Journal of Xi'an University of Architecture & Technology Issn No : 1006-7930
LAND SYSTEMS AND LAND SUITABILITY CLASSIFICATION OF THE PENNAR RIVER BASIN
1. Dr.G.Rambabu Post Doctoral Fellow (UGC), Department of Geography, Sri Krishnadevaraya University, Ananthapuramu, Andhra Pradesh-515003, India 2. Prof.A.Krishna Kumari Professor in department of Geography, Sri Krishnadevaraya University, Ananthapuramu, Andhra Pradesh-515003, India Abstract
Now a day’s agriculture is the main role in the developing countries like India. Agriculture is dominant sector in Andhra Pradesh, Pennar river basin. To assess the land suitability for major crops based on the soil characteristics of Pennar river basin. And an attempt is made to identify the land systems of the Pennar river basin. We can identify the types of land systems and land classification which is used for suitable crop cultivation in Pennar river basin. The last analysis is to identify the land suitability classification of the Pennar river basin. This type of study is used for sustainable crop cultivation and natural resource management.
Key words: Land use, land systems, and land capability.
Introduction: The land resources of the Pennar river basin has been evaluated using physical characteristics namely physiography, slope, land systems, landforms, soils, land use, and land capability. The land systems classification was developed by CSIRO Australia basing on homogenous terrain, climate and natural vegetation. Land evaluation studies and land use classification are carried out by the scientist on International Land Reclamation and Improved of Netherlands. Brickman and Synthu (1973) and Beek (1978) have described the methods to carry out land evaluation studies.
Study area: The Pennar River basin covers an area about 55,213km2 and lies in between 100 and 160 North latitude and 770 and 810 East longitude. The river originates in northern part of Karnataka state in Nandi hills and passes through the Anantapuramu and Cuddapah districts of Rayalaseema region and empties into Bay of Bengal, 30km ENE of Nellore after passing through the Pennar delta of Nellore district. The average annual rainfall of the Pennar basin is 732.11mm. The average minimum temperature is about 180C and the average maximum temperature is about 420C. The basin enjoys semiarid, dry sub-humid and wet sub-humid types of climate.
Objectives: The main objectives of the study are
1. To map the land systems of the Pennar river basin, 2. To describe the land resources of the Pennar basin and
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3. 3. To bring out the land suitability of the Pennar basin.
Data source &Methodology: The land systems of the basin are mapped using FCC‘s and Geo-coded data based on the concept that similar land systems are reflected in similar variation of texture, soils and land use. The CSIRO method of Australia has been adopted to map the land systems of the basin. The landforms of the basin are mapped through visual interpretation of IRS IB Geo-coded data on scale 1:50,000 and Survey of India topographic sheets on scale 1:50,000 and LISS- III Data are used to map the land systems and land resources of the Pennar basin. And the year book of 2010-2011 collected from the official records of district planning office.
The major land systems of the Pennar basin has been categorized into (Fig.1)
1. Drainage
2. Deltaic plains
3. Fluvial plains
4. Hilly terrain
5. Lateritic uplands
6. Rolling plains
7. Undulating terrain.
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fig.1
DRAINAGE
The river Pennar has its inception in Nandi hills which is located in southwestern part of the
basin. It flow almost north-south in direction for a distance of about 170km. From mid Pennar
basin it flows northeast-southwest direction for a distance of about 70km upto Tadipathri. From
Tadipathri to Mylavaram (30km) the river has taken direction from west-northwest to east-
southeast. From Mylavaram to Siddout (90km) the river Pennar flows WNW to ESE direction,
from Somasila dam to Sangam (55km) the river flows ENE-WSW direction and discharges into
Bay of Bengal in ENE-WSW direction. The tributaries of Pennar River are Chitravathi, Papagni,
Cheyyeru, Kunderu and Sagileru. The river Chitravathi is origins in Nandi hills and flows 80km in
N-S direction. From Bukkapatnam to C.K. Palli (30km) it continues to flow in north-south direction.
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The Chitravathi River flows in northeast to southwest direction for about 80 km before it joins the
Pennar River at Gandikota. The Papagni River has its origin on eastern parts of Nandi hills.
The river Sagileru flows in north-south direction in the structurally controlled Badvel-
Pormamilla valley for distance of about 130km. The river Sagileru is origins in Nallamalai hills
and joins with Pennar River at Madhavaram. The river Kunderu has it tributaries originated in
Erramalai and Nallamalai hills. The tributaries join at Koilakuntla after flowing for distance of
about 70km in NW-SE and NE-SW direction. From Koilakuntla the river Kunderu flows for a
distance of about 90 km form NW-SE direction and joins the river Pennar 2km west of
Kamalapuram. There are number of small tributaries joining the river Pennar both from north
and south banks.
DELTAIC PLAINS
The river Pennar has developed prominent delta covering an area of about 2700 km2 at the
apex from Nellore. The delta is formed of alluvial soils. The slope is gentle and is less than 3
degrees. The deltaic plains are boarded by sandstone lateritic uplands. The depth of sediments
exceeds 1 km in the Pennar deltaic region. The delta is formed of abandoned river courses filled
with fluvial sediments. The Pennar delta is used for cultivation of paddy, banana, sugarcane,
pulses, fruits and vegetables. The groundwater potential is found in unconfined aquifers.
FLUVIAL PLAINS
They are formed in the Pennar, Chitravathi, Papagni, Cheyyeru, Kunderu and Sagileru rivers.
The Pennar River has developed a distinct valley from Tadipatri to Nellore. The width of valley
varies from 0.5 to 3 km. The valley is filled with alluvial soils. The slope is very gentle. The water
resources found are abundant in the fluvial plains in unconfined form. The depth of alluvial
sediments varies from 10 to 30 meters. The River Kunderu also developed a distinct fluvial
valley in the Cuddapah basin. The thickness of sediments varies from 10 to 13 meters. Paddy,
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sugarcane, turmeric, betelnut, groundnut, fruits and vegetables are cultivated in the fluvial
plains.
HILLY TERRAIN
The system consists of ridges, hills, mesas, buttes, inselberg, isolated hills and hillocks
scattered all over the pediplains zone. The Pennar basin consist of Nallamalai hills, Erramalai
hills, Lankamalai hills, Kadiri-Bukkapatnam hills, Penukonda hills, Madhugiri hills and Nandi
hills. The Nallamalai, Erramalai, Lankamalai, Palakonda, Velikonda, Seshachalam, Thirumala,
Mutssukota hills are formed of Proterozoic formations consist of shales, limestone, quartzite,
dolomite with intrusive of basic igneous rocks and lava flows.
NALLAMALAI HILLS
The Nallamalai hills ranges in altitude from 300 to 900 meters above MSL. They run almost
north south in direction and extend from Jallavaram of Cuddapah district in the south to
Macharla of Guntur district in north. They run to about 210 km in length and the width ranges
from 15 km to 75 km. The Nallamalai are covered with diversified species of dry deciduous
forests, moist deciduous forests, semi evergreen forests, bamboos, grasses, weeds, climbers,
aquatics, scrubbers, parasites, epiphytes, economic plants and medical plants. The Gundla-
Bramheswaram is an important biotic valley located near Velgode of Kurnool district.
PALAKONDA HILLS
The Palakonda hills are found in between Sidhout in the north to Tirupathi in the south. They
run in NW-SE direction to a distance of about 120 km. The maximum width of the hills is about
70 km. The altitude varies from 300 to 1150 meters above MSL. The Palakonda hills are formed
of shales and quartzite. They are composed of rich biotic environment and are famous for Red
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Sandals. The southern tip of the hills is known as Thirumala hills and is famous for Lord
Venkateswara temple.
SESHACHALAM HILLS
The Seshachalam hills run to a length of about 75 km and extend from Parnapalli in the north
to Vempalli in the south. The orientation of hills is from NNW to SSE. The maximum width of the
hills is 3 km. The hills are composed of shales and quartzite. The altitude varies from 300 to 700
meters above MSL.
NANDI HILLS
The Nandi hills are formed of granitic gneisses and lay the southern tip of Pennar River.
The river Pennar originates in the Nandi hills. The orientation of the hills is north-south. The
altitude varies from 600 to 1500 meters above MSL.
ROLLING PLAINS
The Rolling plains consist of mainly black soil plains formed in the Kunderu basin and
Tadipathri-Pulivendula basin. The slope is very gentle and is less than 3 degrees. The
Cuddapah basin is formed of mainly rolling plains. The insitu rocks are mainly shales and
quartzite. The black soil plains are used for cultivation of cotton, coriander, bengal gram,
groundnut, sunflower, chilies and paddy in irrigated tracks under canal, tanks, or well irrigation.
The depth of soil varies from 1 to 3 meters.
UNDULATING PLAINS
The undulating plains consist of mainly shallow weathered pediplains, moderately weathered
pediplains, deeply weathered pediplains, pediment inselberg complexes and sandstone lateritic
uplands. The slope in these plains varies from 3 degrees to 10 degrees. The plains are lying
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parallel to hilly terrain. They are composed of granitic gneisses, shales and quartzite. The depth
of soil varies from 0.5 to 1 meter. In granitic terrain the undulating terrain is composed of mainly
pediment inselberg complex and pediplains. The undulating plains are used for cultivation of
groundnut crop during kharif season. Rill and ravine erosion are noticed in a few pockets.
Land Resources of the Pennar river basin:
PHYSIOGRAPHY
Physiographically the Pennar basin is divided into hilly terrain, basins, pediplains,
valleys and plains. The hilly terrain consists of Nallamalai, Lankamalai, Palakonda, Erramalai,
Thirumala hills, Seshachalam, Mutssukota, Madhugiri, Penukonda, Kadiri-Bukkapatnam and Nandi
hills. The Nallamalai hills are formed of shales and quartzite. They are rich in biotic environment.
The orientation of Nallamalai hills are north-south, northwest-southeast and southwest. The altitude
variation is from 300 to 900 meters above mean sea level (MSL). The Lankamalai hill lies south of
Nallamalai hills and north of Pennar River. The altitude varies from 200 to 900 meters above MSL.
These hills are also formed of shales and quartzite. The Erramalai hills are formed of shales,
limestone and quartzite. The orientation of hills is northeast to southwest direction. The altitude
varies from 300 to 600 meters above the MSL. These hills are rich in resources like dolomite,
limestone, clay stone, serpentine and barites.
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Fig.2
SLOPE The slope of the Pennar basin has been worked out on scale 1:50,000 adopting
Wentworth (1937) method. The slope values have been categorized into gently sloping (<2
degrees), moderately sloping (2 to 5 degrees), strongly sloping (5-!0 degrees), steeply sloping (
10-20 degrees) and very steeply sloping (>20 degrees). The gently sloping (<2degrees) is found
in the fluvial plains, valley fills, wash plains, creep built plains and black soil plains. The
moderately sloping (2-5 degrees) is noticed in the terraced plains, undulating plains, pediplains,
piedmont plains, colluvial fans, and lower parts of debris slope. The strongly sloping (5-10
degrees) is found in the landforms of debris slope of hilly terrain, pediment inselberg complex,
mesas, buttes, and residual hills. The steeply sloping (10-20 degrees) is noticed in ridge and
valley topography of the hilly terrain and very steeply sloping (>20 degrees) is found in cliffs,
escarpments, ridges, mesas, buttes and isolated hills (Fig. 3).
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Fig.3
LANDFORMS
The major landforms of the Pennar basin have been classified into denudation, Fluvio-
denudational, fluvial, Aeolian and coastal landforms. The educational landforms are ridge and valley
topography, structural hills, cuesta hills mesas, buttes, pediment inselberg complex, piedmont
plains, creep built plains and pediplains. The fluvio-denudational landforms are terraced plains,
valley fills, bajadas and wash plains. The fluvial landform consists of fluvial plains, flood plains,
terraces, natural levees, deltaic plains and abandoned river lobes. The Aeolian landforms consists
of sand dunes migrated by wind action from river bed. The sand dunes are also deposited by wind
action from beaches along the coastline. The coastal landforms are beach ridges, paleo lagoons,
marshes, bars, sprits, sand dunes and beaches. (Fig.4)
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Fig.4
SOILS
The major soils of the Pennar basin are deep red sandy soils, moderate red sandy soils, shallow
red sandy soils, black soils, alluvial soils, alkaline soils, silty soils, sandy soils, and insitu soils
(Fig.5). The deep red sandy soils are noticed in valley fills and bajadas of the Badvel-Pormamilla
valley and Kodur valley. The moderate red sandy soils are found in piedmont plains of Kunderu
basin bordering the western foot slopes of the Nallamalai hills. The shallow red sandy soils are
found in the shallow weathered pediplains and moderately weathered pediplains. The black soils
are found in the deeply weathered pediplains in the Cuddapah basin and Tadipathri –Pulivendula
plains. They are derived from insitu rocks which are highly weathered. The black soils irrigated
under Kurnool-Cuddapah canal are subjected to alkaline due to over irrigation and water logging.
Cotton, groundnut, sunflower paddy, fruits and vegetables and dry crops are cultivated on the
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black soil plains. The alkaline soils are found in black soils, red sandy soils, marshes and in
paleolagoons of the coastal plains. The alkanity of the soils is due to high content of the chlorides.
The lateritic sandstone uplands present at the apex of Pennar delta are formed of coarse gravel.
The sandy soils are noticed in the river beds, banks of the Pennar River in a few pockets along
the beach ridges and sand dunes. They are medium to coarse textured soils used for cultivation
of groundnut, coconut, casuarina and cashew nut. The insitu soils consists of peat soils formed of
rich organic matter in the hilly terrain of Nallamalai, Lankamalai, Erramalai, Seshachalam,
Palakonda, Velikonda and Mutssukota hills. The insitu soils of Kadiri-Bukkapatnam hills,
Penukonda hills, Nandi hills and Madhugiri hills are moderately enriched with organic matter
because they are coved with bushes and scrubs. In a few pockets moderate forests are noticed.
Fig.5
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LAND USE
The land use of the Pennar basin has been studied using IRS Geocoded data of
March 2010. The categories of the land use identified are cropped land (wet) cropped land dry, wet
land (fallow), dry land ( fallow ), plantation, forest land, scrub land, rivers, streams, lakes, tanks,
reservoirs, sandy land, rocky out crops, cultivable wasteland, grazing land, and alkaline affected
lands (Fig.6).
The cropped land under wet condition is found in the ayacut areas under canal and tank irrigation.
The major canals are Kurnool- Cuddapah canals, High Level Tungabhadra canal, Low Level
Tungabhadra canal, Mylavaram canal, Telugu Ganga canal, and Pennar delta canal. The medium
irrigation projects are Zureru project, Mylavaram project, Pincha project, Lower Sagileru project,
Upper Sagileru project, Bairavatippa project, Upper Pennar project, Maddileru project, and
Pedaballi project. Under the major and medium irrigation projects and major tanks the cropped
land under wet conditions is found. The cropped land under dry conditions is noticed in shallow,
moderately deeply weathered pediplains, black soil plains, fluvial plains and deltaic plains. In
March month under a few major and medium irrigation projects the cropped land wet is left fallow
due to non-availability of water resources. The dry land fallow is found in the parts of pediplains,
pediment inselberg complex, black soil plains, valley fills and creep built plains. The forest land is
found in Nallamalai, Lankamalai, Palakonda, Erramalai, Velikonda, Seshachalam, Mutssukota,
Madhugiri, Penukonda, Kadiri-Bukkapatnam and Nandi hills. Evergreen forests are found in
Talakona of Palakonda hills. The Thirumala hills are covered with thick forest. Mostly the forests
of Nallamalai, Lankamalai, Palakonda and Thirumala hills are dry deciduous forests. Scrubs and
bushes are noticed in Seshachalam, Mutssukota, Erramalai, Penukonda, Kadiri-Bukkapatnam
and Nandi hills. The major river is the Pennar and its tributaries. . The tributaries are Chitravathi,
Cheyyeru, Kunderu and Sagileru. The river beds are exposed in light tone due to limited water
availability in the March. The water is found in major tanks and reservoirs. The sandy land is
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noticed on the river beds and in few pockets as sandy patches on the banks of Pennar River and
along the coastal region. They reflected in light tone. The rocky out crops are seen in pediment
inselberg complex, mesas, buttes and isolated hills. The cultivable wasteland is found in the foot
slopes of the hilly terrain. The grazing lands are found on the foot slopes of the Nallamalai,
Lankamalai, Palakonda and Thirumala hills. The alkaline effected land are found in black soil
plains, colluvial valley fills, in a few stream beds, marshes and paleo lagoons of the coastal
plains. The deltaic plains are used for cultivation of paddy crop. The coastal plains are used for
raising casuarinas, cashenut and coconut plantation.
Fig.6
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LANDCAPABILITY
The land capability of the Pennar basin has been evaluated based on the above
said physical characteristics. Nine classes of land are delineated. They are Class I (fluvial and
deltaic plains ), Class II (irrigated plains other than fluvial and deltaic plains), Class III (valley fills,
bajadas and piedmont plains), Class IV (wash plains, creep built plains and colluvial valley fills),
Class V (black soil plains and coastal plains) Class VI (shallow and moderately weathered
pediplains and sandstone lateritic uplands), Class VII ( pediment inselberg complex), Class VIII (
hilly terrain with less than 20 degrees slope) and Class IX ( hilly terrain with more than 20 degrees
slope) (Fig.7 and table.1).
Land suitability classification:
Table .1
S.no Clas Land forms Slop Soils Inten Soil Crop Land s e in sity produ cultivated development Degr of ctivity activities ees erosi on 1 I Fluvial and <2 Alluvial Low High Paddy, Land deltaic soils banana, mulching, plains. turmeric, land leveling, sugar cane, land grading. fruits & vegetables. 2 II Fluvial and <2 Mixed Low Good Paddy. Land deltaic soils Banana, sugar mulching, plains. cane, pulses, land leveling, fruits & land grading. vegetables. 3 III Valley fills, <2 Red Low Good Paddy, pulses, Land piedmont sandy & fruits & mulching, plains. mixed vegetables. land leveling, soils land grading.
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4 IV Wash <2 Mixed Low Moder Paddy, ground Land plains and soils ate nut, sunflower mulching, creep built fruits & land leveling, plains. vegetables. land grading.
5 V Black soil <2 Black Mode Moder Paddy, ground Land plains. soils rate ate nut, sun mulching, flower, cotton, land leveling, dry food land grading. crops. 6 VI Moderate 2-5 Red High Poor Ground nut, Land weathered sandy sun flower, mulching, peni plains soils dry food crops land leveling, and lateric . land grading. uplands. 7 VII Piedmont 2-10 Red High Poor Ground nut, Land inselberg sandy sun flower, mulching, complex soils dry food land leveling, and Pedi- crops, oil land grading. plains seeds.
8 VIII Hilly terrain 10-20 Insitu & High Poor Plantation Contour rich in crops, natural buildings, organic forest, fruits & land matter vegetables. terracing, rock fills dam. 9 IX Hilly terrain >20 Insitu & Very Poor Natural forest. Contour rich in high buildings, organic land matter terracing, rock fills dam.
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Fig.7
CLASS I
The class I land consists of fluvial and deltaic plains deposited by major river Pennar and its
tributaries. They are formed of rich alluvium. The slope is less than 2 degrees. The groundwater
potential is excellent. The recharge and specific yield is high. The intensity of erosion is very low.
The productivity is very high. The soil and land irrigability are grouped under class A and class I
respectively. The major crops cultivated are paddy, banana, turmeric, sugarcane, betel nut and
fruits and vegetables. The land development activities are mulching, land leveling and land
grading.
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CLASS II
The Class II land is comprised of irrigated land other fluvial and deltaic plains. The
slope is less than 2 degrees. The ground water potential is very good due to return flow. The
recharge is high. The soil and land are grouped under Class A and class II respectively. The paddy,
pulses, sugarcane, groundnut and fruits and vegetables are cultivated. The land development
activities are mulching, land leveling and land grading.
CLASS III
The class III land is composed of valley fills, bajadas and piedmont plains. The soils
are rich. The slope is less than 2 degrees. The ground water potential is good. The recharge is high.
The intensity of soil removal is low. The soil and land irrigability are grouped under class B and
class 2 respectively. The major crops cultivated are paddy, pulses, fruits, and vegetables, betel nut,
groundnut and dry food crops. The land development activities are land mulching, land leveling and
land grading.
CLASS IV
The class IV land consists of wash plains, creep built plains and colluvial valley fills. The soils are
good with moderate soil profiles. The slope is less than 2 degrees. The groundwater potential is
very fair. The intensity of soil remove is low. The soil and land irrigability are grouped under class B
and class 3 respectively. The groundnut, sunflower, paddy, fruit and vegetables and dry food crops
are cultivated. The land development activities are land mulching, land leveling and land grading.
CLASS V
The class V land comprises black soil plains and coastal plains. The soils are
moderately rich in black soils and moderately in coastal plains. The groundwater potential is very
fair. The intensity of soil removal is low. The recharge is moderate. The soil and land irrigability are
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grouped under class C and class 3. The groundnut, cotton, paddy, fruits and vegetables, sunflower
and dry food crops are cultivated on the black soil plains and paddy, groundnut, fruits and
vegetables and plantation crops like casuarinas, cashew nut and coconut are cultivated on coastal
plains. The land development activities are land mulching, land leveling and land grading.
CLASS VI
The class VI land is formed of shallow and moderately weathered pediplains and
sandstone lateritic uplands. The slope varies from 2 to 5 degrees. The soil formation is very poor
and shallow. The groundwater recharge is low. The intensity of soil removal is moderate. The soil
and land irrigability are grouped under class C and class 3 respectively. The dry food crops,
groundnut sunflower and fruits and vegetables are cultivated. The land development activities are
land mulching, land leveling and land grading.
CLASS VII
The class VII land comprises pediment complex. The slope varies from 2 to 5 and 5
to 10 degrees. The groundwater potential is low. The recharge is low. The intensity of soil removal
is moderate. The soil and land irrigability are grouped under class C and class 4. The oil seeds and
dry food crops are cultivated. The land development activities are land mulching, land leveling and
land grading.
CLASS VIII
The class VIII land consists of hilly terrain with less than 20 degrees slope. The soils are
insitu and rich in organic matter. The intensity of soil removal is high in degrading forest and mining
areas. The run-off is high. The recharge is seen in debris slopes. The soils and land are grouped
under class D and class 5 respectively. Plantation crops, fruits and vegetables and natural forests
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are cultivated. The land development activities are contour bunding, land terracing, terrace bunding,
stone terracing, Rock fill dams should be constructed to minimize soil erosion.
CLASS IX
The Class IX consists of hilly terrain with more than 20 degrees slope. The soils are
insitu and rich in organic matter. The intensity of soil removal is high in deforested zones. The soils
and land are grouped under class D and class 5 respectively. The natural forest should be allowed
to grow. The slope above 20 degrees should not be disturbed for cultivation of crops. Biodiversity
has to be maintained. The slope zones should be bunded in areas where there are landslides. The
land development activities like land terracing, contour bunding, terrace bunding and rock fills
should be carried out.
Conclusions:
The land systems and morphological features of the Pennar basin. The major land
systems identified are hilly terrain, undulating plains, rolling plains, fluvial plains, deltaic plains
and coastal plains. The landforms of the Pennar basin are classified into denudational, fluvio-
denudational, fluvial, aeolian and coastal landforms. The denudational landforms are formed of
structural hills, cuesta hills, mesas, buttes, structural valleys, pediment inselberg complex,
residual hills, shallow pediplains, moderately weathered pediplains and deeply weathered
pediplains. The fluvio-denudational landforms consist of valley fills, bajadas and pediment
plains. The fluvial landforms are formed of flood plains, levees, paleo channel, river terraces and
abandoned river courses. The coastal plains are formed of beach ridges, marshes, dunes,
beaches, bars and spits.
Land resources evaluation based on relief, slope, drainage, lithology, land systems,
landforms and soils, land use, hydro-geomorphology and erosion susceptibility. Nine classes of
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land are identified. They are class I (fluvial and deltaic plains) class II (irrigated land other than
fluvial and deltaic plains) class III (valley fills, bajadas and piedmont plains) class IV (wash
plains, creep built plains and colluvial valley fills) class V (black soil plains and coastal plains)
class VI (shallow, moderate and deeply weathered pediplains and coastal plains) class VII (
pediment inselberg complex) class VIII ( hilly terrain with less than 200 slope) class IX ( hilly
terrain with more than 200 slope).
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