Tectonophysics 609 (2013) 202–216

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Tectonophysics

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Review Article Investigation of the Moho discontinuity beneath the Chinese mainland using deep seismic sounding profiles

Jiwen Teng a,⁎, Zhongjie Zhang a, Xiankang Zhang b, Chunyong Wang c, Rui Gao d, Baojun Yang e, Yonghu Qiao a, Yangfan Deng f a State Key Laboratory of Lithospheric Evolution, Institute of Geology and Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100029, China b Center of Geophysical Exploration, China Earthquake Administration, Zhengzhou 450002, Henan Province, China c Institute of Geophysics, China Earthquake Administration, Beijing 100081, China d Institute of Geology, Chinese Academy of Geology Science, Ministry of the Land and Resources, Beijing 100037, China e Department of Geophysics, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin Province, 130026, China f Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, China article info abstract

Article history: We herein describe the depth distribution of the Moho beneath the Chinese mainland, determined via compila- Received 4 March 2012 tion and resampling of the interpreted results of crustal P-wave velocity structures obtained from deep seismic Received in revised form 5 November 2012 soundings (DSSs) performed since the pioneering DSS work carried out in the Qaidam basin in 1958. For the Accepted 22 November 2012 present study, 114 wide-angle seismic profiles acquired over the last 50 years were collated; we included results Available online 2 December 2012 for crustal structures from several profiles in Japan and South Korea, to improve the reliability of the interpolation of the Moho depth distribution. Our final Moho map shows that the depth of the Moho ranges from 10 to 85 km. Keywords: — – — Moho depth The deepest Moho discontinuity at approximately 70 85 km beneath the Tibetan Plateau was formed by Wide-angle seismic profile ongoing continent–continent collision. The Moho beneath the eastern North China craton, at a relatively constant Crust 30–35 km, has endured mantle lithosphere destruction. The Moho depths determined from active seismology are Composition consistent (within 3–5 km) with results obtained from gravity inversion and surface wave tomography. The Seismogenic layer spatial variation of the Moho depth, crustal formation, and composition of different tectonic blocks contribute to Chinese mainland controls on the spatial distribution of the seismicity and rheology in the crust beneath mainland China. © 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction ...... 203 2. Tectonic setting ...... 203 3. Wide-angle seismic profiles...... 203 4. Interpolation scheme ...... 204 5. Results ...... 206 5.1. Crustal P-wave velocity model ...... 206 5.1.1. North China craton ...... 206 5.1.2. South China ...... 207 5.1.3. Tibetan Plateau ...... 207 5.2. Moho depth ...... 207 6. Discussion ...... 207 6.1. Comparison of Moho depth with other results provided by related methods ...... 207 6.2. The Moho beneath different tectonic blocks ...... 209 6.3. Crustal composition beneath continental China ...... 209 6.4. Lateral variation of the seismogenic layer ...... 210 7. Conclusions ...... 212 Acknowledgments ...... 212 References ...... 212

⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +86 1082998346. E-mail address: [email protected] (J. Teng).

0040-1951/$ – see front matter © 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2012.11.024 J. Teng et al. / Tectonophysics 609 (2013) 202–216 203

1. Introduction 2011) have also been compiled. In the present study, we compiled the interpreted results of wide-angle seismic profiles obtained from China It is more than a century since the discovery of the Moho discontinu- and the surrounding seas from 1958 to 2010 (Bai and Wang, 2004, ity by Mohorovicic in 1909. Successive experiments in different geophys- 2006a,b; Bai et al., 2007; Beckers et al., 1994; Carroll et al., 1995; Dewey ical disciplines have confirmed the global existence of the discontinuity, et al., 1988; Ekström et al., 1997; Galvé et al., 2002; Gao et al., 1999; but the depth of the Moho varies beneath different tectonic blocks, Hirn et al., 1984a,b; Hsu et al., 1990; Hu et al., 1988a,b; Kan et al., 1986, depending on their age and on the different tectonic environments 1988; Kao et al., 2001; Kong et al., 1999; LERG, 1988; Li and Mooney, (e.g., cratons and rifts, Christensen and Mooney, 1995). Different seismo- 1998;Q.H.Li et al., 1999;Q.S.Li et al., 2001a,b;S.L.Li et al., 2002, 2006; logical methods are used to probe this discontinuity between the crust Liao et al., 1988a,b; Lin et al., 1988, 1992, 1993;C.Q.Liu et al., 1991;M.J. and mantle, including wide-angle seismic reflection/refraction surveys Liu et al., 2006; Lu and Xia, 1992; Ma et al., 1991; Makovsky et al., (Klemperer and Mooney, 1998a,b), nearly vertical seismic reflection pro- 1996a,b; McNamara et al., 1994, 1995, 1996; Nelson et al., 1996; Sapin filing (Klemperer and Mooney, 1998a,b), and P/S wave receiver function et al., 1985; Shi et al., 1989; Teng, 1979, 1985; Teng et al., 1983a,b,c, imaging (Chen, 2010; Chen et al., 2006; Yuan, 1996). In China, pioneering 1985a,b, 1997a,b, 2003a,b, 2006, 2008a,b, 2010; Wang and Qian, 2000; experiments using deep seismic profiling were performed in the Qaidam Wu et al., 1991,1993; Xiong et al., 1986, 2002; Yang and Liu, 2002; basin, to the north of Tibet, by Rongsheng Zeng and Jiwen Teng (Teng, Zhang and Klemperer, 2005, 2010; Zhang and Li, 2003; Zhang et al., 1979; Zeng and Gan, 1961). These experiments were carried out in 1984;X.K.Zhang et al., 2002b, 2003a, 2007a, 2008a; Zhang et al., 2002c, 1958, and were jointly sponsored by the Chinese Academy of Sciences 2003b, 2005b, 2010, Zhao and Morgan, 1987; Zhao and Windley, 1990; and the Chinese Ministry of Petroleum. Later, and particularly from Zhu et al., 1995b). 1980 onwards, numerous wide-angle seismic profiles were obtained in The remainder of the paper is arranged as follows: First, we China, especially following the disastrous 1966 Xingtai (Teng et al., summarize the tectonic setting of China, and then briefly describe 1974a,b, 1975) and 1976 Tangshan earthquakes (La et al., 2006). These the wide-angle seismic profiles collected in this study. We then surveys were conducted under the auspices of various international pro- show the interpolation results for the depth of the Moho beneath grams, including the ‘International Geophysics Year’ of the 1950s, the the Chinese mainland, and the crustal velocity distributions for the ‘Crust and Upper Mantle Project’ of the 1960s, the ‘Geodynamics Project’ Tibet, South China, and North China blocks, where wide-angle seismic of the 1970s, the ‘International Geological Correlation Program’,alsoof coverage is relatively dense. In the last section, we make some the 1970s, the ‘International Lithosphere Program’ of the 1980s, and comparisons between the depth of the Moho as determined using the ‘Continental and Ocean Drilling Program’ of the 1980s and 1990s wide-angle seismic profiling gravity inversion and surface wave (Zhang et al., 2011a). To date, more than 60,000 km of wide-angle seis- tomography, and also describe some simple relationships between mic profiles and approximately 10,000 km of reflection seismic profiles the crustal structure, composition, and seismogenic layer beneath have been obtained (Alsdorf et al., 1988; Gao et al., 1999; Jiang et al., different tectonic blocks in the Chinese mainland. 2006; Kan et al., 1988; Kao et al., 2001; Kong et al., 1999; Li and Mooney, 1998; Program-8301 Cooperation Group, 1988; Su et al., 1984; 2. Tectonic setting Sun et al., 1988; Teng et al., 1997a,b; Wang and Qian, 2000; Wang et al., 2000, 2003a,b,c,d, 2005b, 2007a,b; Wu et al., 1991; Yan et al., 2001; In China there are three platforms: the Tarim platform (west), Yang and Liu, 2002; Zhang and Klemperer, 2005, 2010; Zhang and Yangtze platform (south), and North-China platform (east) (Huang Wang, 2007; Zhang et al., 1997b, 2000a,b, 2002a, 2003a,b; Zhang et al., et al., 1981; Li and Zhou, 1990; Luo and Tong, 1988; Ma, 1989; Zhang 2005a,b,c, 2008a, 2009a,b,c, 2010, Zhao et al., 2001; Zhang and Zhang, et al., 1984, 1996). Additionally, there are three major fold tectonic 2002). Standard interpretative analyses have been applied to all these units in the continental domain and adjacent oceanic areas; these profiles, and most of the results have been published in Chinese journals, are the Tethyan-Himalayan zone (south and west), Paleo-Asian zone Chinese books, or project reports, with a few publications in English in in- (northwest and northeast), and Circum-Pacificzone(east),whichin ternational journals. The database has grown with the acquisition of ad- turn are divided into 15 fold systems (Hsu et al., 1990; Huang et al., ditional datasets obtained via the application of gravity data inversion 1981; Ma, 1989; Yuan, 1996, Zhang et al., 1984). Fig. 1 shows an overall and Rayleigh wave seismic tomography to the continental and adjacent view of the platforms and fold systems from the geological and geo- marine areas of China (Beckers et al., 1994; Carroll et al., 1995; Dewey physical mapping of China (Ma, 1989; Yuan, 1996). A remarkable geo- et al., 1988; Ekström et al., 1997; Hirn et al., 1984a,b; Makovsky et al., physical characteristic in the Chinese mainland is the north–south 1996a,b; McNamara et al., 1994, 1995, 1996; Nelson et al., 1996; Yuan, trending belt of gravity gradients extending from the north of the 1996, 1997; Yuan and Egorov, 2000; Zhang et al., 1984, 2011a,b,c,d; Huonan Mountains, through the Longmen Mountains, to the south of Zhao and Morgan, 1987; Zhao and Windley, 1990; Zhu et al., 1995a). the Daxue Mountains (Ma, 1989; Yuan, 1996). This gravity gradient The IGCP 474 project (Snyder et al., 2006) offers a catalyst for bringing belt is accepted to be an important north–south trending tectonic belt together the results obtained from the different regional programs into a associated with strong earthquakes, including the disastrous Wenchuan common scientific framework, and for the generation of seismic images earthquake of May 12, 2008. Additionally, the basins are usually divided across representative orogenic belts, rifts, continental margins, etc.; this into two groups, separated by the north–south active earthquake occur- allows a number of different problems to be tackled at a regional scale. rence belt (also called the N–S tectonic belt, or N–S gravity gradient Theseresultscouldbeavailableinadatabase,educatorsandresearchers belt); these are known as the eastern basins and the western basins in developing nations would have the opportunity to develop their own (Li and Zhou, 1990; Luo and Tong, 1988; Zhang et al., 1996), and have research programs. To realize the goals of IGCP 474, it is first necessary their own characteristics. It is largely accepted that the eastern basins to compile all the available results at a continental and marine scale. formed during the Mesozoic/Cenozoic in the back-arc from the West The first version of a Moho depth map of the Chinese mainland was Pacific subduction under continental China, while the western basins achieved via the collection of the interpreted results of wide-angle seis- formed more recently in the course of the crustal growth underneath mic profiling performed from 1958 to 1996 (Li and Mooney, 1998; the Tibetan Plateau, after the collision of the Indian and Eurasian plates Yuan, 1996). A further version was then produced in 2001 (Li et al., (Li and Zhou, 1990; Luo and Tong, 1988; Zhang et al., 1996, 2011b). 2006). Several updated versions have been created with the inclusion of deep seismic profiles obtained since 2001 beneath East Asia (Teng, 3. Wide-angle seismic profiles 2001), and China (Zhang et al., 2011c). Some maps of the crustal structure of particular tectonic blocks, such as Tibet (Zhang et al., 2011a), the North We compiled a Moho depth map of continental China, constrained China craton (Jia and Liu, 1995, Ruan, 2011), and South China (Deng et al., by wide-angle seismic profiles obtained between 1958 and 2010. For 204 J. Teng et al. / Tectonophysics 609 (2013) 202–216

70° 80° 90° 100° 110° 120° 130° 140°E

45°N Z G D H M J ND TS TR 40°

EK Q NC 35° I

GN SG S Q J L 30° HY YZ 20° S SC E 15°

0 300 600km 10° 5° Tectonic partition Tectonic unit South Sea

Fig. 1. Tectonic partition of China continent. Tarim platform (TR); Yangtze meta-platform (YZ); North China meta-platform (NC); Junggar fold system (ZG); Tianshan fold system (TS); East Kunlun fold system (EK); Qilian fold system (QI); Songpan–Ganzi fold system (SG); Gangdise–Nyainqentanglha fold system (GN); Sanjiang fold system (SJ); Himalayan fold system (HY); Mongolia–Daxinganlin fold system (MD); Ji-He fold system (JH); Nadanhada fold system (ND). Qinling fold system (QL); South China fold system (SC); Southeast China fold system (SE). The different colors illustrate different blocks. continental China, the region, the date of acquisition, and the biblio- mainland. To enhance the precision of the interpolation, we collected graphical references are listed in Table 1 for all of the different seismic the interpreted results of wide-angle seismic profiles in Japan, South profiles, while the respective trends and lengths are shown in Fig. 2. Korea and India, which extended the area covered, so that we could The coverage was relatively good from the wide-angle seismic pro- interpolate the Moho depths within the grid. These profiles are also files beneath the North China craton, South China, and the Tibetan shown in Table 1 and Fig. 2. Plateau, with the exception of northeastern China and the western part of Tibet. Some deep seismic soundings extended over adjacent 4. Interpolation scheme oceanic areas; however, some of these are as yet unpublished, and were therefore unavailable for our study. Once we had collected the relevant layer parameters from the The profiles were interpreted using conventional methods such as previous models—such as the depths, the geometrical shapes for the phase recognition and travel-time inversion for seismic velocity and Moho depth distribution, and the P-wave velocities for the 3D crustal depth, and 2-D travel-time fitting by ray-tracing (Teng et al., 2010, velocity structure—we used the kriging interpolation method, which 2011). In an attempt to present the results in as concise a way as is especially useful for analyzing short-range variability between possible, we did not repeat the heavy interpretative work; this can, scattered points, to obtain a 2D Moho depth distribution, and 3D to a large extent, be found in Chinese journals (with abstracts crustal P-wave velocity images. in English). In combination with the technological and scientific From a theoretical point of view, kriging is based on the theory of advances that have taken place over the last few decades, the regionalized variables (Davis, 1986). It takes advantage of the spatial wide-angle seismic data gathered over such a long period afforded characteristics of the local structure through the variogram function. us with the means of determining the crustal thickness. There were When the variogram is well known, the resulting estimate is stated several factors that impinged on the quality of the interpretation, to be the best, linear, unbiased estimate that can be calculated including the sparsity of the shots fired, the spacing of the observa- (Isaaks and Srivastava, 1989). A short description of the mathematical tions, the quality of the recording instruments, and the precision of content of kriging is given by Serón et al. (2001), where exact and the timing systems, in addition to the inevitable reading errors approximate methods to reconstruct the 2D Moho depth spatial associated with the travel times of the seismic events. Because of all distribution, or 3D earth structures, from irregularly sampled seismic these factors, the margin of error associated with the Moho depth data are briefly described and compared. Kriging provides an estimate data compiled before 1980 could be as large as 10%, and up to 3% of the error and confidence interval for each of the unknown points, for crustal P-wave velocity (Mooney, 1989). However, over the period an output not provided by other interpolation procedures. This 1980–2010, the quality of the observations improved significantly, information reflects the density and distribution of control points, due to the availability of more advanced seismographic and timing and the degree of spatial autocorrelation, and is therefore very useful systems; the result was a noticeable reduction in the uncertainty in for assessing the reliability of the process. Among the positive the Moho depth, to less than 6–8% (Zhang et al., 2007b). The total features of this technique, its advantages lie in the fact that as a robust length of these 114 wide-angle seismic profiles reached close to estimator, kriging can estimate beyond the minimum and maximum 70000 km, which is much longer than the profiles used in previous values of the scattered data, and can also model both regional trends maps of Moho depth (Li and Mooney, 1998; Li et al., 2006; Teng, and local anomalies. In principle, these advantages make it a better 2001; Yuan, 1996; Zhang et al., 2011c). procedure than simple linear interpolation. The disadvantages of In view of the uneven coverage of wide-angle seismic profiles on kriging are that it is not easy to understand mathematically, and the continent, we took advantage of mathematical developments to requires the user to have experience of geostatistical techniques. interpolate the spatial distribution of the Moho depth on the Chinese Many types of kriging are available, and are used in different settings. J. Teng et al. / Tectonophysics 609 (2013) 202–216 205

Table 1 List of information obtained from deep seismic soundings performed in China and its environs prior to 2010.

Profile number Profile name Project Year References

1Ningde–Yongping–Xinyang CEA 1978 Chen and Gao (1988) 2Hangzhou–Yongping–Ganzhou CEA 1978 Chen and Gao (1988) 3 Suixian–Xi'an CEA 1979–1981 Ding et al. (1988) 4Suixian–Anyang CEA 1979–1981 Hu et al. (1988a) 5Suixian–Maanshan CAS 1979–1981 Zheng and Teng (1989) 6Jiajiawan–Shayuan CEA 1979–1981 Chen et al. (1988) 7Liuzhou–Quanzhou CEA 1981 Zhang et al. (1988) 8Liuzhou–Yangjiang CEA 1981 Zhang et al. (1988) 9Quanzhou–Shantou CEA 1982 Liao et al. (1988a,b) 10 Tangke–Pujiang–Langzhong CEA 1983 Chen et al. (1988) 11 Maanshan–Qidong CAS 1983 Teng et al. (1985c) 12 Lijiang–Xinshuzhen CAS 1984 Cui et al. (1987) 13 Changbahe–Lazha CAS 1984 Cui et al. (1987) 14 Lijiang–Zhehai CAS 1984 Xiong et al. (1993) Teng (1988) 15 Xichang–Dukou CAS 1984 Yin and Xiong (1992) 16 Fuliji–Fengxian CEA 1984 Bai and Wang (2004) 17 Yunxiao–Anxi CAS 1985–1986 Xiong et al. (1991) 18 Heishui–Shaoyang MLR 1986 Cui et al. (1996) 19 Shaoyang–Quanzhou MLR 1986 Yuan (1997) 20 Nanbu–Fushun MLR 1986 Cui et al. (1996) 21 Yifeng–Ji'an MLR 1986 Yuan (1997) 22 Ningde–Yongchun CEA 1986–1988 Liao et al. (1990) 23 Altai–Longmenshan MLR 1987 Cui et al. (1996) Wang et al. (2005a) 24 Sanxia-I CEA 1988 Chen et al. (1994) 25 Sanxia-II CEA 1988 Chen et al. (1994) 26 Sanxia-III CEA 1988 Chen et al. (1994) 27 Sanxia-IV CEA 1988 Chen et al. (1994) 28 Lianxian–Gangkou CAS 1988–1989 Yin et al. (1999) Zhang and Wang (2007) 29 Yichuan–Shiyan MLR 1993 Cao et al. (1994) 30 Tunxi–Wenzhou CEA 1993 Xiong and Liu (2000) Zhang et al. (2008) 31 Zhuangmu–Anyi MLR 1994 Dong et al. (1998) 32 Zhubalong–Zizhong CEA 2000 Wang et al. (2003c) 33 Huangmei–Lujiang CAS 2001 Liu et al. (2003) 34 Gushi–Lujiang CAS 2001 Liu et al. (2003) 35 Tuanfeng–Lujiang CAS 2001 Liu et al. (2003) 36 Zhefang–Binchuan CEA 2002 Zhang et al. (2005c) 37 Simao–Zhongdian CEA 2002 Zhang et al. (2006) 38 Eryuan–Jiangchuan CEA 2002 Zhang et al. (2007a) 39 Menglian–Malong CEA 2002 Zhang et al. (2005c) 40 Changle–Minhou CEA 2004 Zhu et al. (2005) 41 Nanhui–Huzhou CEA 2004–2005 Yao et al. (2007) 42 Yanhu–Xichang–Mahu CEA 2005 Wang et al. (2008) 43 Yunxiao–Tongan CEA 2005 Zhu et al. (2006) 44 Baiyan–Jianghong CEA 1984–1985 Jia et al. (2006) 45 Nanhai-ESP-E Sino-US 1985 Nissen et al. (1995) 46 Nanhai-ESP-C Sino-US 1985 Nissen et al. (1995) 47 Nanhai-ESP-W Sino-US 1985 Nissen et al. (1995) 48 Nanhai-OBS93 CAS 1993 Yan et al. (2001) 49 Nanhai-OBH-II CAS 1996 Qiu et al. (2001) 50 Nanhai-OBH-III CAS 1996 Qiu et al. (2001) 51 Nanhai-OBH-IV CAS 1996 Qiu et al. (2001) 52 Nanhai-P2001 CAS 2001 Wang et al. (2006) Zhao et al. (2010) 53 Taiwan-line14 Academia sinica 1995 Mcintosh and Nakamura (1998) 54 Taiwan-line16 Academia sinica 1995 Yeh et al. (1998) Shih et al. (1998) 55 Taiwan-line23 Academia sinica 1995 Yeh et al. (1998) 56 Taiwan-line29–33 Academia sinica 1995 Yeh et al. (1998) 57 East China Sea CAS 1998 Gao et al. (2004) 58 Yadong–Dangxiong CAS 1974 Teng et al. (1981a,b, 1983b) 59 Peigutso–Pumoyongtso Sino-French 1980–1982 Zhang et al. (2004) Teng et al. (1985, 1987) 60 Selintso–Yaanduo Sino-French 1980–1982 Zhang et al. (2002b) Teng et al. (1985a) 61 Tuotuohe–Golmud MLRC 1988 Li et al. (2003) 62 Altyn–Altai MLRC 1988 Wang and Han (2004) 63 Golmud–Ejinaqi CAS 1992 Cui et al. (1995) 64 Deqing–Longweitso INDEPTH 1992–2002 Zhao et al. (2001) 65 Cuoqin–Sangehu CAS 1994 Xiong and Liu (1997) 66 Maqin–Jingbian CEA 1997 Li et al. (1996) 67 West Kunlun–Tarim MLRC 1995–2000 Li et al. (2001a,b)

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Table 1 (continued) Profile number Profile name Project Year References

68 Tangke–Benzilan CEA, MSTC 2000 Wang et al. (2003a) 69 Xiachayu–Gonghe CAS 2001 Zhang et al. (2003b) 70 Cuoqin–Zhangmu CAS 2001 Liu (2003) 71 Lingtai–Amuquhu Min et al. (1991) 72 Markang–Gulang CEA 2004 Zhang et al. (2007a, 2008a) 73 Moba-Guide CAS 2003 Zhang et al. (2011b) 74 Cuoqin–Shenzha CAS 2004 unpublished 75 Changbai–Dunhua CEA 1998 Zhang et al. (2002b) 76 Jingyu–Chaoyangchuan CEA 1998 Zhang et al. (2002b) 77 Manzhouli–Suifenhe CEA 1992 Fu et al. (1998) 78 Beijing–Huailai–Fengzhen CEA 1993–1994 Zhu et al. (1997b) 79 Wuqing–Beijing–Chicheng CEA 2006 Wang et al. (2007b) 80 Taiyuan–Xuanhua CEA 1983 Zhao et al. (2006a) 81 Yuncheng–Alashan CEA 1989 Sun et al.(1992) 82 Yingxian–Fuping–Zibo CEA Liu et al. (1996) 83 Wenan–Weixian–Chayouzhongqi CEA 1994 Zhang et al. (1997a) 84 Xianghe–Beijing–Zhuolu CEA 1978 Zhao et al. (1999) 85 Anxin–Xianghe–Kuancheng CEA 2002 Wang et al. (2004) 86 Taian–Xinzhou CEA 1992 Zhu et al. (1995b) 87 Fanshi–Huaian–Taipuqi CEA 1993–1994 Zhang et al. (1998) 88 Zhengzhou–Jinan CEA 1984 Zhang et al. (1994) 89 Heze–Linxian–Changzhi CEA 1981 Zhang et al. (1994) 90 Haixing–Yangyuan–Fengzhen CEA 1980 Zhang et al. (1997a) 91 Jincheng–Linfen–Daning CEA 1985 Zhu et al. (1994) 92 Shijiazhuang–Kalaqin CEA 1982,1984 Wang et al. (2005b) 93 Xiji–Zhongwei CEA 1999 Li et al. (2001c) 94 Huanghua–Qinhuangdao CEA 1983 Zhang et al. (2002a) 95 Yan'an–Baotou–Mandula CEA 2006–2007 Teng et al. (2010) 96 Xiangshui–Sishui CEA 1980 Li (1991) 97 Yixian–Haicheng CEA Lu and Xia (1992) 98 Shaya–Bu'r'jin CEA 1997 Zhao et al. (2003) 99 Tashikuergan–Jiashi–Aheqi CEA 1998 Zhang et al. (2002a) 100 Shache–Atushi–Tuoyun CEA 1998 Zhang et al. (2002a) 101 Korla–Baicheng CEA 2000 Zhao et al. (2006a, 2008) 102 Qitai–Kelamayi–Emin CEA 2000 Xue et al. (2006) and Zhao et al., 2006b 103 INDEPTH-IV INDEPTH 2007–2009 Karplus et al. (2010) 104 Hirapur–Mandla National Geophysical Research 1984 Murty et al. (2004) Institute, Hyderabad-500 007, India 105 Navibandar–Amreli 1977 Rao and Tewari (2005) 106 Kavali–Udipi 1972–1975 D.Sarkar et al. (2001) 107 MANAS Geodynamics of the Tien Shan Makarov et al. (2010) 108 KCP-98 KORDI,POI and Chiba University in Japan 1997–1998 Kim et al. (2003) 109 Ulleung Basin-A KORDI and IMG&G 1991 Kim et al. (1998) 110 Ulleung Basin-B KORDI and IMG&G 1991 Kim et al. (1998) 111 Oga–Kesennuma Iwasaki et al. (2002) 112 Oga–Kesennuma_a 1990 Iwasaki et al. (2002) 113 Oga–Kesennuma_b 1997 Iwasaki et al. (2002) 114 BEST The BEST project 2002 Nielsen and Thybo (2009)

POI—Pacific Oceanological Institute of Russia IMG&G—Institute of Marine Geology and Geophysics of Russia CEA—China Earthquake Administration CAS—Chinese Academy of Sciences MLR—The Ministry of Land and Resources of China BEST—Baikal Explosion Seismic Transect.

In the present work we have chosen “ordinary kriging”. This is the for the North China craton (Ruan, 2011), Fig. 4b for South China most widely used type of kriging, and permits us to estimate values (Deng et al., 2011), and Fig. 4c for the Tibetan Plateau (Zhang et al., when data point values vary or fluctuate around a constant mean 2011a); Fig. 4(d), (e), and (f) shows the respective errors in value (Badal et al., 2000). the models. We summarize the crustal structures in these regions below. 5. Results

5.1. Crustal P-wave velocity model 5.1.1. North China craton The velocity increases to 8 km/s at the top mantle, from 3 km/s at Deep seismic profiles are somewhat unevenly distributed across the shallow part. The Moho depth uplifts from west to east, but shows the tectonic blocks of continental China. From Fig. 1, we observe little change with latitude. Low velocity zones are widely distributed that South China (including Cathaysia and the Yangtze blocks), the in the crust at different depths. In the top panel of Fig. 4a we see the North China craton, and the Tibetan Plateau are relatively well velocity distribution at a depth of 5 km, which can be divided into covered by wide-angle seismic profiles. We therefore constructed two parts; the west has the higher velocity (>5.9 km/s), and the three transects and 3D crustal P-wave velocity models for the three velocity in the east is lower (b5.7 km/s). These differences may be a regions (Figs. 3 and 4). Three-dimensional models of the crust that reflection of the depth of the crystalline basement in the different bring together all of the results achieved can be seen in Fig. 4a tectonic units. For example, the velocity of the north rift basin is J. Teng et al. / Tectonophysics 609 (2013) 202–216 207

70˚ 40˚ 80˚ 0˚ 1 90˚ 120˚ 13 5 100˚ 110˚ 0˚ 50˚

98 114 77

4 97 75 0˚ 107 102 112 40˚ 111 95 113 62 92 76 101 8380 79 78 94 109 99 63 90 85 110 100 81 84 72 86 30 23 73 93 87 82 108 ˚ ˚ 66 30 64 91 89 96 65 61 71 29 88 103 3 4 16 11 74 69 10 5 60 26 6 34 68 33 41 25 35 30 32 12 70 59 13 20 18 2724 31 1 57 20 58 42 21 2 ˚ ˚ 105 19 22 40 20 104 1514 9 54 8 53 36 38 28 43 7 17 55 39 56 37 44 46 106 47 52 49 45 70 48 ˚ ˚ 50 51 140 80˚ 30˚ 9 ˚ 1 0˚ 100˚ 110˚ 120

Fig. 2. Elevation and deep seismic profiles performed in East Asia during the period 1958–2010. Solid trend lines depict profiles whose results are published, and are therefore available, and dashed and dotted lines depict profiles whose results are not yet published. The profile numbers are exactly the same as those given in Table 1.

lower than velocity of the top basement (5.8 km/s), so the depth of Moho depths across the geographic region 60°–150° E in longitude, the basement is deeper than 5 km. and 15°–55° N in latitude, constrained by the sampled Moho depths along the deep seismic profiles shown in Fig. 2. Using the above- 5.1.2. South China mentioned 2D kriging interpolation scheme, we obtained the Moho In the shallow part of the crust, the P-wave velocity is relatively depth map shown in Fig. 5. low in the basin, but rises to 6.0–6.2 km/s in the orogenic belts such Our final Moho map shows that the depth to the Moho ranges as the Dabie (Li et al., 2003). Furthermore, the P-wave velocity marks between 10 and 85 km. The deepest Moho discontinuity, at approxi- an obvious difference in the crustal structure from the land to the mately 70–85 km beneath the Tibetan Plateau, was formed by an ocean. The Moho depth is greatest in the northwest (up to 60 km), ongoing continent–continent collision (Yin and Harrison, 2000). The and smallest in the southeast. There is an obvious lateral variation in Moho beneath the eastern North China craton, at a relatively constant both the P-wave velocity in the crust and the crustal thickness from 30–35 km, has endured mantle lithosphere destruction (Chen et al., the Sichuan basin to Yunnan, and also within Yunnan, with strong tec- 2006; Teng et al., 2003a; Zhai, 2007; Zhang et al., 2012a; Zhu and tonic activity, including tectonic escape and lower crustal flow to com- Zheng, 2009). pensate for the collision between the Indian and Eurasian plates It should be mentioned that the data on the depth to the Moho (Beaumont et al., 2001). The error is approximately less than 0.2 km/s is relatively reliable for the tectonic blocks with relatively dense below the DSSs, but is relatively large in other areas; a possible reason wide-angle seismic coverage, but the resolution is somewhat poorer for this should be the vast lateral change (from sea to island). for those areas of China that were poorly covered by wide-angle seismic profiles. 5.1.3. Tibetan Plateau ThecrustoftheTibetanPlateaucan roughly be divided into upper, middle, and lower crusts, and all of these crustal structures (Figs. 3 and 6. Discussion 4(c)) can be summarized as follows: the upper crust has a thickness of some20km,andtheP-wavevelocityfield exhibits values between 5.8 6.1. Comparison of Moho depth with other results provided by and 6.2 km/s; the middle crust is approximately 20–30 km thick, and related methods the P-wave velocities range from 6.3 to 6.7 km/s; the lower crust is a 20–30 km-thick layer, and the P-wave velocities vary from 6.8 to We obtained the Moho depth distribution beneath continental 7.3 km/s. Another characteristic is that a 5–10 km-thick low-velocity China from active seismology. The deep crustal structure of China has layer seems to lie at the bottom of the middle crust (Makovsky et al., been investigated in recent decades using multiple geophysical 1996a,b; Teng, 1987,1988; Teng et al., 1985b, 1999, 2010; Zhao et al., techniques, including gravity (Braitenberg et al., 2000; Jin et al., 1994; 2001; Zhang and Klemperer, 2005, 2010). From Fig. 3c, we see a west– Yuan, 1996), magnetism (Wang and Guo, 2005), magnetotellurics eastvariationinthecrustalstructure(bothP-wavevelocityandcrustal (Wei et al., 2006), seismic surface waves (Chen et al., 2010; Zhu et al., thickness) in each tectonic block. The belt bounded by longitudes 85°E 1997a, 2006), receiver functions (Ai et al., 2005; Chen et al., 2006; and 90°E is also a very important transition zone at the surface; most Tian et al., 2005a,b; Zhang et al., 2009b, 2010), and seismic reflection of the lakes are located to the west of the belt. profiles (Li and Mooney, 1998; Li et al., 2006; Teng et al., 2003a; Zhang et al., 2011c), in addition to seismic refraction/wide-angle reflec- 5.2. Moho depth tion profiles. Here, we compare the Moho depth distributions obtained using the different techniques; it is hoped that this will help the discus- Using the Moho depth data obtained from controlled-source sion of the implications for the tectonic evolution of continental China seismic experiments (Table 1), we made an interpolation of the (Li et al., 2006; Liu et al., 2006; Zhang et al., 2009a). 208 J. Teng et al. / Tectonophysics 609 (2013) 202–216

70° 80° 90° 100° 110° 120° 130° 140°E

45°N Z G D H M J ND TS TR 40°

EK Q NC 35° 3 I 1 GN SG Fig 4 S Q J L 30° HY Fig 4 YZ 2 20° S SC E 15° Fig 4 10° 5° South Sea

Vp km/s 5.6 5.8 6.0 6.2 6.4 6.6 6.8 7.0 7.2 7.4 7.6 7.8 8.0 8.2 Depth /km QDOB NCC YSOB 0 0

-10 1 -10

-20 -20 -30 -30 -40 -40 .

-50 -50 Latitude -60 -60 32 ° 33 ° 34° 35° 36° 37° 38 ° 39 ° 40° 41° 42° 43° 44° Yangtze Block Cathaysia Block 0 0

-10 2 -10 -20 -20 -30 -30 -40 -40

-50 -50 Longitude -60 -60 104°°°° 105 106 107 108 °° 109 109 ° 110 ° 111 ° 112 ° 113° 114° 115° 116° 117° 118° 119°

Tibet NCC 0 0 -10 3 -10 -20 -20 -30 -30 -40 -40 -50 -50 -60 -60 Latitude -70 -70 29° 30° 31° 32° 33° 34° 35° 36° 37° 38°

Fig. 3. Three DSS transects across North China, South China, and Tibet. QDOB: Qingling–Dabie Orogen Belt; NCC: North China Craton; YSOB: Yanshan Orogen Belt.

To compare the Moho depths obtained by wide-angle seismic profiles, c and d (shown in Fig. 5). The uncertainties in crustal profiling, gravity inversion (CSSB, 1989; Yuan, 1996), and surface thickness derived from the gravity data were generally larger than wave tomography (Zhu et al., 1997a, 2006), we choose four transects, those determined using wide-angle seismic profiling, but most of which include two north–south transects, a and b, and two west–east the results were constrained by the availability of data obtained J. Teng et al. / Tectonophysics 609 (2013) 202–216 209 (a) (d)

0 0 km/s -10 8 -10 0.55 7 -30 -30 0.50 6 0.45

Depth /km -50

Depth /km -50 5 0.40 Moho -70 4 -70 0.35 35°N 35°N 120°E 120°E 30°N 115°E 30°N 115°E 110°E 110°E 25°N105°E 25°N (b) 105°E (e)

0 km/s 0 -10 8 -10 1.8 7 -30 6 -30 1.4 5 1.0

Depth /km -50 4

Depth /km -50 3 0.6 -70 Moho 2 -70 0.2 30°N 120°E 30°N 25°N 110°E 120°E 20°N 25°N 110°E 100°E 20°N 100°E (c) (f) 0 0 km/s -20 -20 1.0 8.0 0.8 -40 7.5 -40 0.6

Depth /km 7.0

-60 Depth /km 6.5 -60 0.4 6.0 -80 Moho -80 0.2 40°N 5.5 40°N 35°N 100°E 35°N 30°N 100°E 90°E 30°N 90°E 25°N 25°N 80°E 80°E

Fig. 4. The 3D P-wave velocity (a), (b), and (c), and error model (d), (e), and (f), for North China (NC), South China (SC), and Tibet, as shown in Fig. 3.

from the seismic experiments. In the case of surface wave tomogra- (Christensen and Mooney, 1995; Li et al., 2006; Teng et al., 2003a). phy, which is typically carried out using 10–70 s Rayleigh waves, The average crustal structure and average crustal P-wave velocity the inversion results obtained were also reported for quadrangles of beneath different tectonic blocks can therefore be summarized as one degree by one degree, and the uncertainties in the Moho depth shown in Fig. 6, which is similar to previous one-dimensional crustal were likewise larger than those obtained by profiling, because the models for the different tectonic blocks of the Chinese mainland vertical resolution decreases at deeper levels (Yuan, 1996). From a (Li and Mooney, 1998; Li et al., 2006). comparison of the Moho depths along these four transects, we can conclude that the spatial distribution of the Moho depth in continen- 6.3. Crustal composition beneath continental China tal China as determined using active seismological methods was consistent with that obtained from gravity inversion and surface Determining the nature of the composition of the deep continental wave tomography, to within 3–5 km, beneath the tectonic transition crust is one of the objectives of deep geophysical, petrological studies. zones. We divided the average crust of the different tectonic blocks in mainland China into upper, middle, and lower crusts, in which the P 6.2. The Moho beneath different tectonic blocks wave velocities increase progressively with depth. Using P-wave velocities, we infer that the average composition of the crust beneath As shown in our Moho depth map in Fig. 5, the Moho lies at depths continental China is felsic-intermediate (Christensen and Mooney, of ~42–59 km, ~30–56 km, and ~29–47 km beneath three platforms 1995), despite the fact that there are large variations in P wave veloc- in China, namely the Tarim platform (west), the Yangtze platform ity compared with the average value. In general, the lower crustal (south), and the North-China platform (east), respectively (Huang velocities are high (>6.9 km/s), and average middle crustal velocities et al., 1981; Ma, 1989; Zhang et al., 1984). Taking account of the range between 6.3 and 6.7 km/s. Ultrasonic velocity measurements P-wave velocity and seismic phase, the crust beneath China can for a wide variety of deep crustal rocks provide a link between crustal generally be sub-divided into upper, middle, and lower crusts velocity and lithology. Meta-igneous felsic, intermediate and mafic 210 J. Teng et al. / Tectonophysics 609 (2013) 202–216

60˚ 0˚ 80 14 5 ˚ 100 120˚ 0˚ ˚ 50˚

40 ˚ ˚ 0 0 -1 4

-5 0 0 3 0

- 2 0

- 3 d - 30 - ˚ ˚ 6 a - 0 0 50 3

-70 b -3 2 c 0 0˚ 20˚

60 ˚ ˚ 150 7 0˚ 140˚ 80˚ 130˚ 90˚ 100˚ 110˚ 120˚ km

-80 -70 -60 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 India Tibet TianShan Depth /km -30 -40 -50 -60 -70 a Gravity -80 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 South ChinaQD North China Latitude /˚ -30 -34 DSS -38 SurfaceWave -42 b 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 Tibet Sichuan Basin South China

-20

-40

-60 c -80 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 Longitude /˚ TianShan North China Huang Sea

-30 -40 -50 d -60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130

Fig. 5. Top panel: Spatial distribution of Moho depth beneath East Asia from the deep seismic soundings. The purple lines indicate the results from DSS profiles, and other areas refer to the Crust2.0 Model (Laske et al., 2001). Lower panel: four transects of East Asia (a), (b), (c), and (d). The gravity result is the inversion of gravity measurements (after Yuan, 1996), and the surface wave result refers to surface wave tomography (after Zhu et al., 1997a, 2006).

granulite, and amphibolite facies rocks are distinguishable on the 6.4. Lateral variation of the seismogenic layer basis of P and S wave velocities, or especially, Lame contrast (Brown and Gordon, 2003; Zhang et al., 2008b), but only a few crustal S The strength of the lithosphere in extension and compression, as wave velocity models can be obtained; this excludes the possibility well as its flexural rigidity, are controlled by the quartz–feldspath of obtaining a crustal composition model for all the tectonic blocks rheology of the crust for the thermally young lithosphere, and by of the Chinese mainland. the olivine rheology of the mantle and older lithosphere. The J. Teng et al. / Tectonophysics 609 (2013) 202–216 211

Tibet(HY,GN,SJ,SG) EK ZGTR TS -10 -10 -10 UC -10 -10 UC UC -20 -20 UC -20 -20 -20 UC MC MC MC -30 -30 -30 -30 -30 MC LC

LC -40 -40 -40 Moho -40 Moho -40 LC MC Moho LC Moho 5.5 6 6.5 5.5 6 6.5

Depth (km) 5.5 6 6.5 -50 -50 -50 Vp (km/s) -50 Vp (km/s) -50 5.5 6 6.5 Vp (km/s) Vp (km/s) -60 -60 -60 -60 -60 LC Vp (km/s) -70 Moho -70 -70 -70 -70 5.5 6 6.5 UC MC LC

-10 YZ -10 NC -10 SC -10 JH -10 MD UC UC UC UC UC MC -20 -20 MC -20 -20 MC -20 MC LC MC LC Moho -30 -30 Moho -30 -30 LC Moho -30 5.5 6 6.5 LC Moho 5.5 6 6.5 5.5 6 6.5 LC Vp (km/s) 5.5 6 6.5 -40 Moho -40 Vp (km/s) -40 -40 Vp (km/s) -40 Vp (km/s)

Depth (km) 5.5 6 6.5 -50 Vp (km/s) -50 -50 -50 -50

-60 -60 -60 -60 -60

-70 -70 -70 -70 -70

Fig. 6. The average P wave velocity and Moho depth for different tectonic partitions in China (shown in Fig. 1). UC: upper crust, MC: middle crust, LC: lower crust.

Fig. 7. Average depth of upper, middle and lower crust, and the corresponding P wave velocity. Earthquake hypocenters (small red circles) down to a depth of 60 km (left), beside the dis- tribution of the logarithm of the seismic energy (right), represented by horizontal filled bars (in red). The acronyms for any formation and the maximum value of the logarithm of the energy (used for normalization) are shown. For the period 1970–2010, data on earthquakes were obtained from the catalogue edited by the China Earthquake Network Center. 212 J. Teng et al. / Tectonophysics 609 (2013) 202–216 lithospheric strength is therefore critically influenced by the thick- interpolation, we obtained a spatial distribution map of the depth of the ness of the crust and the composition of the lower crust, particularly Moho for the Chinese mainland, and obtained the average P-wave of the lithosphere with intermediate heat flows (Kusznir and Park, velocity and Moho depths for different blocks. The Moho depth ranges 1986). In the following, we briefly discuss the relationship between between 10 and 80 km in mainland China. The, Tibetan Plateau shows the thickness of the crust and its rheology. We first discuss the crustal the deepest Moho discontinuity, with an average of 70 km, and the rheology of all the tectonic units, before moving on to the crustal eastern North China craton displays a constant depth of 30–35 km. rheology with respect to the thickness of the crust in China. This The Moho lies at depths of ~42–59 km, ~30–56 km and ~29–47 km analysis follows the procedure described by Panza and Raykova beneath the Tarim platform (west), the Yangtze platform (south), and (2008) and recently applied by Zhang et al. (2011c, 2012a), which the North China platform (east), respectively. allows some speculation about the rheology of the crust. The Moho depths are consistent with equivalent Moho results To this end, we compiled statistics on the earthquakes that obtained from gravity inversion and surface wave tomography, to with- occurred in the period 1970–2010 (as listed in the earthquake in 3–5 km. The average P-wave velocity for the crust beneath the Chi- catalogue edited by the China Earthquake Network Center), in order nese mainland suggests the felsic and intermediate composition of the to carry out a statistical analysis of the seismic events in each tectonic crust. We observe the systematic variation of the Moho depth, crustal unit. The seismic energy (E) of each event was computed using P-wave velocity, and seismogenic layer thickness in different tectonic the Ms magnitude of each earthquake using the relationship log blocks in China. The differences in the Moho depth, crustal formation E=11.8+1.5 Ms. We have provided a synoptic representation of and composition of different tectonic blocks may be attributed to the the mechanical properties of the uppermost 80 km of the crust–mantle, spatial variations in the seismicity and rheological properties in the together with the seismicity. Fig. 7 shows the distribution of earth- crust beneath mainland China (Zhang et al., 2012b). quakes (small circles) down to a depth of 80 km (outer panels, left), and the distribution of log E (outer panels, right) for all tectonic units. Acknowledgments Leaving aside the different spatial distributions of seismicity peculiar to each tectonic unit, we summarize the major features shown The authors thank Drs. Y. Chen and J. Wu, of the Institute of in Fig. 7 in the following four points: (1) A classic Coulomb/Byerlee Geology and Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, all those (brittle/ductile) transition appears to be valid for most of the tectonic who took participation in deep seismic sounding for more than half units, e.g., in Ji-He, Nadanhada, South China, Yangtze, Songpan-Ganzi, a century in China, and international friends. We benefited from and Sanjiang, which reveals a preferential concentration of seismic the valuable comments made by Professors H. Thybo, W. Mooney, energy in the upper crust (b20 km), in which the rheology and G. Panza, C. Braitenberg, and other anonymous reviewers, and appre- mechanical properties of the rocks follow Sibsons law for the upper ciate the helpful observations and constructive suggestions that they crust, and a power law creep for the lower crust (Panza and Raykova, made, which led to significant improvements in the manuscript. The 2008); (2) seismic energy is concentrated within a depth range of Ministry of Science and Technology of China, the Chinese Academy 5–25 km in the North China and Southeast China tectonic units, of Sciences and the Chinese National Nature Sciences Foundation but with a distribution of seismic activity throughout the whole crust; supported the present research, through projects SINOPROBE-02-02, (3) seismic energy is spread over the entire depth range of the crust KZCX2-YW-132, KXCX2-109, 40721003, 40830315 and 40304007. in the Junggar (JG), Tianshan (TS), Tarim (TR), East Kunlun (EK), Qilian (QI) and Qinglin (QL) tectonic units, with seismic activity even reaching References the lithospheric mantle in some cases (Tarim, East Kunlun); (4) the distribution of seismic energy is characterized by a two-peak or bimodal Ai, Y.S., Zhao, D.P., Gao, X., Xu, W.W., 2005. The crust and upper mantle discontinuity – – structure beneath Alaska inferred from receiver functions. 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