate not could they because or bias deliberate of circulated; or membersoftheRUMCs; and Garissa; 17 Ti i cery rte ueooia wy o ore ul n cn o ogr be longer no can and fuel source to way uneconomical rather a clearly is This . WERE WAS CONTRACTS WAS FAILING EXCLUSIVELY 19 ONLY . However, the way in which the programme is managed offers significant offers managed is programme the which in However,way . the TO WERE CARRIED ENFORCE CONTROLLED BEING 16 OUT to source and deliver 4,525 t of firewood to the camps at a at camps the to firewood of t 4,525 deliver and source to RULES SOLD BY BY INTERNAL ON DESIGNED CHIEFS BY CHIEFS PROJECT AND TO AND HAND PICKED PROTECT 18 I adto, h hueod uvy in survey household the addition, In . STAFF $/S AND THE TO BUSINESSPEOPLE THEIR ENVIRONMENT ELDERS REPORTS USUALLY WERE EITHER FROM THEIR NOT BECAUSE RELATIVES $ADAAB WIDELY m an estimated 0,25 M m M 0,25 estimated an Togetherdischarge agencies). they humanitarian the serves which of (one town boreholes Dadaab supply two and camps the to adjacent living communities serve boreholes additional Four now 19. Annual abstraction for refugee use has doubled from 1,0 to 2,0 M m M 2,0 to 1,0 from doubled has use refugee for abstraction Annual 19. now are there and camps the in boreholes functional 14 were thereresearch Gibb the of time the At the Dadaabboreholes provided byCARE. 20 discussion, together with consultations with the report’s lead author Africa Gibb in Eastern 2004. This comprehensive technical study forms the basis of the following through UNICEF by commissioned was aquifer the of recharge and abstraction into Research Source: Figure 6:MapshowingextentofMertiaquifer extent ofwhichisdepictedinFigure 6. operation – together with large portions of Garissa, Wajir and Isiolo - tap into the Merti aquifer, the refugee the supply that boreholes The boreholes. deep are area refugee-hosting the in water of the exception With of the wells at Shantabak north-west of Dadaab, the only permanent sources 3.7.1 Whatisthescaleofaquiferabstraction? 3.7 Impactsonwaterresources eemnn wtr btato fo te et f h aufr s oe ifiut eas o data of because difficult more sunk boreholes on information is provide not could authority,which aquifer catchment the at deficiencies the of rest the from abstraction water Determining

Mike LaneofAquasearch Ltd.,whoseinsights are gratefullyacknowledged. 3 /yr.

Gibb Eastern Africa,2004. Gibb Eastern 3 /yr. Hence total estimated abstraction in the vicinity of Dadaab is 2,3 M 2,3 is Dadaab of vicinity the in abstraction estimated /yr.total Hence 20 and updated information on 3 /yr since 2002. since /yr 59 Study Findings 60 Study Findings estimated at4,55Mm flux measurements, giving total recharge of 4,5 M m degree of confidence: 0,9 M m Several estimates of aquifer recharge are quoted by Gibb, two of which are quantified with some 3.7.2 Whatistherateofaquiferrecharge? or millennia. is an unknown lag-time between rainfall events and aquifer recharge that is likely to be in centuries Table 19:EstimatedabstractionfromMertiaquifer(2002 and 2010) m M 2.25 draw them growth rate of 5%, to give a figure of 60 boreholes unrelated to the refugee operation that between fromfigureboreholesextrapolating 200241 by theofacross annual threean assuming districts, number current the estimate to necessary therefore was study.It Gibb the since aquifer the in increase totalabstractionfrom theMertiaquifertoanestimated5,28Mm to likely are they commissioned are boreholes replacement and new these aquifer.Once the in and one in the UNHCR Dadaab compound. There are also new boreholes being sunk in elsewherecamps the in them of six permitting, funds infrastructure, aging replace will that more seven and extension II Ifo the in 2010 in sunk be boreholesto new four includes table the of part lower The Yamicha Triangle, giving an assured recharge volume of 3,3 M m Lagh Dera mechanism can only be hypothesised and is estimated at 1,2 M m occurring every few thousand years (perhaps more frequently). But the volume of recharge via this near Sebule via superficial sandstone deposits. This could arise from large-scale recharge events possibly or Habaswein, and Sericho rechargebetween be theremay suggests author lead Gibb Dera, although no specific Lagh infiltration locations the are of unequivocally bed pinpointed. Consultation the with throughthe recharge water fresh of source third a be may there that suggest Location 2010): Projected total(end UNHCR replacement Camp replacements Ifo IIextension Garissa, Wajir, Isiolo UNHCR Refugee camps Dagahaley, local Hagadera, local Ifo, local Dadaab town Isiolo Wajir Garissa Total 3 3 f ae pr er Ttl btato fo te et aufr s therefore is aquifer Merti the from abstraction Total year. per water of No. of /yr, assummarisedinTable 19. BHs 55 14 15 20 6 3 2002 /yr from the Ewaso Ng’iro river and 2,4 M m Abstraction (M m 3 /yr) 0,998 0,11 0,55 2,52 0,88

No. ofBHs 3 /yr from the three postulated sources. There 85 19 22 30 92 4 3 1 2 1 1 1 8 2010 Abstraction (M m 3 3 /yr) /yr. Water quality measurements 0,44 0,08 2,04 0,07 0,02 0,03 0,05 0,14 0,80 0,02 0,16 0,11 4,55 1,31 5,28 each 20.000l/hr, 15hrs/day 5% growth in2010 9000 l/hrx24hrs/day 5,6 Ml.day 16.000 l/hr, 12hrs/day 5000 l/hr, 12hrs/day 6000 l/hr, 12hrs/day 17.000 l/hr, 12hrs/day 5% p.a.growth 5% p.a.growth 5% p.a.growth 1 BH25%>current yield 6 BHs25%>current ave. Assumptions 3 3 /yr. /yr from the so-called 3 /yr on the basis of is about 3,7 km 3,7 about is recharge probably takes centuries or longer. The total volume of water stored in the Merti aquifer is exceeding the confirmed rate of recharge. This may have impacts well into the future, given that been unsustainable, but it seems likely that a threshold has now been reached where abstraction The picture of water abstraction is mixed. There is no reason to believe that utilisation thus far has 3.7.4 Discussionofwaterimpacts happening. is this which at rate the of down slowing or up speeding significant therea has been camp no in same (refer to the charts in Annex S which illustrate these trends). All SWLs continue to drop, but in Hagadera the rate of SWL decline has reduced and in Dagahaley the rate is approximately the whereas years, 12 preceding the over did it than 2003 since faster slightly falling been has it Ifo In ago: years seven Gibb by recorded that to similar is falling been has SWL which at rate The 3,8 mover50yearsonaverage. a healthiertrend thanhepostulated,equivalentto6mover50yearsintheworstcaseandonly m in the most heavily-pumped areas over a 50 year period. The latest borehole data in fact show to future aquifer development, with maximum borehole extraction of 8-10 m 8-10 of extraction borehole maximum with development, aquifer future to approachconservative recommendeda Gibb rising. percentageis this that and aquifer fromthe especially so for the refugee support operation, given that it accounts for 47% of total abstraction is This ones. existing exploiting and boreholes new drilling in caution with proceed to necessary therefore is It recharge. of source reliable or regular a represents this that assume to foolhardybe would it and hypothetical only is mechanism infiltration Dera Lagh the because and 2006), IWMI, in quoted 1998, al, et (Gichuki seasons dry during flow river of 60% reaching irrigation for The situation will worsen because recharge via the Ewaso Ng’iro is in steep decline, with abstraction mining oftheresource, andisariskycourseofaction. major beforeto amounts recharged being years is than water many more extracting Nevertheless, recorded.be are impacts to likely is it and underground available water the of 0,12% only to 11,1 M m Wanyeki (1979) calculated the effects on the aquifer of 70 hypothetical boreholes discharging 4,2 camp boreholes isgenerallyatleast40m. the in thickness saturated the that given changes, arenegligible These years. 17 in m 2 only still is but Dagahaley in greatestseen The is R). decline Annex (see 1992 since m 1,3 only of SWL in decline average an show and study the of part as analysed were 2009 to 2002 from boreholes Static Water Level (SWL) in boreholes is one indication of aquifer health. The records for six camp 3.7.3 Whatarethetrendsinboreholewaterlevels? concluded thattherateofwaterdischargeisnowinexcesslikelyrecharge. With current aquifer abstraction of 4,6 M m M 4,6 of abstraction aquifer current With 85 boreholes discharging 4,6 M m M boreholes4,6 85 discharging study”. With the rise in the number of boreholes and the increase in average abstraction per abstraction average in increase borehole, thepossibilityofover-usethe oftheaquiferneedstobeaddressed. and boreholes of number the in rise the With study”. “the current rates of pumping significantly exceed the recommended pumping rates in the aquifer that observed (2009) boreholes.CDC camp the in this arounddouble averages now abstraction 3 /yr. His scenario is similar to the actual situation that now prevails, with an estimated 3 (Mike Lane, pers. comm.). Annual discharge of 4,6 M m M 4,6 of discharge Annual comm.). pers. Lane, (Mike 3 /yr.10 exceed Wanyekinot would drawdown that concluded 3 /yr expected to rise to 5,3 M m M 5,3 to rise to expected /yr 3 therefore representstherefore 3 3 per hour. Actual hour. per /yr in 2010, it is it 2010, in /yr 61 Study Findings 62 Study Findings Table 20:Estimatedwaterconsumptionofcamp-basedlivestock camps –seeTable 20. fed the in abstraction are total of 5% l/day,over animals 340.000 as high as camp-based be may consumption water the Their so grazing local insufficient fromblend soy refugeefrom water and boreholes.rations, corn camp and maize supplementary is there periods dry During context. affects around 2.000 sq km, barely 4% of Garissa District and not significant in the wider regional the overplay to level ofcompetitionbetweenthehostsandrefugees forpasturemisleading andbrowse. Thelossofaccess be therefore would It camels. keep to permitted not are Refugees the camps are only to a very limited extent being herded further away or spending nights outside. but negligible beyond. The host community household survey also established that livestock from cattle, 8.000 and shoats 53.000 estimated an from radius this within heavy is pressure Grazing the care of hired graziers. The system is orderly and regulated, within a distance limit of 15-20 km. granted to those living in the camps and their livestock are limited to day trips out and back under of generally mode not are rights Such seasons. or or areas defined for clans rights pastoral access negotiated with resident others of the members by sustaining areas particular in for grazed be browse only may and livestock production, pasture of nature fundamental the Given 3.8.1 Whataretheimpactsongrazing? 3.8 Impactsongrazingandwildlife idie ouain aon Dda hv be rdcd s nml hv mgae de to due migrated have animals as reduced been have Dadaab around populations Wildlife 3.8.2 Whataretheimpactsonwildlife inthearea? particularly powerful. is instigator the unless this can, they whenever enclosures thorn-fenced remove to to aim and practice object members community Host periods. dry during locals and refugees both to sold privatised production of fodder by refugees and influential community members, which is cut and the for land of enclosure the is communities host in raised commonly concern of issue Another the issueisnotclear-cut asthere are alsolocalpeoplebenefitting from free foodandwater). (though refugees as cheaply as livestock their sell to afford cannot they as markets distorts this that respectively.complain camels residents and Non-camp cows shoats, for 10 or 5 2, KSh of fee watering a arepay Both to freecommon obtained is whereas it charge camps of the outside Camp-based livestock are therefore significant consumers of food and water intended for humans. disturbance, been forced out by competition with livestock for food or been hunted for their meat. Source: Livestock type Donkeys Cattle Sheep &goats

Livestock numbers from head count in Ifo, extrapolated based on relative camp populations. Water consumption from consumption Water populations. ofKenya,2005. Government camp relative on based extrapolated Ifo, in count head from numbers Livestock Total 3000 8000 53.000 l/animal/day 10,0 16,7 3,3 Water consumption Total Total l/day 133.600 338.500 174.900 30.000 self-help opportunitythat shouldnotrely solelyonNGO intervention. a as groups,refugee and local by mobilisation community to suited however,well possible, and still is waste solid of management seriously.Better taken being is issue the that and contained spatially is accumulation waste solid that clear is It 2009). (Porteaud, managed” well relatively is but does not create a health hazard; overall considering the population of the camps solid waste and Sanitation Officer concluded that “the view of the plastic bag everywhere is Watera visual nuisance UNHCR’sSenior arguable be. an may waste this accumulated (ibid.), unpleasant hazard” and unsightly environmental however “major claim, a pose to said waste. is solid waste to solid directly while linked So locals or residents camp either among sickness or accident of infiltration no is there ingesting and plastic bags has been surface over-stated. The study team the could also find no recorded below instance m 110 livestock of risk The depths. these least to waste solid from leachates channel could that mechanism at is area the in table water The for recycling orre-use andisbeingdumpedinatriallandfillatHagadera. receiving is a level it of that attention meaning not seen initiatives, in landfill local and communities. recycling Only collection, 8% of with the involved solid and waste is issue unsuitable this about of disposed and - generated concerned nevertheless are routinely camps the in working Agencies communities. local in quantity - haphazardly the to different no is and size comparable towns normal of of inhabitants by produced volume the than lower is balance The planting. tree kg/day,1,63 is camps gardeningkitchen for compound suitable or dung animal is 75% which of its disposal (CARE International, 2009) and found that average per capita waste production in the CARE recently conducted a study of solid waste generation to inform a new strategy accumulated. now for waste of managing volume the to due unsustainable becoming is this but burial, situ in and burning been has camps the within management waste solid to approach traditional The 3.9.1 Howissolidwastemanagedandwhatareitsimpacts? 3.9 Camp-basedenvironmentalissues and thatlionhyenanumberswillcontinuetodeclineasaresult. predatorsand keepers escalate livestock will between conflict that inevitable also is It dispersed. decline, it is unlikely that game will recover unless the camps and associated local settlements are population the of cause principal the are poaching or migration Whether process. the intensified significantly has camps the of presencehowever, the phenomena, environmental many with As conservancies. private and Parks National outside Kenya of areas most across observed being is trend same The phenomenon. camp-related a only not is Dadaab around wildlife of loss The rather thanpoachingmayaccountforthemajorityofpopulationdecline. migration that hope community.thereforesome host is and Thererefugees the by affectedarea to be part of the diet. Wildlife is sensitive to disturbance and is likely to have moved away from the wider Somali community, among whom game was not traditionally consumed but is now reported trap birds and hunt warthogs for their own consumption and hunt antelope to supply meat to the Somali Bantu and Sudanese The destruction. wildlife of process the in part their play Refugees respectively. losses these of 41% and 46% for account hyena spotted and Lion 2007). (Murithi, 22.000 USD of avalue with annually stock of head 1300 over predatorskill that estimated is it District Garissa In instead. cattle and sheep goats, attack reducing to them forcing livestock, and predators of prey domestic traditional the and herbivores between competition intensified have Droughts 63 Study Findings 64 Study Findings 21 Since 2009, two local NGOs programmes. educational and awareness-raising environmental implementing and locals, and refugees involving Groups Working Environmental catalysing gardening, kitchen “multi-storey” promoting stoves, and fuels alternative exploring establishment), seedling for micro-catchments (using greenbelts of replanting and fencing camps, tree the and Dadaab of in nurseries from distribution seedlings the stoves, fuel-efficient of distribution practices, and cooking manufacture is energy-saving development, firewood of the promotion of the supply include The others and GTZ. activities of these management of one the under 1993 since environmental of Dadaab programme in a activities supporting been have government German the and UNHCR 3.10 NGOenvironmentalactivities trade-off. acceptable an considered is down-side clear,the are and structures wood-pole with compared houses brick mud of benefits environmental The boreholes. community camp-adjacent the at camp boreholes and a fraction of that which leaks, is fed to livestock or is pumped free of charge fromthe abstraction total of 0,4% only is cu.m./yr 8820 but moderated, be always should water of consumption The sources. other numerous from arise risks such that given mosquitoes, for the pits are inappropriately pinpointed as a key source of danger to children over-statedand been and have extraction a mud for hole-digging breeding with associated risks ground the But locals. and refugees by spontaneously built being houses for needs additional with 2010), (Kennedy, water of cu.m. 8820 and soil of cu.m. 49.000 require houses 3500 production. brick for water non-use of local timber and thatch - and drawbacks, mainly the fact that they require clay soil and there is a trade-off between benefits - including security, space, dignity,style weather-proofingbuilding this and the year.With per houses mud-brick 3500 build to aim and programmes shelter brick mud with shelters houses since the late 1990s. Humanitarian agencies have adopted a similar building style in their wood-pole and huts traditional replacing been have residents Camp 3.9.3 Whatimpactsareseenfrommudbrickproduction? but nottohostcommunitiesorthewiderenvironment. for latrine pit lining (Porteaud, 2009). Both issues present a localised health risk to camp residents drums oil of use experimental the through addressed being is which Hagadera in instability soil of problem a Dagahaley.also and is ThereIfo of soils clayey the however,in latrines, particularly that chance no pit of overflow quality.ground-wateraffectingareto camps is leads the flooding in Surface latrines there mechanism, infiltration known no and table water deep a with Again, 3.9.2 Whataretheimpactsofsanitationfacilities? settlements. However, rehabilitating large tracts of the surrounding dryland bush through active through bush nearby dryland surrounding the in of tracts large plots However,rehabilitating settlements. private on and camps the within activities management environmental further for exists Scope planting. tree large-scale precludes effectively which protected, and watered tended, areactively they if survive only treeswill Planted compounds. domestic and settlements what these programmes have been able to achieve in terms of environmental rehabilitation outside with good survival rates. However, the harsh climate, poor soils and unreliable rainfall have limited The camps themselves have been heavily forested as a result of long-term household tree planting camps onhouseholdtree planting,woodlots,kitchengardening andirrigatedhorticulture. eif Rcntuto ad eeomn Ognsto (RO fne truh R ad a Integrated Fafi and NRC through funded (RRDO) Organisation Development Association (FaIDA)fundedthrough LWF. Development and Reconstruction Relief, 21 have also been supported to work in the settlements closest to the c) b) a) There are severalrealities thatbecomeapparent: local culture andlifestylesare finelyadapted. which to rangeland, natural the of diversity rich the for substitute introducedcannot treespecies because and cost, high and rates survival low of because viable not are compounds domestic pressure is alleviated and natural regeneration becomes a possibility. Reforestation efforts outside victims who deserve compensation 26 25 24 23 22 as fragile portrayed been has environment The facts. of expense the at superlatives with Dadaab around situation environmental the characterise to tendency a been has there Nevertheless, scrub. to natural the on strain considerable a placing resources of the surrounding are area. Wood collection in particular has reduced a large area of land they that irrefutable is it area, hosting brought have the camps to Dadaab the that benefits economic and social numerous the of spite In 3.11 Environmentalimpacts–overview regeneration, would beanextremely expensiveexercise withalow probability ofsuccess. natural its managing and pressure human reducing to opposed as intervention, xettos ht oe 000 km 10.000 some that expectations inflated meet to possible be never will it – achieved been have to seems little that unsurprising is it Dadaab, visit that missions donor-funded and government most by for called is environment rehabilitationlarge-scale the that of also Given impossible. impact of attribution definitive making of area an in restricted inherently spatially low resource but value, and serious the the differentiation been between local of people have and refugees impacts is terms blurred, the environmental purely affiliations, in clan camps of context the within structured largely is resources local towards behaviour refugee resilient; and hardy is environment The complex. more is reality The grossly inadequateinscaleandscope

“…local people get nothing in return. The local communities need to be compensated” (NET-Fundproposition compensated” be to need communities local The return. in nothing get people “…local Security Food District (Garissa erosion…” severe to land of ha 113,140 exposed … have community “refugee Envt. Mgmt.Framework, 2010). Integrated (Dadaab slightly” only alleviated been have problems the but … interventions many been have “there “indiscriminate cuttingoftrees forfirewood bythegreat (sic)immigrants”(Murithi,2007). semi-arid environment” (UNEPmissionreport, 2009). this of state fragile “the 2009); report, trip (Prov.Commissioner ecosystem” fragile “a 2010); Framework. Mgmt. Envt. Integrated environment”(Dadaab fragile a “refugeesin 2008); environment”(Ndibalema, the of “fragility e.g. etn, o 20) “fis se i te eaiiain rga sol b … .. opnain o h host the to compensation e.g. … be should program communities” (Hon.A.Sugow, MP, rehabilitation Stakeholder Workshop onIntegrated Envt.Mgmt.,Apr2010). the in step “…first 2009); Nov meeting, Profile).

significant reduction in the camp and local population would permit natural regeneration, a natural permit feasible; would population financially local and or camp the in technically reduction significant not is area hosting the of rehabilitation Large-scale the at area hosting the to expense oflossesthrough environmental degradation. accruing benefits economic significant to pointing evidence the with benefits, and costs between practice containment this from trade-off a is There camp populationsof20.000. maximum on clear are guidelines whose organisations, international other or UNHCR by broughtabout situation a not is productivity;this low areaof an in camps large refugeesin an is Environmentaldegradation 22 , refugee behaviour as indiscriminate 25 and mitigation programmes by refugee-support agencies as 2 f rln bs cn e eaiiae, nes population unless rehabilitated, be can bush dryland of 26 inevitable consequence inevitable . 23 , impacts as a regional disaster of the GoK practice of containing of practice GoK the of 24 , local people as 65 Study Findings 66 Study Findings their ownresources. numbers of pastoralists to towns, where they are becoming dependent on hand-outs rather than livelihood and deterioration growing pushing is which resourceKenya’sand across drylands forms similar in seen of is that vulnerability process a accelerating are changes These stability. presencepasture,areby theon camps impacts the unquantifiable of browsehaving rangeland and about brought species insect and bird animal, plant, of balance ecological the to Changes planning. UNHCR,forexample, operatesaccording toone-yearfundingcycles. should be long-term development initiatives, and short-term funding cycles undermine long-term skills to design and implement development programmes, there is over-use of hand-outs in what necessary the lack Staff camps. refugee of context the in appropriate those fromdifferent quite find they projects development in themselves working outside their core areas of competence, involved with a need for approaches that are become agencies humanitarian as Furthermore, agencies andappliesequallytoprojects supportedbytheCDFandALRMP. humanitarian the of initiatives to unique problem a not is This staffed. not are clinics schools health and new several Hence lacking. equally is government by direction and weak seems also initiatives government differentCoordinationwith by agencies. funded communities, same the in boreholes expensive in investment parallel of found be can examples Several coordination. little in local community programmes tend to manage their own projects with a single sector focus and pastoral production and its associated strategies of mobility are largely absent. Agencies involved Donations of infrastructure dominate the host community project portfolio and initiativessupporting discussions were held with community members on the content and approach of these projects. The study team summarised ongoing host community projects (Annex A) and during the study many 3.12 Hostcommunitysupportprojects Dadaab environment ring ofresource degradation. expanding an and characteristics urban-like increasingly exhibit will Dadaab otherwise but 4. 3. 2. 1. 4.1 Socio-EconomicImpacts 4. Conclusions

and their identities are intertwined. The two populations share a common language, culture Clans, access, identities and relationships. developing appropriate interventionsinsupportofthehostcommunity. other pastoralist-dominated areas of Kenya. Understanding these experiences is crucial for in known well are groups both towards interventions development appropriate directing in problems the and populations mobile and settled between distinctions The populations. by settled for predominantlycatering is agencies humanitarian and services development government, of Provision mobile. or settled of attributions definitive apply to misleading it makes mobility and settlement of combination complex The cycles. annual and seasonal during and households within both scales various at used is and risk reducing for strategy (if they are settled) or settled (if they are mobile). Combining settlement and mobility is a key members mobile some and with others divided, settled, or are at households least of having relatives majority in vast households that the are but mobile pastoralists, mobile are 40% settled. and Mobile significant,spatially-focussed increase inpopulation. this account not does area host the for planning development Government-led sub-clans. same the by inhabited areas from predominantly Province, Eastern North of parts Somali ethnic of parts other from in moving are People years. 15 last the within area Dadaab the increasein settled having areapopulation host adult in the of 70% least at with population, Eastern Province of approx. 7 people/sq.km. In-migration is the main driver of the significant km range is now 15 people/sq km, compared with an average for other rural areas of North 0-50 whole the across density average The distance. increasing with declines and sq.km) has increased tenfold. Population density is highest within 10 km of the camps (66 people/ population host the 1989, in 15.000 around of figure pre-refugee the From p.a. 3,7%. of this has been growing at 11,7% p.a., compared with the average for North Eastern Province Host population. independent planning processes. own their with districts several of jurisdiction the under falls and processes away. The refugee-hosting area is not defined in any government-led development planning when kilometreshundredsof several to groundsup foraging and grazing especially use pastoralists mobile approximation, an necessarily is area host the Defining Districts. South ih de ad niae ere f vra. n diin hs cmuiy aiis often families community host addition, In overlap. of degree intimate and deep a with border. international the time over refugeesevolved between have Relationships hosts and of side either land of swathes large across common- use resource of a sharing with to approach property together identities, sub-clan and clan cases many in and religion, and with an oval shape 100 x 120 km (9600 km (9600 km 120 x 100 shape oval an with interaction, measurable and routine of terms in area host the as defined be therefore can radius km 50 A km. 50 within impacts environmental and km 35-45 within felt are impacts and infrastructure, services resulting in large-scale in-migration of in people. The main socio-economic investments and prices, commodity and food reduced opportunities, trading area. Host mat fo te aab ap ae infiat n icue uies and business include and significant are camps Dadaab the from Impacts The host population within 50 km comprises at least 148.000 people and prxmtl 6% f h hs cmuiy ie n eteet and settlements in live community host the of 60% Approximately

Host and refugee communities overlap closely 2 ) covering parts of Faﬁ, Lagdera and Wajir and Lagdera Faﬁ, of parts covering ) 67 Conclusions 68 Conclusions 7. 6. 5.

and neighbouringvillages. jobs and contracts, resolution of conflicts and facilitation of of interactions between division the camps the camps, refugee the within and plots business land of of allocation the question rights, resource vexed the over exist Agreements sub-clans. similar from hail who interaction takes place between the leadership of the refugee camps and the local leaders, informal vibrant whilst agencies, various by supported been have interaction of channels conflict resolution between host and camp-based communities are well established. Formal agreements. and Negotiations exists despiteconcertedattemptsbyGoK(through DRA)torationalisethesituation. to the peaceable acceptance of refugees. It is a highly sensitive issue, however, and persists of the integrated relationship between the camps and the surrounding area and contributes part become has It area. Dadaab the to unique and operation refugee the of impact major a is members community host by cards ration of ownership widespread The photograph. national ID offers less tangible rights. Ration cards are used in food distribution and carry no a whereas income) to converts (which food provides it as sense more makes card ration a the same time has become more difficult due to biometric registration; but for many, holding strategy for those living in the host area. Holding a Kenyan ID card and not a considered refugeevery difficult to ration obtain carda refugee at card and is moreover seen as a logic survival is it members community host Among refugees. not are These livelihood. better a seek to the host area originally and others who have moved there from other parts of Kenya, arefromwho primarily people both cardsinclude ration of Holders none. having other and included among households seems to community be very unequal host with some distribution households Their having 40.500 cards.most members ration refugee least hold to believed At are km 50 practice. within (27%) this members of scale the of assessment thorough a conducted team study the households, community host for ownership card ration refugee community. host among holders cards ration Refugee host community.the towards directed compensation for need supposed the and camps the of presence the with associated problems the stressing in vocal quite typically are politicians local and communities, host to not but refugees to applied are standards humanitarian international place within the camps at a significant scale. Refugees are seen as getting the better deal as of purposes. Social interaction between host community members and refugees are taking social amenities, the host community is naturally drawn and towards shops the services, camps for for a areawide range the in centres major being camps Dadaab the With camps. the in refugees to extended rights these are degree limited a to community,only host and clear that rights in terms of grazing are by and large controlled by the clan institutions of the able to operate relatively smoothly in terms of host/refugee relationships. That said, it is still been has scale this of operation humanitarian a why reasons key hostsare and refugees between distinctions blurred and identities Shared radius. km 50 a outside within and living camps the people those as community host defined study the purposes practical for but difficult, therefore is identities of definition recently.Clear-cut only area Dadaab the in arrived themselves probably have and pasture, of search in forth Kenya and and Somalia back between moving households their of part have and camps, the in members have eutos n ietc hlig hv, s n te AA rgos f ey, uhd large pushed Kenya, of regions ASAL other in as have, holdings livestock in reductions Significant community. host Dadaab the in settlement in increase the and population the factors. deterrent and pull Push, oh oml n ifra aeus o ngtain and negotiation for avenues informal and formal Both eurn dogt hv hd rfud fet on effects profound had have droughts Recurrent elsn te motne of importance the Realising 10. 9. 8.

in the camps and grazed in this way. The number of livestock owned by the host community than this daily movement allows. An estimated that 53.000 shoats and 8.000 cattle are kept herds each and morning brought back in the evening and very few are grazed further away ownership. Livestock and thearea tobecovered isvast. mobile production system. Government capacity for supporting pastoral production is weak special projects like ALRMP, however the support is limited and only partially addresses the of support the with administrations district the by provided being is development pastoral to Support markets. major their and camps refugee the supply beento specifically have developed community host the in systems production Pastoral dynamic. very is picture The destitute. or poor are less and rich are households less that means This sizes). herd increasing report 15-20% (though sizes herd decreasing report households of majority a of households now report to have middle size herds as compared to some decades agoand number increasing An operation. refugee the by created opportunities the with associated directly is and Kenya, of areas pastoral other in seen generally not and area Dadaab the to unique is development This overall. higher times five or four still are numbers livestock total household, per holding livestock in drop 50% estimated the an over alongside years population 20 human last the in refugee increase ten-fold or to relief eight- from estimated available an food With cheap rations. with season dry the during fed partially are border round year all settlements aroundSomali kept Livestock available. is grazing the where on depending over forth and back moved are animals of numbers significant a and distances long trekkedare Livestock production. pastoral optimise to order in mobile herd production. Pastoral the scaleofpastoraltrade,free andsubsidisedfoodaccesstoservices. to due specifically refugeeoperation the presence of the by shaped been have Livelihoods areas. pastoral comparable other in than pronounced more is projectsdonor-funded and services food, free on dependency However, all. at livestock no have households of 3% than Fewer areas. comparable other in than poverty acute less somewhat with a situation indicate does it 60-65%, of to Province comparedEastern North directly for level be poverty rural cannot absolute the this Although poor. as themselves destitute saw as 20% themselves only classified and interviewed one no area, host the in prevails poverty including livestock, milk, firewoodpeople, and donkey local cart transport other services. Although widespread to or camps the to products domestic sell refugeehouseholds Many and/or rations. relief food to access have also they that ensure households all pastoral, Host community livelihoods. of competitionforaccesstonaturalresources. locally,level land high own the who and sub-clans the to belong to need the arearea host the into moving from people keeping factors Deterrent opportunities. employment more of existence the and places; comparable other areain the than morein of services availability the card; ration a receive and refugee a as register to opportunity the Somalia; via imports area Dadaab the include: the to availability unique of cheap factors food Pull due to settlement. indirect and subsidy via poverty distribution in into the people camps and of numbers with camels not owned by refugees at all. Host community households still own an average shoats, many as times six and refugees by as community host by owned are cattle many during the rainy season are the majority of these livestock kept in the host area. 25 times as Only shoats. 300-350.000 and cattle 200-250.000 camels, 80-100.000 be to estimated is Virtually everyone with more than a few shoats keeps part of their of part keeps shoats few a than more with everyone Virtually Livestock owned by residents of the camps are taken out in large in out taken are camps the of residents by owned Livestock

Although livelihoods in the host community are overwhelmingly 69 Conclusions 70 Conclusions 14. 13. 12. 11.

camps in the context of environmental degradation and do not propose any measures to measures any propose not do and degradation environmental of context the in camps refugee the of presence the mention only but district, each for activities planned of range area and sets out its intentions in the respective district development host plans. the These for being responsibilitylist planning a lead was wide the has District) GoK period. study (Dadaab the during established fourth A 2007-8. in created were area hosting refugee area the host the in roles and processes Development for somehostcommunitymembers,butthescale ofthissupporthasbeenlimited. participation in the firewood trade has provided important income-generating opportunities local encourage to ALRMP by carts donkey of provision The resources. available the for competition increase further contracts the and funding the of lion’sshare the take chiefs and elders while camps, the from labour in bring contractors because benefitting not are who locals from supply firewood of programme agency-managed the towardsresentment the camps is largely involving harvesters basedin the camps. In several communities there is the trade with firewood and poles. However, commercial provision of firewood and poles to or less equal demands from the hosts and refugees, and with both communities involved in more with significant, very is communities host the and camps the from materials building collection. materials building and Firewood ASAL areas withapastoralist tradition. to pastoral production, indicating a basic lack of understanding of development options for alternative an as donor-fundedinitiatives in development and plans development district in routinelycited still is farming viable, economically not is waterpans medium-sized or small- fromfarming boreholesirrigated or although and Kenya) of parts arid other areain host (as wastewater is available. Although performance in rain-fed farming has been very poor in domestic the where compounds, in gardening kitchen to limited be to likely is farming Viable disappointing. of been far form so have returns any the part, in taken have who involved those for previously and farming, were people local few Very agencies. humanitarian Farming. are foragingduringpartoftheyearinareas farfrom thehostcommunityarea. increase livestock holdings.This remains possible because a significant number of livestock to years good and average in possible still is accordingit Still, views, decades. local two to last the uniform during available still less much is or less therebecome generally has but grazing that 2010, agreement during significantly recovered have to acknowledged is Grazing “greenbelts”. and land grazing of fencing the through range the of privatisation by herds partly immobile year-round, by the physical expansion of camps and settlements, and around water points with depleted grazing and browsing resources, by the tendency to keep essential for sustaining the pastoral system, is being hampered by fast-growing populations settlement and this is having profound impacts on mobility and grazing patterns. Mobility, so management browsing and Grazing livelihood baseofthehostcommunity. diversified the of indication further a is This production. pastoral purely from household a Tropical12,8 only of however,Units, requiredLivestock that sustain of to half only is which uaiain gnis Nihr h Ntoa Plc fr h Ai ad ei rd ad of Creation Lands Employment and Wealth for Arid Strategy Recovery Economic Kenyan Semi the nor Kenya and Arid the for Policy National the Neither agencies. humanitarian to left been degree large a to has programmes refugees. development are of host presenceof Implementation the with be might that associated opportunities positive develop Farming has been promoted in host communities by several development and development several by communities host in promoted been has Farming . h hs ae hs en sep ie n human in rise steep a seen has area host The h cmie dmn fr rwo and firewood for demand combined The Te he dsrcs comprising districts three The . 16. 15.

need to recognise this and seek to support moderate pastoral production improvements, production pastoral moderate support to seek and this recognise to need efforts Development failed. largely have agriculture as such systems production alternative promote to Efforts area. host the in significantly risen have returns pastoral which from production, on dependent remain people local of majority vast the that note to important it is significantly, phasing increased future has population a host from the Although repercussions operation. local refugee the serious of out be to likely are there camps, the in livelihoods intimately dependent on access to cheap or free food and access to the markets with and host camps the with in associated opportunities to increasedue area the to significant attracted population very a With presents. size this of operation an and refugees and development agencies of the development opportunities that the presence of so many government by consideration compensatory little very short-term and problems visible a and immediate into to approach translated has this Dadaab, In opportunities. utilise to when and problems address to when decide to operation difficult therefore is humanitarian It out. the phased be and will homeland their to return will refugees the when known not is it situation, refugeeprotracted a such In opportunities. and challenges development area. host the in challenges Development operation. host area. Funding and food items are provided by the World Food Programme’s emergency WASDA) is based on regular food security assessmentsare provides food distribution in the community. host the to support outreach health of medical outreach visits to address basic health needs and it has become the main provider since 2005. More than half of the host population in Dadaab relies on the project’s Dadaab monthly around communities host and refugees both targeting project health integrated area. host the to support development for vehicle significant a become to likely not is it and implementation supported by a range of ministries. Complicated institutional implementation arrangements have hampered and UNDP and WFP, UNICEF, UNHCR, between divided is budget The education, water and interventionsin sanitation, and rural assistance roads, food environmental of provisionconservation, throughcommunity, and host peace the building. of security development. be an important vehicle for development in the area and has the potential to facilitatefurther to continues implementation district to support close its and ALRMP communities. host of planning, action community supported has formation of community development committees and community it investments in a number vulnerability, reducing and security food (ALRMP) Project Management Resource Lands Arid the initiativeis development key a area, refugee-hosting the in organisations humanitarian initiatives. and actors Development and is inpracticeverylimited. oversight GoK refugees. and communities regulation of trade and business development host associated with the camps and the host area between arising issues address politicians local structuresand District management. camp growingrolein a playing is and presence its increased has which DRA, the with lies camps the managing for GoK within responsibility The refugees. hosting with associated opportunities or impacts addresses hleg i hw o nue ht eet ad potnte ascae wt te refugee the with associated opportunities and benefits that ensure to how is challenge development Another attractive. refugee less becomes area the host the and when out phased is and operation if areas other to moved be can that investments production and The UN Kenya Host Community Project h Kna e CosDns Rd rs Iiitv i Health in Initiative Cross Red Cross/Danish Red Kenya The

n diin o h poet ipeetd by implemented projects the to addition In

The Dadaab area experiences a number of number a experiences area Dadaab The WFP food relief food WFP aims to improve the long-term food . With an overall goal of improving of goal overall an With . (through KRCS and KRCS (through s an is 71 Conclusions 72 Conclusions 21. 20. 19. 18. 17.

Access to transport and communication. and transport to Access camps andinDadaabare generallyaccessedfree ofchargebythehostcommunities. medicine, a problem share with many areas of Kenya. and The staff agency-equipped lack hospitals often in the dispensaries and village-clinics the well, function to seen are Dadaab hospitals and clinics in Dadaab town and the camps. While health services in the camps and public transport is accessible in most locations, which makes it relatively easy to access the and communities host the serve dispensaries and clinics Outreach camps. the in refugees to available services the with comparison make often and services health quality to access other in than higher comparable much arid areas of Kenya. access Host community members have high of expectations of easy levels by in investments resulted has and This operation agencies. refugee humanitarian the of consequence a as significantly improved services. health to Access only onenomadicschoolisoperatinginthearea. a large part of the population is mobile, investment in mobile education has been limited and Although materials. local and labour of form the in being typically contributions community with construction, school supported all have agencies humanitarian and CDF Education, of Ministry The down. settling for reason key a is children educating and community host education. to Access elsewhere inKenya. do they as water for arepaying communities Host associations. water the of aremembers residents local and satisfactorily boreholes manage committees Water resource. scarce a as water see longer no communities host and Kenya, of areas dryland for average the above well levels access with them endowed have operation refugee the from emanating water for people and livestock. Significant investments in water supplies for host communities Access to water. organisations. remains the responsibility of GoK, although implementation is relief sub-contracted to food civil of society Provision based. are support of phases subsequent which on assessments security food routine the in captured extent limited a to only are security food and food of refugeethe of availability areasimpacts the ASAL uniqueon other thecamps but Kenya of in as way same the in managed is food of distribution The assistance. of form this receive wealthy,or poor how matter no households, all so members, community all between lines generally reported to be well implemented. Food relief is shared along family and household relief. Food support tofacilitatetransportthecamps. training in trading and business opportunities associated with the camps and infrastructure services, veterinary routes, livestock contracts, firewood include investments development dispersed more for Opportunities people. of influx large-scale continued the counters and reducesarea camp immediate the of attraction the that so neighbours, host immediate to compensation as not and away further communities to equitably provided are operation o agt h cms Aalblt o tasot evcs n cmuiain s significantly is communication and services transport of Availability camps. the target to now available in several of the settlements close to Dadaab, as a result of services designed community members of reporting majority increased large a use with community,of host the road to transport. available services Mobile transport telephone the improved services are Food rations are widely distributed in the Dadaab area and the operation is operation the and area Dadaab the in distributed widely are rations Food

The vast majority of people in the hosting area report improved access to ces o dcto hs mrvd inﬁaty n ilgs f the of villages in signiﬁcantly improved has education to Access elh evcs aeig o hs cmuiis ae been have communities host for catering services Health

The presence of the camps has dramatically has camps the of presence The 25. 24. 23. 22. 27. 26. 4.2 EconomicImpacts

e f ra iprac bt s nraigy nertd ih oe omlsd tutrs of structures leadership. formalised more with integrated increasingly is but importance great of be to continues elders local of role The chiefs. appointed and councillors elected elders, clan Leadership structure. presence inthehostarea andseveralpolicepostsare maintained. host community to be affecting the level of crime in the area. GoK has increased the police security as other areas of North Eastern Province. The presence of refugees in is improvement not same felt the by experienced the has area host the sense this In issue. major a was feel able to move freely without problems, which was not the case in the 1990s issues Security when banditry family. the of caretakers day-to-day main the as women, for impacts positive especially had have services transport produceand domestic for markets facilities, water,health drinking safe like services to access improved However, men. than women by directly more felt been clearly have camps the from impacts environmental the members, benefit household differentequal to of is rations free to access and food cheaper opportunities, economic the gender.Whereas by tasks household of division the in seen of been has change workload Little men. the decreased has settlement to mobility from moving whereas women, of workload the to added has camps the of existence the from arising trade in involvement aspects. Gender recognised asaformofcompensationforhostingrefugees. most investment and best services from humanitarian agencies in Dadaab, and this is tacitly the attract to able been have camps the to close settled communities host Those strong. is settlement in increase and services in increase between link the and populations settled for cater areto predominantlyServices factoreddesigned in. is population host increasein greater concentration and easier access a closer to the camps. with This is the case areas,even if the significant pastoral remote in expected be would normally what to compared services. of Concentration in averypoorcondition. are roads access key several maintenance, road some to support some provide agencies infrastructure, but this is only done at a very limited scale in the host area. Although the UN road maintaining for responsible is GoK Kenya. of parts comparable other in than better estimated at KSh 133 million (USD 1,8 million), with a further is KSh camps 85 the million in (USD slaughter 1,2 for million) sold livestock the only from community host the to accruing have developed as major markets with considerable purchasing power. The annual income camps refugee The sales. livestock and milk of form the in production pastoral is income production pastoral from Income 20% lower than in other ASAL towns in Kenya. The main reasons are the widespread re-sale least at are oil cooking and sugar wheat, rice, maize, as such commodities basic of prices Food prices in host area. from themilktrade. . Local residents generally perceive the security situation as good. People good. as situation security the perceive generally residents Local The increased settlement, decreased availability of firewood and greater and firewood of availability decreased settlement, increased The The leadership structure in the host community combines traditional Large numbers of wholesale traders are located in the camps. The

The availability of social services in host communities is high is communities host in services social of availability The . y a te ags cnrbtr o ot community host to contributor largest the far By 73 Conclusions 74 Conclusions 32. 31. 30. 29. 28.

eae i sm wy o h rfge prto, ih eprr jb cmn i addition. in coming jobs temporary with operation, refugee the to way some in related of recruitment the employment fixed have particular persons local 600-750 that estimated is it employment, labour.total unskilled In direct through community host the support operation-relatedemployment. Refugee at premium ratesduetospeculationbydevelopers. continue doing so. Property prices are rising rapidly and roadside plots are changing hands to expected is and significantly risen has Tradeactivity centre. regional busy a to shelters rudimentary of cluster a from years, 18 last the over significantly developed has town The Trade in Dadaab town. refugees. the among activity travel extensive indicate camps the in offices booking with companies bus Seven land. to ownership clan by regulated access with community business the of especially in Dagahaley where non-refugee traders are reported to comprise more than half community and other non-refugees put up their shops in the camps alongside the refugees, and those in Dadaab town have a turnover of around USD 1,3 million. Vendors frommillion 25 the USD around host be to estimated goods. is camps the of in businesses the of kinds turnover Annual all in trading outlets wholesale large to traders petty from ranging town Volumetrade. of around Ksh75million(USD 1million)perannum. to amount trade illicit of benefits local the members, community host benefitting savings these of share 10% estimated an with and kg per Ksh 30 of saving cost average an With from different parts of Kenya. A rough estimate of smuggled goods is 25.000 tonnes a year. buyers other and refugees the alongside camps the in exist the that opportunities frompurchasing benefit residents Area Kenya. in centres trading unique are camps the respect this In items. electrical and cosmetics perfumes, clothes, goods, consumer upmarket and sugar,as such value unit high with commodities basic of powdered drinks fruit pasta, milk, Smuggled goods from Somalia. beneficiaries variessignificantlyfrom noneatalltomostofthehouseholdmembers. ration food as registered are who household a in people of number The income. average of third one around worth is subsidy this areas,Kenya’s arid in day per 75 Ksh around of for each household member who holds a ration card. Assuming average per capita income 9000 KSh into translates This annum. per million) 4,9 (USD million 363 Ksh at estimated is traded) was food this (if handouts food free from accruing value community,total host the cards ration of Value 123 million(USD1,7million). Ksh at estimated is area host the in purchase food on saving annual total the benefitting, households 10.000 estimated an with and month per around1000 save Ksh to able being family average an in resulthigher. prices significantly food be Reduced may proportion the Somalia. 18% of refugee rations are reported to be re-sold, but study observations suggest via imports illegal and refugeesregistered as locals by food free to access rations, WFP of host community job creation related to trade activities amounts to at least 500 jobs with an addition, annually.In million) 0,8 (USD million 56 KSh around total may staff based locally the to these to accruing wages close The employment. formal had ever communities have few that outside to camps, concentrated is community host the among Employment There are around 5000 shops in the refugee camps and 370 in Dadaab in 370 and camps refugee the in shops 5000 aroundareThere . With an estimated 40.000 refugee ration cardholders among the among cardholders ration refugee 40.000 estimated an With

Trading in Dadaab town is dominated by host community members. Wholesalers inside the camps arrange imports via Somalia

UNHCR, WFP and their implementing partners implementing their and WFP UNHCR, 38. 37. 36. 35. 34. 33.

Impacts beyond the Dadaab area. chain thatwillinevitablyrisingdemandforotherinputs. multiplier a in link first a form camps refugee the inside established members community host and town Dadaab in traders of numbers increasing The rising. keep to likely are and important especially are sales meat and Milk Province. Eastern North in income capita per annual average of 25% estimated an represent community host the to benefits economic combined the basis, host capita per a On the capital. invested of accumulation of the and population size the refugees, of number the initiatives, community host refugee and for operations allocations budget rising the with commensurate years, recent in increasing been have benefits The annually. million 14 USD around areyear, reference the as 2010 impact. economic Combined an provide annual rateofreturn7%,whichtranslatesintobenefitsworthUSD1,2millionin2010. can they targeted well are investments these that Assuming million. 12 USD activities. Total investment in host community programmes over the last four years has been community host to assistance approach has been largely sector-wise The and single development. agency based, with cases business of overlapping and sanitation supply, water initiatives ongoing security,food 12-15 in working reduction,conflict environmentalhealth, education, management, with 2010, in million 5,5 USD to 2007 in million 2 USD around Host community investments. infrastructure investments that benefitthehostcommunity. for is budget support overall the from million 1,9 USD estimated An donors. from directly receivefinancing also NGOs some although partners, implementing as NGOs engage turn in which UNHCR, and WFP through channelled mostly are funds The 2010. in million 100 grew from USD 44 million in 2007 to USD 82 million in 2009 and is projected to reach USD support this of cost The operation. refugee the supporting agencies and donors the from Refugee operation investments from outsidethehostarea. labour skilled more or cheaper in bring to reported are contractors rates, wage local high for the UN and NGOs is estimated to be at least KSh 35 million (USD 0,5 million). Due to the assignments from contractors local to income annual The to fuel. of supply refugeesthe and Kakuma of transportation the included have contracts larger the of Some operation. contracts for works or deliveries to agencies the engaged non-governmental in the refugee contracts Local and closetothecamps. or from family members in other parts of Kenya, those that do being concentrated in Dadaab Remittances 200-300 perday, localsinDadaabare reported todemandoverKSh400. KSh are labour unskilled for elsewhere rates while example, For Kenya. of parts other with annual income of KSh 35 million (USD 0,5 million). Local wage rates are high in comparison n bnfi idvdas n cmais n ais, arb ad obs. h sz and size The value oftheseeconomic impacts were notestimated bythestudy. Mombasa. and Nairobi Garissa, in companies and individuals benefit and area Dadaab the outside realisedare transport) and services goods, of purchase as (such . Few host community households appear to receive remittances from abroad . Some of the host community businesses in Dadaab town have obtained have town Dadaab in businesses community host the of Some

The total economic benefits for the host community,host the using for benefits economic total The Direct support for host community initiatives has risen from . The majority of funds flowing into the Dadaab area comes Some significant direct benefits of the refugee operation 75 Conclusions 76 Conclusions Table 21:Statusofrangelandwithincreasingdistancefromcamps 42. 41. 40. 39. 4.3 EnvironmentalImpacts camp Distance from >40 km 30-40 km 20-30 km 10-20 km 0-10 km

169.777 t/yr. is therefore well within sustainable off-take. The concern, however, is that very M t. The combined demand by camps and host community for firewood and pole-wood of Also harvestable without degrading the standing stock is the annual yield estimated at 1,03 the 0-20kmdistancedegradationofwoodybiomass issignificant. Within reduces. progressively damage human of evidence away,while further increase all availability wood dead and volume variety,standing species trees,to of number proximity The camps. to linked resources wood of depletion of trend consistent a show data The significantly toexistingunderstandingandthefindingsoffieldsurvey. of number large a add throughnot did analysis image satellite gathered limitations, interpretation to Due plots. were sample forestry data The study. the of findings average the presents below Table21 areas. all in same the not is resources of richness the because which and 1990s, early continues the to spread outwards from the camps. is The not pattern the same in all directions since ongoing been has which degradation environmental status. resources Woody undesirable and communality ofresources. unintended an to contributes range productionreliantof upon mode pastoral a resourceundermines processof and alienation the of part enclosing of impact socio-economic however,the limited, is camps the near especially greenbelts as land off fencing of impact environmental overall The dramatic. not but extensive is camps the with Thorn fencing impacts. radius. t/yr including local consumption within 50 km, 81% of this being consumed within a 10 km fencing. Demand for building poles is estimated at 23.400 t/yr from the camps and 32.000 Pole-wood harvesting impacts. the campshasbeenfullycommercialised andconstitutesamajorcommercial enterprise. to chain supply The Province. Eastern North within Garissa to only second consumption, energy wood of focus concentrated and large a is Dadaab Hence radius. km 10 a within used is which of 66% t., 138.000 to demand annual combined brings km 50 within living people local t./yr.Adding 73.000 around of demand total giving today kg 1,0 to 1998 in day per person per kg 1,5 fromreduced has camps the in consumption Average Dadaab. Fuelwood collection impacts. Within Within the entire host area of 9600 km (km Size ofarea 3200 2560 1920 1280 640 2 ) Trees perha

The impact on the biomass from thorn fence harvesting associated h rfgehsig ra s xeinig gnrl rn of trend general a experiencing is area refugee-hosting The 448 271 394 362 272

Firewood is the most signiﬁcant resource harvested around Wooden poles are widely used for building and compound plot Species per 2 , 1,67 M t. of dead wood are still available for harvesting. 9 8 9 8 7 biomass (m Woody ha) 3 / 46 27 25 22 15 wood (t/ha) Usable dead 2,56 1,89 1,28 0,87 0,14 ha Cut stemsper 216 519 16 33 - 46. 43. 45. 44.

is around 4,5 M m M 4,5 around is estimate best the but quantify to difficult is aquifer the of Recharge 2010. of end the by yr instead. Thisisreported asaseriousproblem byhostcommunities. reducing the traditional prey of predators and forcing them to attack goats, livestock, sheep and domestic cattle and herbivores between competition intensified have Droughts meat. disturbance, been forced out by competition with livestock for food or been hunted for their to due migrated have animals as reduced been have Dadaab around populations wildlife Meanwhile distance. this beyond negligible is competition and pressure grazing but away wildlife. and grazing on Impacts lead tominingoftheresource, andisariskycourseofaction. aquifer,the of health good rechargedmorebeing extracting is but inevitably than will water slightly,indicating changed only have boreholes in Levels Water Static far So recharge. of leig idvriy n afcig atrlss vr oe 0 0 km 000 10 some over pastoralists affecting and biodiversity altering Trends in biomass impacts. being observed. areindeed, These, camp. the to trendscloser parallel specimens two the arethat currently species they seek the without going at find least 45 km cannot away or by harvesting harvesters the few remainingconsumption, live of excess in well apparently yield sustainable a surroundingareaand the in biomass of amount large a be theremay while So pole-wood. or commercialfuel areas considered km acceptable 50 remaintreeswithin that the of few of the camps and nearby settlements is reduced, it can be expected that the future will future the that expected be can it reduced, is settlements nearby and camps the of more than a further 10-15% if users are still to enjoy cooked food. So unless the population catalysed significant conservation measures and firewood consumption cannot go down by already have forces Market rangeland. the of stability the and browsepasture, on impacts unquantifiable have will This species. insect and bird animal, plant, of balance ecological abstraction from this aquifer is estimated at 4,6 M m aquifer.Merti Totalthe into tap - Isiolo and Wajir Garissa, of portions large with together – resources. water on Impacts agencies andlocalpoliticiansleaders. humanitarian the between arrangements collaborative programmefacilitates the that be to appears programme the for justification main the camps, the in rate market current above 270% price wood a with and achieved, not is impacts environmental negative of spread where firewood collectors with donkey carts from the camps source their wood, the desired who report that it benefits only a few leaders. With harvesting taking place in the same areas the camps over this period. The programme is disliked by many host community members, operation since 1998. The organised supply has averaged 11% of estimated consumption in supply. fuel Organised in fullyprivatisedoperationsfortransportingwoodfuelstothecamps. both the camps and markets in Garissa and Somalia; and (7) probable introduction of lorries individuals well positioned in the wood trade; (6) increased production of charcoal to supply of number small a to accruing benefits greater (5) conflict; more to leading arrangements, access clan-based of weakening trees;further live (4) increasedof (3) cutting prices; wood in rise continued a (2) distances; ever-increasingharvesting (1) include: this Kenya, of part bring more developments comparable to other large urban centres in the arid and semi/arid 3 /yr. The rate of water discharge is therefore in excess of the likely rate likely the of excess in therefore is discharge water of rate /yr.The

porme o ﬁeod upy o h cms a be in been has camps the to supply ﬁrewood for programme A The selective harvesting of desirable tree species is permanently The boreholes that supply water for the refugee operation refugee the for water supply that boreholes The Livestock from the camps impact grazing up 15-20 km 15-20 up grazing impact camps the from Livestock 3 /yr and will probably rise to 5.3 M m 2 y hnig the changing by 3 / 77 Conclusions 78 Conclusions 50. 49. 48. 47.

Environmental degradation is an inevitable consequence of the government’s decision to government’sdecision degradation. the of resource consequence inevitable of an is degradation ring Environmental expanding exhibit an will and Dadaab characteristics not, urban-like If possibility.increasingly a becomes regeneration natural and alleviated pressure is population if possible be only will environment impossible. the impact of rehabilitation of Large-scale attribution definitive making blurred, is refugees and people local spatially restricted in an area of inherently low resource value, and the differentiationbut serious between been have terms environmental purely in camps the of impacts the affiliations, clan of context the within structured largely is resources local towards behaviour refugee land to scrub. Nevertheless, the study has found that the environment is hardy and resilient; of area large a reduced has which collection, wood of aspects various with association in specifically area, surrounding the of resources natural the on strain considerable a placed overview. – impacts Environmental success. regeneration,natural its extremelyan be would exerciseexpensive probabilitylow a with of managing and pressure human dryland reducing to opposed as surrounding intervention, active through bush the of tracts large Rehabilitating settlements. unreliable outside and rehabilitation soils poor climate, environmental of terms in achieve harsh can programmes these what limit Dadaab the of The rainfall raising. awareness and groups environmental working horticulture, irrigated and gardening kitchen greenbelts, of woodlots, establishment seedlings, tree of distribution alternatives, and savings efficiency, fuel supply, and host communities have been supported by humanitarian agencies, including: firewood Environmental support projects with wood-polestructures. compared clear are houses brick mud of benefits environmental net the production, brick with other water demands, and although there comparison are in some problematic environmentalconsidered risks not associated is with This locals. and refugees by spontaneously built being houses water,for of needs cu.m. additional 8820 with and soil of cu.m. 49.000 year.requires per This houses mud-brick 3500 build to aim and programmes shelter their in style building similar a adopted have agencies Humanitarian communities. host the in pole shelters with mud brick houses since the late 1990s, a practice that is not widespread production brick Mud residents only. camp to risk quality.ground-wateraffectinghealth localised a presentproblems Sanitation and no known infiltration mechanism, there is also no chance that latrines in the camps are table water deep a With camps. from away areas in living communities host affecting not is camps the from waste solid from Pollution depths. these to waste solid from leachates channel could that at mechanism infiltration is no is areathere and level the surface below in m 110 table least water The communities. local in - haphazardly of disposed and - generated routinely quantity the to different no is and size comparable of towns normal of inhabitants by produced volume the than lower is or balance gardening The kitchen planting. for tree compound ideal and dung animal is 75% which of kg/day, 1,63 is camps sanitation. and management waste Solid pointing to significant economic benefits accruing to the hosting area at the expense of expense losses through environmental degradation. the at area hosting the to accruing benefits economic significant to pointing evidence the with benefits, and costs between way concentrated this in refugees hosting contain refugees in large camps in an area of low productivity, and there is a trade-off when . Camp residents have been replacing traditional huts and wood- and huts traditional replacing been have residents Camp . A number of different environmental projects in the camps h eitne f h Dda cms a i sum in has camps Dadaab the of existence The Average per capita waste production in the in production waste capita per Average 53. 4.5 Impactsonrefugee/hostareadevelopment 52. 51. 4.4 OverallImpacts

eeomn pann de nt eons ta te aab ap fnto a a major a as function urban centre, meaningthatsuchplanningisnotinlinewithreality. camps Dadaab the that recognise not does planning development moreappropriately.development plan to now,easier is be it would As it in-migrants, many the Dadaab area as a centre for economic activities consider and a hub of development to that attracts were planning development If area. the in markets local of development and rations) and host communities (food relief) as cash transfers, thereby further facilitating trade and business development; and providing a larger percentage of support to refugees (food trade legalising and supporting include: might which development, business and trade to moreapproachharmonised refugeeto relationin particularly support, community host and the nature of this support is likely to remain unchanged. coordination, It is and possible to planning identify options of for a terms in GoK from leadership stronger without and efforts, development complicates support disparate providing donors humanitarian The of area. multiplicity host the of development meaningful to conducive not is support to approach humanitarian short-term A communities. host to provided that with refugees to provided arising from the presence of the refugee camps, there is development. a area need Refugee/host to further integrate the support coordinated toalimitedextent withtheinitiativesofotheragenciesorgovernment. and oversee their own discrete projects, which are single sector focused and generally only finance to tend Agencies self-reliance. than rather dependency further creating of risk the runs currentnaturesupport of the and overlooked being areais the in productionpotential little support to pastoral production and its associated strategies of mobility. Hence, the key upgrading of infrastructure and delivery of social services in settlements, while there support. has project been community Host which cannotbeattributedtopushfactorsalone. area, host the in settled have who people many of attraction significant the by supported is finding This areanegative. host than the on impacts morepositive significantly important differently,out established play has will study impacts the negative total and in positive but immediate vicinity of the camps. Depending on the situation of the individual household, the the in competition grazing as well as material building and firewood of depletion to related largely are to impacts negative access while services, to and opportunities related economic food, are distributed impacts Positive negative. and impacts positive both negative and complex are and positive of balance The With the significant impacts in the Dadaab host area host Dadaab the in impacts significant the With Host community projects have been focused on the on focused been have projects community Host . mat o te ot community host the on Impacts 79 Conclusions 80 Recommendations &OCUS s community projectsinDadaab: To GoK,ALRMP, developmentagenciesandhumanitarianinvolvedwithhost for basis the form discussion andfurtherrefinement bytheStudyAdvisoryGroup: should These recommendations. priority following the presents study The 5. Recommendations $EVELOP s #OORDINATE s or boreholes). dams from drawn water on based farming irrigated (e.g. area host the in subsidies project without work to proven not are that livelihoods alternative support to recommended not is settled populations.Where as household kitchen gardening in compound could be viable, it overall the to due population regulation. importance host of pastoral production the in and the of host area and majority the intimate negotiation link the between mobile reachand to for able be institutions will support customary This supporting and rules access of development and support; restocking or insurance stock harvesting; water on emphasis conservation and strategies; protecting water points and supporting productiondispersed water development with more fodder piloting grounds; routes; holding stock livestock of of development development clinics; mobile schools; mobile area; the in opportunities drugs; livestock value for addition to chain pastoral supply products; the market access rationalising support workers); to health capture existing animal market community of training and campaigns vaccination services, outreach veterinary (including services veterinary in: by its strong prevalence in the camp-hosting area. Such support could include investments and,above all, trade mobility. pastoral production, Mobility pastoral is developing still a on viable more part focus of should the communities pastoral production strategy, as witnessed to support empowerment in localised planning and implementation and common pooling common and implementation and made planning localised be in empowerment therefore support to should Efforts Policy. ASAL national community the to host linked them the through and is departure of point the if processes,planning own their and locations arewhich plans development district to linked place take effectively most can This coordinated. better be should GoK and agencies humanitarian and development the from Constitution. new the in for provided districts/counties of role the and communities host of mobility the manner. hoc Such a ad strategy must and consider the uncoordinated legal issues an pertaining to in refugee administration, communities host to projects compensatory provide to pressurised continually not are agencies humanitarian that ensure help should agreement responsibilities and targets for, and funding of, support to host communities. In this way, the agencies, and organisations representing refugees and support local refugee host agencies, communities on development respectiveauthorities, government the between agreement an of development for foundation the be also should strategy The surroundings. the and camps the between linkages economic and trading the developing further for potential the unleash to seek and camps refugee the and settlements host the of interdependency the recognise should strategy The agencies. humanitarian from hand-outs than rather support livelihood viable on focuses which developed be should leadership GoK clear with strategy HOST A STRATEGY SUPPORT COMMUNITY AND FOR SUPPORT FOCUS HOST COMMUNITY IMPLEMENTATION ON PASTORAL DEVELOPMENT PRODUCTION MODALITIES

AND n vrl ae development area overall An Support to host communities MOBILITY

Support to host to Support 3UPPORT s $IRECT s )NVEST s 0ROMOTE s To donors,humanitariananddevelopmentagencies: service deliveryisnotsupported. improve further to communities host in projects agency single uncoordinated, current of continuation production.A pastoral arerelatedto cases most in which generation, income Such a Fund should have its major focus on financing activities that improve production and respect. this in beneficial be would Lands Arid Other and Kenya Northern of of Development Ministry the by use for approach Fund” Development Development Community-Driven “Locality The community. of each form some into agencies various the by funding of development actors should be encouraged to channel their resources for host community host resourcesfor their channel to encouraged be should actors development and Humanitarian administration. provincial of level the at possibly GoK, of lead the under and natural resource management. Such an agency should operate at an inter-district level support pastoral in competencies significant to with and appointed areas community or host the mandated develop agency an through support community host direct to made Community Project) notlie withanyUNagency. but leadership (in light of the institutional challenges experienced under the current UN-Host and other Arid Land and supported by ALRMP. Input from UN agencies would be important, leadership role for GoK, represented by the Ministry for the Development of Northern Kenya a see would agency an such for set-up institutional right The institutions. government and customary existing with collaboration host close in mandated working agency, the development by community managed be should proposed Fund the a Such for Funds. Fund Development overarching Locality the as Fund” Development “Regional a to support alr hi itretos o nbe ot omnte t frhr eeo ter production, their develop further to communities host enable the to interventions their recognise tailor degree larger much a importance of the refugee presence and operation in driving local development and developmentshould to should integrated agencies towards Development thinking interventions. humanitarian-style short-term from moving developmental and longer-term approach to work in the hosting area should be developed, over-prioritised relative tootherpartsoftheregion. be made within 20-30 km of the camps as they will bring yet more people to an area already hand-out and dependency. lifestyles No sedentary (or only very to limited) further pastoralism social service infrastructure mobile investments should from shift the and rates growth infrastructureservice requirednot is alreadythe exacerbate further will and population high balance the over-development of the immediate Dadaab counter-to camps the fromarea. km 50-100 at investment A of ring displaced a away,continued for aiming emphasis on social support to services should prioritise investments in mobile services and communities future further area, the for planning development scale larger of part as and camps, the to close as cashtransferstofurtherfacilitatetradeandthe developmentofmarketsinthearea. a largerpercentage ofsupporttorefugees (foodrations)andhostcommunitiesrelief) This could include supporting and legalising trade and business development, and providing trade and business development is recommended that links refugees and host communities. INVESTMENTS IN DEVELOPMENT SUPPORT FURTHER INTEGRATION OF IN TRADE SERVICES OF AND A HOST BETWEEN BUSINESS AWAY COMMUNITY FROM HUMANITARIAN DEVELOPMENT CAMPS DEVELOPMENT

In light of the concentration of services AND A more harmonised approach to DEVELOPMENT AGENCY fot sol be should Efforts WORK . more A 81 Recommendations 82 Recommendations 0LAN s 2E EVALUATE s !IM s To GoK: operationmay starttodryupasothercrisissituations develop. towards directed camp-based a be for funding point to some At investments population. community more ever-increasinghost the for calls and cuts funding donor of time a at operation, refugeesupport the of increasescosts and expensive very is encampment time same the At area. vegetated sparsely and dry a in sustained be can that level the beyond growththe of sectarianism, and not to mention security a heavy concentration of on environmental repercussionsimpacts well potential has this and opportunities economic limited very having refugees by of them number huge on a placed in restrictions results Encampment the policy. encampment for the not was it if play potentially could refugees that productivecontribution the shows beyond areaand host the and camps the between and but also, for those with intent, to the rest of Kenya. The level of commerce within the camps borderareathe regionstowardshost and only the arenot effectivelycamps open, and the development business and trade vibrant restrain to able been not has policy containment refugees.The Dadaab the to applied is that policy encampment re-evaluatesthe GoK that with the refugee crisis in Somalia not likely to be solved in the near future, it is recommended regulate movements. Somalia. The situation in Dadaab clearly shows that the officially closed border does little to cross,refugeesareto marginalised who want poor and fromwho not those of majority the for open already is border the as threat security added an pose would it that likely seem not does It taxes. collect and movements monitor GoK’sto and ability refugees the large, and legalising the existing trade and movements. This would benefit the host community at closed a that fromthereborderre-openingbenefits arepersons, frontierthe clear vulnerable presents to problems the and border the across people of movement large-scale the significant amount of trade already taking place with Somalia, the lax regulation of this trade, economic importanceofthearea. resource natural production, socio- the and economy the of scale the recognise that services mobile and management pastoral infrastructure, transport development, business and trade promote to seek and area Dadaab the of opportunities and needs specific the recognise should agencies development by provided support and Sector work. humanitarian development between zone grey the in engage to for wish more) that preferably agencies (and humanitarian years three least at of horizons clear planning longer-term a for is need There communities. host with work any to approach development-oriented a have to essential is it Dadaab, on influence its and Somalia like crisis protracted a in but acknowledged, clearly is sources, funding their by dictated agencies,often humanitarian most of cycles funding short The approaches. implementation joint and horizons planning trading and services linked to the camps. Humanitarian agencies should develop longer-term host community. urban centre with a significant scale of economic activity. This will benefit both refugees and Undertake development planning for the Dadaab area that recognises its status as a major AT FOR OPENING THE $ADAAB ENCAMPMENT THE BORDER AREA IN POLICY WITH ACCORDANCE 3OMALIA With With the camps having been in operation since 1991 and AND WITH LEGALISING ITS IMPORTANCE CROSS BORDER FOR TRADE TRADE AND Given the Given BUSINESS

3UPPORT s Authority, NGOsinDadaab,UNEP, UNHCR anddevelopmentagencies: To ofEnvironment andMineralResources,theNationalEnvironmentManagement theMinistry !DDRESS s %XPAND s &URTHER s 3EEK s To DRA,District/CountyadministrationsandUNHCR: their planning, management and enforcement capacity in relation to regulation of natural of regulation to relation in capacity build enforcement and to management planning, Committees their Environment Community and Committees Environment District to approaches into large-scale environmental rehabilitation programmes. developing a more needs-based provision of refugee of rations possibilities should be and investigated developed drawing be should holders card ration absent and community host of scale the address to strategies Further handicapped. or elderly sick, be to proven are they unless - delegates send not do and distributions food at present actually are holders card ration ensures that system a of development through decreased carefully be should cards ration refugee of acquisition through communities host to food free of provision the provision of rations. host interactionsindifferent partsoftheworld. such Supporting negotiation. and refugee/of disputes situations addressingother in aspect crucial a clearly is dialogue for institutions settling for avenues informal and formal of existence the by possible made been extent great a to has area difficult a in period long a between the two populations. The successful operation of the Dadaab refugee camps over dialogue open and regular support to done be should more and status formal more given be should populations camp and communities host between negotiation for arrangements involvement andprogressive transferofoversightresponsibility. might include office space, transport or equipment, as well as straightforward engagement, of its mandate to coordinate and direct NGO and UN activities in the host area. Such support District Environment Officer and District Livestock Production Officer to Dadaab, in fulfilment will beaverysensitiveprocess. this stressedthat be should It photo) no has Card(which Ration the of instead WFP assist to distributions food introducedat be should photos) have cards(which ID Refugee of use The refugees.registered as have who locals de-register to programme the strengthen and Thailand). The Department of Refugee Affairs, in cooperation with UNHCR, should continue in camps in refugees Burmese the (e.g. situations crisis protracted other from experience materials from outsidethehostarea.these sourcing including materials, further building to and charcoal needed firewood, be in trade will the support manage Significant trees. valuable and wood dead of devoid grounds this is not the best solution, as more refugees will be placed within environmental the purely However,zone on alreadyneeded. be to likely is area Dadaab the in camp fourth new established a or camps existing the of the extension areas, other in refugees housing for Given alternatives refugees. housing for viable requiredpolitically of lack the and Dadaab in exists that capacity logistical be and administrative to likely is space additional ADDITIONAL SUPPORT $ISTRICT SUPPORT THE SCALE PROTECTION THE GOVERNMENT TO In order to decrease dependency and reduce the Dadaab pull factor, CUSTOMARY OF LOCAL HOST ENVIRONMENT SPACE COMMUNITY CAPACITY INSTITUTIONS FOR REFUGEES IN $ADAAB COMMITTEES RATION FOR NEGOTIATIONS Under the current encampment policy,encampment current the Under CARD

Support the government to assign a assign to government the Support AND OWNERSHIP INTRODUCE

The informal clan-aligned informal The AND Expand support MORE NEEDS BASED REALISTIC 83 Recommendations 84 Recommendations -ONITOR s 3UPPORT s 3EEK s 0ROMOTE s CARE andUNHCRforbetter-informed debateandplanning. outside data the disseminate quality,and water and rates abstraction levels, water static tested discharge from each camp borehole for 10 hours per day, in accordance with the with accordance day,in per hours 10 for borehole camp each from discharge tested in particulartheamountofwaterbeinggiventolivestock. permits held. Meanwhile work further to reduce leakage, wastage and misuse of water, and NEMA and KFS should be mandated to monitor the programme and enforce change if change enforce needed. and programme the monitor to mandated be should KFS and NEMA be given priority in fuel gathering and centralisation; and district and provincial officials from should residents local enforced; and straight-line measured properly km camp, closest 60 the from least distance at to increased be should distances harvesting level; Location to decentralised be should committees tender exists; actually wood dead where areas for implementation that are perceived to favour elites. Harvester contracts should only be issued break entrenched operating modalities in need of new thinking and to change modalities for to Seek programme. supply firewoodrefugee the managing for modalities implementation should bedevelopedoncommunalgrazingreserves ratherthanaddingmore greenbelts. greenbelts (e.g. opening up and conversion to community-owned fodder banks). Agreement to engage with local clan representatives to agree on what should be done with established o e n nfetv alcto o rsucs n n xasv, r ae udr communal under area dry expansive, management. an in resources of allocation ineffective an be to this believing programme, rehabilitation environmental large-scale a recommend not does team the initiatives, ongoing and studies recent of number a with contrast openly.In and of harvesting zones to spread their impacts, ideally directing their cutting more transparently resourcesnatural access they which under arrangements expansion an for mediate to and the understand to operators cart donkey with opened be should Dialogue recognised. be clan-based institutions in managing access and and mediating in conflict over resources should community- by played role The structures. leadership traditional under-represented groupsand mobile women, include effortto explicit an area,with the resourcein utilisation ALTERNATIVES CONDITION WATER SAVING COMMUNAL OF FOR GRAZING AQUIFER MEASURES IMPLEMENTING RESERVES Improve the accuracy and consistency of monitoring aquifer IN RELATION RATHER THE lREWOOD THAN TO BOREHOLES ADDITIONAL SUPPLY Pump no more than 60% of 60% than more no Pump GREENBELTS PROGRAMME There is a need dniy new Identify S R Q P O N M L K J I H G F E D C B A Annexes (underseparatecover)

Environmental assessmentmethodologies SPSS analysisofresponse toanalysisquestions SPSS analysisfullpercentages Qualitative questionnaire Quantitative questionnaire List ofdocumentsconsulted List ofpeoplemet Study itinerary Study termsofreference Dadaab hostcommunityinitiatives Static waterlevels,selectedcampboreholes (1992-2009) Borehole data Charts showingrangelandsamplingsurveyresults Forest plotsummarydata Somali andbotanicaltree speciesnames Impacts related togenderandage Social infrastructure/social services Firewood, buildingmaterialcollectionandenergysupply Soils oftheDadaabarea 85 List of Annexes