Promoting Sustainability and Resilience in Vietnam’S Floating Community: the Assessment of Innovative Housing Units and Materials for Adaptation to Climate Change

Promoting Sustainability and Resilience in Vietnam’s Floating Community: The Assessment of Innovative Housing Units and Materials for Adaptation to Climate Change

Von der Fakultät für Architektur, Bauingenieurwesen und Stadtplanung der Brandenburgischen Technischen Universität Cottbus–Senftenberg zur Erlangung des akademischen Grades eines Dr.-Ing.

genehmigte Dissertation

vorgelegt von

M.Sc. Thi Thu Trang Nguyen aus Hai Phong, Vietnam

Gutachter: Prof. Ilija Vukorep BTU C-S Gutachter: Prof. Horst Stopp BTU C-S Gutachterin: Prof. Dr. Vu Thi Hanh UAH Tag der Disputation: 11.02.2021

DOI: 10.26127/BTUOpen-5455

Preface

The enthusiasm for this thesis started with my fascination for floating villages in LanHa Bay, Catba is located off the coast of Hai Phong City where, which is my hometown. When I was a child, I visited often floating villages in LanHa Bay. Since the first time of visiting, I was charmed by colorful houses floating on the sea combined in harmony with the surrounding limestone mountains. The impressive images of the unique architecture of floating houses, vivid aquatic life style and peaceful life in the nature, created a brilliant painting that has remained in my mind since. As I grew up and became an architect, I had greater interest in floating villages in Vietnam. In 2014, I was upset to hear that there was a demolition plan to remove floating villages in Halong Bay, located nearby LanHa Bay. The reason of demolition mentioned is to protect World heritage nature from the pollution due to uncontrolled rapid growth of floating villages at the locality. At that moment, I decided to study floating architecture in Vietnam as the topic of my Phd thesis.

The decision to study floating architecture was based on the personal belief that floating houses are not only a unique type of architecture which need to be preserved, but also they offer a potential type of accommodation in near future. Instead of demolition, scientists and government should find the long term solutions to solve the existing problems of floating villages and promote sustainability and resilience of floating communities in the context of social and climate change. I decided to study and to gain deeper knowledge, experience and innovations from other countries to create a new vision for the development of floating architecture in Vietnam. The research provide guideline to create sustainable floating settlements. I wish that my research assists the government and related agencies to formulate official management policies and floating building codes in Vietnam in coming years.

Acknowledgment

First and foremost, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my research supervisor Prof. Ilija Vukorep for the continuous support of my Ph.D study and research, for his motivation, sincerity, enthusiasm, and immense knowledge. His guidance helped me in all the time of research and writing of this thesis. It was a great privilege and honor to work and study under his guidance. I am extremely grateful for his encouragement and help in solve difficulties of studying and living abroad with a little daughter.

Besides my advisor, I would like to thank the other members of my thesis committee: Prof. Karen Eisenloffel, Prof. Stopp Horst, and Prof. Dr. Vu Thi Hanh, for their encouragement, insightful comments, and hard questions. I would like to express my deep and sincere gratitude to Prof. Stopp Horst for his dynamism, vision, motivation have deeply inspired me, for giving me opportunities to do research projects related to my thesis.

I am extending my thanks to the Ministry of Education and Training of Vietnam and The Brandenburg University of Technology Cottbus–Senftenberg for their financial support during my research work. I also thank all my colleagues in Ho Chi Minh City University of Architecture and in the Institute for Floating Buildings for their constant encouragement and help throughout this research work.

I am extremely grateful to my parents for their love, prayers, caring and sacrifices for educating and preparing me for my future. I am very much thankful to my deceased Father who has been following and blessing me, to my Mother for her love and helping me take care my daughter during my research work. My special thanks goes to my little daughter. Her warm heart and love is the source of my power, courage, helping me through challenges to complete my thesis. I also want to apologize to her for what she has been suffering to accompany with me during the hard time of the past 5 years of research.

I would like to say thanks to my best friends Dr. Nigel Downes, Dr. Eman Shokry, Mr. Pham Anh Tu, Mr. Nguyen Qui Lam, and Mr. Eduard Volker for their genuine support to complete this thesis successfully. Finally, my thanks go to all the people who have supported me to complete successfully my dissertation directly or indirectly.

Thank you

Dankeschön

Cảm ơn

III

Summary

Climate change is one of the most pressing global challenges of the 21st Century. According to the United Nations, Vietnam with a coastline of more than 3600 km, is one of top 30 countries facing an “extremely high risk” from the impacts of climate change over the next 30 years. Research undertaken in Vietnam indicates that significant impacts due to sea level rise have already occurred, resulting in the increased unpredictability and severity of coastal problems, such as land-loss, flooding of low lying coastal areas, accelerated coastal erosion, all which directly impacts the local population residing in the coastal region. Moreover, due to sea level rise, the amount of land available for development along the coast and further highly populated low lying land such as in the Mekong Delta will decrease. Facing these risks requires government and experts to urgently find effective solutions to ensure adequate space for residents in low-lying coastal areas. The current solutions being discussed are not only traditionally raising accommodation or resettlement to higher areas, or “living with the water”, but also a view of “living on the water”. In this case, floating architecture is seen as an effective solution for many low lying coastal areas all over the world and in Vietnam in particular.

In fact that, Vietnam has a long history of floating settlements with a large number of floating villages. However, these floating villages are built with dilapidated houses which are built on rafts, and most floating settlements have been threaten by several socio-cultural, economic and environmental factors. Therefore, the main purpose of the research is to upgrade floating architecture in Vietnam to a higher level and standard adapting to climate change and social change. The research will provide methods and innovation tools to bridge the gap between existing floating house, as an unsafe and inconvenient type of accommodation, and contemporary housing needs in water bodies to allow for a fit between traditional designing experience and contemporary innovation of floating architecture.

Based on lessons and innovations of floating architecture development in other countries, as well as based on the traditional experience and vernacular architecture of floating houses in Vietnam, the research will create theoretical frameworks, guidelines and design criteria for sustainable floating houses and floating settlements. The sustainable concept focuses on both sustainability and affordability when using innovative floating structures and materials in accordance with the local climatic and social condition of Vietnam, as well as adapting to climate change and sea level rise. The study will not only protect existing floating villages, preserve aquatic lifestyle that ensure a stable and permanent living on the water for inhabitants, but also improve floating architecture for modern demands and resilient living adapting to social change and climate change in Vietnam.

Zusammenfassung

Der Klimawandel ist eine der dringendsten globalen Herausforderungen des 21. Jahrhunderts. Laut den Vereinten Nationen ist Vietnam mit einer Küstenlinie von mehr als 3600 km eines der 30 Länder, die in den nächsten 30 Jahren einem "extrem hohen Risiko" durch die Auswirkungen des Klimawandels ausgesetzt sind. Untersuchungen in Vietnam haben ergeben, dass die Auswirkungen des Meeresspiegelanstiegs bereits erheblich sind, was zu einer erhöhten Unvorhersehbarkeit und Schwere von Küstenproblemen führt: Z.B. Landverlust, Überflutung von niedrig gelegenen Küstengebieten und beschleunigter Küstenerosion, welche direkte Auswirkungen auf die in der Küstenregion lebende Bevölkerung hat. Darüber hinaus wird durch den Anstieg des Meeresspiegels die verfügbare Fläche für die Bebauung entlang der Küste und weiterer stark besiedelter, tief liegender Gebiete wie im Mekong-Delta abnehmen. Um diesen Risiken zu begegnen, müssen Regierung und Experten dringend effektive Lösungen finden, um den Bewohnern der tief liegenden Küstengebiete ausreichend Platz zu bieten. Die derzeit diskutierten Lösungen sind nicht nur die traditionelle Anhebung der Unterkünfte oder die Umsiedlung in höher gelegene Gebiete oder das "Leben mit dem Wasser", sondern auch die Sichtweise des "Lebens auf dem Wasser". In diesem Fall wird die schwimmende Architektur als eine effektive Lösung für viele niedrig gelegene Küstengebiete auf der ganzen Welt und insbesondere in Vietnam gesehen.

In der Tat hat Vietnam eine lange Geschichte von schwimmenden Siedlungen mit einer großen Anzahl von schwimmenden Dörfern. Diese schwimmenden Dörfer bestehen jedoch aus baufälligen Häusern, die auf Flößen gebaut sind, und die meisten schwimmenden Siedlungen sind durch verschiedene sozio-kulturelle, wirtschaftliche und umweltbedingte Faktoren bedroht. Daher ist das Hauptziel der Forschung, die schwimmende Architektur in Vietnam auf ein höheres Niveau und einen höheren Standard zu bringen, der sich an den Klimawandel und den sozialen Wandel anpasst. Die Forschung wird Methoden und Innovationswerkzeuge bereitstellen, um die Kluft

zwischen dem bestehenden schwimmenden Haus, als unsichere und unbequeme Art der Unterkunft, und den zeitgenössischen Wohnbedürfnissen in Gewässern zu überbrücken, um eine Passung zwischen traditioneller Designerfahrung und zeitgenössischer Innovation der schwimmenden Architektur zu ermöglichen. Basierend auf den Erfahrungen und Innovationen der Entwicklung von schwimmender Architektur in anderen Ländern sowie auf der traditionellen Erfahrung und der landestypischen Architektur von schwimmenden Häusern in Vietnam, wird die Forschung theoretische Rahmenbedingungen, Richtlinien und Designkriterien für nachhaltige schwimmende Häuser und schwimmende Siedlungen schaffen. Das nachhaltige Konzept konzentriert sich sowohl auf Nachhaltigkeit als auch auf Erschwinglichkeit bei der Verwendung innovativer schwimmender Strukturen und Materialien in Übereinstimmung mit den lokalen klimatischen und sozialen Bedingungen Vietnams sowie auf die Anpassung an den Klimawandel und den Anstieg des Meeresspiegels. Die Studie wird nicht nur die bestehenden schwimmenden Dörfer schützen und den aquatischen Lebensstil bewahren, der den Bewohnern ein stabiles und dauerhaftes Leben auf dem Wasser sichert, sondern auch die schwimmende Architektur für moderne Anforderungen und ein widerstandsfähiges Leben verbessern, das sich an den sozialen Wandel und den Klimawandel in Vietnam anpasst.

VII

Thesis contents

Preface ...... i Acknowledgment ...... ii Summary ...... iv Contents ...... viii

Chapter 1 - Introduction 1.1 Background ...... 1 1.1.1 Living on the water...... 1 1.1.2 Criticism on current floating settlements in Vietnam ...... 6 1.1.3 Potentials of floating architecture development in Vietnam ...... 14 1.2 Research purpose and objectives ...... 19 1.3 Research questions ...... 21 1.4 Research context ...... 23 1.5 Research methods ...... 25 1.5.1 Overview of methods ...... 28 1.5.2 Action research in case studies ...... 33 1.6 Research structures ...... 34

PART 1: Sustainability

Chapter 2 - Literature review 2.1 History of floating houses/ floating settlements ...... 37 2.1.1 Ancient history of floating settlements ...... 37

VIII

2.1.2 The beginning of floating houses in Western Europe and the Netherlands 40 2.1.3 Last decades ...... 41 2.1.4 Conclusion ...... 46 2.2 Floating types of floating building ...... 47 2.2.1 Houseboat ...... 49 2.2.2 Floating house ...... 50 2.2.3 Amphibious house ...... 51 2.3 Design considerations for floating buildings...... 52 2.3.1 Structural considerations ...... 53 2.3.2 Sociopolitical considerations ...... 63

Chapter 3 - Sustainable floating houses and floating settlements 3.1 Definition of sustainability ...... 65 3.2 Sustainable floating communities ...... 69 3.2.1 Case study of sustainable floating community ...... 69 3.2.2 Framework of a sustainable floating community ...... 73 3.3 Sustainable floating buildings ...... 77 3.3.1 Case studies of sustainable floating buildings ...... 77 3.3.2 Conclusion of case studies ...... 89 3.3.3 Framework of sustainable floating buildings (objects and strategies) ...... 91

Chapter 4 - Sustainable floating settlements in Vietnam 4.1 Typical characteristics...... 93 4.1.1 Social organization and management ...... 93 4.1.2 Living quality ...... 95 4.1.2.1 Environment ...... 95 4.1.2.2 Socio-culture ...... 97 4.1.2.3 Economy ...... 99

4.1.3 Architectural characteristics ...... 100 4.1.3.1 SWOT analysis ...... 100 4.1.3.2 Typical characteristics ...... 103 4.1.4 Conclusion ...... 115 4.2 Redefine of sustainable floating settlements ...... 116 4.3 Innovations of floating structures ...... 123 4.4 Conclusion ...... 130

PART 2: Case studies in Vietnam

Chapter 5 - Case study in Cua Van, Halong bay: Developing floating village as

a unique tourism attraction

5.1 Introduction ...... 133 5.1.1 The research aim ...... 133 5.1.2 Methodology ...... 134 5.2 Case study analysis ...... 136 5.2.1 Background ...... 136 5.2.2 Factors affecting the living space organization of Cua Van ...... 139 5.2.3 Framework for the sustainable development of ecotourism in Cua Van .. 146 5.2.4 The framework fro a sustainable development of the architecture of the floating village ...... 150 5.3 Proposed solutions to space organization of Cua Van ...... 152 5.3.1 Planning ...... 152 5.3.2 Architectural features ...... 157 5.3.3 Supply and disposal system ...... 160 5. 4 Conclusion ...... 164

Chapter 6 - Case study in Mekong Delta: Developing floating village as a sustainable residential community on the water

6.1 Introduction ...... 165 6.2 Methodology...... 166 6.3 History of floating settlement in the Mekong Delta ...... 168 6.4 Factors affect to floating settlement in Mekong Delta...... 171 6.4.1 Environment...... 171 6.4.2 Social-culture ...... 179 6.4.3 Economy ...... 180 6.4.4 Architectural characteristics ...... 181 6.5 The competition ...... 189 6.5.1 Introduction ...... 189 6.5.2 Site analysis ...... 190 6.5.3 Requirements ...... 192 6.5.4 Projects ...... 194 6.6 Judgment ...... 204 6.7 Conclusion ...... 205

Chapter 7 - Case study in a flood prone areas: Applying floating houses as an efficient

type of flood proof house

7.1 Introduction ...... 214 7.1.1 The research aim ...... 215 7.1.2 Methodology ...... 215 7.2 Case study analysis ...... 218 7.2.1 Background ...... 218 7.2.2 Factors affecting to flood proof houses ...... 220 7.3 Considerations for flood resilient housing ...... 225

7.4 Proposed concept of self-sufficient amphibious house ...... 228 7.4.1 Design layout ...... 228 7.4.2 Amphibious houses ...... 232 7.5 Conclusion ...... 236

Chapter 8 - Conclusions and discussion 8.1 The result of research ...... 239 8.1.1 How to manage and create sustainable floating houses and sustainable…….. floating settlements in Vietnam ...... 242 8.1.1.1 Governance...... 243 8.1.1.2 Guidelines for the sustainable development of floating settlements ...... …259 8.1.1.3 Design criteria for floating house in Vietnam ...... 268 8.1.2 How to improve floating houses for new resilient living ...... 288 8.1.2.1 Resilienceto environmental issues ...... 289 8.1.2.2 Resilienceto social - economic issues ...... 294 8.1.3 Conclusion ...... 295 8.2 Discussion and recommendation ...... 298

References ...... 301

XII

Chapter 1: Introduction

1.1 Background

1.1.1 Living on the water

Why live near the water and on the water?

Water is life – water is absolutely essential to human existence on the earth. Therefore, the whole civilization is built on the use of water resources. Most of the great ancient civilizations were settled in areas where were near the large bodies of water that made population growth possible. There are various reasons for many civilizations around the world to be built near the water such as: accessing to abundant marine resources; providing water supplies necessary for irrigation; promoting travel and trade by development of water transportation; protecting the land from enemies. Water management activities, particularly irrigation, played a central role in the development of the earliest settled civilizations [Fukuda, 1976]. For example, in the Middle East it was the valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates; in Africa it was Nile River; in India it was Indus; and Asia had the Yellow and Yangtze Rivers; in Mexico it was the mountain lakes of Central Mexico and in South America the mountain lakes of the Andes provided the necessary waters [Unesco, 1987]. Later in history, water management was a noticeable achievement of the Roman Empire. The spread of water resources development technology of the Middle East to other areas was one of the best achievement. Another accomplishment was the water-powered grain mill, which was first used around 100 B.C. [Teclaff and Teclaff, 1973]. In more recent history, water power was an important factor in early industrialization and influenced patterns of industrial location [Miller, 1977]. Water transportation being much more proficient with larger objects on water and over greater distances has also served as a major factor in socio-economic development. Moreover, the navigable waterways, canals and other navigation improvements also have impacts on economic development. Therefore, the importance of navigation is one of the reasons why many of the major cities of the world are built near water [Miller, 1977]. Recent history has shown that water resource development has played an important role in reaching such objectives as increasing agricultural production and industrialization. “Water also has been a main measure in the settlement and urbanization of distant areas in such forms as hydroelectric power development, provision of irrigation and water supply, and improvement and maintenance of navigation” [Unesco, 1987]. On the other hand, according to research led by a University of Arizona geoscientist, humans migrated out of Africa between 70,000 and 55,000 years ago as the climate

shifted from wet to very dry [Jessica E. Tierney, 2017]. The research showed again the significant role of water resources in human life that caused human migration from Africa into Eurasia.

Beside the development of settlements and citites near to water, there is also a minority of people which is living on water for centuries. In the beginning of floating settlement, the main reasons why people lived on the water often are: protecting local people from enemies; the main livelihood is fishing; having no accommodation on main land for living and working due to poverty.

Figure 1.1: A snapshot of human migration out of Africa that began about 70,000 years ago Source: Spreading homo sapiens la.svg, Altaileopard, Wikimedia Commons

Chances

In recent years, floating architecture has been developing rapidly and becoming creative and alternative solutions for residence adapting to both social change and climate change in many water regions all over the world. Living on the floating buildings can have advantages from both environmental/economic and social/psychological aspects comparing with the building on land. In the following, the advantages of floating buildings are briefly presented.

Relaxation

Social change and economics growth bring increased living standards that causes many people like to live in floating houses on the water, because they can access close to nature and enjoy the peaceful, fresh atmosphere around the water within the natural environment. The direct connection to the nature helps inhabitants generate the positive states of well-being and health. 2

Resilient capacity to hydro-hazards

Due to easy movable characteristics, the floating buildings can be relocated to different location as the owner’s desire or as in the necessary situation. Besides the subjective component, the mobility is an advantageous property regarding to supply, waste disposal and optimization of the solar energy inputs. Moreover, the mobility of floating building is also expressed by that the floating can rise up and down following tide heights. The vertical movement protects the floating houses and residents from the impact of water-related hazards or hydro-hazards such as flood and landslide. Amphibious and floating house is an effective kind of accommodation which can be applied in low-lying coastal areas, especially in flood- prone areas.

Alternative construction grounds

Due to rapid growth population as well as the shortage of construction ground on the land, creating new development urban on the water needs to be considered. Especially, in the low lying coastal countries such as Netherland and South East Asia, several low-lying coastal are at risk of being completely submerged and disappearing under water due to sea level rise. As a result, land reserving fund of coastal cities is going to be narrowed in near future, while construction ground is becoming increasingly limited due to the social change as a rapid growth in population. In this case, floating buildings on amphibious urban as alternative construction grounds offer potential opportunities to tackle the high demand in terms of space for housing.

Renewable energy resources

One advantage of floating buildings is to utilize various renewable energies. Living on the water in close proximity to nature, therefore solar, hydrothermal, wave and wind energies from natural resources can be obtained easily on the water comparing with the building on land. For example, the surrounding water can be used for heating and cooling system throughout the year; electricity can be generated from solar panels, wind turbine or wave power, etc.

New materials and innovative constructions

The structures and materials of floating buildings are subjected to serious effect of water and various climate components, such as wind, wave, salt, solar radiation, humidity and so on. Therefore, in order to ensure the sustainability of floating buildings and the comfortable living for the owners, new materials and innovative structures are always investigated. The floating

architecture provides a great opportunity for architects and engineers to create a new fantastic amphibious urban as floating cities in the near future.

Post-mining areas redevelopment

The idea which transforms the enormous number of post-mining areas in many countries all over the world into artificial lakes to create amphibious urban with floating buildings brings a huge potential to redevelop these areas. New redeveloped urban can be used for tourism development or residences. This idea can give impulses for regional development with the rehabilitation of a culture landscape.

Problems

Due to the special environment of water and its physical and chemical properties, there are many disadvantages of floating buildings need to be investigated and resolved and counter-measured in depth through further studies. In the following, these disadvantages are briefly presented.

Local boundary conditions:

Boundary conditions are given for specific locations. The floating buildings are subjected to strong external loadings such as impacts of water depth, waves, wind, currents, local climate such as solar radiation, rains and even ice in the countries where has cold winter season. For example:

- Water depth: As the water depth increase, the material is needed to fill up this depth increase, while floating structures remain their size regardless of the water depth. The costs for one platform of the floating city can be calculated after the exact amount of material needed is known. With this estimation, the fictitious boundary condition regarding the water depth is set to 100 m just to be sure that the floating city concept is economic more feasible compared to land reclamation [K.K.M. Ko, 2015]. - The wave height: is one of the most important parameters for the design of a floating structure. The wave height determines the wave load on the structure and the dimensions of the structure must resist these loads. The parameter is chosen to start the design with. Because of the so- called shoaling effect, the enormous water mass of the tsunami will turn into a high wave of several ten meters because of the decreasing water depth. In the middle of the sea or ocean, where no shoaling occurs, a tsunami is more like a water level elevation [K.K.M. Ko, 2015].

- Wind: High wind speeds can be very destructive. The speed of the wind (or wind velocity) acts as pressure against a structure. The intensity of the pressure is called the wind load. Wind speed increases with structural height. However, wind velocity is the most unpredictable closer to the ground, because it is affected by interacting with objects on the ground. Wind loads can be simplified as static loads when the wind speed is constant and acting over a great surface. However, wind loads are considered dynamic loads when the wind speed is fluctuating and where the wind can go around the structure [K.K.M. Ko, 2015]. - Currents: Currents underneath the floating structure cause drag which lead to movement of the floating structure. Currents perpendicular to the draught of the floating structure will give a constant horizontal load which also cause the floating structure to move. These movements are to be resisted by the mooring structures to prevent the floating structure from drifting away. This is the same case as horizontal wave loads causing the floating structure to move. The difference is that (breaking) waves give an impact while drag from currents is along the whole underside and draught of the structure. Except for movement issues, the pressure of the current against the hull of the floating structure can also become quite large if the surface where the current is working on is large. The hull of the floating structure must also withstand this pressure. Currents can arise due to a difference in water levels on the sides of the floating structure as water flows from the side with high potential energy to the lower part. If the underside of the floating structure is made of loose floating elements like aircushions, then there is risk of these elements being damaged or displaced due to the current. Overall, it depends also on the location whether currents are a big deal for the floating structure [K.K.M. Ko, 2015]. - Moreover, the additional attacks by chemical and physical components of salts, ph-values, ions etc. and the special components of the local climate cause the corrosion of materials. On the other hand, the water that surround the floating buildings is home to marine invaders. Some species of mussel and algae hitchhike on the floating houses. These invaders destroy floating foundation, pontoons and utilities for the building under the water or make an additional layer on the surface of floating construction [H.Stopp, P.Strangfeld, 2010]. Moreover, during a flood, there could be hidden dangers like logs, sharp branches, heavy objects that could ram and damage floating houses in fast following flood water. All these problems need architects and engineers create solutions to reduce and resolve physical and chemical effects in order to protect the floating buildings from damaged components of local climate and environment.

Indoor climate

Due to the separate location on the water without the shade of plants and neighboring buildings, as well as due to be affected by reflected radiation when more and more glasses are used in the contemporary architecture. During the hot summer, the solutions of cooling system, thermal insulation and efficient ventilation are necessary in order to ensure a comfortable indoor climate. During the cold winter, the heating system also needs to be generated in the floating buildings.

Utilities

Excepting few self-sufficient floating buildings which can provide energy and water by itself, almost all floating projects which are located nearby water bodies are currently experiencing with connecting to local energy supply, local water supply and event waste disposal system from the land. These utilities should be provided access to a floating district and at the same time provided space for decentralized concepts of water and energy supply. Architects and engineers should create solutions to install utilities in the safe way which is matched with current environmental law and building guidelines in order to ensure the convenience as well as aesthetic of the building. Moreover, scientists should also investigate the self-sufficient concept for a floating building to help it get independence from local energy and water as well as waste disposal infrastructure on the land.

In conclusion, Floating Architecture has been developed and improved as a necessity for a new resilient living in coastal regions all over the world. Beside the chances of living on the water, there are several problems need to be considered and solved, in order to improve the sustainable development of floating communities. In the chapter of Literature review, the history development of Floating Architecture and the future of floating architecture, as well as the design consideration for floating buildings will be described.

1.1.2 Criticism on current floating settlements in Vietnam

For Asian civilizations, researchers argue that there are two types of civilization. The civilization based on land and another one related to water. Accordingly, the Mesopotamian civilization as well as the civilizations of India and most of North China were based on the land. In contrast, most of South China and Southeast Asia belong to civilizations associated with water [Nguyen Khoi, 2017]. Archaeological evidences show that the most important feature of this type of civilization is wetland agriculture with a typical "amphibious" settlement pattern close to water,

but not completely separated from the land. Although there is the same origin from the wet rice civilization, the cities of Southeast Asia exist in two different forms, "sacred city" and "market city". If the "sacred city" is primarily based on the supply of material goods of the inhabitants of the neighborhood, then the "market city" is essentially based on its internal force with the basis of commercial activities and trade by development of water transportation on the river and at the harbor. The "city market" is usually located nearby the water bodies. With the dynamics in the "market" that the "city market" always shows a strong vitality to rise up gradually and to become huge cities later [Nguyen Khoi, 2017]. At the core of Vietnamese culture is an agricultural sensibility, influenced by the Wet Rice Civilization for thousand years. The two dominant characteristics of traditional Vietnamese culture are water and plant [Nguyen Khoi, 2017]. That is why the translation of the meaningful word “Country” into Vietnamese is “ Water and Land”- two elements formed the national identity of Vietnam. Accordingly, the water bodies where natural conditions were advantageous for the development of agriculture, fisheries, animal husbandry, trade and commercial activity plays an important role in the development of economy, socio-culture and urban in Vietnam. In the long-term use of water bodies for life, residential areas have been formed and grown to create urban areas, streets and houses spread along rivers and canals. The waterfront settlement pattern with boat navigation is an initial common form for most of Vietnam's ancient cities [Nguyen Khoi, 2017]. Since the seventeenth century, the development of the commercial economy and the trade of indigenous peoples with foreign merchants has increased, that has caused the urban areas along the rivers to be upgraded gradually with more favorable conditions [Nguyen Khoi, 2017]. The development of river valley civilization and the development of urban areas along the rivers is one of the premises to form settlements on the water.

In addition, in terms of geography, Viet Nam has an abundant amount of inland waters and wetlands, in which locations for fishing are almost ubiquitous. Most farmer also use a variety of aquatic resource for family consumption, livestock feed and sale, and, just like fishers, many farming families living around inland water bodies and in coastal areas make a living by capture fishing [Nguyen. D. T, K. Ruddle, 2010]. The fishermen tribes built complete water dwellings at the edges, and also a few at the middle of the lake, the river or the sea. The river system do not only provide water for rice cultivation, the travel and trade of water transportation and fishing grounds for inhabitants, but also have become the traditional living environment for a large share of the population over many generations. The first floating village in Vietnam were established for inland fisheries, mainly along the lower and middle reaches of rivers in the north, and around coastal lagoons in the north-central part of the country [Nguyen. D. T, K. Ruddle, 2010]. While 7

exert figures were not given, it was observed that early in the 20th Century, Vietnam had many ‘floating villages’ which included groups of fishers or boatmen [Dao, 1938]. Other sources indicate that the number of floating villages was not high. “At the beginning of the 19th Century, there were 70 floating units in 12 old towns in the provinces of the Red River Delta and along the coast, from Quang Ninh Province to Ha Tinh Province. In the 1930s, there were about 90 floating hamlets or villages located in rivers, and about 21 ones along the coast in the region from the Vietnamese/ Chinese border to the Tien Yen area. In contrast, in the Central Region of Thanh Hoa to Binh Thuan provinces, where the rivers are shorter in length and the land is mountainous, freshwater bodies cannot sustain fisheries big enough to support ‘floating villages’. Therefore, such communities are concentrated in estuaries and lagoons” [Nguyen. D. T, K. Ruddle, 2010]. In the South of Vietnam, especially in Mekong delta, floating settlements has been existing along with the culture of river and the development of human settlement in Mekong Delta since 18th century. The historical development of the floating settlements in Mekong Delta will be illustrated in more details in the chapter 6. As the result, due to the environmental and cultural characteristics, water dwellings are emerged and developed through the centuries and become a common type of accommodation in Vietnam. Through long-term response and adaptation to water enviroment and changes with the rise and fall of the tides, the water-based settlements have been built in the water or on the water, including the four types of houses: houses with half on stilts and half on the ground; stilt houses; boat houses; and floating houses. All these kinds of houses or some kinds of them link together to form a ”floating village”.

Figure 1. 2: Red river pier, crowded commercial port of Thang Long - Ke Cho Source: Collection R. Moreau, Hanoi

Figure 1.3: Stilt houses inTau Hu cannel, Sai gon, Vietnam Source: Emile Gsell, 1886

Since 1859, the French had started developing road transportation, therefore the canals were gradually filled up, and the image of the urban river began changing to a new form. However, rivers and canals still played an important role. In 1956, a law banning foreigners from rice trade and shipping that led to the rapid degradation of waterway system. Water bodies were no longer the center as well as the urban areas of the cities as before. Rivers and canals have become the backyard of urban civilization which was worthless and neglected, eventually they have become the shelter for the poor and the homeless people. Slums along the canals seem like the last step of

the degradation of waterway system [Nguyen Khoi, 2017]. In conclusion, due to the rapid growth of urban civilization and road transportation as well as due to the result of the reorganization of rural management, irrigation development, the destruction of riverine resources, the number of “floating village” in Vietnam has decreased. The configuration and the structure of water-based settlements have been changed. The interaction between the settlement and water has been reduced, as the results more and more water dwellers have moved on to the land.

Nevertheless, since the early 1960s, small-scale aquaculture has been developing for domestic use in Vietnam [Silke Steinbronn, 2009]. The social and economic changes have opened a new trend for living on the water with the development of fishing farm. The development of aquaculture as the new way of livelihood for water dwellers opened a new prospect for floating villages. Since 1981, there has been steady increase in aquaculture areas [Silke Steinbronn, 2009]. Farming areas are of one million hectares now in comparison with 230 thousand hectares in 1981. Aquaculture has been ranked as the third-most prominent economic sector after oil and the garment industry, reported by General Statistics Office, Vietnam [Thoburn, 2009]. According to national statistics data, the total aquaculture area in Vietnam increased steadily from 1995 to 2007, then leveled off in recent years. In 1995, the total aquaculture area was about 453,000 ha, and it had more than doubled by 2013 . The culture area was mainly concentrated in the Mekong River Delta, which accounted for 63–73 percent of the total national aquaculture area. Larger aquaculture areas produced greater production volumes but also generated more pollution affecting the surrounding environment [Nguyen Khoi, 2017]. In recent years, the National Center for Agricultural Extension and localities have implemented many models of fish farming in rivers and reservoirs in Northern midlands and mountain areas to help reduce poverty, create clean and safe fishery products to meet the needs of domestic market and export. As the result, nowadays fishing farms integrated with floating houses has been existing in most provinces and cities in Vietnam. However, the map of floating house areas in Vietnam (Figure 1.6) shows that most floating settlements/floating villages are located concentrating in Mekong River Delta and Red river Delta.

Figure 1.4: Aquaculture production area, 1995-2013 Source: www.gso.gov.vn

Figure 1.5: Aquaculture output, 1995-2013 Source: www.gso.gov.vn

Figure 1.6: Map of floating house areas in Vietnam Source: By author, based on Vietnam river map, https://itgate.com.vn/ban-do-song-ngoi-viet-nam/

Nowadays, water dwellers are not only fishermen or boatmen and their families, who both live and work on the water by the access to abundant marine resources and by water transportation business, but also other inhabitants who live on the water due to various reasons such as: characteristic of geography, economic issues, business and even relaxing. Especially the lack of construction ground in the low-lying areas due to impact of climate change and rising sea levels and the impact of rapid the growing population, the poor part of the population do not own any property and land for living onshore, therefore they chose the water for living where most inhabitants do not pay any taxes.

In addition, uncontrolled rapid growth of fishing farms in floating villages as well as the existence of dilapidated water dwellings without sanitation system, planning and organization has caused to water pollution and affected negatively to environment, landscape and life quality standard of inhabitants. Therefore, in recent years, local authorities have been considering the migration projects for water dwellings to move on to the land and demolition of illegal slum water dwellings. For example, in June 2014, more than 300 households in seven floating villages on Ha Long Bay - a UNESCO World Heritage site were transformed to resettlement villages located on land by government to preserve Ha Long Bay environment from the severe effects of floating villages [Quang Ninh Province People’s Committee, 2014].

The implementation process of demolition projects of floating houses has shown many drawbacks which the government is currently seeking solutions to solve, such as consuming a huge budget for building of resettlement villages and for job training programme for water dwellers who only know earning a living by fishing or doing other works on the water; risk of losing the traditional culture of aquatic lifestyle, etc. Furthermore, in the near future when the land of coastal areas and delta regions is being limited due to rising sea levels and rapid growth of population, migration strategy would not be an effective and long-term solution for water dwellers. Therefore, instead of resettlement, the government and experts wish to research a concept of floating communities towards sustainable development, including sustainability in urban planning, local culture and the environment. The sustainable concept of floating housing units being buoyant in a floating community which ensures a stable and permanent living for inhabitants and adapting to climate change and rising sea levels would be a long-term solution for preservation and promotion of aquatic lifestyle of Vietnamese inhabitants.

1.1.3 Potentials of Floating Architecture Development in Vietnam

As mentioned above, floating architecture has been emerging as an effective trend for many coastal communities adapting to both climate change and social change. The development of floating architecture has gained stunning achievements with many innovations of floating technology and design. There are many potential ways to develop floating architecture in the globe. However, in Vietnam until now, the main method of floating architecture development is only to be used for aquaculture. According to the global trend, the following paragraphs illustrate abundant potential for developing floating architecture based on values of Vietnamese traditional architecture. The potential is not only to develop the existing floating villages and developing floating house as a new type of accommodation for residence or tourism, but also is to apply floating houses for resilient living in areas where are affected by water-related hazards or hydro- hazards.

Adaptation to social change

With the increasing improvement of people's living standard, people's demand for new kinds of accommodations is increasing. More and more people would like to enjoy relaxing life closed to nature. In this case, floating buildings is becoming an unique kind of accommodation for tourists and residents.

- Tourist accommodation: Vietnam is one of the Asian countries which is historically renowned for the local original principles of water dwellings. For most foreign visitors, a fishing village is one of the most essential stops in coastal tourist destinations in Vietnam. The large share of visitors traveled to see such villages while visiting in Ha Long Bay, Cat Ba Island or Mekong Delta. The distinctive traditional lifestyle of the villagers is a unique component of Vietnamese identity. Therefore, local authorities and water dwellers in the existing floating villages could preserve, protect and revive the precious value of a long historical tradition of floating villages, and promote floating communities as a unique cultural heritage and tourist attraction of Vietnam. Designers and urban planners should propose ideas to promote ecotourism in floating villages. For the other well-known coastal tourist destinations, floating houses could be a unique kind of tourist accommodation such as floating hotels or floating resorts that would attract more tourists who want to live on the water to feel close to nature.

- Residential accommodation: 14

Moreover, according to social demand, people would like to live and enjoy pure atmosphere and activities on the water rather than on land. Beautiful riverside grounds are always great potential locations for residential buildings. There are many real estate projects that have been built on river banks in big cities like Ho Chi Minh, Hai Phong, Ha Noi, etc. In this case, modern floating houses or amphibious houses which provide a comfort and sustainable living would be a potential type of residences near water bodiesas well as for citizens of coastal cities in Vietnam such as Ho Chi Minh - a megacity where have been occurring a lack of ground construction due to rising sea level and rapid growth of population.

Adaptation to climate change

Climate change, sea level rise scenarios for Viet Nam show that by the end of the 21st century, sea level rise is expected to increase up to 75 cm compared to the period of 1980 – 1999 [Ministry of Natural Resource and Environment, 2009]. For example, according to sea level rise scenarios by the Ministry of Natural Resource and Environment, it announced that if sea level rises 1m, 23% of Ho Chi Minh city will be submerged in water. In the flat of the Mekong Delta, the predicted sea level rise can result in large areas of permanent and frequently inundated coastal plains. Especially, according to research by Utrecht University in the Netherlands published in 2019, the novel elevation model shows that Vietnam’s Mekong Delta region is an average of only 80 centimeters above the local sea level, approximately two meters lower than international researchers previously thought [Minderhoud, P.S.J. et al. 2019]. In the context of climate change, floating building is becoming an alternative accommodation solution that is able to adapt to:

- Shortage of ground construction in delta regions and coastal provinces: As a result, land reserving fund of Ho Chi Minh city and coastal provinces in Vietnam are going to be narrowed in near future, while land in the cities is increasing limited due to a rapid growth of population. Facing the risk requires government and experts to urgently find effective solutions to ensure accommodation for residents in the mega city such as Ho Chi Minh, and for inhabitants in coastal areas, as well as in delta regions such as the Mekong Delta. In this case, floating house would be an alternative solution for buildings in water regions.

- River bank erosion and landslides: Moreover, in recent years, due to climate change and human activities, waterfront house have been threaten extremely by river bank erosion and landslides in several Mekong Delta provinces such as An Giang, Can Tho, Dong Thap, Ca Mau, etc. with increasing frequency.

These disasters have destroyed hundreds of houses along the river banks and threatened many other households [Van Tho N., 2020]. An example of this is a serious landslide which occurred on April, 2017 at the Hau river bank in An Giang province, threated 106 households and completely submerged 14 houses [Thanh Dung, 2017]. Local and central authorities have implemented many measures to ensure the safety coastal erosion, river bank erosion and landslides [Van Tho N., 2020]. Figure 1.7 shows the map of landslides and landslide-prone areas in the Vietnam Mekong Delta. Facing with this reality, the concept of amphibious houses can be applied for waterfront houses that help people protect their lives and their properties from high tide and landslide erosion. However, in the design process of amphibious houses, designers and researchers should pay attention to the solutions of wave reduction, sedimentation for coastal protection as well as to create technical solutions to secure the house balanced, stable and to float on the water when the landslide erosion happens intensely and suddenly. - Floods: Flooding is one of the most dangerous disasters in the world. It is a well-known fact that Vietnam experiences a multitude of flooding and related disaster events annually. Therefore, the concept of affordable amphibious housing is a sustainable solution that enables people living in flood-prone rural areas to remain in their community of origin and secure their lives and their properties during flood events. The table 1.1 shows that floating and amphibious constructions are flexible options matching many kinds of floods.

Figure 1.7: Online map of landslides and landslide-prone areas in the Vietnam Mekong Delta Source: http://satlodbscl.phongchongthientai.vn

Renewable energy resources

On the other hand, within large areas of water bodies, generating renewable energy from natural resources such as solar, hydrothermal, wave and wind energies which are obtained from living on the water is a huge potential for energy industry in Vietnam. The renewable energy would not only provide power for the daily life of water dwellers, but also connect with grids on the main land. Tropical climate provides a huge amount of solar and wind on the water bodies for generating renewable energy that improve floating solar farms and offshore wind farms to become feasible and effective solutions for the development of renewable energy in Vietnam in the near future.

Conclusion

Although Vietnam has a long history development of floating settlements,these floating villages exist with dilapidated houses which are built on rafts and the existence of floating villages has been facing with many drawbacks of environment, socio-culture and economy. Even, many floating settlement would be demolished by government if there are no urgent solutions to solving those problems. By contrast, due to climate change and social change, floating architecture has a huge potential to develop in Vietnam and it would be an effective solution for resilient living. Thus, new methods and innovation tools need to be studied regarding to the sustainable concept of floating houses and floating settlements which will not only help protect and preserve aquatic lifestyle but also improve floating architecture for modern demands and resilient living adapting to social change and climate change in Vietnam.

1.2 Research purpose and objectives

Following above paragraph, the main purpose of the research is to bridge the gap between existing floating house, as an unsafe and inconvenient type of accommodation, and contemporary housing needs in water bodies to allow for a fit between traditional designing experience and contemporary innovation of floating architecture. The new sustainable concept will not only preserve and develop existing floating villages that ensure a stable and permanent living on the water for inhabitants, but also improve floating architecture for resilient living that adapts to social and climate change occurring seriously in Vietnam.

Based on lessons and innovations of floating architecture development in other countries, as well as based on the traditional experience and vernacular architecture of floating houses in Vietnam, the aim of this thesis is to provide tools to create guidelines and design criteria for sustainable floating houses and floating settlements in Vietnam. To fulfil this goal, a theoretical framework of sustainability for floating houses and floating settlements was developed to assist water dwellers, local authorities and researcher in areas such as architecture, urban planning to improve floating architecture in a contemporary context.

As above mention, there are three main objectives of this research:

- The first objectives of this research is to learn from other countries in approaching and improving the sustainable development of floating buildings and floating settlements. In developed countries, there are many innovations of floating technologies in order to toward to

sustainale concept of floating buildings. However, these innovative technologies is still expensive to apply in developing countries. Therefore, the thesis beside collecting new knowledge and theories of sustainable framework for floating buildings and floating communities from other countries, the thesis is also seeking for affordable and feasible material and floating technologies which are suitable with economic and environmental conditions in Vietnam. - The second objectives of this research is to accumulate and improve the traditional experience and vernacular architecture of floating houses in Vietnam, in order to optimise designing solutions in the new sustainable concept for floating buildings and floating settlements. In fact, living on the water is affected directly and intensively by evironment and social community. Therefore, lessons for adaptation and being in harmony with ecosystem processes were created and accumulated through generation by generation. These precious lessons of vernacular architecture would help designers optimise designing solutions of spatial organisation and architecture for the sustainable concepts of floating houses and floating settlements. - The last main objectives of this research is to create guidelines and design criteria for sustainable floating houses and floating settlements in accordance with climatic, socio cultural and economic conditions in Viet Nam.

In addition to the primary goals, the research had several secondary objectives:

- Using the case studies to offer specific designing solutions to help in understanding how to apply and improve resilience capacities of floating house in practical contexts in Vietnam - Offering actions for working on floating architecture with experts, local inhabitants, local authorities, so as to raise people's awareness and attendance to potentials and challenges in the sustainable development of floating architecture in Vietnam - Applying a transdisciplinary participatory action research method to raise water dwellers ' awareness, pride and sense of belonging to their vernacular floating dwellings, so as to conserve vernacular floating architecture taking Halong Bay and An Giang, Mekong Delta as a test ground, as well as helping inhabitants adapt their current demand and wish to a sustainable development of their floating vernacular dwellings

Figure 1.8: The figure shows that the future of floating settlement is based on the vernacular past and connected to contemporary needs. Source: By author

1.3 Research questions

The two main questions in this thesis is defined as “How to create and manage sustainable floating houses and sustainable floating settlements in Vietnam” and “How to apply floating houses for new resilient living”. The resilient capacity is one of the most important factors which create the sustainability for floating houses and floating settlements. Therefore, in this thesis, the resilient capacity of floating houses will be emphasized.

The overarching aim of this research is to develop understanding and insight how innovation in sustainable concept of floating buildings and floating settlements can be created. This requires four things:

- Understanding of the current floating settlements and lessons from vernacular architecture of floating houses and floating settlements in Vietnam - Knowledge of sustainability for floating architecture - Knowledge of the innovations of floating technologies

- Knowledge of how to implement and mainstream these innovations in Vietnam.

Previous sections describes properties of future development of floating architecture in Vietnam. The main objective of these properties can be understood as improving the sustainability for floating buildings and floating settlements. The sustainable concept includes environmental, economic, socio- culture components and vernacular architecture in general. Through the analyzing case studies of sustainable floating buildings from other countries on the globe, the general framework of sustainability for floating house and floating settlement is created and used as the theoretical basis of this thesis. It will be further described in the next chapter.

After this step, the research focused on analyzing and collecting traditional experience and lessons of vernacular architecture of floating settlements in Vietnam. These lessons will be further substantiated through comparison with general sustainability frameworks, in order to create the particular sustainability framework for floating houses and floating settlements in Vietnam.

Additionally, the technical feasibility of concepts that use in designing solutions to increase the sustainability of floating buildings and floating settlements is studied. Nowadays, floating technologies have gained many significant achievements which provide comfort, safe and sustainability for living on the water as living on the land in developed countries. However, since the floating construction cost is one of the most important things that is concerned by inhabitants, the cost of these innovations is high for developing countries. Therefore, the thesis will study and propose feasible and affordable modern floating technologies which is suitable with local conditions and can be considered to be used in the future floating architecture in Vietnam.

Finally, this research addressed mechanisms that influence application and management of the sustainable concepts of floating houses and floating settlements in Vietnam, as well as to address strategies and recommendations to improve resilient capacities of floating houses in the context of climate change and social change in Viet Nam.

Based on the background, purpose and objective of thesis, two main research questions were formulated: 1) How to create and manage sustainable floating houses and sustainable floating settlements in Vietnam? 2) How to apply and improve floating houses for new resilient living? The two main research question led to the following sub-questions:

A. Current situation and state of the art 1. Why people chose the floating living replacing on ground living that is currently safer and more convenient? What are the chances and problems of living on the water? 2. What is the current situation and problems of floating architecture in Vietnam? 3. What is the history of floating architecture development in general? What is the classification of floating buildings? What are factors that affect the floating houses and floating communities? B. Sustainability 1. What are lessons learnt from other countries about the concept of sustainable floating houses? 2. What is the framework of a sustainable floating house and a sustainable floating settlement? 3. What are lessons learnt from traditional architecture of floating houses and floating settlements in Vietnam? 4. What is the framework of a sustainable floating house and a sustainable floating settlement in Vietnam in particular? 5. What feasible innovative floating structures and materials could be used in Viet Nam, that’s both sustainable and affordable? What innovative floating structures and materials could be used in future? C. Practical application 1. How to apply the framework of sustainable floating houses and floating settlements in practical case studies in Vietnam? 2. How to apply and improve amphibious house as a kind of flood proof house for flood areas? D. Governance mechanisms 1. What mechanisms can be identified that influence management and application of the sustainable concepts of floating houses and floating settlements in Vietnam 2. What would be useful strategies and recommendations to improve resilient capacities of floating houses in Viet Nam?

1.4 Research context

This thesis is based on results from the research project “ SCHWIMMTOUR”. It is an innovative project as a part of the campaign "Building the City of Tomorrow" sponsored by Federal Ministry of Education and Research – BMBF. The author is a member of project team.

The goal of the project is to connect with experts and scientists working on the field of the floating architecture as well as administrations who are interested in the development of floating buildings. The motto of the network is “Not against the water but adapt to the water”. The network helps experts get new experiences, exchange knowledge, improve existing scientific results, as well as to find out solutions to solve the challenges of buildings on the water. SCHWIMMTOUR project offers the solutions of floating architecture for urban resilience to against flooding and rising sea levels. The project addressed the chances and challenges of floating architecture, and generating innovative concepts for using alternative energies, supplying drinking water and recycling waste as well as to propose solutions for optimization of performance parameter design and energy efficiency of floating buildings.

Vietnam was chosen as the pilot area of the project. One of the objectives was to bridge the gap between traditional floating architecture in Vietnam and modern floating architecture which has been being advanced rapidly in many developed countries in the world. Based on values of traditional architecture as well as innovations and experiences from other countries, preserve and develop a sustainable floating community with floating houses adapting to climate change and sea level rise in Vietnam. On one side, the project offered the transfer of knowledges and technology from Europe to Vietnam in order to develop the sustainable concept of floating settlements within self-sufficient floating houses which can provide all their needs by themselves such as using alternative energies, supplying drinking water, recycling waste and disposal as well as optimizing materials and building physics. On the other side, the project helped European scientists get the precious traditional experiences and lessons on setting up a floating community, as well as lessons on the construction of cost effective floating houses which are concerned seriously about by experts, investors and inhabitants in developed countries where the price of floating buildings still too high for extending market scale.

The main activities of the project in Vietnam are to organize and carry out seminars, forums and workshops of floating architecture with many special literatures of floating buildings as well as to organize architectural competition of floating settlement for students in Vietnam. Moreover, making research fieldtrips in floating villages in Catba Island and An Giang, Mekong Delta helped the experts collect useful database for discussions in the seminars, forums and workshops. Through the fieldtrips, the experts gained meaningful experience and knowledge of traditional floating settlement which has a long history of existence.

As a member of project team, the author had chances to collect the local boundary condition database of existing floating villages and accumulate the precious lessons from traditional architecture of floating settlements in Vietnam. In addition, the author had chances to interview local water dwellers, discuss and exchange knowledge with experts and practitioners in the field of floating architecture, in order to create the framework of the sustainable concept as well as to propose feasible cost effective floating technologies for floating houses and floating settlements in Vietnam. The assessments and suggestions of local people, experts and practitioners are the reflection on the use of research results. The SCHWIMMTOUR project helped the author achieve an important milestone in the implementation process of thesis writing.

1.5 Research methods

To answer the research questions, different activities are executed in this research. The research employs both quantitative and qualitative data collection and analysis methods; and various research instruments in order to obtain the most valid results for the four stages of the thesis (Figure 1.9). For examples: Site visits, Review related literatures; Case study research/comparison; Collaboration with researchers from Western and Asian countries; Expert interviews/water dweller interviews and questionnaire; Technical feasibility model study Participatory action research; Synthesis.

 Stage 1- Identification: to contribute to the better understanding of the current situation and state the art of floating architecture in countries worldwide and in Vietnam.  Stage 2- Formulation: - First to improve the knowledge of general sustainable concept of floating buildings and floating settlements. The results of selected case studies are further substantiated through comparisons with sustainability theories and findings from literature, in order to create an overview of the theoretical framework for sustainable floating buildings and floating communities. Basically, the framework consists all of three factors: environmental sustainability, socio-cultural sustainability and economic sustainability as pre- requirements for the sustainable building and communities. However, sustainable floating buildings need to be considered with specific factors which are matched with the characteristics of living on the water as an unusual place for construction. The sustainable framework of floating buildings can be interpreted as an environmental and socio-economical conscious approach to a building for living and/or working space on a floatation system.

- Second to creating the framework of sustainable floating buildings and floating communities in general. Analyzing Vietnamese characteristics of floating houses and floating villages was done in order to redefine the framework of sustainable floating buildings and floating communities to suite with the local economic, environmental and socio-culture conditions as well as vernacular architecture in Vietnam.  Stage 3- Implementation: - Based on the redefine of frameworks, three case studies in three different Vietnamese coastal areas were undertaken in order to design the sustainable concept of floating houses and floating settlements, as well as to improve resilience capacity of floating buildings over climate change and rising sea level situation occurring seriously in Vietnam. - In the next step, the results of the three case studies were further substantiated through comparisons with sustainability frameworks to create guidelines and the design criteria for the sustainable development of floating buildings and floating settlements, and to address innovative floating technologies which are feasible and affordable for floating buildings in Vietnam.  Stage 4- Evaluations and recommendations: In the end, the thesis demonstrates recommendations for both technology and social issues, which improve potentials of floating architecture and the resilient capacity of floating buildings to social change and climate change.

STAGE 1: LITERATURE REVIEW

IDENTIFICATION Understanding of current situation and state of Art

KNOWLEDGE OF SUSTAINABILITY FOR FLOATING

ARCHITECTURE

Creation of general framework for floating buildings, floating settlements STAGE 2:

FORMULATION

KNOWLEDGE OF SUSTAINABILITY FOR FLOATING SETTLEMENTS IN VIETNAM

Creation of general framework Feasible innovations of for floating buildings, floating floating technology

settlements

CASE STUDIES OF FLOATING SETTLEMENT IN STAGE 3: VIETNAM

IMPLEMENTATION

CREASTION OF GUIDELINES AND CRITERIA FOR FLOATING BUILDINGS AND FLOATING SETTLEMENTS IN VIETNAM

STAGE 4: DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATION

EVALUATION

Figure 1.9: Conceptual framework of the dissertation. Source: By author

The purpose, methods and role of author in this research are showed by following table 1.2. To address research question B1, a literature survey was done to have an overview of theoretical concepts of sustainable floating buildings and floating communities. Based on this overview, sustainable floating buildings and sustainable floating communities were defined as frameworks that consists of three components. These framework was subsequently applied and adjusted for floating houses and floating settlements in Vietnam. The purpose of the Vietnam chapter (chapter 4) was to develop ideas and redefine the sustainable framework based on analyzing history development and typical characteristics of floating houses and floating settlements in Vietnam (research question B4). The situation in Vietnam was in particular interesting with regard to climate, economy and socio-culture adaptation of floating houses and floating settlements. Vietnam has already an extreme tropical climate and has been being affected by climate change and rising sea level. Moreover, as a developing country, financial issue of floating construction is one of the most important things concerned by water dwellers. In addition, within a long history development of living on the water, traditions of aquatic lifestyle and livelihood are significant factors affecting to the planning and architecture of floating settlements in Vietnam. Thus, the general sustainable framework needs to be redefined to fit with environmental, economic and socio-cultural conditions in Vietnam.

1.5.1 Overview of methods

Various methods were used in this research in order to fulfil the research objectives (Table 1.2). This thesis aims to combine the advantage of action research, such as better practical applicability, with the objectiveness of traditional research.

Table 1.2: Purpose, method and the role of the author for the chapters in this thesis

Chapter Purpose (Research questions) Methods Role of author

1 Introduce topic, background, methods: Literature review External observer and - The reasons of living on the water analyst

(Research question A1)

- Provide knowledge of history and evaluate current state of floating settlements, as well as chance and problems of living on the water in Vietnam

(Research question A2)

2 Knowledge of floating architecture: Literature review External observer and - Introduce history development and state of analyst art of floating architecture in general - Classification and designing consideration of floating buildings

( Research question A3)

3 Frameworks of sustainable floating buildings Literature review External and sustainable floating communities: observer and Case study analyst case - Collect experiences and observations the research studies concepts of sustainable floating buildings Synthesis and floating communities from other Reflective countries practitioners

(Research question B1)

- Synthesise sustainable factors in floating buildings and floating communities

(Research question B2)

4 Framework of a sustainable floating house and Literature review a sustainable floating settlement in Vietnam: Site visits

- Collect typical characteristics and Expert interview External accumulate lessons learnt from traditional observer and Local people architecture of floating houses and floating analyst interview settlements in Vietnam Reflective Synthesis (Research question B3) Practitioners

- Synthesize and create sustainable factors in floating buildings and floating settlements

in Vietnam

(Research question B4)

Study innovative floating structures and materials in accordance with climatic and social Technical

conditions in Viet Nam, that is both sustainable feasibility and affordable: Participatory - Collect experiences and observations on action research External application of innovative affordable floating observer and structures and materials analyst - Evaluate and choose technical feasibility Reflective models which are suitable with climatic and practitioners economic conditions in Vietnam - Suggest innovative floating structures could be used in future

(Research question B5)

5 Applying the sustainable framework to design Site visits Analyst and floating settlements in a practical case study in designer Case study the North of Vietnam: research Reflective - Design the sustainable settlement of practitioners floating houses

- Propose feasible innovative floating Local people structures (Research question C1) interview and questionnaire

Participatory action research

6 Applying the sustainable framework to design Site visits Analyst and floating settlements in a practical case study in designer Case study the South of Vietnam: research Reflective - Design the sustainable settlement of practitioners Local people floating houses interview and - Propose feasible innovative floating questionnaire structures (Research question C1)

Participatory action research

7 Applying the sustainable framework of floating Site visits Analyst and houses to design the concept of amphibious designer Case study house as a type of flood proof houses in a research Reflective practical case study in Central Vietnam: practitioners Local people - Design the sustainable concept of interview and amphibious house questionnaire - Propose feasible innovative floating structures (Research question C2) Participatory action research

8 Draw general conclusions from case studies, Synthesis Analyst literature and national findings:

- Conclude the results of case studies Participatory Reflective - Create guideline and design criteria for action research practitioners sustainable floating buildings and sustainable floating settlements in Vietnam

(Research question D1)

Discussion and recommendations for applying and improving the sustainable development of floating architecture for resilient living in Vietnam

(Research question D2)

Chapter 1-2 (research question A1, A2, A3)

In order to determine the main problems and objectives in floating architecture development, a literature review was done in chapter 1- 2.

Chapter 3 (research question B1, B2)

In order to develop a useful framework for sustainable floating buildings and floating settlements, another literature survey was done on the successful existing floating buildings andfuture projects of floating houses and floating settlements which are assessed to gain the sustainability. The position of the author in these surveys was external observer and analyst.

Chapter 4 (research question B3, B4, B5)

The Vietnam chapter in this thesis is an exploration study to accumulate lessons from vernacular architecture and illustrate the framework of sustainable floating houses and floating settlements in Vietnam. In addition, the chapter 4 presents observations and reflection of author on affordable innovations and technical feasibility for floating houses in Vietnam.

Chapter 5-6-7 (research question C1, C2)

The sustainable framework and floating innovations which are explored and created in the chapter 4 are further tested through national case studies in chapter 5, 6, 7 in part 2. According to Robert K. Yin, the case study research method is defined as “an empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context; when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident; and in which multiple sources of evidence are used” [K. Yin, page 23, 1984]. Therefore, a case study methodology was chosen for applications of floating house in Vietnam. Three case studies in three different regions of Vietnam were done to evaluate the feasible designing solutions of the sustainable framework for floating settlements in practice, in order to address research questions C1 and C2 . The case studies were also used to develop insights in the application of flexible and affordable structures and materials (research question B5), as well as to develop insights in mechanism that determine adoption and mainstreaming of sustainable floating houses and floating settlements in Viet Nam (research question D1).

Chapter 8 (research question D1, D2)

Floating architecture management draws on literature and the personal experience of the author in mainstreaming of innovations in the floating architecture in Vietnam. This chapter is an exploration study to generate guidelines for sustainable development of floating settlements, as well as to recommend for improving resilient capacities of floating house in Vietnam.

1.5.2 Action research in case studies

A case study methodology comprises both descriptive explanatory and exploratory phases.

The first phase in the case studies was the explanatory descriptive phase, where site observations, survey and analysis of the current site situation were conducted in addition to a literature search to collect materials on the history of floating settlements in selected areas. According to Yin, direct observations serve as a source of data collection activities and a multiple source of evidence in a case study [K. Yin, 2009]. In this phase, the literature and documentation search as well as field notes, site observations, questionnaires, interviews, video filming and photographing were used to collect information. In addition, sketching and manual architectural measurements together were carried out for the current site situations.

The second phase was the exploratory phase, where a Participatory Action Research (PAR) method was applied, and that resulted in the sustainable design concepts of floating houses and floating settlements in selected areas. The objective of PAR is not only to develop scientific knowledge by developing theories and testing hypotheses as traditional research aims, but also to achieve practical objectives such as improving practice [Whyte, 1989]. The added value of PAR is that the knowledge and expertise of practitioners is used to develop better scientific insights in relevant social problems. In this thesis, collaboration with practitioners contributed to understanding why, how and under which circumstances, floating innovations are applied. PAR was therefore a useful research method for the case studies in chapter 5 to 7. In the case studies, the author of this thesis actively participated in executing the research in Swimmtour project team. The team included other researchers and practitioners from the consortium partners. The author established a cooperative relation with the practitioners, local water dwellers and local authorities in the case study areas. They cooperated with the author to develop insights and critically reflected on their experiences and their observations while being involved in the practical process of floating house construction. Further detailed information about the cooperative relation approach can be found in the case study chapters. In each specific case study, more than one method should be used in the validation process. New perception and better understanding can be advanced by combining the strengths of qualitative and quantitative methods [Jick, 1979]. In this thesis, the specific results of the normative case studies, in which application of sustainable floating architecture in Vietnam is an important goal, are guided and further substantiated through comparison with theoretical sustainable frameworks of floating houses and floating settlements in chapter 3 and 4, as well as through comparison with the general development strategies of local authorities in order to produce generalisable knowledge. Therefore, case studies can contribute in completing and revealing the guideline for practical application and sustainable development of floating settlements and designing criteria standard of sustainable floating houses in Vietnam which are presented in the last chapter. In addition, results should be validated through discussions with scientists and practitioners in general meetings and actions of the Swimmtour project.

1.6 Research structure

This thesis consists of two parts (Figure 1.10). The first part is about the sustainability of floating architecture all over the world in general and in Vietnam in particular. This part includes two chapters 3 and chapter 4. In chapter 3, drawing on literature a sustainable framework of floating building and a sustainable framework of floating community is introduced. In chapter 4, based on history research and survey of current situation of floating architecture in Vietnam, the sustainable

frameworks of floating house and floating settlement were redefined to meet the architectural, environmental, economic and socio-cultural conditions of floating house and floating settlement in Vietnam. In addition, chapter 4 presents feasible innovative floating structures and materials which are both sustainable and affordable and could be used, as well as examines modern technologies for near future in Vietnam. The second part of this thesis reflects on practical applications of floating house in Vietnam through three case studies in the North, South and Central of Vietnam. This part includes three chapters from 5 to 7. Chapter 5 presents the results of designing concept of living space organization for CuaVan floating village coping with climate change and promoting ecotourism development. Chapter 6 presents the results of designing concept of sustainable floating settlements in Mekong Delta. On the other hand, the last case study in chapter 7 offers a new approach for the application of floating house/amphibious house as a type of flood proof house for flood-prone areas in the Central of Vietnam. This case study reflects on the resilient capacity of floating house. Chapter 8 summarises the results and provides guidelines for sustainable development of floating settlements, as well as suggests the design criteria for the sustainable development of floating houses. The summeries could be helpful for the government to establish offical regulations and laws to manage floating settlements in Vietnam. In addition, the last chapter provide useful recommendations and strategies to improve resilient capacities of floating house in Vietnam.

Figure 1.10: The thesis structure. Source: By author

PART 1: Sustainability

Chapter 2- Literature review

2.1 History of floating houses/ floating settlements

2.1.1 Ancient history of floating settlement

In Mid-East

Marsh Arabs, Irak / Iran:

The swamp settlements of the sg. "Marsh-Arabs" are among the oldest human settlements that are still preserved and in use. Their origin is estimated at 5000 - 6000 BC and may be the source of Mesopotamian civilization. The settlements are located in the marshes of the estuaries of the Euphrates and Tigris, a large area that has served mankind over millennia of protection against invaders and conquerors [Human Rights Watch, 2003].

Until 1991, the Madan lived traditionally, growing rice and dates, raising water buffalo, fishing and building boats and floating houses from reeds. However, the Marsh Arabs saw their ancient way of life seriously damaged by drought and by the repressive Saddam Hussein. The United Nations Environmental Programme says about 90% of the up to 20,000 square kilometres of marshlands have been lost because of drainage and upstream damming. After the fall of Saddam’s regime in 2003 following the invasion of Iraq by the United States, the dikes that had blocked water flowing to the marshlands were broken that helped the wetlands restore to 50% of its size since it had been in the 1970s [Human Rights Watch, 2003].

Figure 2.1: Floating village of Marsh Arabs, Irak/ Iran Source: Husseinyunis, 2013 37

Figure 2.2: The destruction of Mesopotamian Marshlands Source: Hassan Partow, The Mesopotamian Marshlands Demise of an Ecosystem, United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), DEWA, 2001

In South America:

Uros Lake Peru / Bolivia: When Spanish conquistadors arrived in Bolivia and Peru during the 16th century, they encountered several indigenous cultures in the Altiplano region, the central Andes mountains of South America. As a result of invasions over much of their history, many Uros, displaced from their land, forged a living on the water, building large floating islands on which they built homes, even villages, using reeds from along the lakeshore as construction materials. The Uros depended heavily on the aquatic systems of Lake Titicaca and other area rivers and lakes for their livelihood, hunting birds, collecting eggs, and fishing. Today, there are about 2,000 Uros in Peru, many that live on floating islands made of reeds on Lake Titicaca. In Bolivia, about 2,600 Uros live by lakes and rivers [Shireen Gonzaga, 2013]. The settlements have a village character, the platforms accommodate 03 - 10 families and are partially interconnected. The 01 to 02 meter thick reed platforms are renewed cyclically, every 03 months a new reed layer is laid over the old layer. The lower layers rot slowly in the lake. The anchoring is done by means

of reed ropes which are attached to the lake bottom. The life of a reed island is about 30 years [Shireen Gonzaga, 2013].

Figure 2.3: Village on a floating Uros reed island in Peru Source: Emre Safak via Wikimedia Commons

In Asia:

Asia has a long history of floating houses which began several centuries ago. Especially, in South East Asia, there is a huge number of floating villages where residence and workplace combined can be found, not only in Viet Nam, but also in Cambodia, Thailand, Indonesia, Cambodia, Brunei, etc. For example: Tonle Sap floating villages, Siem Reap, Cambodia; Sem Ko Panyi, Bangkok, Tha Khanon floating villages in Thailand; floating villages in Inla Lake in Myanmar; Kampong Ayer floating village in Brunei. In Viet Nam, there are many of floating villages, mostly placed in Mekong Delta, northern Quang Ninh and Ninh Binh provinces. The original floating houses and floating villages were be built by fishermen. After going offshore for fishing, fishermen and their family moored their boats together in the areas where were safe, stable and slow-flowing water. Then they looked forward to setting up a better life for their family in a permanent place. As the result, floating housing units were be built as a fundament to develop the earliest floating villages in South East Asia. The floating houses are based on two main principles: They are either floating structures built on empty oil drums or pontoon-like materials, or they are built on stilts made of bamboo or cajeput. However, almost all floating villages exist out of small cost with dilapidated houses which have the lack of planning, technique and sanitation that causes to environmental pollution. Therefore, there are some floating village being demolished by local authorities in South

East Asia.

Where the floating dwellings in South East Asia look like normal houses, the Chinese floating villages have already existed mostly out of small boats for over thousand years. Aberdeen floating village located at the Aberdeen Harbor is the most famous floating village in the Southern District of Hong Kong. The people living on boats in Aberdeen are mostly Tanka, a group of mainly fishermen which arrived in Hong Kong around the 07 - 09th century. Moreover, there are also a lot of Chinese traders settled in the floating village. The number of boat dwellers in Hong Kong was estimated at 2,000 in 1841, peaked in 1963 with 150,000 and dropped to 40,000 in 1982 [Maarten Koekoek, 2010].

Figure 2.4: Fisher families with junks in Aberdeen Figure 2.5: Floating house in old Bankok, harbor,Hong Kong Island, 1946-1947, Hedda Paul Bonnentain, L’Extrême Orient, Paris, 1887 Morrison

2.1.2 The beginning of floating houses in Western Europe and the Netherlands

In Europe, the historical situation of floating houses development is relatively simple. The Netherlands with vast low-lying areas, has been as a key place for the development of floating houses in European countries. In the Netherlands, people started to live on boats and ships from the 17th century. At the end of the nineteenth century, the steel ships have used as cargo ships. Therefore, a lot of wooden ships were displaced by the steel ones. Many people used the wooden ships which get out of use as houseboat for living on the water. Around 1930, the economic crisis caused that a lot of people could not have enough money to build a normal house on the mainland, hence they moved into living on the water in the cheap houseboats. Due to the housing shortage after the Second World War, the number of houseboats increased massively. Since that time, floating homes were built much more on the water. At the end of the 20th century, the estimation

of the number of houseboats in the Netherlands was around a number of 10,000 [Maarten Koekoek, 2010]. In 1922, the first floating house in the Netherlands was constructed on a hollow concrete foundation. This system is relatively cheap and technically robust and does not require much maintenance. The disadvantages of this system are the required depth which is usually about 1.5 meters for a floating house. Therefore, the application remains limited to regional surface waters [R.E. de Graaf, 2009].

2.1.3 Last decades

Last decades, floating house which is constructed as a normal house on a floating foundation made its introduction. It is built in a static way with a certain location and are fixed to their guide post by a mooring system.

In North America: In the early 1980’s the technology of floating houses gained a significant achievement when the new floating technology based on a core of polystyrene foam (EPS, expended poly styrene) and a concrete shell was introduced by International Marine Floatation Systems Inc. (IMF). The polystyrene decreases the density of the floating construction providing higher buoyancy that helps the system be unsinkable and enables the construction of larger platforms. Advantage of this system is lower required depth of the surface water. Therefore, this system generates the possibility to construct real estate on water and it can be used in more shallow waters. However, the material cost are higher than concrete system. The ‘IMF-method’ was applied to a big part of large floating houses of large floating quarters in the cities Seattle and Vancouver [Maarten Koekoek, 2010].

In the Netherlands: The first project of floating house as recreational floating houses was released 1992 in Marina Olderhuuske (Figure 2.6). 80 recreational villas were built in a gravel mining lake linked and next to the river Maas. In 1999, Construction Group Ooms imported the Canadian system to the Dutch market. Ooms BV claimed in an article in Elsevier to have constructed the first real water house. In June 1999, Ooms constructed the three floors high water house for residential purpose. It was called “The Lighthouse” and released in the harbor of Hoorn in the presence of Secretary of State Remkes. At that time, the contractor had plans to construct 200 of these big water houses every year. The insight that “living on water” had good prospects to become a successful form of “multiple space” made multiple contractors interested. Also the ark builders professionalize and multiple architecture firms start designing floating buildings [Maarten Koekoek, 2010]. From 2000 on, several floating houses have been achieved for

individual private clients. Floating Houses introduced in plans of local governments with a new type of floating houses, the image of living on water have gotten much better. From the time, the floating homes have gotten an appearance from normal houses and with a more modern look. [Maarten Koekoek, 2010]. In 2002, in the new quarter IJburg with approximately 2,000 residences, 185 floating houses have started being realized (Figure 2.7).

Figure 2.6: Floating recreational villa's in Marine Oolderhuuske. Source: http://www.oolderhuuske.nl

Figure 2.7: Floating houses in IJburg. Source: Author, 2019

Living on a floating home has become a new trend of relaxing and peaceful lifestyle attracting more people in Western and North America. Especially, nowadays, climate change and rising sea level have resulted to severity of coastal problem such as flooding, land loss, and the lack of space in lowland delta areas. In this case, floating home, floating community has recently received much more attention of researchers, politicians and media as well as has gained significant achievements as possible solutions for future architecture to adapt to sea level rise. Next to floating houses,

floating structure technology can be applied in amphibious house which is an effective construction method that can be built in floodplains. The first amphibious houses were realized in 2005, in Maasbommel, the Netherlands (specifically 32 real amphibious houses and 14 floating house were realised). Launched in 2008, FLOATEC-an international research project involving collaboration between Dutch and Spanish partners has designated some areas as preferred grounds for experimentation on amphibious houses. The innovative approach focuses on use of expanded polystyrene (EPS). The modified polystyrene is inserted in multiple layers, between strata of composite and concrete, creating beam-like modules which can easily be assembled to form a floating base or foundation. The new technology is much more advanced than the one traditionally used, Edwin Blom stated that “We simply do not need to use as much material as we used to, he says. Smaller blocks can now support bigger structures and, in the end, the cost of the whole building is reduced” [Eureka, 2011].

Floating cities

With new floating building methods, construction companies are starting to focus on floating urbanization. The idea of a floating city- Ecoboat was launched in the farewell speech by former professor Frits Schoute of Delft University in 2000. In fact that, the idea of a floating city was initiated some decades ago by architects in the Metabolists Movement - a group of young Japanese architects in pursuit of an entirely new urbanism. “Metabolism’s foremost agenda, seen from a contemporary perspective, addressed a concern for cultural resilience as a notion of national identity. It responded to the human and environmental catastrophe of the atomic bombing of Japan and the country’s vulnerability to natural disasters such as earthquakes and tsunamis”. By the end of the 1950s, although its enormous economic growth, Japan was still struggling with the task of housing millions of people left homeless in its cities. From 1955 to 1964, the Tokyo metropolitan region had experienced a dynamic population growth. Its total population rose from 13.28 to 18.86 million and caused a great pressure on land connected with Japan’s specific topographical situation, which allows only a fraction of its area to be used for agriculture and building [Meike Schalk, 2014]. The context of this background resulted in ideas about artificial land, pelagic civilization, and megastructures. The Metabolists conceptualized floating cities along the pacific to become Japan’s newest Archipelago. There are some floating cities were designed by the Metabolist Movement in the 60s. For example: Marine City Projects by Kiyonori Kikutake, 1958-1963; Floating City on Lake Kasumigaura by Noriaki Kurokawa, 1961 ; A Plan for Tokyo Bay, Kenzo Tange, 1960-1961. In addition to the architects in the Metabolists Movement,

architect Buckminster Fuller designed two floating city projects Triton City, 1960 and Sea City 2000, 1979, as well.

a) b) c)

Figure 2.8: Marine City Projects designed by Kiyonori Kikutake. Source: Agnes Nyilas, 2016,

a- Marine City Project 1958; b- Marine City Unabara Project, 1960; c- Marina Project 1963

“Marine City’ projects by Kiyonori Kikutake are the first and most influential proposals to build ‘Megastructures’ into the sea after the dissolution of CIAM. They include two basic types: the ‘Floating Structure’ as a concentric and city-scale type, and the ‘Linear Ocean City’ as a linear and national-scale type” [Agnes Nyilas, 2016]

Figure 2.10: Floating City on Lake Kasumigaura [1961] by Noriaki Kurokawa, Wordpress, 2010

Figure 2.9: Kenzo Tange, A Plan for Tokyo Bay [1960-1961] Source: Meike Schalk, 2014 A Plan for Tokyo [1960], designed by Kenzo Tange was published and presented by Tange at the Tokyo World Design Conference. The plan proposed a linear organized matrix for Tokyo Bay, which was to be an extension of the uncontrolled expansion of the city proper. This urban matrix was an adaptation of Kenzo Tange’s architectural notions of structural order, expression, and urban “communication space”

Figure 2.11: Triton City [1960], designed by Figure 2.12: Sea City 2000 [1979] designed by Buckminster Fuller for Tokyo Bay Buckminster Fuller Source: Wordpress, 2010 Source: Wordpress, 2010

Figure 2.13: Lilipads—ﬂoating cities, designed by Figure 2.14: Floating City Project. Vincent Callebaut. Source: The Seasteading Institute, Source: C.M. Wang, B.T. Wang, 2015 https://www.seasteading.org/floating-city-project/

In recent years, with the advancing technologies in floating construction, several companies and students have worked out of this idea of a floating city and think it is feasible. Perhaps in this 21st century, floating cities may become a reality. Architects and engineers have already created design sketches of how such floating cities could look like. For example, architect Vincent Callebaut has designed a model of a ﬂoating ecopolis for climate refugees, known as Lilypad, as a long term solution to the rising water levels around the world (Figure 2.13). Recently, The Seasteading Institute has been working on Floating City Project (now it called Floating Island Project) for 5 years. DeltaSync was invited to join this process and to make a contemporary concept design and

a rough cost calculation of this first seastead (Figure 2.14). In January 2017, The government of French Polynesia signed a Memorandum of Understanding with the Seasteading Institute to cooperate on developing legislation for the floating island project. In 2018, the Seasteading Institute plans to begin the development of the floating island pilot project. Perhaps, the world’s first floating city would be built in next years.

The architects and researchers not only creates fantastic ideas for futuristic floating cities, but also redesigns and revitalizes several existing floating settlements with new sustainable concepts in order to promote the living quality for local water dwellers as well as to protect environment that help these communities reach a sustainable development to adapt to climate change and rising sea levels. For example, in 2012 in Nigeria, as a part of NLÉ´s Lagos Water Communities Project, Adeyemi and company are in the design phase of transitioning Makoko’s common quarters from dilapidated houses on stilts to floating a-frame family units, with a “floating community” being the end goal of the initiative (Figure 2.15).

Figure 2.15: a) An aerial shot of the Makoko water community b) Artistic rendering of floating community design Source: https://www.architektur-wasser.de/inspiration/bauten/makoko-floating-school-nigeria/

2.1.4 Conclusion

The global history of floating house is very complex. The technique and architecture of floating buildings depend on the climate boundary conditions, the culture and the raw materials, which were available at the different local places. Due to conditions of climate, environment and culture, it cannot deny that Europe has a less long history of floating settlement development than Asia. However, in fact, most of the floating houses in floating villages of South East Asia in general and Viet Nam in particular are still built on undeveloped technologies and materials, not for ensuring a stable living with safe, convenient and high quality of sanitation to inhabitants. They are also not adapting to climate change and sea level rise. In recent years, in Asian coastal

countries, new trend of living on the water with floating houses and floating community adapting climate change and sea level rise have been concerned and studied at the beginning with lack of experiences, specialized studies and government projects. Moreover, in several low-lying coastal areas in South East Asian, local people have developed existing floating villages as a type of unique tourist attraction as well as to build floating hotels, resorts as new attractive tourist accommodations. In order to tackle the twin urban pressures of population density and climate change, the existing floating villages all over the world need to be applied advanced floating technology in order to preserve, revive and develop these floating communities. That would ensure a sustainable development for these floating villages which provides a stable living with safe, convenience and high quality of living for water dwellers.

By contrast, in last decades, due to climate change and social change, the researchers and architecture companies in Western and North America, especially in the Netherland, have gained many great achievements and innovations in floating structures and designing of floating houses. The development of floating technology is becoming a transformative engine to make the dream of floating cities is going to become true in the near future. In the process of setting up futuristic floating cities, architects and engineers should analyze and take advantages as well as experiences from the historical floating villages all over the world in order to optimize the sustainable concepts for floating cities. However, floating houses in Europe and South of America is still a small luxury market. There is a strong market demand that could contribute to the diffusion of this mode of living to the middle and lower end of the market. This is driven by a trend towards larger scale projects, in which these segments of the housing market should also have a place.

2.2 Floating types of buildings

Floating types of buildings can be categorized by their foundations and their relations to the water. These types include houseboat, floating house and amphibious house (Table 2.1). The house boat and floating house have been used for centuries while the amphibious house is relatively new, however each type has proven resilience in the event of rising water levels.

In this thesis, the author focuses on studying floating house and amphibious house which have a significant potential development in Vietnam in the context of climate change and rising sea level.

Table 2.1. Floating types of buildings

2.2.1 Houseboat

“Houseboat means a floating structure used wholly or partially as a dwelling unit “ [City of St. Helens floating home regulations, 2006].

A houseboat is a floating type of housing. It resembles a ship or a boat that has been designed or modified to be used primarily as a home for living. It combines both characteristics of a building and of a ship/boat. The house boat can float and move on the water by its own power or by means of other forces [Pierdolla, 2008]. There are 3 basic types of house boat: ship, ark and schark [Houseboat Museum, 2014] (Figure 2.16).

Figure 2.16: Types of houseboat. Source: By author based on Houseboat Museum, 2014

Houseboats are the oldest examples of floating structures in many countries. Houseboats began with the conversion of ships and fishing vessels into livable environments. The houseboats have been built in America since the early 1900s where the earliest houseboats in Seattle were recorded in 1905, and peaked with over 2,000 houseboats in the 1930s. During the 1940s, World War II brought many activities to the shores of California as shipbuilders and factory workers were transported to San Francisco. The need for housing brought many workers to transform old fishing boats and decommissioned war surplus into residential dwellings in Sausalito Bay [Heather C.A, 2014].

In Amsterdam, people have been living on boat since the 19th century. The figure 16 illustrates the functions of a houseboat Hendrika Maria which was put to water in 1914 and is now the Houseboat Museum in Amsterdam, the Netherlands. The 1960s and 1970s experienced the greatest increase in the number of houseboats. The reasons were that there was a huge housing shortage and the availability of cheap barges being no longer profitable. In this case, the houseboat was a solution of cheap housing without municipal regulations that was very popular. In addition, living on the water was particularly attractive to musicians as it provided cheap rehearsal space without risk of causing a nuisance [Houseboat Museum, 2014]. Today, there are officially about 2250 houseboats in Amsterdam. One third of these are arks, while the rest are converted ships [Houseboat Museum, 2014].

Figure 2.27: An example of houseboat. Source: Houseboat Museum, 2014

2.2.2 Floating house

“Floating building can be defined as a structure for living/working space that floats on the water with floatation system, is moored in a fixed place, does not include a water craft for navigation, and has a premise service system (electricity, water/sewage and city gas) served through the connection by permanent supply/return lines between floating building and service station on close land [British Columbia, 2017], or has self-supporting service facilities for itself” [Moon Changho, 2017].

The building has to be fixed to a location by mooring systems. Floating structures allow the possibility of moving the building and moor it somewhere else. The technique and architecture of these buildings depend on climate boundary conditions, culture and raw materials which were available in various places. It is a flexible and reversible mode of construction and therefore responds to the societal objective to increase the capacity to adapt the built environment to the expected impacts of climate change. The harmonisation between architecture and nature needs to be seriously thought in designing and constructing floating houses. The questions of energy and quality water supply, waste disposal must be resolved. Moreover, safety floating structure and the attacks of ice in the winter to the pontoons and the must be considered in the areas where has cold winter.

Recently, floating houses and buildings have emerged as a new trend in the Netherlands, and also in other countries. The floating houses are constructed as modern houses and have no similarity to the traditional houseboats. Floating houses can be classified based into three categories:

1/ based on the type of floating structure: floating pontoon platform and hollow basement,

2/ based on the dependence level of connection to the mainland: dependent, semi-dependent or independent (self-sufficient) utility system,

3/ based on the occupancy: floating buildings have been being constructed as most kinds of land based building such as residential buildings, recreational buildings, industrial buildings, public buildings, etc.

2.2.3 Amphibious house

Amphibious housing is a dwelling type that sits on land but is capable of floating. An amphibious structure usually has a traditional foundation combined with a floating foundation, provided either by pontoons or a hollow basement. During a flood occurs, a house will be lifted by the water in order to ensure it remain dry, and will then return to the same place on the ground when the water recedes. The building is fixed by mooring posts that the houses are capable of rising vertically while preventing horizontal displacement on the water [Nikhila Nelson, 2019].

Although the amphibious house resembles a houseboat, there are some essential differences between the two types. The hollow basement of an amphibious house is exposed when there is no water, forcing designers to conceal the base in the ground or in water. The second difference is

the distribution of forces in the base. When the property is sitting on the land, it lacks an even upward force of the water as it experiences when it floats, making the basement larger than that of the barge of a houseboat. The biggest difference between houseboats and amphibious houses is their connections to the land. Typically, amphibious houses are designed where water levels are moderate but are rarely prone to extreme flooding; therefore all utility services can be connected to the municipal pipes whereas houseboats must contain all utilities within the structure [Nikhila Nelson, 2019].

Figure 2.18: a) The Maasbommel amphibious houses at flood level zero. Source: Factor Architecten bv,2011 b) The Maasbommel amphibious houses at the time of flood in 2011. Source: Factor Architecten bv,2011

Examples of these houses can be found throughout the Netherlands, most notably the Maasbommel water dwelling situated along the River Maas. Maasbommel became the site where the first amphibious houses were realized in 2005 (specifically 32 real amphibious houses plus 14 floating house were realised). Although the technology of amphibious houses proved itself during a flood in 2011, the concept is only moderately adopted in the Netherlands (Figure 2.18 a),b)).

2.3 Design consideration for floating buildings

According to C.M. Wang [C.M. Wang, B.T. Wang, 2015], the design considerations for a floating building may be divided into two groups:

(1) Structural considerations that address the operating conditions, structural strength, serviceability, durability and safety standards

(2) Sociopolitical considerations that address the aesthetics, environmental sustainability, budgetary and legal constraints

2.3.1 Structural considerations

Floating structure have to address special operate conditions and environmental factors on the water such as waves, wind forces, corrosion and sea depth. Thus, the analysis and design of floating structures need to have special considerations when compared to land-based structures. These are summarised in six below components: (1) Safety requirements; (2) Configuration (type of floating structures); (3) Static and dynamic analysis of floating structures; (4) Materials; (5) Corrosion; (6) Mooring system.

(1) Safety requirements

Table 2.2: Safety Criteria. Source: E. Watanabe et al, 2004

Safety requirements are executed to avoid consequences such as fatalities, environmental damage or property damage. Moreover, floating building must have appropriate life safety devices suitable for marine use. The safety criteria attend to failure modes such as structural failure, capsizing, sinking, and drifting off-station. Property damage could be recovered, but environmental damage

and human injury are permanent consequences that must be eliminated or minimised by the safety criteria. In order to preserve human life, the important design considerations of floating structures are evacuation and rescue. Possible accident scenarios as well as their consequences must be identified and analysed to find out proper solutions [C.M. Wang, B.T. Wang, 2015]. The major failure modes of floating structures are the failure of the floating foundation and mooring system. Modern safety criteria for floating structures are classified by limit states as shown in Table 2 [E. Watanabe et al, 2004]. Ultimate limit states (ULS) and fatigue limit states (FLS) criteria for structural components have been developed for the relevant failure modes dependent upon geometry and load conditions. The safety level implied by ULS and FLS requirements is determined by the chosen definition of characteristic values of loads and strengths and the safety factors in ULS criteria and safety margin in FLS. [E. Watanabe et al, 2004].

(2) Configuration

As mention above, there are basically two types of floating structures for floating buildings, namely floating pontoon platform including pontoon or barge type and hollow basement. Pontoon and barge type floating structures are structures that float on the water like vessels. The pontoon and barge are made from many kinds of material such as plastic, steel, aluminum, concrete, wood etc. The pontoons are connected together to create a floating platform for a house. Using pontoon and barge type is the most common method of floating buildings for residential and recreational constructions nowadays. The advantages of pontoon and barge type are generally cost effective with low manufacturing costs as well as being easy to construct and maintain.

Hollow basement type floating structures are structures that the basement of the house built on the same basis as most land based houses can float in the water. The area inside the hollow basement is usually used for living or storages. In this case, the floating foundation is fixed with the house, thus it would be difficult to construct and maintain. Moreover, the living space of basement under the water requires this kind of floating structure to concern more about safety criteria, especially human injury must be eliminated or minimised by the safety criteria.

(3) Connecting system

Connecting method is important because it is related with the safety of the floating structure. According to Maarten Koekoek’s research there are two main types of connections for floating structures [Maarten Koekoek, 2010] :

- Connections which includes a distance between two floating platforms,

- Connections which does not include a distance between two floating platforms.

The following paragraphs illustrate the possibilities for choosing intermediate distance or no intermediate distance type of connections for floating structures.

Figure 2.19: Scheme connection options. Source: Maarten Koekoek, 2010

Possibilities for intermediate distance

The choice for an intermediate distance in between two floating structures can be for a structural background. In this case, the floating structures are able to move in vertical direction independent from each other and will not influence each other. Thus, the connection does not have to transfer any vertical forces, and the connection can be dimensioned more lightly that causes floating foundation can also be dimensioned more lightly [Maarten Koekoek, 2010].

Possibilities for no intermediate distance

The choice for no intermediate distance in between two floating structures can be for a structural background or aesthetic reason. If the surface of a floating foundation should continue or a rigid connection is desired, there could best be chosen for floating structures without intermediate distance. In this case, a connection that influences each other movement in vertical direction gives more stability for the floating structures and leads to less movement of the structures. Then also pre-stress can be applied [Maarten Koekoek, 2010].

(4) Static and dynamic analysis of floating Structures

Floating principles

A floating structure works on Archimedes’ principle of buoyancy. The buoyant force is equal to the weight of the water displaced by the floating body. This weight is equal to the density of water ρ (kg/m3), times the gravitational acceleration g (m/s2), times the volume of the displaced water V (m3). In formula this gives: FA (Archimedes force) = ρ.g.v

For a free-floating structure in equilibrium situation, the gravity force of the floating structure is equal to the Archimedes force. FA (Archimedes force) = Fg (gravity force).

The draught of a floating structure is its depth in the water. The structure can float if the draught is less than the height of the structure. A convenient requirement for the draught is to keep the draught small to prevent the structure from sinking. A wide body with a small draught gives the best stability for the structure. The part of a floating body that is above the water surface is called the freeboard. A convenient requirement for the freeboard is that the freeboard is larger than the mean wave height [K.K.M. Ko, 2015].

Figure 2.20: Floaing principle. Source: By author

Stability

It is necessary to check on stability and tilt/rotation of a floating structure. Rotation is a circular movement of the floating body, causing the floating body to tilt to one side. Rotation occurs when an eccentric load or a moment is acting on a floating body. The eccentric load or moment causes a displacement on one side of the structure which leads to an opposite displacement on the other side of the structure, given the structure is stiff. One side of the floating structure will get a larger draught and get deeper into the water. The opposite side will get more freeboard and rise out of the water [K.K.M. Ko, 2015].

When the loads or moments causing rotation/tilt are taken away and the floating body manages to return to its original position due to the buoyant force, the floating body is stable [K.K.M. Ko, 2015].

Static stability

The rotation/tilt occurs when the floating element is subjected by static loads like the deadweight of a building. The stability or instability will be determined by whether a righting or overturning moment is developed when the centre of gravity and centre of buoyancy move out of vertical alignment. A measure of the resistance to tilting is given by the ‘metacentric height’. The cross -section of a floating element to illustrate the metacentric height is seen in Figure 2.21:

- Point M is called the Meta Centre of the floating element. This is the point of intersection of the axis of symmetry, the z-axis and the action line of the buoyant force. - Point G indicates the centre of gravity of the floating element and at the same time as the rotation point.

- Point B indicates the centre of buoyancy. It is the centre of gravity of the displaced water. Point B is found halfway between the water surface and the bottom of the floating element (in case the floating element is rectangular shaped). - The distance “MG” is called the Meta Centric Height which is the direct measure of stability. - If “M” is above “G” the floating body is stable. The larger the metacentric height is, the more stable the structure is. To achieve a large metacentric height, the point of gravity should be as low as possible and the metacentre should be as high as possible. The meaning of good shape stability lies in the shifting of the centre of buoyancy (point B) in case the floating element rotates. The width to depth ratio is decisive for the shape of floating elements. By enlarging the width of the structure, the higher the metacentre will be, so the more stable the floating structure will be (Figure 2.22). This means that a wide body with a small draught gives the best stability in general. In practice, a metacentric height larger than 0.50 m is recommended [K.K.M. Ko, 2015]. A rectangular floating body is more stable than other shapes like cylinders or triangular shapes. This is because when a floating element rotates, a rectangular shaped body displaces the most water [K.K.M. Ko, 2015].

Figure 2.21: Stability of a floating element, G = centre of gravity, B = centre of buoyancy, M = metacenter Source: By author based on C.M. Wang, B.T. Wang, 2015

Figure 2.22: Metacentric height with wider floating element Source: By author based on C.M. Wang, B.T. Wang, 2015

Dynamic stability

The rotation/tilt also occurs when the floating element is subjected by dynamic loads such as wind and wave loads. According to research of C.M. Wang, B.T. Wang in 2015, these dynamic loads cause the floating movement or rotation has its own definition as following and see Figure 2.23:

Figure 2.23: Types of movements and rotations of a floating structure. Source: By author

Translations

- Surge (movement in x-direction) and sway (movement in y-direction): A floating structure will start swaying on the waves, if the dimensions (length or width) of the floating structure are too small compared to the length of the waves or swell. Chain/cable method (or moorings

in general) can be used to prevent or minimized surge and sway, and to keep the floating element in place without drifting away - Heave (movement in z-direction): is the vertical motion of a floating element when the height of the water level is changed by tides or (swell) waves. Vertical pile method in particular (or moorings in general) can be used to prevent this vertical movement

Rotations

- Roll (rotation around x-axis) and pitch (rotation around y-axis): pitch is rotating in the longest direction and roll is rotating in the less wide direction. - Yaw (rotation around z-axis)

(5) Materials

In recent years, there are many kinds of materials which can be applied for the pontoons of floating structures such as wooden, plastic, steel, concrete or steel concrete compositel. Each kind of material has its own advantages and disadvantages. The selection of suitable materials for floating structures must be considered based on chemical and physical characteristics of local climate condition that help to minimize material corrosion and to optimize operational and maintenance practices. Furthermore, material usage also depends on owner house’s economic conditions.

The water tightness is an important characteristic of concrete to avoid or limit corrosion of the reinforcement. Thus, nowadays, concrete is used commonly in the floating structure. Moreover, high-performance concrete consisting fly ash and silica fume is most appropriate in corrosive salt water [C.M. Wang, B.T. Wang, 2015].

The light-weight, strength, and flexibility of steel are effective characteristics for the usage in floating structures. Because of the light weight of steel, the steel pontoon units are easily transportable and can be reconfigured into various desired shape. Additionally, materials like High Density Polyethylene (HDPE) are favorable materials which have emerged recently. The strength, durability, light weight and UV resistance of HDPE make it to be suitable for long-term use [C.M. Wang, B.T. Wang, 2015].

(6) Corrosion Protection

The attacks of chemical and physical components of water such as salts, pH values, ions, etc. and the special components of the local outdoor climate such as rain, snow, ice, solar radiation, etc. make an intense corrosion of materials [H. Stopp, P. Strangfeld, 2010].

The corrosion protection system consists of coatings, cathodic protection, corrosion allowance and corrosion monitoring. The coating methods comprise painting, stainless steel lining, titanium- clad lining, thermal spraying with zinc, aluminum and aluminum alloy. Antifouling coatings should be used to decrease marine growth where marine organisms are active. The parts shallower than the depth of 01 meter below the low water level (LWL) are often applied by coating methods while the parts just under the mean low water level (MLWL) where local corrosion occurs seriously should be applied by cathodic protection [E. Watanabe et al., 2004]. The standard values of the rate of corrosion are presented in Table 2.3.

Table 2.3 Rate of corrosion. Source: E. Watanabe et al., 2004

Corrosive Environment Corrosion Rate (mm/year) Offshore side Above HWL 0.3 HWL to – 1 m below LWL 0.1-0.3 1 m below LWL to seabed 0.1-0.2 Mud layer beneath seabed 0.03 Onshore side Air 0.1 Earth above water level 0.03 Earth below water level 0.02

(7) Mooring systems

Floating buildings should be constructed in only calm waters such as inside a lagoon or a cove and near the mainland or where breakwaters and other protective installations can be constructed to protect the structure from large waves and swells. In order to restrain lateral movements, there are a huge number of mooring methods which help the floating buildings be anchored to the sea bed such as using chains, ropes, sinkers, tethers, or anchors. “A mooring (or station keeping) system is used to secure a floating structure to a pier or wharf by keeping it in position under wave and other dynamic actions like drift. Mooring prevents horizontal movements and, to a certain extent, vertical motion” [C.M. Wang, B.T. Wang, 2015].

The mooring system must be well designed to ensure that the floating building is kept in a certain position and to prevent the structure from drifting away under critical sea conditions and storms. Mooring method not only prevents horizontal movement of floating building but also ensures that its vertical motion must be more regarded. Therefore, it can help the floating building rise up and down according to rising sea level and floods.

There are various types of mooring methods such as mooring pile, chain/cable, combination between pile and chain, dual docker/ pier/ quay wall, tension leg (Figuge 2.24). The type of mooring system will be chosen according to operating conditions and environmental factors such as waves, wind forces and sea depth. The chain/cable and tension leg method have capacity to handle the horizontal forces and displacements, but they perform less good to resist the vertical loads in the condition of intensive vertical movement. By contrast, the pile and the pier/quay wall method have capacity to withstand horizontal and vertical loads from the floating structure [K.K.M. Ko, 2015].

Figure 2.34: Types of mooring system . Source: By author

According to the report from E. Watanabe [E. Watanabe et al, 2004], the design method for a mooring system includes the following steps:

- Firstly, choosing the mooring method, the shock absorbing material, the quantity and layout of mooring system to meet the operating conditions, environmental factors and requirements. - Secondly, taking investigation of the behaviour of the floating structure under various loading conditions. The layout and quantity of mooring system are adjusted so that the movement of floating structure and the mooring forces do not exceed the acceptable values. - Finally, devices of mooring system are designed by applying the design load based on the calculated mooring forces.

2.3.2 Sociopolitical considerations

Sociopolitical considerations of floating structures address the aesthetics, sustainability, law and policy regarding to floatng buildings.

Aesthetics

“Originating from the Greek term aisthetikos, aesthetics represents the study of beauty, an open- ended field of inquiry that continues to evolve as social, political, technological and ecological developments contribute to new views on art, architecture, design and their manifestations in the built environment” [Wahba, 2010]. The aesthetics of a floating building is developed by the client, architect and design professional. It is influenced by many factors, including architectural methods and features, as well as personal or cultural predispositions. Due to being built on the water where is in a close relation with nature and landscape, floating buildings are affected directly and seriously by environment conditions. Therefore, the architectural design of floating building should be considered about environmental aesthetic. The environmental aesthetic regards architectural form with respect to environmental conditions and ecological efficiency that hold a harmony among floating buildings and climate and the built environment. According to those purposes, noted that vernacular architecture is regarded to be used in the construction of floating houses. Architectural features in the built environment that carry meanings should be concerned and designed as following guidelines:

- Building configuration: the shape of floating houses needs to ensure the high stability on the water and be suitable with vernacular architecture.

- Spatial configuration: the proportions, rhythms and scale of site need to be in a harmony with the planning and landscape of construction area. - Materials: the usage of local materials, environmental friendly materials is preferred. - Color: the colors used in the floating houses need to be in a harmony with surrounding landscape and environment. - Nature of illumination: considering seriously about illumination and shading effects of the buildings and nature that produce light reflection on water surface which obviously affects to surrounding construction and landscape as well as marine organisms.

Sustainability

In order to achieve the sustainable development of floating buildings, it is necessary that a framework for sustainable floating buildings need to be analyzed and established in generally and in particularly regarding to local enviroment and socio-economic conditions. The framework for sustainable floating buildings includes a series of guidelines but the key notes are environmental issues and understanding emotional and psychological aspects of living in floating buildings. The specific criteria for the sustainability of floating building are going to be analyzed and established in the following part of the thesis.

Law and policy

Some areas established theirs own floating house definitions, rules and regulations regarding to the local conditions to manage the construction of floating houses. The regulations and rules include residency laws, registration/permit requirements and taxation.

- Residency laws: To address landlord-tenant issues that might arise between the owner of the floating home and floating home marina owners. - Registration/Permit requirements: Some states have registration and titling laws specifically for floating homes. - Taxation: Some local goverment authorities specifically classify floating homes as real property, while other authorities categorize them as personal property. When floating homes are treated as real property, floating home owners are required to pay real estate taxes, which may be used to support municipal services, and may be required to pay taxes upon transfer of the property. In contrast, when floating homes are treated as personal property, owners would not be required to pay annual real estate taxes, but may have to pay personal property taxes.

Chapter 3 - Sustainable floating houses and floating settlements

3.1 Definition of sustainability

Sustainability

Sustainability is the capacity to endure. For humans, sustainability is the potential for long-term maintenance of well-being, which has environmental, economic, and social dimensions [Redclift, 2005].

Sustainable development

According to Brundtland Commission - World Commission on Environment and Development 1987, “sustainable development is a development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”.

Sustainable development is about ensuring a better quality of life for everyone, now and for generations to come. This requires meeting four key [Sassi, 2006]:

- Social progress which recognizes the needs of everyone - Effective protection of the environment - Prudent use of natural resources - Maintenance of high and stable levels of economic growth and employment

There are two models discussed for describing the meaning of sustainability: the ‘weak model’ and the ‘strong model’ of sustainability. In the weak model of sustainability, sustainable development consists three main components: the environment, human society and the economy which are represented by three equal size circles of equal values (Figure 3.1.a)). In this model, the three main components are described as competing interests so that degradation of one can be compensated for by improvement in another. In the strong sustainability model, the environment is considered as the biggest circle in which society and economy are established (Figure 3.1b)). In the strong model of sustainability, the environment is considered as the main factor, which strongly affects on society, culture and all their subsectors such as the economy, architecture, politics, art etc. [Mahravan, 2012]

Figure 3.1: (a) Weak model of sustainability; (b) Strong model of sustainability. Source: Mahravan, 2012

Sustainable community

Figure 3.2: A graphic representation of the overlapping values associated with environmental quality, social equity and economic viability. Source: Province of New Brunswick, 2008

The Government of the United Kingdom has defined a sustainable community in its Sustainable Communities Plan: “sustainable communities are places where people want to live and work, now and in the future. They meet the diverse needs of existing and future residents, are sensitive to their environment, and contribute to a high quality of life” [Office of the Deputy Prime Minister, 2003].

A sustainable community was defined as “a community that meets the present and future social, economic and environmental needs of today’s citizens without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” [Province of New Brunswick, 2008]. Defining actions of a sustainable community include meeting a “triple bottom line”, integrating decision making, and achieving balance between the overlapping values of environmental quality, social equity (including cultural values) and economic viability (Figure 3.2).

“Sustainable development requires that communities be self-sufficient, that people's control over their own lives be increased, and that the social and cultural identity and decision-making capacities of communities be maintained and strengthened (International Union, 1989)” [Cuello, 1997]. For centuries, the survival and growth of cities have been depending on surrounding areas for land, materials, energy, water, and food. In the last decades, awareness on the limited amount of natural resources available for a constantly growing population has been raising. That requires sustainable communities must manage those resources to fulfill their needs by themselves. In the process of growing and developing, transforming the linear resources flow of cities into a cycle where the output of one system becomes an input for another is fundamental for current and future cities. The metabolism of cities will improve efficiency of resource use in cities.

Sustainable building

Sustainable building approach is considered as a way for the construction industry to move towards by achieving sustainable development while taking environmental, socio and economic issues into account [Akadiri et al. 2012].

There are two main aims for sustainable architectural design [Sassi, 2006]:

 Sustainable architecture should minimize the negative environmental impact of buildings by enhancing efficiency and moderation in the use of materials, energy, and development space.

 Buildings should make a positive and appropriate contribution to the social environment. For instance, construction should balance the ecosystem based on practical demands, which can promote living environment, and human health.

Due to global warming and exhaust of fossil fuels, the indicators of sustainable buildings point to the carbon emissions reduction and energy costs. To realize that goals, new material and construction techniques should be developed and adapted to vital needs such as minimizing waste disposal and harmful gases [Grierson et al. 2011].

Sustainable buildings can be divided into sustainability and housing. Sustainability refers to the capability to adapt to climate change in flexible and durable manners, and the building’s lifespan can be prolonged [Grierson et al. 2011]. The structural performance plays an important role in the realization of sustainability. Indeed, it supports architectural design and provides a safe shelter [Shi, 2010]. Housing is living spaces, including both interior and exterior of buildings. Living space have to provide inhabitants a comfortable environment, e.g. appropriate lighting, temperature, moisture, and air flow. Besides physical performance, aesthetic and culture should also take into account [Shi, 2010].

Figure 3.3: Sustainable buildings factors. Source: By author developed based on a report [Akadiri et al. 2012]

3.2 Sustainable floating communities 3.2.1 Case study of sustainable floating communities

The Floating City Project as the first floating city with considerable political autonomy has taken up by The Seasteading Institute [The Seasteading Institute, 2014] The Seasteading Institute commissioned the Dutch aquatic engineering firm DeltaSync to produce a design and preliminary feasibility study for a floating city containing 50 meter sided square and pentagon platforms with threestory buildings. A square platform: a hollow box or “caisson” is made from steel reinforced concrete, measuring 50 meters per side could house 20- 30 residents. They choose the Gulf of Fonseca as a pilot location for floating city, which borders three potential hosts: Honduras, Nicaragua and El Salvador. The floating city in a tropical location could feasibly power itself almost entirely with renewable energy [The Seasteading Institute, 2014]. The main point of the design is Blue Revolution concept that proposes the idea of circular metabolism for a floating city that reuse the waste for generating energy and producing food.

Figure 3.4: The floating city project. Source: The Seasteading Institute, 2014

Reuse the waste for generating energy

Blue Revolution concept proposes a solution to reuse the waste (nutrients and CO2) from existing delta cities, producing food and biofuel on the water. By extracting nutrients and CO2, water quality of aquatic ecosystems can be significantly improved. The waste reuse concept will be explained in the following (Figure 3.5): 69

Figure 3.5: The closed loop of nutrients created by introducing a floating city that uses the Blue Revolution concept. Source: DeltaSync, 2012

Reuse of nutrients for producing food

Algae production

The nutrient waste of floating cities could also be used as inputs to grow algae, produce food and biofuel. An innovative system to grow algae on the sea which is proposed to apply to the design of floating city is the OMEGA (Offshore Membrane Enclosure for Growing Algae), developed at NASA by Jonathan Trent. The system is a collection of closed photo-bioreactors constructed of flexible plastic that can be filled with treated municipal or agricultural wastewater. Forward osmosis membranes allow clean water to diffuse out of the bioreactors, leaving inside an algal paste which can be easily harvested and processed into biofuels, animal feed, fertilizer, and other bioproducts [DeltaSync, 2012].

Figure 3.6: Scheme of nutrients and CO2 flows within the floating city-delta city system. Waste from delta areas is used for energy and food production, creating a symbiotic relation between the land-based city and the floating city. Source: Deltasync, 2012

Food production

In combination with algae culture, the concepts of aquaponics and multi-trophic aquaculture could be applied within the seastead design, producing local fresh vegetables and fresh sea food that can be directly consumed by people living on the floating city. Aquaponics system combines hydroponics and aquaculture in a self-contained ecosystem. Plants grow and purify the water by using the nutrients that fish create. The system can be applied in fresh water for growing tomatoes, bell peppers, cucumbers, spinach, watercress etc. For saltwater, integrated multi-trophic aquaculture (IMTA) can be used as the idea of circular metabolism. In this system, leftover feed, waste, nutrients of one species are recaptured and transformed into fertilizer, feed and energy for the growth of the other species. The IMTA concept is very flexible and allows the integration of different types of shellfish (bivalves, abalone) and/or seaweed, fish/shrimp with vegetables, microalgae etc. [DeltaSync, 2012].

Figure 3.7: Combination of algae culture, aquaculture and crops production in the floating city. Source: Deltasync, 2012

Sustainable water system

In Seastead design, rainwater could be an important resource of freshwater. Thus, adequate rainwater collection and storage which ensure the use of rainwater during dry months should be provided. In addition, fresh water would need to be imported or produced locally from desalination of seawater. Rainwater can be treated and used for cooking, drinking, showering and bathing.

Grey water could be collected in another tank with adequate treatment that can be used for washing machines and toilets. Wastewater from toilets is pumped in OMEGA floating bioreactors and provide source of nutrients for algae. Algae extract nutrients and clean waste water slowly before releasing into the sea.

Sustainable energy

The floating city will be built in tropical climate zones where has a vast amount of solar power. Thus, solar panels generate electrical power by converting solar radiation into direct current electricity with semiconductors. The amount of electricity solar panels can generate depends on the local solar radiation. The solar panels would be combined with batteries, and diesel generators by a micro grid system as an emergency system backup for the time that the sun is not shining. In

addition, the solar panel system can be accomplished by connecting the system to the electrical grid. But in this case the floating city must be close to main land.

3.2.2 Framework of a sustainable floating community

Figure 3.8: Framework of a sustainable floating community . Source: By author

According to the framework for sustainable community mentioned above and analyzing sample of a floating city which are designed with sustainable factors, the research accumulates and develops the particular framework of a sustainable floating community. In general, a sustainable floating community is formed on the basis of the conceptual framework obf a sustainable community, integrating three intertwined aspects: environmental quality, social equity and economic viability (Figure 3.8). However, in particular there are several additional specific factors which is needed be emphasized to develop a sustainable water urban. The above analysis of a floating city has demonstrated that the main point of the design concept for a sustainable floating community is to pursue the idea of circular metabolism and self-sufficiency. The main considerations of social, economic and environmental sustainability for a sustainable floating community is created by author in table 3.1. Living in a sustainable floating community, people can not only live and work but also enjoy water leisure, natural view, landmark and social

activities. There are three elements that together will define the sustainable development of a floating community: 1) Sustainability; 2) Livability; 3) Resiliency (Figure 3.8).

Living on the water in close proximity to nature. Water bodies are not only able to provide living spaces but also able to provide means of livelihood and food-energy-water for water dwellers. Inhabitants use and change directly their environment through their consumption of food, energy, water, and through their daily life activities. In these cases, environmental quality strongly affects on society, culture and all their subsectors such as the economy, architecture, politics. The environmental quality and the sustainable development of a floating community have an intensive mutual interaction. A sustainable floating community is in harmony with natural systems by reducing and converting waste into non-harmful and beneficial purposes, and by utilizing the natural ability of environmental resources for human needs without undermining their function and longevity. Making decision to use the ‘weak model’ or the ‘strong model’ of sustainability for a floating community depends on levels of the influence of environment on regional community development.

Due to both climate and social change, floating communities have emerged as an alternative residence for humans. Economic development is the necessary vehicle for the existence of a floating community. A floating sustainable community needs an ecological and diverse water- based economy that is adapted to the regional socio culture, geography and its resources. The economic viability is based upon exploitation combined with natural resource conservation. The sustainable economic growth of a floating communities should provide long-term security to residents, provide job training, education, and other forms of assistance to enable local employers to adjust to the future needs of water-based economic growth. The prosperity of a floating community's economy is based upon profit enhancement by developing cost-effective floating houses, using renewable energy, reducing the economic impacts of natural disasters, maximizing income generation and increasing equitably benefits for water dwellers.

Growing urban populations and sea level rise are increasingly pushing people closer to living on the water. The sustainable floating communities are new tools and approaches to address the challenges people will face in the coming decades. The sustainable floating community needs to provide necessary, safe, comfortable living conditions and respects cultural diversity, as well as considers the needs of future generations that ensure a stable and livable life for water dwellers. In this regard social equity of a floating community implies that local social and cultural systems are respected and preserved, and considers the needs of future generations, as well as distributing

costs and benefits of welfare, protection of public health, provision of education equitably for all floating community members.

As above mentioned, the sustainable development requires that communities be self-sufficient [Cuello, 1997]. Achieving a self-sufficient community is the core of a design concept for a sustainable floating community. The concept of self-sufficient community would be the answer for the protection of the environment and ecological systems which is one of the most concerned issues of living on the water. The self-sufficient capacity help a floating community get more independent in a connection with utilities provided from the land as well as to reduce the human impacts on natural environment and increase resilient capacity of a floating community to climate change. A self- sufficient floating community would provide all necessaries for a livable living from food production, water, energy, waste reuse to social and leisure activities for water dwellers that helps a floating community achieve the Sustainability, Resilience and Livability.

Table 3.1 The main considerations of social, economic and environmental sustainability for a sustainable floating community. Source: By author

Environmental quality

Effective protection of environment  Reducing human impacts on the environment of floating communities, avoiding environmental pollution  Protecting and enhancing aquatic biodiversity  Improving local environmental and climate change adaptation, and increasing floating community resilience to natural disasters

Prudent use of natural resources  Improving efficient use of natural resources, use of renewable energies from wind, solar, hydrogen  Improving energy efficiency, reducing energy consumption of floating community

Economic viability

Water- based economic development  Developing water- based economy based on local resources; Increasing the diversity and financial capacity of different types of water-based livelihoods  Provision of job training and education programs that enable local employers adjust to future needs of water-based economic growth

Profit enhancement  Developing cost-effective floating houses, floating communities  Reducing the economic impacts of natural disasters  Maximizing income generation and increasing equitably benefit of a sustainable water- based economic development for water dwellers

Social equity

Provision of an adequate standard of living  Providing clean air and fresh water and locally sourced nutritious for floating communities  Providing health care and education service for water dwellers

Protection and enhancement of social and cultural values  Protection, appreciation and enhancement of human well-being as well as local customs and traditions of floating communities  Improving resilience of floating communities to climate change and social change

3.3 Sustainable floating buildings 3.3.1 Case studies of sustainable floating buildings

According to author’s knowledge, some groups of researchers studied sustainable characteristics from floating buildings when considering three aspects: society, economy, environment.

IBA Dock, Germany

Figure 3.9: IBA DOCK Hamburg, as reported [IBA Hamburg GmbH]

Social sustainability

The term IBA stands for International Building Exhibition. In 2010, the IBA DOCK - Germany’s largest floating exhibition and office building was built in Hamburg, Germany. The IBA Dock (Figure 3.9) as the information and event center of Hamburg was constructed upon a floating concrete pontoon. It was one of the largest urban development projects in Europe to find answers to the most pressing issues facing modern cities under the slogan “The Metropolis of the Future”. Since 2010, the IBA DOCK is the home for the IBA Hamburg GmbH as an urban development company, which offers integrated development for both innovative residential districts and viable industrial areas. The IBA Dock is not only houses for the exhibition IBA, but is also itself an exhibition of innovative building components and facilities for the use of renewable energies [IBA Hamburg GmbH].

Environmental sustainability

The building to be supplied from renewable sources . Sunlight and water flow are to generate energy for sustainable heating and cooling systems for all seasons.

Table 3.2 Summary of the environmental aspect of IBA DOCK, as reported [IBA Hamburg GmbH]

Materials/ Energy Water Waste Structures

- Photovoltaic panels from - Fresh water is taken - The disposal of - Using materials with rooftop provide electricity from a bore hole and waste takes place low embodied energy needed by the heat pump. pumped through on land. such as thatch, willow, Almost no further cooling underwater pipes to the - Waste from toilet timber. and heating energy is pontoon is kept in the tank - Using cheap but needed - Grey water is collected and is emptied effective materials - Solar thermal system in tank in the pontoon each year made from recycled provides heating and hot and pumped to a newspapers with high water settlement tank on the insulation - The energy management land. From there it is - The floating platform is system (EMS) controls the fully cleaned by using of joined onto dolphins distribution of heat and reed beds and is dispose consisting of a number cold through-out the IBA back to natural water of piles, on which it can DOCK and links the heat reservoir. Lake water is raise 3.5 m up and down pump and solar thermal pumped for flushing according to the tide system. toilets

Figure 3.10: Schematic of IBA DOCK Hamburg, as reported [IBA Hamburg GmbH] 78

Figure 3.10 illustrates the schematic of energy system of the IBA DOCK. The energy management system (EMS) controls the distribution of heat and cold through-out the IBA DOCK and links the heat pump and solar thermal system (01). The solar thermal plant uses the warmth from the sun and port water to heat the building (02). The photovoltaic plant produces the same amount of solar power per year as is required by the heat pump to heat the dock (03). Heat storage tank (04). Heating and cooling ceilings keep supply temperatures low and maintain very comfortable conditions (05). Ventilation plant with heat recovery system (07).

Economic sustainability

The building is made of steel in prefabrication-based modular construction. It helps to reduce the construction time as well as save the building’s weight. As such, construction costs can be reduced significantly.

Brockholes Visitor Centre, United Kingdom

Figure 3.11 Brockholes Visitor Centre. Source: https://www.brockholes.org/visit

Social sustainability

A new visitor facility in Lancashire, U.K was designed by Adam Khan and completed in 2011. The Brockholes Visitor Centre is a beautiful floating eco-village of thatch, reeds and willow that draws on the rich tradition of wetland dwellings. The 1,400-m2 floor area building sits on a 2,795- m2 concrete pontoon. The vision of the new nature reserve center was to encourage and inspire people to visit the site and enjoy the peaceful nature. The center includes a café, shop promoting 79

local products, exhibition space, education facilities, and meeting rooms which help visitors understand and raise the value of their surroundings [Moon, 2014].

Environmental sustainability

The aim of architects is to design an environmental building with natural ventilation and as self- sufficient as possible. The center was constructed by using sustainable materials and techniques, particularly in the areas of natural resources, energy conservation and recycling.

Table 3.3 Summary of the environmental aspect of Brockholes Visitor Centre, as reported [Maciej Olszak, 2013]

Materials/ Energy Water Waste Structures

- Electricity: The architect - Fresh water is - All kinds of waste - Using materials with designed spaces for PV panels taken from a bore are collected and low embodied energy on the roofs, but they were not hole and pumped move to the land for such as thatch, willow, installed yet. The electricity through treatment. timber. of the building is provided by underwater pipes - Waste from toilet is - Using effective national grid. to the pontoon kept in the tank and materials made from - Heating and hot water are - Grey water is is emptied each year recycled newspapers provided by a biomass boiler collected in tank in with high insulation on land. The heating of the the pontoon and - The floating platform is buildings is provided by pumped to a joined onto four steel underfloor water tubes in a settlement tank on piles to stop it drifting hydronic system the land. From across the lake. The - Ventilation is entirely natural there it is fully building will rise up and with several architectural cleaned by using of down by 40cm solutions. The high and steep- reed beds and is according to the tide. pitched roofs enclosing large dispose back to However it can raise up volumes increase air natural water to 3 meters in a circulation and extraction. reservoir. Lake catastrophe, [Moon, [Moon, 2014]. water is pumped 2014]. for toilet flushing

Economic sustainability

Use of recycled materials, natural resources and architectural design can increase natural ventilation and energy conservation, which helps to save energies and operational costs of the building. Moreover, prefabrication-based modular construction helps to reduce the construction time.

Figure 3.12: Technology Case Study Anaysis: Brockholes Visitors Centre by Adam Khan Architects. Source: by Maciej Olszak, 2013

Makoko Floating School, Nigeria, 2013

Figure 3.13: Makoko Floating School. Source: NLEWORKS, 2012

Social sustainability

Makoko Floating School is a prototype of the floating house built on the historic water community of Makoko, Lagos, Nigeria. The construction has created an innovative approach to address the social and physical needs in terms of impacts of climate change and rapid urbanization. The project focused on designing sustainable, alternative building systems and urban water culture for the population of Africa’s coastal cities. The floating school provides the immediate educational needs of children as well as a multi-use facility and flexible space and for the community needs. It supports and contributes to the sustainable development of the less-developed water community in Lagos [NLEWORKS, 2012].

Environmental sustainability

The floating school was designed to adapt natural ventilation, to use solar PV modules, to recycle organic waste, and to collect rainwater for the toilet. The main materials used for the entire structure are bamboo and wood from local community. The whole structure sits on a base of typical plastic barrels. The barrels at the periphery can be used to store excess rainwater from the catchment system

Figure 3.14: Technology Case Study Anaysis, as reported [Riise e Adeyemi, 2015]

Table 3.4 Summary of the environmental aspect of Makoko Floating School, as reported [Riise e Adeyemi, 2015]

Materials/ Energy Water Waste Structures

- Solar panels is an - Using rainy water: after - A compost toilet provides - Using local effective solution to filtering by a vortex filter, a complete circulation of materials with low provide electrical collected water The nutritious substances. The embodied energy energy but only for collected water could be contamination of streams, such as bamboo lighting and small used for irrigation and lakes and seas will be and wood appliances. As a domestic use reduced. The waste will be - The floating supplementary system, - Grey waste water could drastically reduced in platform is joined biogas production from be purified in a volume and be emptied onto two piles that the toilet and kitchen helophytes filter, then it normally every second help building rise waste could be an could reused to rinse the year up and down option to provide toilet and as irrigation - Organic waste could be according to the energy for cooking water for the plants captured for biogas sea level rises system to provide energy

- Ventilation is entirely - Black water from for cooking, then it would natural with several flushing the toilet settles be treated and transferred architectural solutions is carried out by a into fertilizer for the plants such as ventilated roof, BIOROCK filter. The louvres for shade, green purified water then could be released to the river or be re-used as grey water.

Economic sustainability

The overall composition of the design was a triangular A-Frame section. This shape creates a good stability and trim ideal roof drainage for the building. The structure was assembled joining wooden elements with simple nails and double joints that was constructed easily by local employees. The floating platform made of typical plastic barrel which has affordable cost. Moreover, using renewable energy and natural ventilation; using local materials with low-cost; using rainwater as well as recycling organic waste that are effective solutions to reduce the cost of floating house and create an affordable floating school for poor community in Lagoon. The Mokoko floating school is a good example for affordable self-sufficient floating houses for coastal areas in developing countries, and Vietnam is a case in point. Unfortunately, the floating school collapsed in June 2016 due to deterioration resulting from a lack of proper maintenance and collective management [Khoury 2017].

Autark Home, Netherlands

Figure 3.15: Autark Home. Source: Maarten Willems, 2014

Social sustainability

Autark Home is a self-sufficient and passive floating home with European passive house certificate. It was designed by architect Pieter Kromwijk as a prototype and currently docked in Maastricht, Netherland. The floating home has two floors, 109.4-m2 floor area. Autarkhome offers an affordable and high quality opportunity for people to live on the water in a floating self- sufficient house. The house generates distinctive features and low-energy consumption. There are now plans to produce more Autarkhomes to meet the demand of society [AUTARK HOME, 2017].

Environmental sustainability

Table 3.5 Summary of the environmental aspect of Autark Home, as reported [AUTARK HOME, 2017]

Materials/ Energy Water Waste Structures

- 24 solar PV modules provide - River water is converted - All kinds of - All tiles used in the electricity for the building. The to gray water through a waste are house are made electrical energy is stored in 24 filter. And high-quality collected and from natural batteries. In bad weather drinking water is move to the land materials which are condition, a bio-diesel purified through reverse for treatment. of abundance such generator supplies the home osmosis in combination - Waste from toilet as clay sand and with additional power with the sand and UV is kept in the tank other raw materials [AUTARK HOME, 2017] filter and is emptied - The floating - 6 solar thermal collector panels - Water tank containing each year platform is joined on the roof keep hot water for 4 4000litres of water kept onto two steel piles to 5 days. The incoming fresh warm by solar panels on that help building air is heated or cooled by roof rise up and down outgoing exhausted air through [AUTARK HOME, according to the sea a heat recovery ventilation 2017] level rises system [Moon, 2014] - Before the waste water - Improving insulation by returns to the river, the expanding Polystyrene wall water is cleaned for 90% acts as a warm coat, by by a built-in filtration insulated door and window as system [AUTARK well as by using triple glazing HOME, 2017] [AUTARK HOME, 2017]

Economic sustainability

Autark home provides 100% its own power. The house does not connect with the dock for energy or water supplier from the main land. It is literally fully self-sustaining. The price of house is 455.000 Eur. The initial investment possibly seems high, but heating and cooling costs and all utilities are totally eliminated. Therefore, the lifetime value of the home is very acceptable.

Figure 3.16: Autarkhome-a fully sustainable houseboat, as reported [World Sustainable Building Conference 2014]

Autartec project-self-sufficient floating home, Germany

Figure 3.17: Autartec project-self-sufficient floating home . Source: as reported [Autartec]

Social sustainability

Recently floating homes is gaining interest in Germany. The floating houses are built not only for recreation but also for residences. The Lusatian Lake District had been characterized by open-cast lignite coal mining over decades. Now it is the largest artificial lake district with its 23 lakes and a surface area of over 32 000 acres in Europe. In the coming future, living on the water will be an innovative solution to help improve the region’s attractiveness and enhance local economy. This is also the objective of the Lusatian autartec® project, which funded by the German Federal Minstry for Education and Research. Experts and engineers from many research institutes, universities and companies have been working together to build a self-sufficient floating home on Bergheider Lake by 2017. It is able to self-supply water, electricity and, heat. The project would be an effective solution for Lusatian Lake District, in which isolating clean water and energy supply [Autartec].

Environment sustainability

Figure 3.18:: Self-sufficient system of Autartec floating home. Source: as reported [Autartec]

Table 3.6 Summary of the environmental aspect of Autartec floating home, as reported [Autartec]

Materials/ Energy Water Waste Structures - Solar cell is integrated in the - The scientists is developing - All kinds of waste - The floating building envelope and lithium and experimenting with a are collected and platform is polymer batteries store the closed loop system for move to the land for joined onto two collected energy. The battery drinking and service water. treatment. steel piles that systems are integrated into the They rely physical and help building

textile concrete walls or into chemical methods based on - Waste from toilet is rise up and down the stair elements. a combination of ceramic kept in the tank and according to the - Solar thermal system provides membranes and various is emptied each year sea level rises hot water for the building electrochemical and - The heating and cooling photocatalytic processes for systems: A salt hydrate treatment and filtration of fireplace provides heat in cold waste water. [Autartec] winter days. A zeolith thermal - Preparing rainwater for storage unit in the pontoon drinking water [Autartec] will be used during the winter The zeolith minerals are dried during the summer a purely physical process in which heat is stored. In the summer, an adiabatic cooling system provides for cool air. [Autartec]

Economic sustainability

The goal of Autartec is built a high-tech floating house using innovative technologies to create a sustainable living space. The house is largely completed self-sufficient, thus costs of energy, heat and water supply will be lower. Moreover, the scientists develop lightweight sandwich structures with modular concept using textile-reinforced concrete and other lightweight materials. These structures experience high mechanical performances. For a long run, it is worth to invest this kind of building, despite high fix costs, value of comfort life and operational costs are competitive.

3.3.2 Conclusions of case studies

Sustainable features of the sample floating architectures from the case studies are summarized, as shown in Table 3.7. Locating on the water causes difficulties to generate infrastructures and utilities providing water and energy supply system as well as waste treatment for floating buildings. Therefore, one of the most important approaches to develop sustainable floating houses in coming years is to enhance the concept of self-sufficient and passive floating houses. Within innovative solutions and technologies, the sustainable floating house will not only increase the energy efficiency but also be self-supplier from renewable resources. In addition to that,

sustainable buildings are able to create a close loop living space. In other words, energy, clean water, food, and waste disposal can be self-produced and processed.

Table 3.7 Summary of properties of sustainable floating buildings

Sustainable floating buildings Environmental sustainability - Economic sustainability Social sustainability Self- sufficient and passive floating buildings

Energy Water Waste treatment Material/Structures

 Using renewable  Using water from  Waste from toilet  Material  Contributing to energy natural resources - Waste from toilet - Local material community - Solar panels for drinking or is kept in the tank - Light-weight material - Making place for provide electricity flushing toilet. and is emptied - Recycled material meeting, events, - Solar thermal  Treating and each year - New materials which public facilities system for heating recycling waste - Using compost improve insulation of - Making place for and hot water water toilets without use the building education - Biomass boiler for - Grey water is of water  Structures - Creating heating and hot filtered by  All kinds of waste - Prefabricated, modular prototypes of water biological system are collected and structures sustainable - Biogas energy for such as using reed move to the land - Lightweight structures buildings cooking beds or filtration  Recycling waste: - Sandwich light-weight - Creating an - Heating and systems before Organic waste structure effective solution cooling system by releasing to water could be captured - Creating the shape of for the community physical or surface or for biogas system building which ensures adapting to flood chemical process recycling for to provide energy the stability of the and rising sea level such as planting, flushing for cooking, then building on the water - Making jobs for hydrothermal toilets it would be treated - Adapting to floods by local people heating/cooling - Black water is and transferred joining and rising on  Providing peaceful system, treated and into fertilizer for piles and comfortable evaporative covered into grey plants living close to the humidification water for recycled nature. That helps  Ventilation use in the building people appreciate - Improving natural the value of nature ventilation and then protecting - using heat environment recovery around them ventilation system  Improving insulation

3.3.3 Framework for sustainable floating building (objects and strategies)

Figure 3.19: Framework of a sustainable floating building. Source: By author

According to sustainable building criteria mentioned above and analyzing samples of sustainable buildings, the research accumulates and develops the framework for sustainable floating buildings. Basically, the framework for a sustainable floating building consists most of factors as the requirements for a sustainable building. However, the sustainable floating buildings will consist specific factors which are matched with the characteristics of living on the water as a unique place for construction. Living on the water is affected directly by nature, thus the interaction between the environment and people that needs to be highly regarded. The environmental sustainability plays an important role in ensuring human survival and living conditions such as sustainable energy production, food production, fresh water and clean air which contribute to the sustainable development of economy and society. Although the main estimated substance for sustainable floating building is environment, the development process is started from economic development in a sustainable way which is conducted by educated societies. Sustainable development of economy and society enhances knowledge, attitude and practices on

environmental protection for water dwellers as well as promote innovative ideas and technologies for prudent use of nature resources and floating structures. As the result, three factors of sustainable floating building have a mutual interaction and cannot be separated far from each other.

According to environmental and socio-economic requirements for a sustainable floating building, the main strategies for the design are to create self-sufficient and passive floating buildings which toward to: 1) Seft-sufficience: including abilities to secure sufficient food, sufficient water, sufficient energy and sufficient waste treatment; 2) Efficiency: including effective protection of environment, prudent use of nature resources/ renewable energies, and increasing profitability and productivity of floating buildings; 3) Adaptation: including adaptation with local conditions (environment, socio-culture, economy, architecture), and adaptation with climate change and social change; 4) Livability: including the provision of comfortable living conditions. That helps to enhance the independence of floating buildings from the utility systems on the land and to makes a floating building sustainable with respect to social, economic and environmental issues: social in terms of improving to the quality of life for water dwellers, economic in terms of enhancing wealth, and environmental in terms of reducing the impact that floating buildings have on the natural environment as well as to increase floating houses capacity of resilience to climate change and rising sea level (Figure 3.19 ).

Chapter 4 - Sustainable floating settlements in Vietnam

4.1. Typical characteristics

4.1.1. Social organization and management

The original form of floating villages is the groups of fishers or boatmen [Dao, 1938]. In many coastal areas of Vietnam, local fisheries management and mutual assistance functioning through institutions known as van chai have a long tradition [Duy Thieu Nguyen and Kenneth Ruddle, 2010]. “The term Van Chai means a community that lives on its boats and earns a living on rivers or in coastal areas by fishing with simple, smallscale gear. The term ‘Chai’ means “gear used by smallscale and artisanal fishermen” [Anon, 1988]. In that case, the term ‘Van’ means a ” village’; an administrative unit which has been important in fisheries administration. The Van Chai is a comprehensive institution structured to address the basic issues of the community such as managing the amounts of fishers, social interactions, tax collection, and coordinating fishing operations, as well as to address aquatic resources management [D. T. Nguyen and K. Ruddle, 2010]. In particular, these issues are: “(1) shrine management and the conduct of ceremonies; (2) mutual assistance among fishers; (3) specification of the behavior, rights and obligations of fishing boat owners, captains and crewmembers; (4) disposal of the catch; (5) governance of fishing operations; (6) specification of the rules for the main gear types (pertaining mainly to eligibility, seasonality and profit-sharing); (7) conciliation of fisheries conflicts, the resolution of which is not stipulated in current local rules or higher laws; and (8) sanctions (punishment)” [Ruddle,1998]. The van chai can be divided into two types: (1) land-based fishing community, and (2) floating village [D. T. Nguyen and K. Ruddle, 2010].

“Lang Ca“, the land-based fishing community, contains a group of fishers who have a house on the land, but earn their living by fishing and using a variety of aquatic resources along a beach or an estuary, or on an island for family consumption, livestock feed and sale. Some fishing households also provide for their own subsistence by cultivating around their houses and raising livestock. This type originated from farming inhabitants who during the “feudal era’ participated in officially organized migration to Central and South Vietnam [D. T. Nguyen and K. Ruddle, 2010].

The term “Van Chai’ also embraces the so-called “floating village’ which is a general community of riverine inhabitants who always operate and create a living on water bodies that includes all fishers, boatmen, smallscale transportation workers, and small traders. This type of van chai exists

along the coastal areas from the North to the North-Central regions. The first van chai anywhere in Vietnam were established for inland fisheries, mainly along the lower and middle reaches of rivers in the North, and around coastal lagoons in the north-central part of the country. The latter van chai in the North having been established about four centuries ago, whereas fishing villages first emerged in the South only in the seventeenth century. In the South-Central Vietnam, the structure of a van chai is not that of a village but is like a ‘guild’ where the van chai is the center of community fisheries management and community religious beliefs. There the van chai played a key role in supporting the rulers to stabilize coastal communities and use them as bases for further southward expansion [D. T. Nguyen and K. Ruddle, 2010]. The structure of a van chai still has been existing in severals accient floating villages in Vietnam.

According to the research of D. T. Nguyen and K. Ruddle, 2010, the administration of a floating village is a simplified version of the administrative system of a farming village. The administration system includes three main components: (1) males 18 years-of-age and over, (2) The Council of Elders, and (3), village officials. The village officials undertake the same functions as those in farming villages. Moreover, they perform the self-managed activities for the floating village and perform the administrative functions of the lowest level of the State management system. When a van was formed, the head of the van was elected. Then a proposal asking the same rights and obligations as the head of a farming village for the head was submitted to the authorities by the van elders. Moreover, an important task of the head is to officiate at funerals and weddings, as well as to handle conflict resolution, performing the annual rites and organizing the festivals. In addition to the head of the floating village, a Council of Notables was also elected. When any member of the leadership team either died or resigned, the floating village had to elect a replacement within an approvement from the Council of Notables. The members were representatives of each family clan. They were often the head of family clans. Therefore, the Council of Notables is like the Council of Family Heads. Thus, the Council of Family Heads played a key role in the administration system of the van chai [D. T. Nguyen and K. Ruddle, 2010].

However, nowadays there still exist many unorganised and illegal floating settlements in Vietnam. There is a lack of management of water-based settlements from local authorities. That causes a huge number of illegal floating houses locating randomly in the floating settlements. In recent years, the policy of the State has been created more professional to manage the uncontrol growth of the floating villages. The management structure of a floating village is a simplified version of the administrative system of a van chai. The management structure is organized by a village head

and a vice village head. The village head has the responsibility to monitor the management of the households in his village and monthly reports on the situation of his village to the commune committee, as well as informing the updated policies and guidelines of the State to local inhabitants. Several floating settlements have their own organizational structures. In these villages, water dwellers are divided into groups. Each resident group creates a separate area. Moreover, each village has its own convention, in order to manage and protect the security of fisheries and aquaculture. This organisational structure has been operating effectively in the management of floating villages, therefore it should continue to be developed in the management system of floating settlements in Vietnam.

4.1.2. Living quality

Through three research excursions and surveys of three floating villages in Vietnam in 2016 and 2017, the author created a SWOT analysis to assess the current status of living quality in floating villages in Vietnam in general. In which, two research excursions of floating villages belonged to the framework of the Swimmtour project in 2017. The first research excursion was in floating villages in CatBa island, in the North of Vietnam. The second research excursion was in An Giang floating village, Mekong Delta, in the South of Vietnam. The SWOT analysis of living quality was carried out on three following aspects: environment, socio-culture and economy.

4.1.2.1. Environment

Strength Living on the water provides the water dwellers with direct contact to the natural environment within beautiful scenery, good air condition and coolness of wind from the river. The local inhabitants have less stress and anxiety. Water dwellers are autonomous in using of natural resources around their houses. They could use water on the river as a free resource of water supply for their daily life, such as for washing and showering. Water dwellers could use aquatic foods from the river by fishing without fees. They could build the fish cages underneath or nearby the floating houses as a good source of livelihood. Living on the water without land, however water dwellers still keep planting gardens. The gardens do not only provide vegetables for local people but also provide a beautiful landscape for floating houses as well as to improve the microclimate in the water dwellings.

Weaknesses Nature resources Due to the free usage of water resource on the river for daily life without sewage treatment system as well as the rapid growth of the fish cages without stringent government management, the water dwellers make the water and surrounding environment polluted. This leads to the disruption of aquatic ecosystems and the exhaustion of natural resources. Besides, boat traffic makes noise and oil pollution threatening to the coastal ecosystem as well. Furthermore, the smell and bacteria present in sewage and waste which enter the river and floating on the water face lead to air pollution.

Utilities

- Lack of electronic system: In floating villages, water dwellers have to use generators for power supply of electric equipment in the family houses. The oil and diesel engines of generators and boats have made water pollution threatening to the coastal ecosystem. - Lack of freshwater supply system: In floating houses, rainwater is collected and kept in domestic tanks for use in daily life. However, few domestic water tanks on the floating houses are not enough to provide rainwater for water dwellers. Therefore, they have to buy on land fresh water bottles for drinking and cooking. The water dwellers use water from the river for washing and showering while domestic sewage and waste which enter the river directly and floating on the water surface. Using polluted water as well as the smell and bacteria presenting in sewage result in the health hazard threaten water dwellers. - Lack of sanitation system: There are no sewage system and septic tanks for toilets in most floating houses. Domestic and business wastes which enter the river and float on the water surface lead to water and air pollution. Moreover, the illegal habitation of slum water dwellers make canals which provide sewage disposal and drainage system to get blocked during high tides.

Threat Climate change and rising sea level would increase the frequency and intensity of floods and storms, affecting the life of inhabitants. Rising sea level leads to lose wetland and other low lands as well as riverside erosion that threat to damage water dweller’s properties. Moreover, rising sea levels lead to increase the salinity of estuaries, saltwater intrusion into freshwater, aquifers and degradation of water quality. This salinity may threat aquatic plants and animals that are sensitive to salinity. However, the water dwellings lack awareness of the effects of climate change and lack

of their responsibility to protect the environment where they are living. Also, another threat of the development of floating villages is the high density of floating houses on the water surface. That would provide shade and reduce direct sunlight to the water and affect the environmental quality of aquatic flora and fauna.

Opportunity - The romanticism and relaxing atmosphere of living on the water are potential attractions for the development of tourism and leisure facilities. The integration of state-of-the-art environmental features combining with the usage of sustainable floating technologies and material would help architects design the concepts of eco- friendly floating houses. These floating houses would be the core of a sustainable floating community as well as being the core of ecotourism development in floating villages. - The tropical climate and identify geography with plenty of lakes, rivers, canals, etc. provide an enormous potential of renewable energies (such as solar, wind or hydrogen energies) and natural resources (water, aquatic resources) to develop the self-sufficient concept of floating houses. Creating the self - sufficient energy supply system for the floating building is one of the significant tasks approaching the sustainable development of floating settlements in Vietnam. The potential use of efficient energy supply system can make floating buildings resilient to energy shortages and environmental pollution, as well as to make floating buildings to get greater independence from utilities on the mainland.

4.1.2.2. Socio-culture

Strength

Living in floating villages is peaceful and optimistic with abundant social and cultural activities. Inhabitants live in a traditional community with blood and professional relationships. A floating village has unique and distinctive features, such as religious and worship, the traditional rituals of wedding ceremonies or funerals, and fisheries festivals etc. Beliefs and religions are significant for fishermen, because living on the sea always holds on in the face of danger from nature. Water dwellers set up Buddha prayer niches in the tiniest space of a floating house. The performance of traditional music with many endemic folk songs is a special tourist attraction feature.

Weakness

- Lack of education: About the cultural and educational organization, there are rare schools for children in the floating villages. Children must cross the river into the land for going to the schools and kindergartens. There are lacks of teachers and schools within educated tools and materials for kids. And the children have no safe playing grounds as well. - Lack of health care: In the floating villages, health care is almost non-existent because water dwellers cannot afford to visit the closest clinics, which are on land.

Threat

- Due to impacts of urbanization as well as the consequence of plans for the floating villages demolitions in some provinces, the water dwellers have moved on to the mainland and live now in the resettlement. As a result, most of the traditions and the cultural activities of the water dwellers have disappeared. The unique aquatic lifestyle existing through many decades have been erased. - Due to the lack of the strict management of local authorities, slum water-dwelling become illegal habitation for criminals related to prostitution, robber and drug. This negative impact on socio-culture as well as the environmental population are reasons threatening the subsistence of floating settlements in Vietnam.

Opportunity

The communal character has been regarded as the first basic cultural characteristic of Vietnam villages. In the floating villages, residents greatly respect blood and neighborhood relationships, because they live in a natural environment that combines both abundant resources and numerous challenges. The struggle for survival has increased the need for mutual assistance among lagoon fishing community members. On the other hand, community and neighborhood play an important role in every development strategies of regions. The region should accomplish an environmentally, socially, and economically sustainable community through the application of development plans and the preservation of a unique sense of local areas which are unique attractions to develop ecotourism in floating settlements.

4.1.2.3. Economy

Weakness

- Poverty: Water dwellers can be distinguished base on two types. The first group includes fishers or inhabitants who earn their living by aquaculture. The other type of water dwellers is a group of inhabitants who work on the land or unemployments, and they also do not have own any properties on the land. With low and unstable income, water dwellers are almost the poor and living in the low standard quality of life. - Lack of livelihood opportunities: The water dwellers who earn their living by fishing and aquaculture have lack of fund and technologies to improve the process of fish breeding as well as lack of connection and support from the firms of aquatic product which could collect and export fish foods. Moreover, the water dwellers have a lack of awareness about the sustainable development of economy, economic development methods, and the diversification of production.

Strength

- Commercial potentials on the water: To utilize the commercial potential, most water dwellings are open toward the water and to the passing boats along the rivers, tributaries, canals and shores, similar to the desirability of a high street location on the land. All the river and waterways are characterized by heavy boat traffic. This is perceived as a business attraction and a benefit for the people who live on or along the water. In Viet Nam, floating markets are a widespread and well-known phenomenon where goods are traded or bartered from boats with regular trade sites in the busiest junctions on rivers and canals. - Fishery and aquaculture development potentials: The fishery sector, including capture fishery and aquaculture, plays an important role in the national economy of Vietnam. In 2015, about 65% of Vietnam’s total fisheries export, equivalent to US$4.26 billion, was accounted for by aquaculture [Hong Thi Khanh Nguyen et al. 2019]. The Master Plan on Vietnam’s fisheries and aquaculture development by 2020 and vision for 2030 was established in August 2013 [Hong et al., 2017]. In this case, fish farms in the floating villages have a huge potential to contribute to the development of fisheries and aquaculture industries in Vietnam.

Opportunity

In addition to fisheries and aquaculture development, water dwellers could improve the local economy by the development of agriculture and ecotourism. The concepts of the floating garden could be applied to set up agriculture on the large surface of the water. Moreover, the development of ecotourism based on the environmental advantages of floating settlements is one of the effective ways to improve livelihood for local people.

Threat

The lack of awareness about sustainable economic development has been threatening the local economy and of floating settlements. The uncontrolled development of economy leads to destroying the environment of local areas which intensively related to the quality of fishery products. Especially, the aquaculture sector is facing lots of difficulties in funding, expanding market, complicated diseases, and especially raw material shortage. These issues negatively affect business efficiency and sustainable development of the industry despite the sector has considerably contributed to job creation and economic growth. Moreover, the exportation of Vietnamese seafood to the EU is facing stronger competition with other Asian countries such as Japan, Thailand, Indonesia etc. [Madan M. Dey et al., 2005]. Therefore, local people must apply comprehensive strategies to improve marine infrastructure for sustainable development and high value-added exports.

4.1.3 Architectural characteristics

Based on the details collected through three research excursions of floating villages and based on several references, the author created SWOT analysis to assess the architectural characteristics of floating houses and floating villages in Vietnam in general.

4.1.3.1. SWOT analysis

Weakness

- One of the problems facing many of floating villages is lack of urban planning and public facilities that are very important for the activities of a community such as kindergartens, schools, culture houses, playing grounds for children etc. A huge number of floating houses have been located randomly without regulations of urban planning. Besides, floating villages also lack parking space for boats for individual houses and public places. People could park

100

their boat at any empty space on the water surface without a being restricted by lines. As a result, in the areas where plenty of floating houses are located, the boat traffic is hindered, leading to a congestion of boat traffic and the flow of water. The boat traffic- including large cargo ships also exposes resident life to danger. The boats can come crashing into floating houses. The footbridges which lead house to house or houses to land are narrow and delicate. They make dangers for people, especially for children and the disabled to use for transportation. - The materials and structures which are simple and delicate could not ensure the stability of floating house to stand the effect of climate change such as storm, flood, sea level rising. The floating house could not protect inhabitants out of the power of nature. The homeowners have to renew their houses approximately every three years. - Moreover, water dwellings which are built on stilts on the water could not raise following the rising sea level. It means that the stilt houses would not adapt to climate change and sea-level rise, which has been occurring all over the world. - The autonomy of water dwellers in the decision of location to built their floating houses lead to unprompted distribution without urban planning, as well as in decisions of design and construction of floating houses lead to confusion in architecture. Moreover, the limited technical knowledge of water dwellers leads to use simple floating structures and simple materials. As a result, the floating houses are not safe and sustainable, not adapting to climate change.

Strength

- Traditional community: Asia is historically renowned for the original local principles of floating houses with a floating community which is called the floating village. The village community has long been the basic administrative unit in Vietnam. The floating community contains not only floating dwellings but also educational and recreational facilities school, general stores, barbershops, tailors, café etc. However, they are not as popular and convenient as on the land. Floating villages respect family and professional relationships. In a water-based hamlet, people with the same family name always use the same fishing gear and gather together to form a hamlet, a traditional, small and self-managed community [Nguyen Duy Thieu et al., 2009]. Some five or more family floating houses are always moored together and linked together by footbridges [Nguyen Duy Thieu and Kenneth Ruddle, 2010]. - Autonomy: Individual households are autonomous in spatial, technical and architectural decisions of building design and construction in accordance with preference, income and

101

technical upgrade of water dwellers. The autonomy seems to enhance creativity and flexibility of water dwellers in establishing of abundant construction solutions adapting to the environment and climate change.

Threat - Effects of urbanization: The configuration of floating villages is threatened by the development in the Mekong delta, where roads and concrete bridges have been built more and more. - Autonomy: Living in a group of attached floating houses, the autonomy of water dwellings would be not unambiguous. Their dependence would be reduced in the shared spaces with shared facilities. Therefore, households would have to make a clear distinction between the shared parts and individual parts. Also, living in a group of attached floating houses would required water dwellers raise their public awareness, respect and responsibility for both the individual parts and the shared parts. - Climate change and sea-level rise lead to: - High temperature and changes in the frequency and intensity of storms, flood as well as lead to increases in precipitation. That would require the higher sustainability of structure and material of floating houses and microclimate solutions. - Higher sea surface temperatures and ocean acidification would increase the corrosion intensity of materials of floating housing foundation.

Opportunity

- A long-standing historical tradition of floating living that could be incorporated into contemporary climate-adapted technical, architectural solutions and human concerns for developing the concept of the sustainable floating community including:  Sustainability in urban, space and environment.  Sustainability in economic, social and cultural factors.  Sustainability in construction and technology. - Developing the concepts of self-sufficient and passive floating houses based on traditional architecture (with the lessons on microclimate, a lesson about garden and plants, lesson on local and friendly environmental materials, lesson on local construction technique and lesson on how to use natural resources etc…) and applying innovative and affordable floating technologies.

102

- Moreover, based on the traditional floating community, developing the concept of clusters of attached floating houses including shared utilities will help to reduce the price of individual floating houses. People who are in family or professional relationships live in a group floating house in which some separated houses link together. The group of houses provide an open space not only for social, craft, and cultural activities but also for children playing. It is not only suitable with the traditional community but also make a balance of stable associated foundation for houses adapting to climate change such as storm, flood, rising sea level etc. The group of floating houses would be the basic unit of a floating community. - Lessons from vernacular architecture: the floating villages emerged from farming villages. Floating communities and floating houses reflect traditional Vietnamese rural architecture. Due to living on the water within transportation difficulties and extreme impacts on climate and the environment, the water dwellers have found out suitable and affordable solutions for the construction of floating houses. Based on traditional architecture, water dwellers modified and developed structures, materials and space of the house in order to adapt to the natural environment on the water and to be suited to local culture. Through centuries, water dwellers accumulated valuable experience for designing floating houses with a view to the environment, the climate and the local culture such as a lesson on microclimate, lesson about garden and plants, lesson on local and friendly environmental materials, lesson on local construction technique and a lesson on how to use natural resources etc...These lessons should be considered and promoted to create design guidelines for sustainable development of floating houses and floating villages in Vietnam.

4.1.3.2 Typical characteristics

Sight Planning/ Configuration

The floating villages in Vietnam have been diversified four types of houses according to the differentiation of the ground floor structures a) Houses on the ground and partly on stilts; b) Stilt houses; c) Floating houses; d) Boathouses. According to geography characteristic, environmental conditions as well as the local culture of each coastal area, the configuration of floating villages has a difference between the parts of the country.

In the North and the Central Region, where the rivers are short within high slope, houses with half on stilts and half on the ground, or the stilt houses are not suitable for the high and quick tidal movements and river floods. Therefore, floating villages, there have been existing with two main types of water-based houses: floating houses and boathouses. In marine embayments in HaiPhong 103

and Quang Ninh cities of the North, like Ha Long Bay and CatBa Bay, there are an existence of many floating villages. Originating from the villages of fishermenand boatmen, water dwellers in these floating villages have started to develop aquaculture and tourism.

In the central region, where agricultural land is poor and scarce, and the swift-flowing rivers sustain few fish. There, in contrast to the northern and southern parts of the country, marine currents bring large fish stocks into nearshore waters. So migrants from the northern provinces of Vietnam who settled in the coastal area of the Central Region became marine fishers, and a new culture and way of life gradually emerged. Therefore, almost Vanchai in the central region is the land-based fishing communities, and there are few water-based settlements. However, in some lagoons and rivers of Central region, like Tam Giang lagoon in Thua Thien Hue province, a few numbers of floating villages which have been built with boathouses and stilt houses for wild catch fishing as well as extensive freshwater fish farming. Especially due to the characteristics of geography and climate, the central provinces are the areas affected the most by floods in Vietnam. In this case, the floating houses inspire to create a new kind of water-basedd houses called the amphibious house as a new kind of flood-proof house for flood-prone areas in the Central region.

The situation is different in Southern Vietnam; there are criss-cross river systems which belong to Mekong Delta and Dong Nai River. The rivers are wide and deep; within short steep slope and quiet tidal movements; floodwater goes up and down slowly. Therefore, for centuries, water-based settlements have been formed random and along the rivers in the South within all 4 types of water- based house.

There are two types of compound housing in a floating village:

- Individual floating houses: Individual households are autonomous as regards spatial, technical and architectural decisions of building design and construction following preference, income and technical upgrade of water dwellers. The autonomy seems to enhance the creativity and flexibility of water dwellers in establishing abundant structural solutions adapting to the environment and climate change. - A cluster of floating houses: The housing clusters are often created by fours ways such as: by extended families; by professional relationships; by combining fish farm and a family home; by big longhouses that are divided to sell, or to rent some parts. Lessons: - Planning of floating villages has to be in accordance with local planning.

104

- Developing concepts for floating communities - floating villages including family floating houses, educational and recreational facilities such as schools, clinics, markets and public buildings etc. - According to the economic conditions, habits and purposes of owners, designers will develop two types of compound floating housing. Along the waterway routes and river banks, lines of detached floating houses are built for water dwellers who desire a private living. The ownership of a floating housing unit imparts a feeling of responsibility for maintenance of the house facilities. These houses will be linked together as well as linked with boat parking and transportation on land by floating bridges located behind the houses. Lines of housing compounds will be appropriate and effective to be built in narrow rivers and on nearby the river banks. On the other hand, the clusters of attached floating houses for water dwellers who live with families or with people of different professional relationships. The group of houses provides an open space not only for social, craft, and cultural activities but also for children playing. It is not only suitable for a traditional community but also makes a balance of a stable associated foundation for houses that struggle against and adapt to climate change such as storms, floods, sea-level rise etc. Moreover, water dwellers would share responsibility and budge for the maintenance of their facilities, such as sewage systems, water supply. It would be helpful for water dwellers to reduce the cost of the houses. The group of floating houses would be the basic unit of a floating community. Living in a cluster of attached floating houses, the autonomy of water dwellings would not be unambiguous. Their dependence would be reduced in the shared spaces with shared facilities. Therefore, households would have to make a clear distinction between the shared parts and individual parts, and raise their public awareness, respect and responsibility for both the individual parts and the shared parts.

105

106

 Building Site and Landscape

Orienting the houses is extremely vital when water dwellers start setting up a plan of a floating house. Living on the water is extremely affected by nature, wind and water waves. Therefore, floating houses and floating villages are often located in territories which are less influenced by strong winds, which have a slow water flow that is convenient for transportation. These territories also have a low salinity, the landscape and the quality of water resource are more suitable for living and breeding fish such as in the mouths of rivers, lagoons, bays which are located by the sea and protected from strong wind and tsunamis by mountains. Moreover, according to traditional experience, the South is the best direction for constructing a house. The main block frequently faces south to welcome the cool wind. In north and central coastal zones, the south direction prevents the house from solar radiation from the east and west and cold wind from the North in winter. In traditional rural houses, gardens and plants take a role as climatic mitigation, sources of daily green vegetables, seasonal fruits, construction timber and landscaping. Although living on the water without land, water dwellers still keep planting trees in pots, flower vases located around their houses. These plants do not only provide a beautiful landscape for floating houses but also can take in as much cool air as possible and sunlight heat in winter as well as fence off cold wind and limit heat losses.

Lessons:

- Concerning microclimate: the design of the building layout and landscape should be considered to improve the microclimate of a floating house to reduce solar radiation and increase natural ventilation. - Concerning garden and plants: The gardens which exist in traditional rural architecture inspire ideas of the vertical garden that could be used as climate screen to prevent solar radiation, cold wind and rain, as well as floating gardens using hydroponic systems that could be built in proposed concepts of floating houses and floating villages. Vertical garden and floating gardens would provide green vegetables for the house owners around the year.

107

Figure 4.3: The shaded patio or porch within Figure 4.4: Floating garden, An Giang, Vietnam. surrounding garden, An Giang, Vietnam. Source: By author Source:By author 2017

Source: By author 2017

 Building Designs

Organization of Space

Space organization of floating houses is established based on traditional rural architecture. The front garden, patio, main block, and back garden form the typical design chain of most rural houses in Vietnam (Figure 4.5). Maintaining the characteristic of traditional architecture, fundamental spaces of floating houses also include potted plants instead of front gardens, shared patios, and main blocks. This setting creates a good microclimate for the house and convenience in daily life. The potted flowers located in front of the houses, as well as the shaded patio or porch which is a transitional buffer space between the interior and exterior of the floating houses, prevent flying rainwater and direct solar radiation. Floating houses also can take in plenty of cool air and sunshine, while being protected from cold wind. Furthermore, a large shaded patio seems to be an open space used for relaxing, social activities, craft or business such as cafés, tailor shops, barbershops, etc.

The main block is usually divided into two parts. The main part includes a living room possible to be used for business, crafts, Buddha prayer niche, bedrooms. The second part includes a kitchen, sheds, toilet, storage space and working places (Figure 4.6 a)). The whole block is not in a compact form. It is either a constant connection or a combination of various separate facilities including side blocks which are built for breeding fish, cattle sheds etc. The blocks are linked by narrow footbridges or terraces (Figure 4.6 (b)). In fish farm villages, except for the private main house and the guesthouse, there are fish cages below or beside the houses 108

(Figure 4.7). The distribution of fish cages depends on the species and kinds of aquaculture (fish farming, shrimp farming, oyster farming, mariculture, and algaculture). Inside the floating houses, beside common furniture, there are also prominent features such as simple power supply, antennas, generators, ventilators etc.

Figure 4.5: Space organization of rural traditional houses. Source: By author based on Nguyen To Lang, 2012 109

Figure 4.6: Space organization of a floating house: a) individual house; b) Individual house with fish cage Source: By author

Figure 4.7: Fish cage arrangement. a) Under the house b) Beside the house Source: By author

110

Structure and Joining System a) Floating foundation

In Vietnam, the floating foundation of water dwellings are built based on three main principles: 1) a log float; 2) boat or barge; 3) empty oil drums or pontoons ( Figure 4.8).

The floating houses of the village are of various sizes and types depending on the owner’s economic conditions and their purposes. Some of the floating houses are built on a platform which is made of empty oil drums or expanded polystyrene pontoon, whereas others are designed like rafts and simply float on the water.

Figure 4.8: Types of floating foundations. Source: By author

111

b) Structures

The floating houses which are simple timber post and beam structures are built predominantly from lightweight bamboo, mangrove, and wood. The flooring is made of timber planks or plywood sheets. The roof structure is mostly bamboo-leaf thatching, although corrugated sheet metal applications are often used as a substitute. Exterior and interior non-load bearing partitions are filled in with bamboo or light timber materials. c) Mooring system

There are four types of mooring methods in floating settlements in Vietnam: stilt, chain, a combination between stilt and chain, a combination between chain and ropes (Figure 4.9). The type of mooring system will be chosen according to operating conditions and environmental factors such as waves, wind forces and sea depth. The chain method has the capacity to handle the horizontal forces and displacements, but they perform less good to resist the vertical loads in the condition of intensive vertical movement. In floating settlements on the sea where has deep water and strong wave, local people use a combination between chain and ropes. The stilt

Figure 4.9: Types of moring system in floating settlements in Vietnam. Source: By author

112

method have the capacity to withstand horizontal and vertical loads from the floating structure. It is preferred to use in the water bodies nearby the land where has shallow water and less strong wave.

Lessons:

- Local construction technique: The technology of floating structures depends on owner’s economic conditions. For poor communities, water dwellers can use pontoons or recycled drums, barrels such as empty oil drums, steel drums or airtight plastic cylinder etc. to build floating platforms. Moreover, people can use wood frames or steel frames to fix drums together. It would make floating platforms more stable and durable. For wealthier communities, designers can use innovative floating materials such as polystyrene EPS and concrete. - Using timber or steel post and beam structures or other innovative structures that are light- weighted, flexible and easy to assemble and construct

Material Usage

Materials used in floating houses are simple and delicate. Due to the economic status, water dwellers select locally available materials which are light-weighted and adaptive to climate conditions for setting up low-cost floating houses. Most of the materials used in floating houses come from natural sources and are highly environmentally friendly. The floating houses, simple timber post and beam structures, as mentioned above, are built predominantly from light-weighted bamboo, mangrove, and wood. The climate screens on the facades, gables and roofs are typically made of steel sheets, tin, wood, bamboo, reeds, palm fronds etc. In addition, water dwellers also select recycled materials to build their houses. As mentioned above, some of the floating houses are built on a platform which is made of empty plastic/steel oil drums or expanded polystyrene pontoon, whereas others are designed like rafts. However, expanded polystyrene pontoon which is protected by a simple cover such as nylon, plastic or jute bags. Therefore, expanded polystyrene is especially damaging to the environment because it’s broken down into small pieces floating on the water. Researchers claim that for the breakdown of Styrofoam in the environment range from 500 to 1 million years. Therefore, in recent years, many local authorities have banned the use of expanded polystyrene pontoon for floating houses in order to protect the environment. Instead of expanded polystyrene, plastic

113

and wood or friendly environmental materials have been encouraged to use for the floating platform. Moreover, using recycled materials is an effective solution to reduce the cost of houses to provide affordable floating houses in accordance with the economic status of water dwellers in Vietnam.

Unique Features

Figure 4.10: Natural ventilation of floating Figure 4.11: Sloping roof structure of floating houses houses. Source: By author Source: By author Source: by author

Figure 4.12: The facade of floating houses are made of bamboo wickerwork screen, wood latticework, and reed weaves

Source: T.T. Trang Nguyen, 2016

Lessons on improving the microclimate environment: Design for natural ventilation and minimum insulation standards.

114

- The organisation of architecture spaces is flexible and open to increase ventilation and reduce the level of humidity. - Sloping roofs on two sides with steep slopes provide a rapid drainage of rainwater. Roofing materials utilise natural resources such as wood, bamboo, reeds, palm fronds etc. which are light-weighted and have a high foam thickness needed for effective insulation and ventilation. Moreover, roof ventilation draws the heat out. The roof structure is mostly bamboo-leaf thatching, although nowadays, corrugated sheet metal applications are often used as a substitute (Figure 4.11). - The facades of the floating houses are often designed to allow air and gusts of wind to pass through the material, which typically includes variants of wickerwork, latticework and reed weaves, in order to make the houses as pleasant as possible in day and night time such as doors, screens or windows etc. (Figure 4.12). - Water dwellers maximise the area of windows (e.g. louvres) which should be shaded from the sun and protected from the rain. Windows are designed in the way to be able to catch the breeze and to be left open in wet conditions, such as louvres or using an awning to shade windows as well as provide rain protection. Large entry doors can be opened and expanded under hot weather conditions. - The shaded patio or porch, which is a transitional buffer space between the interior and exterior of the floating houses protects from flying rainwater and direct solar radiation. Floating houses can also take in plenty of cool air and sunshine, while being protected from cold winds.

4.1.4 Conclusion

Through the current status analysing of floating settlements, the research concludes the problems of floating settlements in Vietnam which need to be sold as followings:

. Lacks of governance and planning . Lacks of infrastructures, public buildings, educational and recreational facilities, children playground, medical services etc. . Low income and quality of human living . Simple floating technique: using simple and unstable structures and materials . Lack of water and energy supply systems, sanitation system etc. . Environmental pollution 115

On the other hand, through analysing the four components of the architecture of floating houses in Vietnam, the research accumulates various helpful lessons for the design of floating houses and floating communities such as a lesson on microclimate, lesson about garden and plants, lesson on local and friendly environmental materials, and lesson on how to use natural resources etc. These lessons established basically the vernacular architecture of floating settlements in Vietnam.

In order to develop the sustainable concept of floating houses and floating settlements, designers should propose solutions to minimise the drawbacks of floating villages as well as maximise benefits of potential development. Preserve and develop precious values of vernacular architecture which adapted to the climate, cultural and socio-economic conditions of local areas is one of the most significant design solution approaching to the sustainable development of floating settlements in Vietnam.

4.2 Redefine of sustainable floating settlements

Figure 4.13: Framework of a sustainable floating settlements in Vietnam. Source: By author 116

In the third chapter, the author created a critical review of contemporary approaches to a sustainable floating community and general frameworks for sustainable floating building, floating communities with global practice. In this chapter, based on the result of the third chapter and based on the characteristic analysis of the floating settlements in Vietnam, the research redefines and establishes the particular framework for sustainable floating settlements in Vietnam. The main goal of the sustainable development is to secure and enhance the quality of life, which is defined by three intertwined elements Livability, Sustainability and Resiliency [P. Jamnický, 2006].

A sustainable floating settlement should focus on a balance between the overlapping values of environmental quality, social equity (including cultural values) and economic viability while devising policies. In recent years, the aquaculture industry has exploded with the emergence of floating villages in Vietnam. Aquaculture development contributes greatly to the economic growth of coastal and delta areas. In spite of this, there is a trade-off between environmental quality and economic viability in floating villages in Vietnam. The uncontrol rapid growth of aquaculture and population affects negatively to the environmental quality, as well as negatively impacting social sustainability. Furthermore, environmental degradation harms human health and reduces living standards of water dwellers that affects negatively to social sustainability. As the result, there is a need to protect the environment along with economic development. Environmental performance assessments engaging with the development of local livelihoods can play a key role in forming and planning sustainable floating settlements.

Institutional quality plays a key role in making the balance between social, economic and environmental sustainability. However, as mentioned above, the most prominent issue of floating settlement development in Vietnam is the lack of governance. The lack of specific regulations and policies for operation and management of floating houses is one of the main causes that leads to other weaknesses in environmental, social and economic issues. Therefore, the framework for the sustainable development of floating settlements in Vietnam will be established in accordance with global practice, covering three aspects of economy, society and environment, however with governance as an overarching principle (Figure 4.13).

To secure and enhance the quality of life for water dwellers, the main considerations of environmental quality, social equity and econmic viability would be as below:

117

Environmental quality

- Promotion of environmental management, improving environmental policy formulation and implementation in floating settlements - Protection of water environment and aquatic ecosystem, promoting waste management systems and sanitation system to reduce the air and water pollution; - Promotion and management of natural resource use; Promotion of renewable energy resource use - Promotion of local environmental adaptation, promoting durability of materials and stability of floating technologies - Improving climate change adaptation of floating settlements

Social equity

- Improving social facilities, health care service and education for water dwellers (providing playground, kindergartens and schools for children); and securing benefits, burdens, and decision-making shared equally among residents of a floating settlement - Preserve and promote local culture, promote the communal character of a floating settlement - Establishing good governance for the operation and management of the floating house and floating settlement development

Economic viability

- Design cost-efficient floating buildings using innovative and affordable floating technologies and materials - Developing sustainable livelihood for local people: ecotourism, aquaculture, floating agriculture, handcrafting etc. - Improving potential development for floating houses such as new kind of accommodations for residence and tourism; resilient houses etc.

From the above, it becomes apparent that the technological innovation of floating houses contributes to the overall environmental, economic and socio-cultural sustainability of floating settlements. Technological innovation improves the use of resources, the efficiency of processes, and reduces the environmental impact on floating buildings, as well as reduces the 118

human impact on nature by minimizing energy consumption and waste or by controlling effects. The innovation improves the quality of life and involves a change in social behaviour for the residents of floating settlements. In addition, integrating technological innovation in policy, aims to ensure the best condition to achieve sustainability of economy, environment and socio culture [Andreea Constantinescu, 2014].

In accordance with policies regarding economic, environmental and social sustainability, as well as technological innovation, vernacular architecture is the main core of design strategies for sustainablefloating settlements in Vietnam . Vernacular architecture evolved, reflecting the environmental, cultural, technological, and historical context of a specific location on which it was built [Nguyen and Reiter, 2017]. During some decades living on the water, the inhabitants of floating villages have evolved bioclimatic methodologies and systems for mitigating the effects of adverse weather conditions and adapting to local climate and nature. Architectural solutions of floating houses for each region are directly reflected in the environmental conditions, cultural traditions and livelihood of local areas. The vernacular architecture plays a vital role in sustainable development of floating settlements in Vietnam. The use of bioclimatic methodologies, local materials and techniques of construction are the most relevant features of vernacular architecture of each region. It needs to be optimised and developed following responses of environment, social culture, economy and technology approach to sustainability.

According to the study of chapter 3, the main design strategies of sustainable floating buildings include four factors: Seft-sufficience, Efficiency, Adaptation and Livability. However, most water dwellers in Vietnam have low income. And in general, Vietnam is a developing country, thus the affordable cost of floating houses must be considered. As the result, the main design strategies for sustainable floating settlements in Vietnam should contain five factors: 1) Seft- sufficience: including abilities to secure sufficient food, sufficient water, sufficient energy and sufficient waste treatment; 2) Efficiency: including effective protection of environment, prudent use of nature resources/ renewable energies, and increasing profitability and productivity of floating buildings; 3) Adaptation: including adaptation with local conditions (environment, socio-culture, economy, architecture), and adaptation with climate change and social change; 4) Livability: including the provision of comfortable living conditions, enhance of education, social activities and socio welfare that contribute to community, and protection

119

of human health; 5) Affordability: including affordable construction, operation, and maintenance of floating houses (Figure 4.14).

Figure 4.14: The architectural design strategies of floating settlements in Vietnam. Source: By author

Based on creating the framework and the architectural strategies for sustainable floating settlements, the author proposes general architectural design guideline for sustainable floating houses in Vietnam as table 4.1 below:

120

Table 4.1 Sustainable design guidelines for floating settlements. Source: By author

Architectural design

Landscape/Organisation of space  Planning of floating villages has to be in accordance with local planning  Developing concepts for floating communities including family floating houses, educational and recreational facilities such as schools, clinics, markets and public buildings etc.  Developing the cluster of floating houses  The location of floating houses: less influenced by strong winds, have a slow water flow, have a low salinity and which are convenient for transportation  The organisation of architectural spaces should be flexible and open to increase ventilation and to reduce the level of humidity  The main block frequently faces south to welcome the cool prevailing wind. The southern direction also prevents the house from solar radiation from the east and west and a cold wind from the North in winter in the North and central coastal zones  Offering spaces for social support provision to enjoy water leisure, nature view, landmark and social activities  Developing floating garden concepts

Architectural features  Considering about local socio-culture and vernacular architecture  Considering design solutions adapting to climate change and rising sea level  Architectural elements should be designed for natural ventilation, minimum insulation standards and adapted to tropical climate (patio, porch, door, window, roof etc.)  The form of floating houses should ensure their stable position on the water

121

 Safety equipment: The floating building must have appropriate life safety devices and firefighting equipment suitable for marine use.

Material  Natural and local materials  Lightweight materials, durable materials  Recycled materials with high corrosion protection

Structure  Load-bearing structure: prefabricated, modular structures and lightweight structures  Floating structures: safe, stable, high strength, high buoyance, high corrosion protection  Moring systems: flexible, high strength, high corrosion protection

Utilities

Energy  Using renewable energy (from water, the solar, wind, recycling waste, etc.)  Energy efficiency: minimise energy providing for heating and cooling system, air- condition, thermal isolation, sound insulation

Waste  Installing waste treatment system  Waste recycling for transferring to energy

Water  Using natural water resource  Treating and recycling wastewater for usage in daily life

122

4.3. Innovations of floating structures

As the above mention, one main objective of architectural strategies for sustainable floating houses in Vietnam is to create affordable floating houses which use local materials, local technique or affordable technical innovation. Through the analysis of the characteristic of floating houses in Vietnam and the analysis of references of floating technologies in with global practice, the author accumulated affordable and feasible floating technologies which can be applied in floating houses in Vietnam.

According to chapter 2, there are basically two types of floating foundations for floating buildings: floating pontoon platform and hollow basement. Using a floating pontoon platform, including pontoon or barge type, is the most common method of floating buildings nowadays. The advantages of pontoon and barge type are generally cost-effective with low manufacturing costs as well as being easy to construct and maintain. Therefore in this research, the author will focus on the possibilities to apply pontoons for the floating foundation of a floating house in Vietnam.

The pontoon and barge are made from many kinds of material such as plastic, steel, aluminium, concrete, wood, event recycled materials etc. The pontoons are connected to create a floating platform for a house. The technology and materials of the floating pontoon platform would correspond to owner’s economic condition and environmental characteristics of local regions.

In Vietnam nowadays, most water dwellers use plastic or steel septic tanks as buoy materials for floating platforms. Moreover, they also use some kinds of pontoons which include a cover made of plastic, concrete or metal and the hollow part inside. The inner hollow part of the pontoon is filled with Styrofoam or EPS (Expanded Polystyrene) to ensure the pontoon continues to float if its cover is leaking. Filling of the pontoons from debris or old foam pieces is not acceptable. And the pontoon made of Styrofoam or EPS without a cover is also not acceptable, because Styrofoam and polystyrene would be broken down and release styrene monomers into water and effect to the environment [Ministry of Transport Vietnam, 2014].

In present times, the most popular materials in use for floating foundations are steel, concrete, steel-concrete composite, advanced concrete, and plastics. Since water tightness of concrete is important to avoid or limit corrosion of the reinforcement, either watertight concrete or offshore concrete should be used [Hosam et al. .2010]. During this chapter, there will be an 123

exposition of contemporary materials with the potential of being used for the floating foundation of floating buildings. There will be an assessment of material’s properties and their suitability or not in the project. The criteria on which will be based the comparative is explained in table 4.2. After creating the general assessment of feasible materials, an assessment of the shapes and forms of the foundation blocks would be carried out. Then different options will be explained and compared including the calculations of loading capacity, cost estimation, environmental impact, and the drawings in terms of pontoon extend or modify the arrangement according to the shape or berthing capacity required even after installation. Sustainability, affordability are the most important issues and shall be taken into account on every step of choosing suitable and feasible kinds of pontoons for the floating foundation. A large floating structure is inevitably constructed by connecting many pontoons. The connecting method is important because it is related to the safety of the structure.

Table 4.2. The possibilities of feasible and affordable pontoons

Using recycled materials

Plastic beverage bottles / Sealed metal or plastic oil drums

Floating platform made from plastic bottles Floating platform made from plastic oil drums. Source: By author Source: By author

Positives Negatives

 Low-cost construction: No initial cost;  No quantified data on buoyancy properties post-consumer reuse  It may create excessive rocking due to  Wide availability resistance to waves.

124

 Provides mobility and rebound above  It will progressively disintegrate if faulty any tide or flood level units are not replaced

Plastic pontoons

Floating platform made from plastic pontoons. Source: By author

Positives Negatives

 Flexible and easy to construct and  The quality and life feature of plastic assemble pontoon depend on chemical and aquatic  Resistant to seawater properties  Low maintenance  Non-sustainable to produce which include  Low cost toxic chemicals and dioxins that cause to health issues and environmental pollution

Metal pontoons

Steel

Steel pontoon. Source: https://www.europontoons.com/

125

Positives Negatives

 The ratio of strength to weight and  Not sustainable to produce  also it stands both compression and tension forces  Durability: steel is fire resistant; this reduces the conservation costs.  Recyclable steel that is produced nowadays contains about 60 % of recycled steel.

Aluminium

Aluminum pontoon. Source: https://www.sylvanmarine.com/

Positives Negatives

 Lightness: aluminium density is almost  Health issues: aluminium can affect the three times lower than steel. blood-brain barrier, and some people  Corrosion resistance: While steel needs might be allergic to it. to be protected against corrosion,  Effects on the environment: aluminium aluminium resists it by itself. might cause effects on plant growth on  Recyclable aluminum is 100 % acid soils. recyclable

Conclusion Metal pontoon has advantages such as strong and affordable and wide recycling possibility. However, metal is not sustainable to produce and effects on the environment and human’s health. Steel can be used for the reinforced bars to tight the different parts of the structure together. At the same time, aluminium is a possibility for covering the outside part of the blocks in case the inner material does not stand the effects of water.

Concrete pontoons

126

Concrete EPS

This pontoon is based on a core of EPS and a concrete shell. It has positive and negative characteristics as following [KKM Ko ,2015]

EPS floating body with a concrete shell. Source: K.K.M. Ko ,2015

Positives Negatives

 Unsinkable  No internal space  Low self-weight, high buoyant capacity  Less stable compared with caissons  Small draught  Lack of structural strength  High durability/low maintenance  Construction on the water possible  Different shapes relative easy possible - works insulating

Concrete Caison

A caisson is a large concrete box. It has positive and negative characteristics as following [KKM Ko ,2015]

a) b)

Caisson pontoon: a) Preumatic caisson b)Standard caisson Source: K.K.M. Ko ,2015

Positives Negatives

 Many experiences in the development  Little buoyant capacity of the structure  Large draught  Large weight stability  Sinkable  Internal space available

127

 Relatively cheap  High durability/low maintenance

Foam concrete

It is a mixture including foam, cement and water. Cement and water are mixed and will undergo a chemical compound through which the water is consumed, and it can no more to be released.

The use of foamconcrete for affordable floating houses in Colombia. Source: Pieter Kromwijk, 2014

Positives Negatives

 Unsinkable  Not completely watertight  Low self-weight, high buoyant capacity  Might conclude air bubble  Small draught  High durability/low maintenance  Construction on the water possible  Different shapes relative easy possible - works insulating

Conclusion

In an aspect of cost and stability, concrete pontoons would be feasible and affordable for floating houses in Vietnam. However, it is necessary to improve and optimise Positives  Resistant to corrosion due to salty water  Low cost of maintenance  High durability when compared to other materials  Lower costs in comparison to steel  Low center of gravity which helps stability  The high mass of the moment of inertia helping stability  Good insulation Negatives  Heavier when compared to other materials  The water tightness is an important characteristic of concrete to avoid or limit corrosion of the reinforcement.

128

Recently, researchers all over the world have been investigating and improving innovative materials and types of pontoons regarding sustainability and affordability. Investigating low cost and local friendly materials and floating technologies for floating structures is one of the most important strategies toward the sustainable development of floating architecture in Vietnam. In addition to those mentioned above, some other potential materials such as wood or bioplastic, which have been being investigated in global practices, could be also suitable and feasible to apply for floating houses in Vietnam. These new materials need to be studied and combined with local materials to optimise their chemical characteristics which are matched with environmental and climate conditions in Vietnam as well as to reduce their cost.

As the above assessment table 4.2, concrete is a viable and potential material which can be used for floating houses in Vietnam in the future. The water tightness is an important characteristic of concrete to avoid or limit corrosion of the reinforcement. Moreover, high- performance concrete consisting of fly ash and silica fume is most appropriate in corrosive saltwater. That is suitable and effective to use concrete for many floating settlements locating on the sea in Vietnam. In many developed countries, concrete pontoons are used popularly in floating construction, but the price of the concrete pontoon is relatively high. For Vietnam, besides durability, low cost is also a significant factor determining the success of the product. Concrete has a long life and good durability. Therefore it will be an innovative, effective solution for application if it is possible to replace some auxiliary structures of pontoon with wood or bamboo materials which are local and cheap in Vietnam. In fact that, the researches and constructions related to the concrete foundation for floating houses have been conducted in Vietnam in recent years, but only on a small scale as a private company that has not been paid much attention. This leads to the need for specific and comprehensive research of several types of floating foundations combining concrete and wood. In this context, the author has been working on the project HyPon: “Development and Production of Floating Platforms in Hybrid Construction Consisting of Timber-Concrete Composite Structures“has been being carried out by BTU Cottbus Sentenberg and other German and Vietnamese partners since 2020. The R&D project provided by MOST (Ministry of Science and Technology of Vietnam), and by the BMWi’s ZIM programme ( Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Energy of Germany) for three years. In a hybrid construction, the advantages of both materials are optimized and used for a floating platform. Based on the experiences of the global practices and cooperating between German and Vietnamese experts, the research and manufacture of high-performance

129

concrete and wood materials from local sources in Vietnam are one of the most important tasks of the project. The new kinds of pontoon would be innovative optimal modular products which have sustainability and competitive prices that towards being capable of mass-market application in next years.

In addition, upcoming investigations of other pontoon materials such as plastic, metal, recycled materials etc. which toward eco-architecture and affordability should be considered to develop. Moreover, the progress of creating pontoon should be engaged with the new feasible and effective methods of connecting systems of pontoons and mooring system.

4.4. Conclusion

Viet Nam is one of the Asian countries which is historically renowned for the original local principles of water dwellings. Through a long term period of existence, water dwellings in Viet Nam have shown several strengths as much as weaknesses. The existence of dilapidated water dwellings without planning and organization has affected negatively to environment, landscape and standard quality of life of inhabitants. Eventually, the government has been considering the migration projects for water dwellings moving on the land and erasement project of illegal slum water dwellings. However, the implementation process of migration project has shown many drawbacks, such as consuming a huge budget for the building of resettlement villages, and for a job training programme for water dwellers who only know to earn a living by fishing or doing other works on the water, and therisk of losing the traditional culture of aquatic lifestyle etc. Furthermore, in the near future when the land of coastal areas is being limited due to rising sea level and rapid growth of population, migration strategy would not be an effective and long term solution for water dwellers. Therefore, instead of migration, government and experts would research a concept of floating community toward to sustainable development, including sustainability in urban planning, local culture and environment.

Based on the innovative principles of sustainable floating architecture in global practices and the context of the economy, socio-culture, environment, indigenous architecture and the policy mechanism of Vietnam, the author created the framework for sustainable floating settlement in Vietnam. The main goal of the sustainable development is to secure and enhance the quality of life under the impact of climate change and social change which is defined by three intertwined elements Livability, Sustainability and Resiliency. According to the framework, the author

130

proposes the architectural design guideline and feasible floating technologies for floating houses in Vietnam. This framework and design guideline are further substantiated and adjusted through the application in three case studies of floating settlements in Vietnam in next chapters. And in the last chapter, the guidelines and the design criteria for the sustainable development of floating buildings and floating settlements in Vietnam will be created.

Figure 4.15: Targeted input and output of the sustainable floating settlements in Vietnam. Source: By author

131

PART 2: Case studies in Vietnam

The case study methodology was chosen based on the thesis research questions that mentioned in chapter one. The approach allows for an in-depth examination of the problems of floating settlements and for an exploration of the diverse and potential applications of floating architecture in Vietnam. In addition, through the case studies, the framework for sustainable development of floating settlement which was done in chapter 4 will be examined and completed. The results of case studies will contribute to the design guideline for the sustainable development of floating settlement in Vietnam that will be presented in the last chapter of thesis.

As mentioned in chapter one, the case study methodology was guided by two phases: explanatory phase; and exploration phase. The explanatory phase comprises severals methods (literature search, survey, interviews, observation etc.) and exploratory phase comprises one method (participatory action research). Based on mentioned methods, the explanatory phase focused on identification of the research problem and an analytical site survey to document environmental, economic, socio- cultural and architectural characteristics, as well as the synthesis of current demands. The findings from the explanatory phase established a theoretical and factual basis for the exploratory phase. The exploratory phase focused on a design of a participatory action research based on applying the theoretical framework of sustainable floating house and floating settlement in Vietnam, and the synthesis of the findings from the explanatory phase. Various tools of research methods were designed and adapted for each case study according to local development practices and policies. The specific tools and study process will be presented in detail in each case study in next chapters.

132

Chapter 5 - Case study in Cua Van, Halong bay: Developing floating village as a unique tourism attraction

5.1 Introduction

Ha Long Bay- the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Heritage Site on Vietnam's northeastern seacoast, is considered one of the world's most beautiful bays. This bay is also famous for many floating fishing villages where the people live together on the sea as a community. However, due to rapid population growth in the floating villages, urban planning lacks, shortages of waste management and floating infrastructures, Halong Bay had suffered the pressure of environmental pollution and resource degradation. Since 2014, in order to protect the UNESCO World Heritage Site, the local authority has planned a project to demolish the floating villages and move these communities to the mainland. In fact, the demolition project has caused the loss of cultural heritage and a tourist attraction in Ha Long Bay. Thus, instead of demolishing floating houses, local government needs to consider new sustainable concept for a floating settlement as a long term solution to solve the problems of floating villages in Halong Bay. The proposed concept would ensure stable and permanent living on the water for water dwellers, reduce human induced impacts on the environment as well as an increasing livelihood income by tourism development.

5.1.1 The research aim

Deriving on demands of tourists and local residents, the aim of this study is to preserve, revive and promote floating villages as a unique culture heritage and tourist attraction. The main goal is to propose a sustainable concept of living space organisation for Cua Van, the largest floating village in Ha Long Bay. In providing a detailed analysis of environmental, socio-cultural, economic, architectural characteristics of Cua Van, this study does not only accumulate precious traditional values that need to be preserved and developed in the proposed concept, but also illustrates its weaknesses that need to be addressed to optimally design the future sustainable floating village. Based on these studies, as well as on general principles of a sustainable floating community and promoting eco-tourism, the study proposes a living space concept for Cua Van, including solutions to both a sustainable floating community adapting to climate change and eco-tourism development. The study focuses on two objectives:

133

requirements for a sustainable floating community, and requirements for eco-tourism development. The future floating village would include floating family homes, public institutions such as schools, medical clinics, markets, and tourist services that enable a stable and permanent living on the water for residents, reduce human induced impacts on the environment as well as guarantee an increasing livelihood income by tourism development.

5.1.2 Methodology

The author defined and designed the work plan for the case study by a field trip. In this case study, the explanatory phase focused on:

- Identification of the research problem, analyzing and synthesizing the historical research back ground and current situation of Cua Van floating village. - Investigation of the needs of the inhabitants in the future. - Site investigation and site observation to determine which aspects of floating houses and floating village to describe and to analyse.

Severals methods were used for data collection in explanatory phase: literature search developing historical background, on-site observations, local people interview and questionnaire. The tools used were searching archive documentation, sketching, recording, photographing, video filming, and field notes. The findings from this phase established a theoretical and factual basis of climate features, environmental adaptations, vernacular architecture, inhabitants' needs and traditions for next designing step of the exploratory phase. The exploratory phase focused on:

- Designing sustainbale solutions for the planning of floating village by applying the theoretical sustainable floating community in the chapter 4 and the synthesis of the findings from the explanatory phase - Designing a model of sustainable floating housing units - Evaluation designing concept of living space organization for Cua Van floating village and verification of the theoretical sustainable framework of floating house and floating settlement using the findings from the explanatory phase and exploratory phase

The main method used in the exploratory phase was participatory action research consisting of local authority meeting, design working, and meetings with participants. 134

The methods together with tools and techniques used in the case studies will be summarized in the below diagram.

Figure 5.1: Diagram showing case study methodology applying a dual approach consisting of two phases: a descriptive explanatory phase followed by an exploratory phase. Source: By author

135

5.2 Case study analysis

5.2.1 Background

Curent situation of Cua Van village

Ha Long Bay is located in the Gulf of Tonkin, Ha Long city, Quang Ninh province in the Northeastern Vietnam. This bay is not only famous for more than 1960 limestone islands, grottos and caves, but also well-known for floating villages which are cultural heritage and tourist attraction in Ha Long Bay. It was a home for four residential areas of fishermen, which is dozens of kilometers away from the mainland. According to a report, carried out by the Quang Ninh Provincial People’s Committee in 2012, there were 650 floatinghouses of 623 households with 2420 residents living in the bay. In particular, there were 133 legal floating households, one floating class and one floating library in CuaVan. Their main livelihood depended on fishing and aquaculture – raising fish and shellfish. The report also illustrated the rapid growth of floating houses numbers: in January 2004 there were 459 floating houses, in September 2005 the number rose to be 537 and March 2007 to 618 [Quang Ninh Provincial People’s Committee, 2012]. An enormous number of floating houses and tourist development had caused environment pollution and marine resource degradation. The existence of floating villages led to difficulties to control water population and to the protection of biological diversity in Ha Long Bay. Furthermore, lack of urban planning and a significant number of tourist ships affected the performance of the transport system of the floating villages in the bay.

Table 5.1 Number tourists at attractions of Halong bay. Source: State of conservation reported by the State Party, Ha Long Bay Vietnam, 38th session of the World Heritage Committee

136

Facing the situation, since 2014 the local authority has devised a plan for the demolition of the floating villages and to move these communities to the mainland in order to protect the UNESCO World Heritage Site. In fact, the demolition project has caused the loss of cultural heritage, tourist attractions in Ha Long Bay, and also has brought its own many problems.

For most foreign visitors, the Cua Van fishing village is one of the most essential stops in Ha Long Bay. The huge number of visitors that traveled to see the village while being in Ha Long Bay (table 5.1). The distinctive traditional lifestyle of the villagers is a unique component of Vietnamese identity. The beauty of the floating village is still depicted in tourist handbooks, even though the fishing village has been wiped. Nowadays, some fishermen were invited back to CuaVan to take tourists on boat tours to explore the bay, even though there are few good quality floating houses remaining (Figure 5. 3(a)). Their daily tasks are to open and close the doors of floating houses. This activity is not able to make much sense to attract tourists, because the house has no life. Instead of visiting each home, drinking tea and chatting with fishermen etc. as before, now tourists just sit on boats and travel on the outer ring of the floating houses. Therefore, many travelers have been disappointed and regretted the loss of floating villages in Ha Long Bay.

137

Current Situation of Cua Van villagers

Since 2014, the Province had been relocating of the raft houses on Halong Bay to the planned resettlement area in Ha Phong Ward, Ha Long City with a total land area of 7.92 hectares meeting needs of totally 364 apartments for floating villagers of CuaVan and other floating villages [Quang Ninh Provincial People’s Committee, 2014]. The puplic infracstructures and puplic services are improved, e.g. transportation, electricity, education, and healthcare. Nevertheless, it is not easy for fishermans to intergrate into a new environment. They mostly face financial problems due to unemployment.

From a very young age, water dwellers have only practiced fishing, and earned their livelihood income from fishing and aquaculture. Most of them did not go to school, and it is difficult for them to find a job on the main-land. According to the author’s survey, September 2016, on 50 households who were floating villagers in CuaVan and now live in resettled areas located in Ha Phong ward, Ha Long city, there are 21% unemployed, only 11% of households have a salary of over 100 euro per month (Figure 5.4), and 92% of households are in debt. Some of them have to go back to the ocean for offshore fishing, and they rarely visit their houses inland. Some work in other towns. The atmosphere of the resettle area is often quiet in comparison with the bustlinge life of the floating villages. Villagers also lost their traditional life-style and cultural activities relating to ocean.

According to the author’s survey, a significant number of 50 households (84%) would like to go back to their floating village, that inludes 30% residents who desire returning to permanent living on the sea and 70% of the residents who desire to work on the floating village while their family remain on land. These 70% of the residents are concerned about a lack in quality of living standards on the water. They dream of a sustainable floating village including necessary infrastructures such as healthcare, school, market, energy supply, sanitation, which enable a stable life as one on mainland. In addition, 88% of the residents would like to combine fishing and aquarculture with eco-tourism business to improve their livelihood.

138

Figure 5.4: Income of population Source: By author (Author’s survey which have made by 50 households who were floating villagers and now they are living in resettle area located in Ha Phong ward, Ha Long city, September 2016)

5.2.2 Factors affecting the living space organization of Cua Van

Environment

Cua Van is blessed by the beautiful natural scenery of abundant flora and fauna. It is situated on a calm water area and surrounded by Van Gia lime-stone mountains. This is a safe location for boats and cruise ships to avoid storm (Figure 5.5(a)). In the past, there were not any sewage systems or septic tanks for toilets in the floating houses. Everything went directly into the water. In order to protect the environment, Ha Long Bay Management Department used a ship everyday to collect and move waste into the main-land for treatment. Conversely, this solution was not totally helpful in solving the sanitation problem in Cua Van while the number of floating houses with fish cages were rapidly growing. Domestic and business wastes which still entered the sea and floated on the water surface led to water and air pollution. The smell and bacteria in the sewage created health hazards for the water dwellers. In addition, due to lack of environmental protection consciousness, tourists also threw their waste directly into the sea such as food waste, plastic water bottles that led to polluted water and environment in Cua Van. Nowaday, even without floating villages, Ha Long Bay environment is still affected and polluted by tourist activities (Figure 5.5(b)). Toxic-organic waste, plastic, and polystyrenes waste destroy the marine ecosystem, marine plant life and killed many fish species.

139

a) b)

Figure 5.5: a) Environment of Cua Van village b) Garbage floating on the sea, Ha Long Bay Source: Photos taken by author 9-2016

According to Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, Vietnam is one of the few countries that will be severely affected by climate change and rising sea levels. By the end of 21st century, temperature in Vietnam would rise 2.3 ° C relative to the average of 1980-1999 [Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, 2009]. The increasing temperature will lead to the risk of storms, formed by high temperatures and abundant moisture areas, in Cua Van in particular and Vietnam in general, that residents will have to cope with. In addition, by mid of the 21st century sea level is expected to increase about 30cm and by 2100 sea level would rise about 75cm compared to the period 1980-1999 [Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, 2009]. This rise will have a negative impact on the Cua Van because it will lead to reduction in mountain height compared to sea level and will lead to considerable restriction of wind shadow areas (Figure 5.6). As a result, the mountains’ wind and storm deterrence will be reduced. The floating villagers will have to struggle with powerful and destructive storms more than in the past.

140

Figure 5.6: Wind shadow area Source: By author

Social- Culture

Water dwellers often settled in safe and calm locations where they are protected by high mountains and less affected by wind. Due to the harsh and erratic characteristics of fishing and the struggle with natural environment for survival on the sea, the need for mutual assistance among fishing community members increased. As a traditional characteristic of floating village in Vietnam, Cua Van village also respected family and professional relationships. In a water based hamlet, people with the same family name always used the same fishing gear and gather together to form a hamlet. Some five or more family floating houses were always moored together. After a working day, they often made social activities together such as cooking, eating, and chatting. They also went offshore fishing together by their boats.

Located separately from the mainland, the fishing village lacked social facilities such as healthcare, school, and recreation. The whole village Cua Van did not have a nursery school. Therefore, villagers had to spend time to taking care of their children at home themselves which affected their family work and income. Moreover, dwellers lack of education, communication, and social knowledge due to a mobilized live on the water.

With a life on the sea, traditions of fishing communities have unique and distinct features, such as religious, river experiences, special wedding ceremonies, funerals, worship, and fisheries

141

festivals etc. The performance of traditional music called “hat gheo” and “hat cheo duong” are special form of oratorio with many endemic folk songs of Halong, which is a special tourist attraction feature in Cua Van (Figure 5.7(a);(b)). Beliefs and religions are very important for fishermen, because of the living conditions on the sea, the struggle with nature. Water dwellers would set up Buddha prayer niches in the tiniest space of a floating house (Figure 5.7(c);(d)). However, living in the resettlement on main-land, most of the traditions and the cultural activities of the water dweller could disappear.

Figure 5.7: Traditional culture of Cua Van a) Wedding ceremonies; b) Traditional musical performance; c) Buddha prayer niche in the family floating house Source: Ha Long Bay management department d) A temple existing in Cua Van village. Source: Photo taken by author 9-2016

142

Economic

Fishing is a traditional profession and the main livelihood for villagers in Cua Van. Through generaions, water dwellers accumulated vasts experiences with weather, hydrology, habits of fish species and the catching methods. People who were considered blood-related or had a professional relationship periodically went fishing offshore together with their own boats. Like in ancient time, men went for fishing, and women stayed at home and took care of fish cages surrounding their houses. Marine fishing farm also played an essential role in the villager’s livelihood. In recent years, the government of Vietnam has considered mariculture as a priority in its overall strategy for marine economic development. As a result, villagers were supported to breed indigenous marine finfish species in cages as family small-scale fishing farms. The wooden cage construction is simple, with typical rectangular frame dimensions of 3 x 3 m. The cages are often assembled into “rafts” of four or more cages [Nhu Van Can & Pham Anh Tuan, 2012]. Marine fishing farms are a good solution for future economics development of Cua Van village.

Besides the fishing profession, villagers in Cua Van also gained incomes in several ways such as the service of rowing boats, selling marine products, opening small groceries and small business to serve the villager’s daily life. Moreover, residents made traditional crafts to earn extra money, such as making fishnet fabrics and tools for catching fish. Especially in recent years, more and more tourists have been interested in the floating villages, therefore many villagers have used this opportunity to earn money from tourist services such as selling souvenirs, selling local marine products, and organizing rowing boat tours. The development of eco-tourism would be an effective future solution to improve Cua Van villagers’ income.

Architecture and landscape

Architectural features of the village were impressive with flexible and mobilized floating houses. The house were built on a buoy foundation enabling them easy movement without being fixed at a certain location. Therefore, the spatial organization of the Cua Van fishing village was very random, without urban planning, which also made it easy to change the functional zones of the village (Figure 5.8).

143

Figure 5.8: Arrangement of floating houses in a fishing village, Lan Ha Bay, Cat Ba island, Vietnam Source: Google map

The floating houses were divided into two types: one is used for living and the other for both living and working with cages built under or beside the floating houses for breeding fishes. There were two types of compound housing in a floating village:

- Individual floating houses (Figure 5.9) - Group of attached floating houses (Figure 5.10): The group of attached floating houses included several floating houses which were linked with each other. This was a distinct characteristic of floating villages in Vietnam, and Cua Van is a typical example.

For individual floating houses with fish cages, there are two blocks for different functions: living and auxiliary activities. The main block for living, and the side block for breeding fish, cattle sheds, storage etc. Those functional blocks were linked by terraces. The spatial organisation of main block were divided into two parts. The main part included a living room, possible to be used for business, crafts, Buddha prayer niche, and bedrooms. The secondary part included a kitchen, sheds, toilet, storage space and working places. The potted flowers

144

located in front of the houses, as well as the shaded patio or porch, serve as a transitional buffer space between the interior and exterior of the floating houses to prevent flying rainwater and avoid direct solar radiation. Futhermore, a large shaded patio seems to be an open space used for relaxing, social activities, crafts or business such as cafés, tailor shops, barber shops, etc. This setting created a good microclimate for the house and convenience in daily life. Inside the floating houses, beside common furniture, there were also prominent features such as simple power supply, antennas, generators, ventilators, etc.

The floating houses, which had a simple structure of timber post and beam, were built predominantly from lightweight bamboo and wood. The flooring was usually made of timber planks or plywood sheets. The roof structure was mostly coloured corrugated metal sheets. The exterior and interior were non-load bearing partitions, and were filled in with bamboo or light timber materials.

Figure 5.9: Individual floating house combines with Figure 5.10: A cluster of floating houses, Cat Ba island, fishcages. Source: By author 2016 Vietnam.Source: By author 2016

145

5.2.3 Framework for the sustainable development of ecotourism in Cua Van

Table 5.2 Framework for development of sustainable ecotourism in Cua Van

Ecological framework Culture framework Economic framework - Improvement of - Improvement of local - Improvement of local environmental people awareness about people awareness about consciousness; their existing cultural sustainable development engagement of local and heritage and the methods of economy through indigenous people as to protect it. education. well as tourists in the - Protection and - Improvement of fishing conservation process. restoration of tangible and marine aquaculture - Protection of natural cultural heritage and for both enhancing resources and intangible cultural villager’s livelihood and maintenance of heritage (traditional attracting tourists. biodiversity music, fisher life style, - Improvement of - Consideration to habitat and traditions). traditional crafts. carrying capacity for - Cultural interaction - Development of tourist tourism activities, between host, society, services (boat rowing, products and services in and visitors. tourist accommodation, the floating village. - Combination of ordinary cultural performance, - Improvement of the tourism activities with etc) sanitation condition. compatible cultural - Decline of demands for - Decrease of using fossil activitie. fossil fuels to generate fuel; usage of renewable consumed energy; use of energies. renewable energies.

146

According to the Master Plan for Conservation and Promotion of Ha Long Bay up to 2020, published by the People’s Committee Quang Ninh province, Cua Van village is one of two floating villages proposed to be preserved and developed as a tourist attraction in Ha Long Bay. The fishing village has abundant and unique resources to develop ecotourism:

- Unique indigenous cultural values of living on the sea and indigenous floating architecture. - Natural features and abundant flora and fauna. - Fishing and marine aquaculture in the bay that would provide a sustainable livelihood for villagers and develop local economy.

As such, Cua Van fishing village has great conditions with unique and distinctive features to become an attractive cultural destination for tourists. Based on these potentials, the floating village is appropriate for ecotourism development. Ecotourism is commonly seen as a sustainable development tool that benefits the local community. Developing ecotourism might promote the reduction of poverty. The framework for the sustainable development of ecotourism contains three subsectors: cultural, environmental, and economic frameworks.

Ecotourism is defined by the International Ecotourism Society (TIES, 1990), it is a leading non-governmental organization (NGO), concerning the harmony in environment and well- being of local people. According to TIES (2008), ecotourism unites conservation, communities, and sustainable travel, and should have the aims to:

- Minimize human induced impacts - Build environmental and cultural awareness and respect - Provide positive experiences for both visitors and hosts - Provide direct financial benefits for conservation - Provide financial benefits and empowerment for local people - Raise sensitivity to host countries' political, environmental, and social climate

Based on the potential of tourism development and the framework for the sustainable development of ecotourism, the research proposes solutions for tourism. Visitors can enjoy nature landscapes and explore local culture through experiencing the daily life of villages.

The tourism activities should make a balance between operational capacity, resource consumption and the ecological footprint of tourism products and services [Mahravan, Abbas, 147

2012]. These activities should be organized within ecotour guides1 and managed by the Ha Long Bay Management department in the specific and restricted areas of floating village. To manage and control tourists and minimize their impact on the local environment, the tourism activities should be set up as tours.

The host community also plays an important role in developing ecotourism. Villagers need to be educated about the knowledge of nature conservation and environment protection. On the other hand, one of the main goals of ecotourism is to provide financial benefits and empowerment for local people. Therefore, tourism business should provide financial driving forces to develop infrastructure for the floating community and protect the natural environment in the local area.

As a result, the paper provides several tourism activities promoting the potential of tourism development in Cua Van (Figure 5.11).

- Rowing boat tour - as a sight-seeing tour: Visitors could row small traditional boats to travel around the village with a tour guide who will introduce the environment, history and cultural life style of the village. The use of traditional boats should be encouraged to reduce consumption of fuel and noise. Moreover, visitors also could row kayaks on setting routes. The number of kayaks should be controlled to avoid traffic congestion, which can affect the villager’s daily life. - Climbing tour: The steep limestone mountains with two high peaks that overlook the entire village of Cua Van would be two destinations of mountaineering tours. Nevertheless, Ha Long Bay management department should restrict an area of limestone mountain for mountaineering tours to minimize impact of tourism activities on the natural landscape of the village.

1“Regardless of the setting, however, visitors engaging in ecotourism experiences are generally accompanied by a tour guide. Indeed, Lindberg, Epler-Wood and Engelbrum (1998) suggest that guides are the heart and soul of the ecotourism industry. Ecotour guides have a vital role to play in fostering positive visitor attitudes towards protection and conservation of such environments. In this regard, their environmental knowledge, communication and interpretation skills are critical in facilitating the development of visitor knowledge, attitudes and behaviour as well as in enhancing visitor enjoyment and satisfaction (Ballantyne, Crabtree, Ham, Hughes & Weiler, 2000)” [Roy Ballantyne and Karen Hughes]

148

- Homestay: Recently, homestays have been a very attractive tourism form, which not only provides accommodation services and meals, but also offers an interesting experience of indigenous life. Travelers stay with locals, enjoy their hospitality and engage in daily life with their family such as fishing, crafts, making cast nets, fish breeding, and classifying fish. Through these activities, tourists will get to know the characteristics of fishmen habitat, and local living experience. Travelers have chances to enjoy local cuisine, and various activities such as swimming, rowing boats, climbing, collecting waste on the sea, or exploring the surrounding beautiful nature. In the evening, visitors participate in public cultural activities of villagers and join in traditional music performances. Homestays would be a potential tourism form according to the framework for sustainable development of ecotourism, and also benefit local inhabitants. In this case, the architecture of floating houses would be considered as a tourist attraction to develop ecotourism in the village. However, development of homestays as a tourist accommodation needs the strict and obvious management from local authority agency and also needs to rise the awareness of the local people about their existing cultural heritageand the methods to protect it.

Figure 5.11: Proposed tourism activities for development of ecotourism in Cua Van. Source: By author

149

5.2.4 The framework for a sustainable development of the architecture of floating village

“Architecture is one of the ecotourism products and its main strategy for development is as a segment of the holistic framework for ecotourism. In addition, the main anticipated outcomes for sustainable architecture can be similar to the ecotourism outcomes explained in the framework, but particular activities to achieve these outcomes are related to the field of architecture” [Mahravan, Abbas, 2012].

Table 5.3 Framework for a sustainable development of the architecture of the floating village

Cultural outcomes Productive activities - Improvement of the consciousness of - Development of vernacular architecture local people about the vernacular by using local technologies and materials architecture of floating houses and for eco-friendly construction of floating floating village, which needs to be houses preserved and developed - Development of the cluster of floating - Development of cultural relationships houses based on blood and professional between host communities and visitors relationships as the traditional - Opportunity for visitors to experience characteristics of the floating village the host culture through using its - Development of homestay with architecture and related products accommodation services which - Opportunity for host people to present contribute to close relationships between their intangible cultural products host people and visitors including architecture and its related - Designing open areas and community components space for cultural interaction between host society and visitors - Equal distribution of accommodation services to avoid massing of centralization in a particular place and depression of other areas

Environmental outcomes Productive activities - Conservation of natural resources - Optimizing the size of spaces used for accommodation services

150

- Protection of the environment - Developing sanitation facilities - Using minimal resources and renewable

resources - Using local and durable materials for construction

Economic outcomes Productive activities - Sustainable development of the - Designing the concept of floating houses economy and floating village which would - Decline of villager’s consumption of improve villager’s livelihood by fishing, energy aquaculture, craft and tourist services - Local use; recycled use - Designing cost effective floating houses using shared sanitation, renewable

energies, pre-fabricated structure, local light weight materials, recycled materials, etc - Designing the concept of self-sufficient floating houses

Approaches to climate change adaptation

For coping with climate change, there must be interaction and coordination among the entire community, not only including locals and tourists, but also including the global community. For the Cua Van villagers to gain more knowledge of climate change and its effects, the global community needs to create solutions for communication, education and training. Moreover, local administrative agencies need to establish policies and specific regulations for floating village management involving tourism activities.

One of solutions to cope with climate change is to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by using renewable energy (e.g. solar, wind, and water) instead of burning fossil fuel.

151

Due to climate changes, natural disasters happen more often. Powerful storms and strong waves are typical examples. Some aspects should be taken into account to cope with the catastrophe:

- Consider the local prediction of sea level to choose wind shadow areas as safe locations for the construction of floating buildings, which are calm and protected by high mountains in Ha Long Bay. - Strengthen the structure of floating houses. - Gather individual floating houses together in clusters to strengthen the floating foundation. - Create a reserved area where is the safest area of village to moor the floating houses in emergency situation such as storm, typhoon or hurricane.

5.3 Proposed solutions to space organization of Cua Van

The scope of the design concept is to develop an urban solution for Cua Van floating village on the defined site for 50 households (based on the above mentioned survey of 50 households) with approximately 200 residents. A holistic approach to the sustainable development of Cua Van floating village can make all ecological, cultural and economic dimensions of ecotourism and its sustainable architecture And one of the main goals is to create the concept of a self- sufficient floating village. It is designed to be fully self- sufficient, including energy, water, food, andwaste, by means of renewable energy and natural resources. Self-sufficient floating houses are the core of a sustainable floating village, which includes floating homes, tourism service, and public institutions such as schools, medical clinics, markets etc. In order to develop a concept of sustainable floating villages, designers should propose solutions to solve the drawbacks of floating villages as well as preserve and develop precious values of environmental, socio-cultural, economic, architectural characteristics of Cua Van.

5.3.1 Planning

Site planning

Based on the characteristics of the landscape and mentioned frameworks for a sustainable floating community, Cua Van village is divided into the functional areas as follows (Figure 5.12):

152

(A) The tourist reception area: including several floating houses providing tourist services such as booking tours and accommodation, café, and souvenir shops.

(B) Accommodation areas for both local people and tourists located in the large wind shadow area of centre village. This area offers to build floating clusters for local people’s living, and some of them include “home stay” as tourist accommodation.

In order to avoid massing of centralization in a particular place and depression of other areas, this area could also comprise random distributions of general stores, post offices, barbershops, tailors, recreational facilities, café, etc which cater the villager’s daily demand. These facilities can be built as separate floating houses or floating homes owners can use a part of their house for business activities.

(C) Public building area: including public buildings such as schools, centre clinics, culture houses that provide cultural activities, education and health care for both local people and tourists. Now there is still a floating building, so-called Cua Van floating culture center. This building was built in 2006 and was sponsored by the Norwegian government to preserve the cultural values of the fishing village through traditional activities and activities exchanges between local communities and visitors. As the result, the floating culture center is considered as a guide post of public building area and entire space of Cua Van. Area (C) seems to be the most safe zone of Cua Van. Therefore, the paper proposes this part as a reserved area with a low-density housing where people can move floating houses into there to avoid the storm effects in emergency. This open space also can be organized for public cultural activities and traditional music performances as tourist attractions.

(D) Specific fishing farm: for breeding special fish or pearl farms, which need more professional technology and a pure environment.

(E) Waste management station: as local planning established by Quang Ninh Provincial People’s Committee [Quang Ninh Provincial People’s Committee, 2012].

(F) Climbing area: The steep limestone mountains with two high peaks can overlook the entire village of Cua Van and would be two destinations of mountaineering tours.

153

Figure 5.12: Functional zones of planning site of Cua Van village Source: By author

154

Arrangement of floating houses

To preserve and develop a floating community respecting relative and professional relationships as the traditional characteristics of floating village, the research proposes to promote the cluster of floating houses concept, which includes 4 households maximum for those who live with families or with people of different professional relationships. The number of floating houses in a cluster, and its form depend on the characteristic of landscape and owners. Individual floating houses which were built disorderly would be garthered together with a guide post. Linking floating houses together creates a stable associated foundation for houses, which help in the struggle against and adapt to natural disasters. Moreover, living in a cluster, water dwellers can share responsibility and budget for the construction and the maintenance of their facilities, such as sewage systems, and water supply. It is helpful for water dwellers to reduce the cost of sustainable floating houses. The cluster of floating houses would be the basic unit of a floating community.

Each cluster has open space and shared sanitation. The open space is used for many activities such as cultural activities, community events, and indoor activities for children. In addition, the author creates a green space as a community garden in the cluster of floating houses. The community garden not only provide a beautiful landscape, and fence off cold wind and limit heat losses, but also provides fresh vegetables for the house owners year round.

The shared sanitation is a technically and financially viable solution for water dwellers. The number of households should limit to four with international standards [Isabel Gu¨nther et al., 2012]. Living in a cluster of floating houses, the autonomy of water dwellings would not be unambiguous. Their dependence would be reduced in the shared spaces. Therefore, households would have to make a clear distinction between the shared parts and individual parts, and raise their public awareness, respect and responsibility for both the individual parts and the shared parts.

The main livelihoods of floating villagers are fishing and fish farming. Therefore, the concept of space organization of floating houses need to intergrate reasonably and conveniently between living and working. To maintain the characteristic of traditional architecture, as well as to promotethe new ideas for a sustainable floating community, a cluster of floating houses includes (Figure 5.13):

155

 Individual floating houses  Shared areas: - Working terrace: an open and flexible space used for crafts, social activities, drying seafoods and connecting floating houses together. A large terrace alse provides an open space as a safe play ground for children. - Shared sanitation - Community garden - Community space  Floating houses are built as homestays for visitors – optional (depends on financial wishes)  Fish cages - optional (depends on financial wishes)

Figure 5.13: Proposed concept of the plan of a cluster. Source: By author

156

5.3.2 Architectural features

The fundamental goal of design concept is to create a sustainable floating community intergrating within promoting eco-tourism. Vernacular architecture is one of the most significant highlights to attract tourists and develop eco-tourism in floating village. The design solutions aim at using local environmental materials, improving microclimate environment and increasing the stability of floating houses.

As a symbol of Vietnam, bamboo can be applicable as a main material for the construction of floating houses. Indeed, using local materials such as bamboo is appropriate and eco-friendly for tourism and environment. Bamboo buildings can bring tourists fresh air and relax atmostphere [Tony Sofian, Iwan Sudradjat]. Thus, bamboo structure which is lightweight, flexible, and easy to assemble and construct was chosen for floating house construction. Walls are infilled with local lightweight materials such as bamboo wattle, fibreboard, and coconut leaves. The flooring is made of timber planks or plywood sheets. The roof structure is bamboo- leaf thatching. Exterior and interior non-load bearing partitions are filled in with bamboo or light timber materials. The whole structure floats on a matrix of plastic drums, oriented vertically and braced together in a timber and aluminium framework below the base level floor.

With A-frame, the floating house is very durable in heavy rain, as the steep-sloping roof preventing the excessive loads. During rain, harsh weather, its heavily sloped roof improves drainage. This reduced the risk of damage and collapse, and to increase the amount of water in the store of rainwater harvesting system from rooftop catchment. The house is also suitable for hot climates, as the majority of the living space tends to be on the lower, cooler level. Ventilated cladding allows natural ventilation that prevents house from high humidity and fungus. Moreover, the construction of an A-frame house has excellent thermal insulation despite thin walls. Roofing materials utilise natural resources such as wood, bamboo, reeds, and palm fronds, which makes the building lightweight, high efficiency insulation and ventilation. In addition, the A-frame form has high stability and it makes unlikely to capsize that reduces the risk of damage because of natural disasters (Figure 5.14).

The facades of the floating houses are designed to allow air and gusts of wind to pass through the materialto make the houses as pleasant as possible in during day and night. The

157

combination of wood lattice screen, door, windows, and flexible spatial organisation increases natural ventilation and reduce the level of humidity.Windows are designed in the way to be able to catch the breeze and to be left open in wet conditions, such as louvres or using awning to shade windows and provide rain protection. Large entry doors can be opened and expanded under the hot weather conditions.

a) b) Figure 5.14: Analyzing advantages of A-frame form in comparison with the typical form of floating houses

a) Typical form b) A-frame form Source: By author

Figure 5.15: Facade of a cluster prototype including four floating houses. Source: By author

Figure 5.16: Side view of a cluster prototype including four floating houses. Source: By author

158

Figure 5.17: Perspective of a cluster prototype including four floating houses. Source: By author

159

5.3.3 Supply and disposal system

Due to transportation difficulties and extreme environmental impacts, the floating houses lack standard facilities such as water supply, electricity, and sanitary installations. To solve these problems, the thesis proposes a concept of self-sufficient floating houses using available natural resources.

Rainwater harvesting

The floating village is on the sea, so freshwater is normally supplied from land. This expense is inevitable because water is vital for all living creatures. As such, lack of freshwater is always problematic for residents. Nowadays, there is water desalination systems to produce drinking water from seawater [A. H. M. Saadat et al, 2018], but the machine costs and operational costs are out of reach of the local people. For conventional ways, rainwater is collected and stored in domestic tanks for drinking and daily life activities. Rainwater collection is a simple concept, which helps to reduce expenditure and save natural resources.The research recommends the use of a rainwater collection system according an article by the Texas A&M AgriLife Extension Service. The idea is to use continuous water tanks to enlarge the capacity. As can be seen from Figure 5.18, modular tanks are arranged vertically or horizontally. Depending on the demand and precipitation, designers should allocate the number of tanks. Regarding to aesthetics point of view, the carrying capacity and installed position for rainwater collection system should be considered. It should be located behind the houses with an orderly arrangement or immerse in the local landscape. When the rainwater is not enough to provide for residents in the drought period, villagers also can use this system to store water which will be bought from land.

Figure 5.18: Rainwater collection system. Source: http://rainwaterharvesting.tamu.edu

160

Renewable energy In the past, water dwellers used liquid fuel lanterns for lighting. Recently, a significant number of electrical generators is adopted for lighting, working, and entertainment devices. Besides that, solar panels has become more and more well-known to generate electricity due to affordable costs and convenience. Therefore, using solar panels can be a feasible and effective solution to deal with the energy problem in floating villages, particularly in Cua Van village. Another renewable enery can be wind energy from wind turbines. To avoid notorious visual impact to the landscape architecture and aesthetics of the floating village, designers should consider the carrying capacity, colour, form and installed position for solar panels and wind turbines. The use of the small size of residential solar and wind powered energy devices is offered instead of centralized installation of energy power systems such as solar or wind power farms which would affect negatively to the landscape, transportation and eco-tourism development of the Bay.

Figure 5.19: a) Use of solar panels in floating houses, Cat Ba island, Hai Phong, Vietnam. Source: By author b) Home Horizontal-Axis wind turbin. Soure:http://www.sunnypanels.com

161

Sanitation

The sanitation problem has been a major issue and challenge for floating villages in Vietnam. Almost all people living on the water use water from the river to wash their clothes, clean food and for cooking. There are not any sewage systems and septic tanks for toilets. Everything goes directly into the river. Domestic and business wastes, which enter the river and float on the water surface lead to water pollution affecting on landscape and natural environment of Ha Long Bay. The smell and bacteria in the sewage create health hazards for the water dwellers. In some floating villages, waste is collected for 2 - 3 days by a ship transporting waste to the main-land for treatment. Due to low income, household sanitation provision (non-shared) in floating villages may be unrealistic. Facing this reality, the paper proposes the concept of a shared sanitation facility including toilets, bathrooms and a sewage system for each cluster of floating houses. The functional process diagram of a shared sanitation in a cluster is shown in Figure 5.20. The shared sanitation which promotes recycling of waste can offer a safe and appropriate alternative to individual household latrines. The shared sanitation can help villagers to collect and transform some kinds of waste, such as organic waste, faecal waste, urine water and grey water, into energy for cooking and fertilizer for community garden. Each cluster of floating villages can manage and treat waste from daily life by itself. The shared sanitation can solve the environmental pollution problem, which promotes the concept of self-sufficient floating village.

For treatment of organic waste, the residents can use compost toilets and homebiogas units in the shared sanitation. And for solid waste such as aluminium products, plastics, glass products, and paper products, local authorities should use a boat to collect them for recycling.

162

Figure 5.20: Diagram of shared sanitation of a floating housing cluster. Source: By author

Compost toilets

Composting toilets allow minimizing flushing water and recycling subtances contained in excreta and faeces. Faeces and excreta fall into a composting chamber together with cleansing materials. Dry organic material such as sawdust is added to adjust moisture content and C/N ratio (Carbon-to-nitrogen ratio) to create optimal conditions for thermophilic composting. Compositing toilets separate urine and faecal waste into two different septic tanks. As a result, water dwellers can collect urine water for the community garden and treat faecal waste by homebiogas.

Homebiogas

A startup from Israel has developed a home-sized biogas unit that can take organic waste and convert it into gases for 2-4 hours of cooking, and 5-8 liters of organic liquid fertilizer, every single day. Biogas-fuelled gas engines improve waste management, as well as reduce environmental pollution, while maximizing the use of an economical energy supply. The unit is an affordable and easy-to-assemble product fitting into a backyard or tiny space (123×165×100 cm3 and < 40 kg). The HomeBiogas units are simple to operate, and require

163

minimal annual maintenance. The price of a homebiogas unit is affordable (<900 USD), and one sanitation system is sufficient for four floating houses (Figure 5. 21).

Figure 5.21: Home Biogas system. Source: https://homebiogas.com/

5. 4 Conclusion

HaLong Bay was historically renowned for the floating villages. However, the existence of dilapidated water dwellings without planning and organization has negatively affected the environment, landscape and standard quality of life of inhabitants. Demolition of floating villages and migration strategy were not efficient in long run to cope with these problems. In particular, a great deal of capital was for resettlement, e.g. houses and vocational training programs. Fishermen are used to with aquatic lifestyle, it ishard for them to adapt to the new life on land. Thus, instead of migration, local authorities and experts should adopt the concept of sustainable floating village for CuaVan that would ensure stable and permanent living on the water for water dwellers. The concept can be long- term beneficial for the preservation and promotion of the aquatic life-styles. The study proposes a living space concept for Cua Van, including solutions to a sustainable floating community integrating with eco-tourism development based on the abundant natural and cultural resources of local area. The main points of the proposed concept are to reach a self-sufficient community, to reduce human induced impacts on the environment, and to increase livelihood income by eco-tourism development. Based on research results, local authorities and water dwellers in the other existing floating villages should take experience and action to preserve, protect and revive the precious value of a long historical tradition of floating villages which are a unique cultural heritage and potential tourist attraction of Vietnam in particularly, and South East Asian countries in general.

164

Chapter 6 - Case study in Mekong Delta: Developing floating village as a sustainable residential community on the water

6.1 Introduction

The Mekong Delta of Vietnam is the lower part of the Mekong river delta and contains thirteen cities and provinces of Long An, Tien Giang, Dong Thap, Vinh Long, Tra Vinh, Can Tho, Hau Giang, Soc Trang, Ben Tre, An Giang, Kien Giang, Bac Lieu and Ca Mau. The total natural area of the Delta amounts approximately to 3.96 million hectares Delta Alliance, Deltares, 2011. The Mekong Delta of Vietnam consists of flat terrain, mostly of an average height of 0.7 to 1.2 m, and only 0.3 to 0.7 m in the tidal and coastal areas, except for some high hills in the northern delta province of An Giang Delta Alliance, Deltares, 2011. Due to characteristic of geography within as a criss-crossed river system, water dwellings have emerged and developed through the centuries and become a common type of accommodation in Mekong Delta. Water dwellers do not only make a living by capture fishing, but also by aquaculture or farming. In recent years, floating houses and floating villages have also been getting an important touristic factor. Besides the traditional use of floating buildings, there is a potential of floating buildings to be a significant factor in the upcoming worldwide rise of the sea level. However, nowadays, due to the rapid growth of water dwellers and climate change, floating villages in Mekong Delta is coping with many serious problems and challenges. Faced with this reality, traditional floating settlements have to be examined, and sustainable concepts need to be proposed that can secure sustainable development for the floating settlements.

In the context of the Swimming tour project in 2017, the project team organized several activities related to floating architecture in both North and South of Vietnam such as seminars, forums of floating architecture for students, experts, and investors to discuss and propose new sustainable solutions for floating villages in Vietnam in general and in Mekong Delta in particular. Especially, Institute for Floating Buildings together with Vietnam Association of Architects organized an architectural competition to get Vietnamese students to engage in developing new innovative proposals for floating settlements in Mekong Delta. These activities promoted the interest and proposed feasible new ideas of architecture students, experts and local authorities for the conservation and sustainable development of floating settlements in Mekong Delta. Living on a river is not only a typical cultural and architectural feature that

165

needs to be preserved but also a potential form of dwelling to cope with rising sea levels and provide sustainable livelihoods for local people.

During the competition, Swimmtour project team organized floating architecture seminars for the students and lecturers of Architectural Universities in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh cities to provide the general knowledge of floating architecture as well as to discuss and analyze the characteristics of floating architecture in Vietnam in general and in Mekong delta particularly. Also, Swimmtour project team organized a research excursion to meet local water dwellers and to conduct field surveys of a floating village in An Giang, to analysis and create the design requirements for the competition. Moreover, a floating architecture forum was organized for experts and construction officials in Can Tho, the largest city in the Mekong Delta to discuss and evaluate the result of competition and provide suggestions for the concepts of sustainable floating settlements in Mekong Delta. Based on the result of competition, experts’ suggestion, and the general framework of sustainable floating settlements which was found out in Chapter 4, the final goal of this case study is to create a design guideline for sustainable floating settlements in Mekong Delta. This design guideline will contribute to complete and release the guideline for sustainable development of floating settlements and designing criteria standard of sustainable floating houses in Vietnam which are presented in the last chapter.

6.2 Methodology

The work plan for this case study engaged in the work plan of the competition. The explanatory phase of a case study focused on:

- Identification of the research problem, analyzing and synthesizing the historical research background and current situation of floating villages in Mekong Delta - Site investigation and site observation to determine the vernacular architecture of selected areas and determine the design requirements for sustainable floating settlements

The exploratory phase which then followed focused on:

- Designing sustainable concepts for floating settlements - Reflecting and Evaluating designing concepts - Creating the design guideline for sustainable floating settlement in Mekong Delta

166

The main tools used in the exploratory phase was participatory action research consisting of seminar, forums and design working for students, experts and local authorities. The methods used in the case studies will be summarized in the diagram (Figure 6.1).

Figure 6.1: Diagram showing case study methodology applying a dual approach consisting of two phases: a descriptive explanatory phase followed by an exploratory phase. Source: By author

167

6.3 History of floating settlement in the Mekong Delta

Figure 6.2: Mekong Delta of Vietnam: Provinces, cities, and major branches of the Mekong River (created by David Biggs). Source: Mart A. Stewart, Peter A. Coclanis, 2011

Mekong Delta is a nutritious plain with dense water channels. In 1689 General Commander Nguyen Huu Canh, appointed by Nguyen Dynasty, started the Southward exploitation, including this delta Vu.T.H.Hanh et al. 2019. Since XVI-XVII century, the Vietnamese people with all the knowledge and experience of the civilization of the Red River water through conquering the Central region began to migrate and gradually explore the Mekong Delta region Nguyen Tri Nguyen, 2011. Within the special topographic characteristics, the first Vietnamese migrants recognized that water is an essential element associated with their life in the Mekong Delta. Rivers and canals play an important role in forming a stable life. After a long period of more than five centuries, the Vietnamese, Khmer, Cham and Hoa peoples have joined to develop the Mekong Delta into a river civilization with a unique characteristic Nguyen Tri Nguyen, 2011. The structure of the Mekong River civilization has quite a difference in comparison with the structure of the Hong River civilization. The difference is 168

that the Red River Delta residents concentrated on water management and irrigation system to prevent floods and get land for agriculture development from sea encroachment.

Meanwhile, the Mekong River with low water flow rate and low speed of raising the water level, it is not necessary to build dykes to prevent floods like in the Red River Delta. Whereas the Mekong Delta people also use water in flood seasons to bring freshwater and nutrient-rich silt into the field as well as cleaning alum on the soil of the low-lying areas. Moreover, the river system is also a primary base to develop river trade, river transport, fishing and aquaculture, etc. Vietnamese people, when exploiting the Mekong Delta, they first had to adapt to the ecological environment there and learn the indigenous knowledge and experience of many resident groups living in Mekong river basin, not only in the water conquest but also in the ways to take advantages and exploit the water surface optimally. As a result, the residents of the Mekong Delta have actually created a unique structure for river civilization in this region Nguyen Tri Nguyen, 2011. And the process of formation and development of floating villages in the Mekong Delta is associated with that civilization.

After Nguyen lord established sovereignty in the new land (1757), the number of Vietnamese settling in the new land has increased. Since then, the landscape of this area has changed within crowded villages Nguyen Cong Binh et al. 1990. Due to practical experience and advantages that river conditions bring, residential clusters are formed along canals, rivers and streams as well as along transport routes in combination with waterway traffic. Their settlements have demonstrated identifiable water-based environments. Boats and trading are concentrated in the areas where are adjacent to water bodies. The "floating market" formed early on the waterways Nguyen Cong Binh et al. 1990. Around the end of the nineteenth century, when the French occupied the land of Cochinchina, they were conducting a land reclamation on the west bank of the Hau River with the policy of "excavating canals, setting up markets, opening roads". As a result, the commercial activities had conditions to be developed Nguyen Cong Binh et al. 1990.

According to the development of waterway and boat trade as well as based on the groups of fishers and boatmen, many floating settlements in Mekong delta have been developed at intersections of water channels, and waterways have been routes connecting different settlements. Since the late 19th century, the French had started developing road transportation. Therefore the canals were gradually filled up, reducing the reliability of water of many 169

communities. As mentioned in Chapter 4, in 1956, a law banning foreigners from rice trade and shipping that led to the rapid degradation of the waterway system. Water bodies were no longer the center as well as the urban areas of the cities as before. Rivers and canals have become the backyard of urban civilization which was worthless and neglected. Eventually, water bodies have become the shelter for the poor and the homeless people. Due to water pollution and many drawbacks of existing floating settlements, local authorities have planned to demolish some floating villages. Many water dwellers tend to move inland.

However, the development of aquaculture in Mekong Delta has been encouraging local people to keep living on the water. According to a research raft farming was introduced from Cambodia after Tet 1968, due to overseas Vietnamese being evacuated because of the war of settlement along the border of the two countries  Nguyen Ngoc, 2017. At first, overseas Vietnamese used rafts to transport commercial fish from Bien Ho to Chau Doc for traders in Luc Tinh. After the Lon Nol overthrow of Sihanouk in 1970, overseas Vietnamese were persecuted, so the fishermen came to Chau Doc to form a fishing village. Raising fish rafts developed strongly in 1974 with 10,000 rafts, including 7,250 rafts concentrated in Chau Doc  Nguyen Ngoc, 2017. During this period, fishers only raised fish in a bamboo raft in a Cambodian model; these bamboo culms were ten meters long in a boat shape to be easily moved to the retail market. Bamboos were joined together by rattan ropes, bamboo stem is hollow, so it acts as a buoy. Vietnamese people have slightly improved their shape, form the shape of a boat to a rectangle so that the volume of farming is larger when moving to a retail place. A raft with a length of nine meters and a width of twenty-two meters needs 2,400 bamboo rods five to six meters long  Nguyen Ngoc, 2017. When the war broke out in the Southwest border along with the historic Mau Ngo flood (1978) in the Mekong Delta, the development of fish farming had been decreased Since 1986, fish farming has shown signs of recovery, many pangasius export enterprises to Australia, Hongkong, Singapore markets. It was not until 1993 when An Giang frozen seafood processing factory Born. Fish rafts become an industrial production industry  Nguyen Ngoc, 2017.

Now floating house is the place for both residence and means of livelihood for local people who make money from fish farming, waterway transportation, waterway trade and business activities on the rivers. To preserve and develop floating settlement which is a typical unique kind of residences within a long history of development associated with the development of

170

social- culture, economy and environment of the Mekong Delta, the sustainable concept of floating villages is necessary. The concept would be financially viable and provide a livable living environment with all necessary functions for daily life - work – social activities of people. The sustainable concept of floating houses would be comfortable and affordable, secure and self-sustained.

6.4 Factors affect to floating settlement on Mekong delta

6.4.1 Environment

Climate and expected climate change

Located in the tropical monsoon region, the climate in the Mekong Delta is hot all year round. It has a seasonal distribution of dry-wet months depending on the operation of the monsoon circulation. The dry season often coincides with the less rainy season. This is also the controlling period of the North-East monsoon that lasts from November to April of the following year. The wet season coincides with the rainy season, which is the controlling period of the Southwest monsoon that lasts from May to October, with a typical climate that is hot, humid and rainy. The climate in the Mekong Delta has its distinctive nuances, which are characterized by the humid tropical climate, equatorial monsoon, ample sunshine, high temperature all year round. The rainy season is basically summer. The dry season appears in Middle months and late winter, early summer Vietnam Institute of Meteorology, Hydrology and Environment, 2010.

The average total radiation is about (150-160) kcal / cm2. The average number of sunny hours is about (2,200-2,800) hours. Due to the high radiation background, the terrain is quite flat, so there is a relatively equal distribution of temperatures across the delta region with an annual average air temperature varying within (26-29) oC. The absolute highest air temperature can reach (38-40) oC. The absolute lowest air temperature is about (14-16) oC. The average relative humidity is about 70-80% per year. Average annual wind speed from about 2 m / s in the delta increases above 3 m / s in the coastal area. The maximum wind speed can reach (25-30) m / s. The average annual evaporation is relatively large, about 1,100-1,400 mm Vietnam Institute of Meteorology, Hydrology and Environment, 2010.

171

The average annual rainfall of the delta is approximately 1800 mm, with an uneven distribution in space and time. The western region has higher annual average rainfall from 2000-2400 mm, while the east has from 1600-1800 mm rainfall on average Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, 2016.

The annual rainy season occurs in the months of May-November, in which three months have the highest average monthly rainfall occurs in July-IX. Rainfall in the rainy season accounts for about (88-95)% of annual rainfall; The minimum three months of continuous rain appear in January, February, and March and account for less than 3% of the annual rainfall Vietnam Institute of Meteorology, Hydrology and Environment, 2010.

Climate change

Climate is already changing in the delta. The changing rainfall patterns, the increase of temperature, flooding, sea-level rise are expected to have a huge impact on the physical conditions of the Mekong Delta, leading to a range of effects on water dwellers, their health, livelihood and prosperity. Three predicted scenarios for the country of climate change in Vietnam are carried out by the Vietnam National Institute of Meteorology, Hydrology and Environment: Low emission (B1), Average (B2) and High emission (A2) (Table 6.1)

The following key changes can summarize the climate change in the Mekong Delta:

- The change of water cycle: Annually temperature and evaporation are expected to rise. This will affect the water cycle. Total annual rainfall and wet season rainfall may have increased while dry season rainfall will have decreased Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, 2016. The amount of water in the river will increase during the wet season. Dramatic changes between wet- and dry season lead to some species generally have problems with adapting to drastically changing environments. Thus, the change affects the aquaculture development that affect water dwellers who mainly depend on fishing and aquaculture to earn an income from. - Increase in flood magnitude, volume and duration: Climate change will increase the flow during the flood season and the size of the flood peak. Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, 2016. Perhaps higher water levels because of flooding will be a threat for floating settlement since their houses already are floating on the water. But increased and

172

more storms combining with strong water flow are also expected during the flood season that destroy fish cages and floating houses and obstruct waterway transport. In the flood period, floating households must move their houses and properties to near the river bank. Moreover, the land-based communities, and even many people have to move to other places. That will affect the floating community because they are also connecting and depending on agriculture, trade, commercial services and social activities of land-based communities. - Sea level rise: Sea level rise is expected to have a huge impact on the physical conditions of the Mekong Delta, leading to a range of effects on water dwellers, their livelihood and prosperity. The predicted sea-level rise might result in large areas of permanent and more frequently inundated coastal plains Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, 2016. Moreover, sea-level rise combined with strong groundwater extraction and other reasons have led to subsidence in many provinces in the Mekong Delta, with hotspots concentrated in Cau Mau peninsula and central flooded plains of Can Tho, Vinh Long and Tien Giang Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, 2016. The land subsidence does not directly affect floating houses but seriously threatens houses on the riverbank or houses on ground and partly on stilts which have a close connection to the environment, economy and social activities with floating settlements on the water.

Table 6.1 Characteristics of climate change scenarios The Socialist Republic of Vietnam and the Kingdom of the Netherlands, 2013

173

Figure 6.3: Flooding extent in the Mekong Delta with a sea level rise 75cm. Source: Delta Alliance, Deltares, 2011

River system

The Mekong Delta river system is shaped by a relatively dense network of natural rivers and canals:

- The main natural river system in the Mekong delta comprises the two systems of the Tien River and Hau River (respectively the lower branches of the Mekong and Bassac rivers). The Tien and Hau rivers contain a total annual flow of 325.41 billion m3. Both rivers are deep and wide, with the average depth of 10-20 m, but some locations where the depth is over 40 m; and the average width of about 1000-1500 m. However, near the mouth of rivers, the rivers widen and become shallow, because of raising riverbed by siltation. The complex flow patterns of the river system cause the sedimentation, erosion, and the instability of river banks Delta Alliance, Deltares, 2011. - The canal system of Mekong delta has been constructed primarily to develop agriculture and transportation during the past centuries. There are three levels of major, primary and 174

secondary canals. The primary and secondary canal systems have a high density and a total of 30,000-40,000 km of canals in all the Mekong Delta. Figure 6.4 below illustrates the density of the river and canal systems of Mekong Delta Delta Alliance, Deltares, 2011.

Figure 6.4: Map of existing river/canal system of the Mekong Delta in Vietnam. Source: Delta Alliance, Deltares, 2011

175

Hydrological regimes

Hydrological regimes in the Mekong Delta are affected mainly by the tidal regime of the East Sea (South China Sea) and for some parts of the delta by the tidal regime in the Gulf of Thailand (West Sea) with the corresponding tidal regime of the irregular semi-diurnal and irregular tide. The Mekong Delta can be divided into three different hydrological regions Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, 2016:

(a) The upper delta including sections of the province of An Giang and Dong Thap, with a dominant influence of the river floods, are subject to annual inundation of about 3-4 meters by Mekong floodwaters.

(b) The middle delta lying between the upper part of the delta and the coastal area on both sides of the Mekong River, with combined river flood-tidal influences

The annual flood season often occurs during July and November. The amount of river flow in the flood season accounts for about 70-85% of the annual river flow. The dry season occurs during December and June, the river flow in dry season accounts for about 15-30% of the annual river flow, the three consecutive months with the smallest river flow appear during February and April or March and May Delta Alliance, Deltares, 2011.

The transition seasons between the dry and flood seasons (about seven to eight weeks from May to end of June, and about two to three weeks from early to the third week of November) is particularly important. The changes in flow during these times have great biological significance that is thought to trigger migration in certain species of fish Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, 2016.

These diverse tidal and flood patterns of the river and canal systems affect obviously to water- dwelling in the Mekong Delta. This requires suitable design solutions that enhance buoyance and movability for floating foundation and anchoring systems in each tidal and flood areas.

176

Flooding

Annual flood event in the Mekong Delta usually begins in months June-July, with an average peak flow entering the delta of around 28,000-30,000 m3/s, with a depth from 0.5 to 4.0 m and the time from 3-6 months. Flooding in the Mekong Delta can be divided into three periods Delta Alliance, Deltares, 2011:

- Early flood season (months July-August): the main rivers flood quickly, distribute the floodwaters into canals and bring silt that forms the main source for rice field nutrients in the flood season. - A second flooding period: is when floodwaters reach high levels (exceeding 3.8 m at Chau Doc, and Tan Chau exceeding 4.0 m). - The third period (usually by the end of October until December): is the period when the flood is in recession, and floodwater recedes gradually.

Every year in the flood season, the Mekong River inundates nearly 2 million hectares in the north, causing difficulties for farming and people's living, and major floods cause many losses to human lives and their properties. However, the floods also bring nutrients to the soil, rich aquatic resources and positive effect on cleaning the fields. The Mekong River is a very important and decisive source of freshwater for the Mekong Delta, supplying the majority of the Mekong Delta area to serve production and people's life. The floods in the Mekong Delta is not the type of strong and high floods. Therefore people chose "living with floods", known as "floating water season“. The flood season is important for their livelihood because the floods bring nutrients to the soil, which is favorable for agricultural production and rich aquatic resources  Ngo Van Le, 2014.

Surface water quality

Water quality on the mainstream has a marked seasonal variation. The variation in water quality of the flooded Mekong Delta region is complicated and depends on several modes of climate, hydrology, soils and human activities. The content of soluble substances such as Na, K, Ca2+, Mg2+, Fe2+, Al3+, SO4 2-, Cl-, HCO3 in the dry season is higher than the those in the flood season, but generally still below critical thresholds. Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, 2016. During the flood event, much silt is brought into rivers. The highest

177

concentration of silt in the major rivers in August is approximately 500 mg/l Vietnam Institute of Meteorology, Hydrology and Environment, 2010. In general, the water of rivers and canals in the Mekong Delta is good. Still, it has been polluted to varying degrees by wastewater and untreated waste from residential areas, urban, industrial areas, boats on the river and from the field use pesticides and chemical fertilizers. Besides, surface water is also contaminated with alum and saline in coastal areas Vietnam Institute of Meteorology, Hydrology and Environment, 2010.

Recently, the water quality of rivers and canals in the Mekong Delta has been polluted by the main waste sources such as human sewage of residential areas, waste from livestock and poultry, industrial waste and chemical fertilizers from agriculture. Every day there is a large amount of wastewater from the population living in concentrations along rivers and canals as well as a huge amount of emissions from sources of industrial production produced that is discharged into water bodies. Every year the agricultural sector also used to 2 million tons of chemical fertilizers and 500,000 tons of plant protection pesticides. Aquaculture is strongly developed in the Mekong delta, and along with it the problem of wastewater, sludge waste of aquaculture ponds and from seafood processing facilities. Also, related accidents have caused serious environmental and economic damages Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, 2016.

Acidic water is a big problem in coastal areas, especially in flooded areas. Acidic water mainly arises in acid sulphate soil where there are about 1.6 million hectares of acid sulphate soil in the Mekong Delta. The time of souring is usually from May to July, some places in August and September. Particularly, the two flooded areas of Dong Thap Muoi and Long Xuyen Quadrangle are sour at the end of the flood season, at the beginning of the dry season, in two months December and January. The spread of saltwater greatly affects to water quality and adversely affects production and life Vietnam Institute of Meteorology, Hydrology and Environment, 2010.

Saltwater intrusion in the Mekong Delta is a complex process, depending on the magnitude of the floods, the ability to supply fresh water from upstream during the dry season, summer- autumn paddy production status and timing of the rainy season. The highest salinities occur in the dry season usually in February - April, sometimes in early May, when the amount of water

178

from the upstream is low. In the flood season, floodwaters from upstream push the salt back to the estuaries. In the mid-flood season in September and October, salt 1g/liter is usually located in the estuaries only Delta Alliance, Deltares, 2011.

6.4.2 Social- culture

Geographical conditions, land conditions and climate obviously are important factors in forming the nationality of culture. The civilization of the Mekong Delta is widely known as river civilization with its full and diverse meaning. The structure of this civilization was the irrigation: usage and optimal exploitation of the water to make up a complex river civilization including wet rice civilization, canal civilization, floating market civilization, port civilization and orchard civilization Nguyen Tri Nguyen, 2011.

In addition to the river culture, the culture of the Mekong Delta is also characterized by Cultural exchange and acculturation. Southern culture is an extension of Vietnamese culture on new land where indigenous people and immigrant people exploited and settled together. Therefore, from the beginning, the culture of Vietnamese residents, in which Cham elements are available, have intimately interacted with the culture of Khmer and Chinese residents etc. in Mekong Delta. In the early modern and modern period, this area had been influenced by French culture and then by American culture for a long time. Therefore, the Mekong Delta is a land of exchange and acculturation that has been occurring rapidly. As a result, there is almost no pure and original Vietnamese culture in this area where always has a harmony combination between other cultures for more than three centuries. So, it can be said, cultural interference is one of the identities of Southern culture. It makes the Southern culture not only similar but also different from its source of Vietnamese culture in the Northern and Central Plains Ly Tung Hieu, 2009. These two major cultural characteristics of the Southern region have forced all cultures to gather and adjust themselves to erase values that are no longer suitable for new land, as well as creating new values that help people survive and grow on a river delta among different cultures. As a result, flexibility, generosity and tolerance gradually became the third identity of Vietnamese culture in the South in general and in Mekong Delta in particularly Ly Tung Hieu, 2009.

179

6.4.3 Economy

Mode of production

In the Mekong Delta, it has shaped a mode of production associated with the river, which is the cultivation of wet rice, floating agriculture, fishing and aquaculture, and the construction of boats and trading on the waterway. Beside to catching aquatic resources, people in the Mekong Delta also create ways to cultivate aquatic products. Fish farmings built on rafts made of bamboo and floating on the river are quite popular V.N. Q. Tram, 2020. In recent years, the aquaculture has been developing rapidly in Mekong Delta. It has been playing a key role in seafood export development in Vietnam. The main seafood products include shrimp and fish. Due to saltwater intrusion which has been occurring seriously in the Mekong Delta, aquaculture in saltwater has been becoming a relatively new production method that has brought gradually changing the economic structure and contributing the food supply, employment. The new production method has been increasing income and contributing to the reduction of poverty in the Mekong Delta. The total amount of aquaculture in 2007 reached 660,614 ha Delta Alliance, Deltares, 2011. In addition to developing aquaculture, water dwellers also grow aquatic plants such as lotus, water lily, water spinach, etc. and plant floating garden to provide flowers and vegetables for floating markets and even markets on the land. Recently, ecotourism has been developing in several floating villages. Visiting, discovering and experiencing the daily life of indigenous people in the floating villages is a potential tourist attraction in Mekong Delta.

Trade

The communities in Mekong Delta know how to effectively exploit the values of the water so that not only to create their own culture but also to contribute to economic and social development. The floating market is associated with the trade waterway- an economic activity bearing the imprint of a cultural region, which has created its own culture of the Southern region. It is a type of market on the river, where both sellers and buyers use boats as a means of transportation. On the boats, popular products are agricultural products (such as bean, gourd), fruits (such as orange mango, pomelo, melon, etc.). Customers just need to look at the pole of each boat where the sellers hang the sampling products on to know that boat has what they need or not. In localities such as Cai Be (Tien Giang), Cai Rang (Can Tho), Vam Lang

180

(Phong Dien), Nga Bay Phung Hiep (Hau Giang), Ganh Hao River (Ca Mau), Vinh Thuan (Kien Giang), Long Xuyen (An Giang), etc., has long formed a floating market on the famous rivers. Hundreds of night-time boats gather to sell enough goods of the garden such as vegetables, flowers, fruits, shrimp, crabs, turtles, snakes, etc. However, in each different place, the time for forming floating markets varies, and the specific characteristics of the floating market are also slightly different. The floating market has become a very specific cultural activity in the Mekong Delta and exploited by the tourism industry as a unique tourism product Ngo Van Le, 2014.

6.4.4 Architectural characteristics

Planning

Figure 6.5: A floating village in Chau Doc, An Giang province. Source: By author

181

Figure 6.6: Types of water-based house in floating villages in Mekong Delta, Vietnam Source: By author

As mentioned in Chapter four, there are four types of water-based house in floating villages in the South of Vietnam (Figure 6.6 ): Houses on the ground and partly on stilts; Stilt houses; Floating houses; Boathouses Vu Thi Hanh et al. 2018. They are linked together in all aspects of the environment, economy and social activities.

- Houses on the ground and partly on stilts: The house has two accesses, one open up to water and one to streets on the other side. The households use one or both side of their houses for business activities. - Stilt houses: are built nearby the river bank where has low deepwater. The stilt houses are usually linked to the mainland by the so-called monkey bridges made by bamboo or cajeput. - Floating houses: are built on deepwater location and often combined with fish farms or business activities. The floating foundation of the houses are made of wooden rafts, empty oil drums or pontoons. - Boathouses: are usually gathered together in a group of several boathouses. In the day time, the households go for fishing or doing their business, such as trading and transporting on the waterway.

Most of the water-based settlements/floating villages have been built centrally in 6 provinces of Mekong Delta: Can Tho, Hau Giang, Tien Giang, An Giang, Ca Mau, Long Xuyen Vu Thi Hanh et al. 2018. The floating villages were settled particularly in:

182

- Along the rivers or channels: where have a connection between land and waterway. These areas are suitable for commercial, exchange and aquaculture activities; Most of the water- based settlements located along Tiền and Hậu Rivers such as Chau Doc floating village and Long Xuyên floating market in An Giang Vu Thi Hanh et al. 2018 - Intersections of water channels and roads: where have the advantages of both waterway transport and road transport. Such as Cai Rang floating market in Can Tho and Cai Be floating markets in Tien Giang Vu Thi Hanh et al. 2018 - Intersections of water channels: where are the centers of transports and trading activities. Aquaculture products, domestic goods are gathered and distributed to other places by using channels. Such as Nga Bay floating market in Hau Giang, Nga Nam floating market in Soc Trang, Ca Mau floating market in Ca Mau Vu Thi Hanh et al. 2018

Figure 6.7: Location of typical water-based settlements in Mekong Delta, Vietnam (1)Cai Be floating market, Tiền Giang, (2) Cái Răng floating market, Cần Thơ, (3) Cà Mau market Area, (4) Chau Doc floating village, An Giang (5) Ngã Bảy floating market Area – Hậu Giang, (6) Long Xuyen. Source: Vu Thi Hanh et al. 2018 183

Vernacular architectural characteristics of floating settlements

Living on the water surface is a typical form of residence associated with the river civilization of the Mekong Delta, so the indigenous culture and environmental and economic characteristics have an intensive influence on the vernacular architecture of floating villages in the Mekong Delta. Through many generations living on the water surface, water dwellers have accumulated traditional design solutions in vernacular architecture that are climatically appropriate, economically affordable, culturally relevant, and aesthetically pleasing. As mention in Chapter four, a sustainable floating village community will be formed based on respecting residence traditions associated with nature, local culture and sustainable livelihood development, as well as optimizing the advantages and limiting the weaknesses of local architecture by the use of new construction techniques and materials. Therefore, vernacular architecture plays an important role in the sustainable development strategies of floating settlements in the Mekong Delta.

Environment response

As mention above, located in the tropical monsoon region, the climate in the Mekong Delta is hot all year round. Living on the water where environmental pressure and energy consumption are limited, climate responsive design inspired by vernacular architecture is a means of building economically with low environmental impact on architectural form. The climate responsive design of floating houses keep out the elements – rain, wind and sun – and keep comfortable and sustainableliving for inhabitants, as well as to reduce energy consumption for a low carbon future. The elements of the vernacular architecture of floating houses are created for natural ventilation and minimum insulation standards. Such as roofs, walls, screens, openings and floors were all partially installed in response to hot and humid tropical climatic as environmental filters, keeping the sun and rain out while letting the breeze in:

- A large and well-insulated pitched roof with deep overhang. The large roof is typically thatched or corrugated sheet metal applications. Roofing materials utilize natural resources such as wood, bamboo, reeds, palm fronds etc. which are light-weighted and have a high foam thickness needed for effective insulation and ventilation. The roofs tend to be steeply pitched to drain off the water during a heavy rainfall efficiently.

184

- A large porch, verandah which is a transitional buffer space between the interior and exterior of the floating houses protects from rainwater and direct solar radiation. The pots of trees and flower vases are located along the porch, verandah. These plants do not only provide a beautiful landscape for floating houses but also can take in as much cool air as possible and sunlight heat and limit heat losses. - The facades of the floating houses are designed to allow air and gusts of wind to pass through the material or ventilated walls. The facade typically includes screen variants of wickerwork, latticework and reed weave or includes ventilated walls and ventilation louvres. Local people create large entry doors and maximize the area of windows to be able to catch the breeze. Moreover, louvres or awning are used to shade windows as well as provide rain protection. - The organization of architecture spaces is flexible and open to increase ventilation and reduce the level of humidity. The division of functional spaces by partition walls is limited. Functional spaces are often combined. For example, common space can be used as a multifunctional space including many purposes such as living room, bedroom, dining room, worship table, even fish’s food precessing zone (Figure 6.8).

Figure 6.8: A floating house in An Giang province, Mekong Delta, Vietnam Source: By author, 2017 a) a) Perspective b) b) Plan (1) Front veranda (2) Living space: 2a- Worship Fish feeding; 2b- Guest bed; 2c- Fish’s food precessing zone, (3) Bedroom (4) Kitchen (5) Toilet (6) Back veranda

185

Also, due to impacts of hydrological regimes and the annual flood season, floating houses in Mekong delta are not fixed in one place. During the flood season, the floating houses often must change their locations that will be moved to nearshore to ensure the safety of residents, their property and fish farms. At the end of the flood season or low-tide days, floating houses and fish rafts are moved farther offshore to ensure the water level and aquatic environment for fishes to live and develop. However, according to Clause 2, Article 16 of the Law on Inland Waterway Traffic, Vietnamese Nation, houses and other constructions must not be built within the channel protection corridor. The provincial-level People's Committee shall specify the meeting of markets, fishing villages, trade villages and other activities on the corridors for channel protection, ensuring smooth inland waterway traffic, safety and environment protection. The floating houses have flexible mooring systems combining stilt and chain methods. The stilt method is used in the water bodies near the land where it has shallow water and less strong wave. In the middle rivers where has deep water and horizontal forces or displacements, water dwellers must use chain method or using both stilt and chain methods.

Socio-cultural response

The spatial structure of the floating village was created and adjusted based on the traditional structure of a village, which is the typical residence of Vietnamese people in the Red River Delta and a relatively closed social unit with relatives and neighbors. In the Red River Delta, the village is surrounded by green bamboo trunks and village gates. Vietnamese people exploited and created the Mekong Delta based on melaleuca forests, mangrove forests, fields and dense river systems in the 17th-18th century. On the new land, the villages of Vietnamese people were not surrounded by green bamboo bundles, but they were built along the banks of the canals. In front of the house was waterways with boats, behind the fields, and surrounded by the orchards [Nguyen Cong Binh et al., 1990]. Thus, the choice of location of residence along rivers is not random but it is practical experience and advantages that river condition brings. The form of residence that stretches along canals and transport routes is a distinct feature compared to villages in the Red River Delta. In front of each house always has small dock connecting with a wooden footbridge to the riverside to serve as a place for washing, bathing, washing dishes ... as well as all other activities that require water. The place for boat parking is located next to the bridge. The boats become the main means of transportation in the Mekong Delta.

186

Before the exploitation of the people from the Central and the north, this land is just a wild jungle filled with wild animals. Migrants gathered in settlement and leaned on each other to survive and live in the new land. Therefore, they respect their relatives and neighbors highly. However, the relative and village relations are not as close as the Red River Delta [Nguyen Cong Binh et al., 1990]. Water dwellers also respect their family and professional relationships. People with the same family name always use the same fishing gear and gather together to form a cluster (Figure 6. 9).

However, the life of water dwellers in Mekong Delta is intimately connected with nature, exploiting natural resources, and even depend on nature in some cases that cause water dwellers always seek and move to new areas where more fertile land, richer aquatic resources, more convenient for living and earning livelihoods exist. Moreover, because the complicated hydrological regime seriously influences the river system, the floating houses often must change their locations according to the change of the hydrological regime to secure the aquaculture as well as ensuring their properties. Hence, the inhabitants of the floating settlement have a quiet flexible and movable living on the water. Due to the flexibility of living style, the arrangement of floating houses, as well as the connection between floating units in a cluster, is flexible and non-compacted that is suitable with the landscape in Mekong Delta with a criss-crossed river system crowded by boat navigation. Some five or more family floating houses are always moored together and linked together by footbridges.

In conclusion, the traditions of living style and socio-culture of inhabitants living in Mekong Delta that lead to indigenous characteristics of the structural spatial arrangement of floating clusters and floating settlements in Mekong Delta.

Figure 6.9: Floor plans of seven floating houses, including the Thi family’s fish farm and homes Source: By architect Ly Thai Son, 2014 187

Livelihood response

The main livelihood of water dwellers in Mekong Delta is fishing or aquaculture development. Therefore, most of the floating houses in Mekong Delta attach to a fish farm under their houses and /or outside of their main houses. The location of the fish cage is directly accessible to the terrace/ veranda in front of the main housing block. The terrace/ veranda is a buffer area not only using for social activities in daily life, but also for production activities such as fish feeding, fish’s food precessing zone, weaving nets, drying seafood, gathering fishing gears and catching seafood etc. The fish cage must be designed to comply with the technical standards which are regulated by local authorities. In adđition, the floating houses need auxiliary block includes storages for equipment used in the fishing process and seafood production, and includes sanitation.

Beside fishing or aquaculture development, , water dwellers grow aquatic plants such as lotus, water lily, water spinach, etc. and plant floating garden to provide flowers and vegetables for floating markets and even markets on the land. Moreover, eco-tourism has been developing in several floating villages that need places for tourist accommodation and tourism services such as selling handicrafts. In those cases, the design of floating houses was adjusted and added new functional spaces which are suitable for new types of livelihoods. For example, the terrace/veranda space is combined with the exhibition or/ and selling handmade products, or floating gardens is combined with the houses etc.

Fig 6.10: The model of a typical floating house is exhibited at a floating household in Chau Doc fishing village, An Giang province, Mekong Delta, Vietnam. The fish cage is under the main house. Source: By author, 2017 188

6.5 The competition

6.5.1 Introduction

An Giang province is famous for its several floating villages located along the banks of rivers. Floating villages not only attract tourists by the unique architecture but also by the unique aquatic living style of local people. Due to the daily needs of water dwellers and the development of tourism, many services are built up to serve local inhabitants and tourists such as business shops, repairing machines, selling petrol, etc. Local people are living on the water like living on the land with many kinds of activities for working and leisure.

Mỹ Hòa Hưng is a rural commune of Long Xuyên city in An Giang Province, Vietnam. Mỹ Hòa Hưng has been famous for traditional aquaculture and export for a long time. Basa fish has become the symbol of the prosperity of the village. However, the uncontrolled expansion and development of basa fish production have caused pollution to the river that has resulted in fish diseases and reduced the quality of fish products for export markets. As a result, fish farming on the river have been severely degraded, and many households have been failed and fallen into the debt. Therefore, experts and local authorities have been paying attention to new ideas and innovative concepts to develop and expand the floating settlements according to the sustainable development strategies of An Giang province. Based on the potential of ecological beauty and unique river culture of this area, the local authority has planned to develop agriculture and aquaculture combining with tourism. There are many tourist attractions and services in the surrounding lands of existing floating settlements. That is a potential opportunity to develop eco-tourism in the floating villages as a new kind of livelihoods to enhance the local economy. In this case, the competition committee chose An Giang province as a competition site.

189

6.5.2 Site analysis

Figure 6.11: The site chosen for the competition: Hau river around the island of My Hung Hoa, An Giang, Vietnam. Source: By M.T. Danh and N.T.Thao, 2017

SWOT analysis

Strength

- Long term historical tradition of living on the water Including service and recreational facilities, general stores, barbershops, tailors, cafe, etc. - Traditional communities: floating village respect family and professional relationships. - Commercial potentials on the water, fishing farm, tourist services, eco-tourism development - Lesson on local traditional architecture and microclimate, a lesson on local and friendly environmental materials, a lesson on how to use natural resources, etc. 190

- A lesson about garden and plants, about floating agriculture

Weakness

- Lack of planning and management, spontaneous urbanization - Lack of infrastructures, public buildings, educational and recreational facilities, children playground, medical services, etc. - Low income and quality of human living - Using simple and unstable structures and materials - Lack of water and energy supply systems, sanitation system, etc. - Environmental pollution, the water resource is being contaminated - Aquaculture development has instability and unsustainability: because of the single and fragmented scale of production, lack of linkage between production stages and market competitiveness, lack of technical support and state management

Opportunity

- Opportunity to develop aquaculture: The local authority has approved the decision “Planning for aquaculture in rivers to 2020 and orientation to 2025”, No. 2282 / QD-UBND (An Giang People’s Committee, 2017). The decision includes: Orientations of the planning area of fish farms; Orientation of labor demand for aquaculture development in fish farms; Orientations of infrastructure and services for fish farms - Opportunity to develop eco-tourism: Since 2010, the local authority has planned to develop agriculture and aquaculture combining with tourism. Many tourist attractions and services in the surrounding lands of existing floating settlements (Figure 6.12). That is a potential opportunity to develop eco-tourism in the floating village - Opportunity to develop and expand the floating community according to the sustainable development strategies of the local authorities

191

Figure 6.12: Tourist attractions in the surrounding areas of floating settlement. Source: By T. Q. Hieu et al, 2017

Threats

- The uncontrolled rapid growth of population leads to many negative effects on environment/ landscape, social life and management difficulties in floating villages - The effect of aquaculture on the environment: excess feed of fishing farms changing the nature and benthic organisms. The effect of aquaculture on landscape and waterway would be drawbacks to develop eco-tourism as a potential tourist attraction of floating villages - Demolished planning would lead to the loss of culture and occupation for local people - Climate change, such as flooding and high temperature, have been occurring and affecting seriously on the daily life of local people.

6.5.3 Requirements

According to the mention of chapter 4, a sustainable floating village will be formed based on respecting the habit of residence associated with nature and local culture, developing sustainable livelihoods, optimizing the advantages and limiting the weaknesses of local architecture by the use of new construction techniques and materials. Thus, the design concepts would propose architectural and technical solutions to solve the drawbacks of existing floating villages in Mekong delta, to provide necessary and comfortable living conditions for

192

inhabitants as well as to protect the surrounding environment. Moreover, the design concepts should preserve and develop natural environment, traditional occupation, local culture and vernacular architecture which can develop eco-tourism and contribute to the local economic development.

The scope of the competition is to develop and design an urban solution for a floating settlement on the defined site for approximately 200 persons and architectural modular house types as a part of the settlement. If we presume that one house is home for four persons, we will get around 50 floating houses. It is expected from the participants to develop urban and architectural solutions that consider the specific climatic situation of that region as well as the usage of materials and technologies that are affordable. The usage of local materials, technologies combining with new and innovative low budget solutions are expected.

Through the site analysis, there are many problems with floating villages that needed to be solved in An Giang province. The problems can be divided into three groups: utility system (waste-water-energy); public facilities for community activities; livelihood for local inhabitants. The urban and architectural design solutions need to handle following the main aspects:

 Connection to the land and connection in between the clusters of houses  Energy/Water/Waste supply concept  Public services and facilities  Livelihood for water dwellers

Since the launch of the contest, many students had been attracted by the competition. We received a large number of outstanding projects of thirty-five teams from the best Universities of Architecture in Vietnam. Through two competitive grounds of assessment, the competition jury chose the five best projects and found out the winner.

193

6.5.4 Projects

The architectural design of the projects will be analyzed and assessed based on three dimensions: social sustainability, environmental sustainability and economic sustainability. Besides, vernacular architecture is one of the main points of analyzing and assessment process.

Project: Floating settlement on the Mekong Delta

(1st prize, B.T. Sang, D. H. Tam, Ho Chi Minh University of Architecture)

Social sustainability

THREATS The spontaneous urbanization Difficulties in relief and resettlement Negative consequencies of climate change such as flooding, casually high temperature.

Floor plan for 4 Floor plan for 6 people Floor plan for 8 people people Figure 6.13: Spatial organization of floating settlement and modular of floating houses

The team created the concept of floating settlement including the clusters of family floating houses, educational and public facilities such as school and kindergarten, administration, clinic, floating market, community areas within each floating cluster. And especially, there is a central 194

community area that is not only a place to organize social activities for local people but also as a cultural center for visitors who are interested in discovering the living on the water. Many types of aquatic plants would be cultivated in the surrounding water surface of the central community area to create a wild nature reserve for birds, insects, mammals, plants and amphibians. The central community area would be a place to enjoy water leisure, nature landmark and environmental education for local people and visitors.

One strong point of the project is to respect the tradition and lifestyle of local inhabitants. According to the research of population in My Hoa Hung, there are three types of families living on the river: the family of 1-4 people accounts 50%, the family of 5-6 people accounts 33,5%, and the family of 7-9 people with 3 generations accounts 16,5%. As the traditional lifestyle, local people have the demand to extend their own family houses according to their economic condition and more generations living in a common house. Therefore, the team proposed the extended module for the floating houses with three options of the transformation.

Environmental sustainability

Figure 6.14: The utility system of a typical floating house

The project created the concept of the self-sufficient floating house providing all water, energy and water treatment system by itself. Even some kinds of waste can be treated and transformed into energy for daily life.

195

Energy Water Waste Materials/ Structures

- Solar panels are an effective - Using rainy water: after - Waste from toilets, - Using local solution to provide electrical filtering by a vortex organics waste and materials with energy but only for lighting filter, the collected water water hyacinth low embodied and small appliances. As a could be used for planted in the energy such as supplementary system, irrigation and domestic surrounding water bamboo and biogas production from the use. surface are captured wood toilet and kitchen waste can - Grey wastewater could for biogas system provide energy for cooking be purified in a - The waste of biogas and lighting helophytes filter. Then it system would be

- Design for natural could be reused to rinse treated and ventilation and minimum the toilet and as transferred into

insulation standards with irrigation water for the fertilizer for the several architectural plants vegetable garden or solutions such as: - Urine from the toilet is foods for fishes - Using bamboo screen and collected for irrigation - latticework for the façade of for plants the house that allows air and - Water river is provided gusts of wind pass through for plants by absorbing the material ink - Using 2 layer roof system with sheet metal insulation and bamboo sheets

Economic sustainability

The project creates affordable self-sufficient floating houses for water dwellers in this area. Using renewable energy and natural ventilation; using local materials with low-cost; using rainwater as well as recycling organic waste that are effective solutions to reduce the cost for construction and energy consumption of the floating house. Moreover, the project also considers the livelihood for local people. The main proposed livelihood is not only fishing farm but also vegetable gardens which are provided fertilizer from biogas system and water from the river by the absorbing ink system.

196

Vernacular architecture

Figure 6.15: Architectural features of a typical floating house

The vernacular architecture features of the project were described in response to local culture and society, climate and available resources. The project modified and developed traditional solutions in vernacular architecture to work with climate responsive design and modern construction to reduce environment on pressure and energy consumption of floating houses. In the case of the tropical climate, the elements of vernacular architecture such as the form of floating houses, roofs, walls, screens, porch were designed for natural ventilation and minimum insulation standards as well as keeping the rain out and collecting rainwater. Moreover, using timber post and beam structure as well as using local material such as bamboo are investigated in the project as the design features of local architecture. The traditional design solutions of structure and material are light-weighted, flexible and easy to assemble and construct. On the other hand, the project accumulated and analyzed local culture and local living tradition to propose the sustainable concept of urban planning and the spatial organization of floating houses which meet economic and social needs of the local area. For example, the design created community areas, the extended module for the floating houses, and created a flexible form of floating house clusters, etc.

197

Project “Environmental houses”

(2nd prize; N. Q. Phu, N.T.T. Trang, N. D. Toan, P. C. Minh, Hanoi University of Architecture)

Social sustainability

Based on the results of site analysis, the team aims to connect isolated floating houses into a community “environmental floating houses”. It will be a harmony of the living environment such as a united community where inhabitants will connect each other and benefit from gardens, playgrounds and cultural spaces. The project will be a landmark to attract tourists.

The students use only 40% of the whole place of the house for living and leave rest for common purposes. The project proposes the block composition of urban planning based on the modular unit four meters by four meters, which can be stacked and is the estimated minimum size needed for a family of three to four. The community house is at the center of the floating settlement. The floating settlement is divided into clusters which are connected by bridges on a criss-cross water system and a central river. The central river will be the connection line for tourism and communal cultural activities.

Environmental sustainability

In general, the proposed concept of floating houses is not self- sufficient. The utility system of the floating settlement needs the connection to the land. In each cluster of floating houses, an energy house was created. The energy house contains a utility system for water and energy provision and waste treatment. The size of an energy house is determined by the number of houses in a cluster.

198

Energy Water Waste Materials/ Structures

- Solar panels installed - Clean water is provided - Waste from toilets, - Using local on a rooftop of the through the pipes located organics waste are materials with energy house under the floating dock captured and treated by low embodied to capture the sun and from the land the biogas system energy and generate electricity for - Grey wastewater from using the floating family houses toilet and kitchen could be bamboo in each cluster purified; then it could be structure reused as irrigation water for the floating farms - Blackwater is carried to the land through the pipes

Economic sustainability

The project does not create an affordable self-sufficient floating settlement, but using renewable energy such as solar panel is one strong point of the project. Moreover, the idea of an energy house in each floating cluster is helpful to reduce the cost for utility system for household, because they can share the budget of construction and maintenance for utility system.

Furthermore, the project proposes to use the bamboo structure for floating houses. Bamboo is a local material which is light-weight, durable and affordable. And bamboo structure can be built by local workers with local technique. That can reduce the cost of floating houses.

The project considers the livelihood for local people. The main proposed livelihood is not only aquaculture but also floating gardens and eco-tourism development with the concept of homestay as a kind of tourist accommodation.

199

Figure 6.16: The proposed patial organization concept of a floating settlement

Figure 6.17: The perspective of floating settlement

200

Vernacular architecture

The project proposes an innovative future concept for floating settlements in Mekong Delta. The vernacular architecture features are not expressed much in this project, except the usage of bamboo as local material for floating houses. The project focuses on the new idea to improve the block composition and specialization of urban planning. However, the block composition with a tight connection of floating clusters and other functional blocks will reduce the navigation ability of floating houses. Moreover, the concept separates the area of aquaculture into one shared place for all households. In this case, a communal area of aquaculture will cause to the problem of ambitious properties that will make difficulties for the management of local authorities.

In conclusion, the project creates an idea for future floating settlements. However, it does not meet environmental and cultural conditions as well as vernacular architecture in Mekong Delta, where floating houses need flexible navigation ability according to the type level. It s not deny that the project creates an innovative idea for floating settlement; however, the feasibility of the project in Mekong Delta is still a hard question needed time to answer.

Project “Old Town in Future”

(3rd prize, T. Q. Hieu, N.V. Hieu, T.A. Duy, N.V. Huan, Ho Chi Minh University of Architecture

Social sustainability

Existing floating households are being located separately along the Hau river with the low quality of living condition. Therefore, the aim of the project is to connect these isolated floating houses into one community that will be installed all needed facilities including community areas and health care service as well as utility system which ensure a comfortable, safe and sustainable living for water dwellers. The floating family houses are moored alongside docks and connected with each other as well as access to public facilities through a main floating dock along with the settlement.

201

Environmental sustainability

Figure 6.18: The proposed spatial organization of floating settlement

Energy Water Waste Materials/ Structures

- Biogas production - Water river is purified and - Garbage is collected and - Using local from the toilet and used for daily life carried to the land for materials with kitchen waste provide - The water hyacinth garden treatment low embodied energy for cooking could purify wastewater energy and and lighting from the biogas system as using the a biological wastewater bamboo treatment system before structure discharging into the river - - The water filter system could purify grey wastewater from toilet and kitchen before discharging into the river

202

Economic sustainability

According to the economic development strategy from the local authority, the project desires to improve the local economy by developing aquaculture combining with eco-tourism. Every floating house is a community tourist spot that includes both space for local family and space for tourists as the concept of a homestay. Visitors can join in the owner house´s daily activities and explore the lifestyle, local culture, local foods as well as surrounding nature with the host. Moreover, the project proposes to develop water hyacinth garden not only as a biological wastewater treatment system but also as one potential kind of livelihood for local people to produce handcraft from dried hyacinth.

Figure 6.19: Proposed types of livelihoods for local people engaging with the spatial organization of floating settlement

Vernacular architecture

The planning of settlement is designed in harmony with nature and the surrounding landscape. The team analyzed some variants to finger out the best option for the shape of floating settlement to reduce the force of river flow affecting the floating houses.

The design of the floating home is an upgrade from the traditional architecture of these local areas. Due to new demand, the house is split into two blocks and linked together by common

203

living space. The small block will be used as a homestay for tourists and can be flexibly used as a warehouse or guesthouse. The main block consists of 2 bedrooms, living room, kitchen and dining room which are connected to the homestay block. The materials used in the floating houses are low-cost local materials such as bamboo, wood and steel panel.

Figure 6.20: A typical floating household

6.6 Judgment

The committee evaluated submitted projects based on the following criteria:

 Innovative Concept  Sustainability  Feasibility  Aesthetic

There are four evaluation criteria, and the most important criterion of judgment is the sustainability of project concept based on respecting and developing vernacular architecture. The urban and architectural solutions have to ensure the sustainability in all environmental, economic and socio-cultural aspects of local areas. After discussing and evaluating the contest projects, the jury selected the three best projects mentioned above. After analyzing and commenting on 3 projects, the jury decided the first prize for the project “Floating settlement on Mekong Delta”, because the project has met nearly four assessment criteria, especially the sustainability criterion. The proposed architectural and architectural solutions solved the

204

requirements of the competition, respecting the habit of residence associated with nature and local culture, improving sustainable livelihoods. The new concept ensures and enhances the quality of life, which are sustainable and livable.

The project "Environmental houses" is highly appreciated in the innovative concept criteria when offering innovative and unique architectural and planning solutions. However, local architectural factors associated with cultural factors and production methods are not paid much attention to the project. Therefore, the question of the feasibility of the project was raised by the experts in the council. That is why the council decided that the project gained the second prize.

6.7 Conclusion

Through the organization of the competition and the academic activities to support the competition, the author analyzed and synthesized research on the development of floating settlements in Vietnam’s Mekong Delta. And it is claimed that due to the geography characteristic, water dwellings have emerged and developed through the centuries and have become a common type of accommodation within the criss-crossed river system in Vietnam’s Mekong Delta. The floating house is the place for both accommodation and means of livelihood for local people earning money from fish farming, waterway transportation, waterway trade, and other business activities on the rivers. Besides traditional use, in recent years, there is a potential of floating houses to be a significant solution adapting to rising sea level that has been occurring and seriously affecting Vietnam’s Mekong Delta, where it is predicted to be submerged by 2100. However, nowadays, due to urbanization threat, rapid population growth, rapid aquaculture growth, climate change, and socio-cultural changes, most of floating villages have been suffering the pressure of environmental pollution and resource degradation. To preserve and develop floating settlement which is a typical unique kind of residences within a long historical development as well as an effective solution adapting to rising sea level, the sustainable concept of floating settlements is necessary. The concept would be financially viable and would provide a livable living environment with all adequate functions for daily life - work – social activities of people.

205

Therefore, by evaluating the results of the competition, as well as discussing the opinions of experts, citizens and local authorities, the author has compiled and developed specific design guidelines for the sustainable concept of floating settlements in Vietnam's Mekong Delta. The sustainable floating settlements development requires the respect of the symbiotic relationship between human and nature, the achievement of local economic objectives, as well as preservation and promotion of local culture and vernacular architecture. This optimizes the advantages and limits the weaknesses of local architecture by the use of cost-effective, innovative construction techniques and materials. The following are the planning and architectural design considerations noted in the case study according to the sustainability of social, economic and environmental factors.

Social and cultural considerations

Living on the water surface is a typical form of residence associated with the river civilization of the Mekong Delta. Therefore, the indigenous culture has an intensive influence on the development of floating settlements in Mekong Delta. The sustainable concept of floating settlement need to consider the following: preserving and promoting local culture.

Local culture and aquatic lifestyle play important roles to create the master plan and the design of floating settlement. Moreover, local authorities should consider and develop an indigenous culture of floating settlement as a tourist attraction which could be one of the essential factors of eco-tourism development in Mekong Delta. For example, the floating market and collective culture have become specific cultural activities of floating settlements in the Mekong delta and exploited by the tourism industry as unique tourist attractions.

1) Improving social facilities

Developing the concept of floating settlement including family floating houses which provides all adequate facilities for a sustainable community within working place, educational and recreational facilities such as health care service, school, market and place of worship as well as offering community areas or the places to enjoy water leisure, natural view, landmark and social activities for water dwellers.

2) Establishing good governance for the operation and management of the floating house and floating settlement development. 206

Economic considerations

1) Livelihood development/ poverty reduction

Integrating livelihood development in floating settlements development as a means of sustaining the community. The dynamic relationship between land, water and other ecological factors in the Mekong Delta supports a wide variety of livelihoods for the inhabitants of floating settlements. Local people can make their livelihoods by diversifying activities such as floating agriculture, aquaculture, handcraft, eco-tourism, business, etc. and even integrated floating agriculture-aquaculture and eco-tourism. For example:

- Combining aquaculture and eco-tourism will not only improve income for local people but also enhance their awareness of environmental protection. They will be involved in the activities of environment protection to keep the natural beauty of the landscape that secure their benefits from tourism development. - Combining aquaculture and agriculture: Cumulative nutrient pollution from several sources is a major obstacle for sustainable aquaculture. Many fish farms are operated as open- systems, releasing immense amounts of dissolved nutrients into surrounding waters. Therefore, developing the aquaponics system combining between aquaculture and agriculture will not only solve the problem of nutrient pollution from fish farms but also providing nutrient for the floating farm (Figure 6.21).

Figure 6.21: Diagram of milk fish aquaponic system integrated with water spinach plan Source: R O Khastini et al, 2019

207

Figure 6.22: Proposed concept combining fishing farm and aquaponic system for floating settlements in Mekong Delta Source: By author and Pham Anh Tu 2) Cost-effective floating houses

Almost all water dwellers have low income. Therefore, the low cost is one of the most important factors for the sustainable development of floating settlement in Mekong delta particularly and in Vietnam generally. The following are strategies to reduce the costs of operation and maintainance of floating houses:

- Creating self-sufficient floating houses which provide from energy, water, food to waste treatment system would be considered to reduce the energy consumption and greenhouse gases of floating houses - Using local environmental materials and assemble prefabricated construction techniques that can be constructed by local labor or the owners of the houses - Creating smart designs which use multifunctional spaces efficiently to increase the benefits of creating mixed-use developments with community spaces, working spaces and commercial areas.

Environmental Considerations

1) Environmental protection

Water dwellers in Mekong Delta often use river water for their daily life; moreover, the quality of river water affects the quality of fish production directly. Therefore, the protection of water resource from pollution is one of the most important tasks for the sustainable development of

208

floating villages. The innovative solutions of sanitation and solid waste management must be considered.

2) Prudent use of natural resources

The usage of natural resources such as wind, solar, water, even biomass which improve energy efficiency and energy self-sufficiency should be considered for floating villages in Mekong Delta.

3) Climate change and rising sea levels

Climate change and rising sea levels have been occurring seriously in Mekong Delta that has been leading to intensifying wind energy reaching, surface-temperature, increasing tidal heights, flooding, strong wave, saltwater intrusion, and greenhouse-gas levels. Those are negative environmental factors affecting the architecture of floating houses as well as the livelihood and the life of water dwellers. Thus, the design solutions which help the floating house adapt to climate change should be considered.

Architectural design

The development of floating settlements involved along with the culture of river and the development of human settlement in Mekong Delta. The settlements are based upon distinctive activities which combine living, trading, aquaculture and even floating agriculture. Over three centuries of development, water dwellers in Mekong delta have accumulated experiences in creating their floating houses adapting to natural, economic and socio-cultural conditions. That make the vernacular architecture features of floating houses which are needed to be considered and promoted by the use of new construction techniques and materials. The following are architectural design guidelines for the sustainable development of floating houses in Mekong delta in Vietnam:

1) Site selection

Site selection has to be primarily following local planning administered by the Provincial People’s Committee. Other criteria include:

- Having good water quality for living and aquaculture development 209

- Convenient access to social infrastructures (market, school, health center, place of worship) and the source of livelihood - Safety from natural hazards such as floods, erosion and typhoon, even preparing the plan of an effective response to an emergency such as rescue and evacuation procedures for water households

2) Planning - The planning concept will be created for both living and working that includes family floating houses within the working place. Educational and recreational facilities such as health care service, school, market and place of worship as well as offering community areas or the places to enjoy water leisure, natural view, landmark and social activities for water dwellers. The working place will be designed based on the potential of livelihood ways as well as according to the achievement of local economic objectives such as aquaculture, floating agriculture, tourism…etc. - Site Layout: according to the communal culture, people in blood relationship often live together to form a cluster. However, due to the characteristics of the environment and socio- culture such as water structure, tidal height, traditions of livelihood and lifestyle…etc, the inhabitants of floating settlement in Mekong Delta have the habit of flexible and moving living. Therefore, the connection between floating houses in a cluster, as well as the connection between floating clusters needs flexibility. - Site orientation and protective buffer: Orienting the site away from monsoon and typhoon paths is important in reducing damage to the property and the life of water dwellers. A protective buffer of a collection of dense mangrove forest (sometimes called floating forest) shield the floating settlements from flood, strong wind/wave and typhoon. - Accessibility: Suitable docking infrastructure should be provided to accommodate water transport as well as to connect between floating settlements with facilities on the land. Boat parking area needs to be considered in the concept of planning.

3) Building design

The main goal of building design is to design cost-efficient floating houses with high stability, safety, convenient living and long-term lifecycle on the water.

210

Housing materials and building technology

- Using light-weight construction; simple structure such as prefabricated modular house - Using locally available materials, environmentally friendly materials, recycled materials which have high ability adapting to the corrosive environment of Mekong Delta - Using affordable floating foundation which is safe, stable and suitable with the structure of floating house combining with fish farming under or beside the house

Architectural feature

- The elements of vernacular architecture of floating houses such as roofs, walls, screens, openings and floors were all partially conceived in response to hot and humid tropical climatic conditions. - Architectural features should be ‘environmentally friendly’ that protect the environment. Enhancing the quality of life and improving the living environment is one of the most important strategies for the sustainable development of floating settlements in Mekong Delta. The architectural design focuses on natural ventilation and minimum insulation standards, using materials with good thermal insulation. - Innovative architectural features which can protect public safety from hazard and natural risks due to climate change such as flood, strong wind/wave and typhoon should be considered in the design of floating houses.

Utilities

The floating settlements in Mekong Delta are often located along the river banks, not too much far away from the land. Therefore, designers should consider the link between the utility system of floating settlement in a connection on the land.

For the floating settlement located far away from land, the floating houses should be built to approach a self-sufficient concept which can provide electrical, plumbing, potable water and sewage disposal system by itself. Mekong Delta with favorable natural environment and abundant natural resources from the river system is a relevant region for living on the water and developing aquaculture and agriculture. Thus, local environmental solutions for utility system which use natural resources should be considered and developed.

211

- Water: Rainwater harvesting: Rainwater that is captured from the roofs of buildings. Can be used for water gardens, livestock, irrigation, domestic use with proper treatment, indoor heating for houses etc. The design will consider the roof as a source for catching rainwater and purification of river water for drinking and living purpose. Water re-utilization: Freshwater originally used for cooking, washing, bathing then the greywater will be collected in a holding tank and be reused for toilet flushing in case the household using a flush toilet. Wastewater: Grey and black water must be treated before releasing to the rivers.

- Sanitation and Solid Waste Management: The floating house shall be supplied with an approved sewage disposal system. The local people can use two types of toilet: composite toilet or flush toilet. Faeces and wastewater must go to a septic tank, and they will be moved to the land or will be treated by the sewage disposal system in each household or each cluster of floating houses. A sharing sanitation system in a cluster could be a cost-effective solution for water dwellers. The biological toilet and sustainable solutions for sewage disposal system are encouraged to develop. Biological sewage disposal system: Using the hyacinth garden as biological wastewater treatment: the system is an effective and low cost environmentally friendly solution for floating settlements. The toilet waste is separated faeces, urine, and wash water. The urine and blackwater will go into a septic tank for watering floating gardens or being purified by the water hyacinth garden before discharging into the river. Water hyacinth grows wildly and popularly on the rivers of Mekong Delta, but local people have not seen the economic and environmental benefits of this kind of plant. Water hyacinth can absorb not only minerals and inorganic substance from the sewage but also clean the sewage. And after using it to clean the sewage, it is brought to use as organic fertilizer like compost or mulching to provide nutrition for the vegetables. Moreover, the water hyacinth can be collected, and substances overlap into the raft for floating gardens which is recommended to grow eggplant, potato and pumpkin, etc., because these plants grow well on porous soils and do not need pesticides. Furthermore, dry hyacinth is a sustainable and environmental material for handicraft production which can contribute and improve the local economy. Recycling waste or transforming waste into energy: The faeces will be collected and be disposed of directly in a septic tank below the toilet. Then the faeces and organic waste will

212

be put into treatment is based on a desiccation process that incorporates drying of faeces, with increased pH through the addition of wood ash. The faeces will be treated to provide biogas for cooking and/or for lighting. For solid types and recycled types of waste such as aluminium products, plastics, glass products, or paper products, local authorities should use a boat to collect these waste products for recycling, and everything else falls into this category. - Energy: Being located in tropical climate region, Mekong Delta has abundant renewable energy resources. Especially, the floating houses have the potential to use various renewable energy systems such as solar energy, and wind power, hydrogen energy from river water, and even biogas energy from recycling waste.

Figure 6.23: Proposed eco self- sufficient utility systems for floating houses in Mekong Delta. Source: By author

213

Chapter 7 - Case study in a flood prone areas: Applying floating houses as an efficient type of flood proof house

7.1 Introduction

Storm and floods are the most noteworthy disasters in Vietnam that cause 98% of all total disaster deaths (storm 68%; and flood 30%), and 92% of estimated costs (storm 50%, flood; 42%) [Country Report Vietnam, 2015]. In 2016, the government’s Central Committee for Natural Disaster Prevention and Control (CCNDPC) and the United Nations reported the total damage and loss from all five major floods in eighteen affected provinces: Human impact 134 dead or missing and 151 injured; Houses 233,271 houses flooded and 4,093 damaged or collapsed; Estimated economic loss approximately US$460 million [World Bank Document, 2016]. Floods are typically caused by very heavy rainfall events during the monsoons in the rainy season (June to November). The combination of the typhoon and the monsoon seasons results in the flood season, which starts in July and ends in November. The sources of Vietnam's predisposition to floods are both geographical and topographical. The central region of Vietnam is one of the hot spots of flood disasters. Here are many coastal river basins where the highland mountainous areas are close to the coastal flood plains. Floods are caused due to a sudden runoff and increasing river water levels %) [Country Report Vietnam, 2015].

The Vietnamese government efforts to fight seasonal floods have included giving farmers loans to raise the foundations of their homes, constructing and reinforcing the dike systems and building canal systems to regulate flood waters in coastal areas. In recent years, flood-proof housing has received much attention from researchers, politicians and residences. A huge number of solutions have been introduced, but so far, most of these solutions have not really met the needs of the Vietnamese people. The main theories of these solutions are relocation and elevation strategies. However, due to climate change, floods are occurring more frequently and with more devastating effects on communities all over the world. Furthermore, flood depths are predicted to increase. Facing this reality, relocation and elevation strategies will be ineffective and unsustainable solutions when severe floods reach heights beyond the level that occurred at the time of construction. In this case, the concept of affordable amphibious housing is a sustainable solution that enables people living in flood-prone rural areas to remain in their community of origin and secure their life, as well as, their properties during flood events. An

214

amphibious house is built on the ground, but it is capable of rising up to float with increasing floodwaters and then returning to its original location as the flood recedes.

7.1.1 The research aim

Deriving from the demands of both local authorities and residents, and based on traditional solutions to the construction of flood mitigation, the aim of this study is to propose a sustainable and affordable concept for amphibious houses as an effective solution to flood-prone rural areas in Vietnam. The proposed concept would create an amphibious house as a sustainable house for all year round use in flood prone rural areas. The house would not only be used as a safe flood shelter that enables people to stay on their land of origin and simultaneously ensure a safe and healthy environment during flooding, but it also would be considered as an affordable and permanent housing prototype for low income families. Theses houses would provide a self- sufficient life for inhabitants, and would allow the rural community to plan for the future and improve inhabitants’ livelihoods in order to break the cycle of poverty. Moreover, the house should be built with low cost, sustainable construction and architecture, according to characteristics of vernicular architecture and in harmony with the local landscape.

7.1.2 Methodology

The author defined and designed the work plan for the case study by cooperating with experts and architects of a non-profit organization entitled Flood proof house2 which has been sponsoring and building amphibious houses for local people in flood prone rural areas in Vietnam since 2014. In the context of the project Swimmtour, the author undertook several interviews and meetings with architects who directly had been participating in the design and construction process of amphibious houses for local people in Tan Hoa, Quang Binh, Vietnam. From the interviews and meetings, the author discussed and consulted with these experts to propose and contribute ideas to create a more sustainable concepts of amphibious houses for rural flood prone areas in Central Vietnam, but also transferable to other areas in Vietnam.

The work plan for this case study consisted of two phases. The first explanatory phase focused on:

- Identification of the research problem, analyzing and synthesising current situation of Tan Hoa. 215

- Site investigation to determine which aspects of amphibious houses need to be considered in the local area. - Analyzing and synthesising typical flood proof house typologies in Vietnam, and design principles for flood resilient housing.

Three methods were used for data collection: literature and documentation search; individual interviews with experts and architects of the flood proof house organization; and focus group interviews in the forums of floating architecture which were organized in the context of Schwimmtour project. The findings from this phase established a theoretical and factual basis for the design step of the exploratory phase.

The exploratory phase focused on:

- Designing a model of sustainable and affordable amphibious house - Evaluation and recommendation for a design concept of amphibious house

The main method used in the exploratory phase was participatory action research consisting of design working and consulting with participants and experts.

The methods, tools and techniques used in the case studies are summarized in Figure 7.1 overleaf.

2 Flood proof house: a non-profit organization, a community development project established for the purpose of building safe homes and developing sustainable livelihoods for the poor in areas affected by natural disasters and climate change. https://song.org.vn/nha-chong-lu/

216

Figure 7.1: Diagram showing the case study methodology applying a dual approach consisting of two phases: a descriptive explanatory phase followed by an exploratory phase. Source: By author

217

7.2 Case study analysis

7.2.1 Background

a) b)

Figure 7.2: a) Spatial patterns of flood risk assessment by provinces, during 1989–2015 for 12 flood impact categories in Vietnam. Source: Chinh Luu et al, 2019; b) Tan Hoa commune, Minh hoa district, Quang binh province. Source: By author based on the map reported by Thuy T. Nguyen et. al, 2012.

Due to the characteristics of geography and climate, the central provinces are affected the most by flood events in Vietnam. According to statistics in the past 10 years, Quang Binh province has experienced 36 separate flood events with 151 people killed and 360,000 houses damaged. The number of people affected by floods was 1,737,000. The total value of damage in 10 years is around VND 4,800 billion. In particular, in 2007 and 2010 there were three large floods, which were considered as the largest historic floods in Vietnam, some of which even overlapped with earlier floods [Phan Thanh Tinh, 2011]. In 2010, a major flood occurred in

218

Tan Hoa commune, Minh hoa district, Quang binh province. This killed a huge portion of the population and destroyed their properties [Phan Thanh Tinh, 2011].

In the past, inhabitants have used rafts made from banana trees or wood, bamboo etc., in order to rescue people and animals from high flood levels. Yet these cannot bear the wind and do not ensure safety. After 2010, the floating houses and floating villages of Mekong Delta and Ha Long Bay inspired homeowners to apply floating house technology in Tan Hoa particularly, and in flood prone areas generally. The first original amphibious houses which are located on land and only float when floods come were built by local inhabitants in Tan Hoa. The floating foundation was constructed by empty oil tanks. The houses rises with the water during flooding events, and returns to the ground, when the flood water recedes.

Since 2014, based on the original principles of amphibious houses made by local people. The flood proof house organization has been sponsoring part of budget to help local people retrofit and build better amphibious houses, adapting to severe floods. As reported, by the end of 2016, the non-profit organization "Flood proof house" has built 90 amphibious houses for people living in flood prone areas in the central of Vietnam [Dinh Ba Vinh, 2017]. Recently, local authorities also Mr. Cao Quy Ninh, Vice Chair of Tan Hoa commune, said the commune has 170 floating houses. "Since floating houses were put into operation in 2010, there has been no accident in our commune," said Ninh [Vietnam Bridge, 2014]. Thus, the amphibious houses has operated effectively, ensuring the safety of life and property for local people. However, most of the flood proof houses are temporary houses located beside the main houses. These houses are only able to rescue the people, animals and a part of the owner’s property from the water. The local people cannot protect their plants and vegetable crops from flood damage. The farmers’ livelihoods are still washed away by water. After the floods, inhabitants have to rebuild their houses and recover their livelihoods. The farmers cannot break the cycle of poverty because the floods happen frequently every year. The expectation of the authorities and people is to live normally and safely in their houses during the floods. A new sustainable concept for flood proof houses should be capable of withstanding flood water level of up to ten meters, and capable of providing adequate services for residents such as food, water, energy, sanitation, as well as, protecting their livelihood such as gardens, fish ponds from the destruction of the flood.

219

7.2.2 Factors affecting to flood proof houses

Flood proofing is a way of constructing buildings to make them resilient against flooding. This can be done by avoiding contact with floodwater or by making the building resistant to potential damage caused by floodwaters. There are various methods of flood proofing that are: Wet flood proofing; Dry flood proofing; Elevation (stilts and mounds); Floating and amphibious structures; Temporary and demountable flood defenses; Permanent flood defenses.

Each flood proofing concept is chosen according to flood characteristics (flood depth; flood duration; the flooding frequency horizontal force created by flood waves or currents; uplift due to soil saturation; secondary hazards such as high winds or storms, lightning, slope instability, ground settlement) [K. Iftekhar Ahmed, 2005], and location characteristics where the flood occurs [Dura Vermeer, 2012]. For example, table 7.1 shows the flood duration related to flood proofing concepts.

Table 7.1: The flood duration related to flood proofing concept. Source: Dura Vermeer, 2012

In the following, the research will address the flood characteristics (expected flood level, the duration, the flooding frequency and the predictability of the flood) and location characteristics of Tan Hoa that affect the design of flood proof houses for this area.

Environmental factors

Quang Binh is located in a tropical climate, monsoon influenced by the hot and cold transition between the North and the South. It is this interference with the terrain that makes the air near the ground unstable, leading to sudden rainfall, the average annual rainfall of 2,223 mm is mainly concentrated from September to November.

220

In addition to climate, the Quang Binh terrain is narrow and sloping from the West to the East, along with a dense river systems that make flood intensity more. Tan Hoa and Minh Hoa communes are located in the middle of a narrow valley, on both sides of the mountains. This area is like a giant funnel and all the water resources are concentrated here. The water rushes to the pile but the exit is just a narrow mountain cave. Because of the poor drainage, the flooding level here has a large fluctuation range [Phan Thanh Tinh, 2011]. During the 2010 flood, all constructions including 3-storey houses were submerged under flood waters. Flooding in Tan Hoa is typically seen from August to November depending on the year. Each year the provinceusually suffer from 3-4 floods. The flood level here is fluctuating from 4- 14m, lasting from 3 to 10 days with storms and currents [Nguyen Hanh Nguyen et.al, 2019]. "Flood water in Tan Hoa rises to high levels, but withdraws slowly and the water does not run fast, so it is safe to use," said a local man named Tran Huu Hung [Vietnamnet Bridge, 2014].

Social- Economic factors

According to a report from the United Nations Development Programme, Viet Nam, Minh Hoa and Tuyen Hoa are the first and the second poorest districts in Quang Binh province with 51.67% and 34.91% respectively of the population living below the official poverty line (Figure 7.3). These two districts are remote and mountainous with limited economic activities compared to other districts and a higher number of ethnic minorities [Thuy T. Nguyen et. al, 2012]. All inhabitants live on agricultural holdings while every year Tan Hoa experiences long and listings floods that destroy all their livestock and poultry farming and crops. After many years of striving, with the help of local authorities and organizations, many households managed to escape from poverty, only to return following heavy losses from flood events. Thus, the economic situation of households has been getting more and more difficult to escape from permanent poverty [Phan Phuong, 2019]. One paper shows that poverty is measured through the poverty rate at the provincial level and disaster impact through number of deaths, damage to housing and damage to agricultural produce [Thuy T. Nguyen et.al, 2012]. Therefore, a solution for sustainable livelihood which can be adaptive with floods or can protect livestock, poultry and crops during floods would help local people break the cycle of poverty. In this case, the task of architects and local authorities is not only to create flood proof houses, but also to create the a sustainable concept that combines amphibious houses with sustainable livelihood solutions. Ninh said, locals need the state’s assistance to make floating houses because poor farmers make up 98% of the population [Vietnam Bridge, 2014]. A local man 221

named Tran Huu Hung said, he and his son spent 30 million VND ($1,500) to build an amphibious house by themselves [Vietnamnet Bridge, 2014]. Thus, low cost is one of the most important requirement to create amphibious houses for local people.

Figure 7.3: Shows the poverty rate of all the districts in Quang Binh in March 2008. Source: Thuy T. Nguyen et. al, 2012

Architectural factors

Traditional flood proof house typologies

People used to live in traditional wooden houses. However, there is currently a steel frame house built with brick to replace the wooden house. When floods come, local inhabitants run to higher places such as mountains or public buildings to avoid storms. But this method causes people to suffer the losses of life and finance [Nguyen Hanh Nguyen et.al, 2019].

222

Figure 7.4: Typical houses in Tan Hoa, Quang Binh province, Vietnam. Source: Phan Phuong, 2019

In Vietnam, water-related disasters are divided into primary hazards (flooding) and secondary hazards (subsidence and landslide). The oldest and most obvious ways to build a flood proof house are wet proof and elevation. People choose to live in a place above the likely height of the flood waters. There are a number of ways to do that, according to geographical and topographical, hydrological characteristics of each flooded area. However, wet proof and elevation strategies are only effective in low intensity floods, with flood heights less than 3.5 m. Buoyant features of the floating houses can basically make them resilient to water-related disasters/hydro-hazards. Amphibious houses and floatable houses are responsive to both a speedy and unexpected rise of water levels or hurricanes and to an ongoing rise in sea or river level due to climate change.

- Wet proof: The attic houses are applied in low intensity floods of 1-2 m; The second floor houses are applied in high flood areas of 2.5-3.5 m. - Elevation: The stilts houses are applied in high flood areas of 1-3 m. - Amphibious houses and floatable houses are applied a speedy and unexpected rise of flood water level.

223

Table 7.2 : Types of proof flooding in Central Vietnam. Source: By author

Problems of current amphibious houses

Recently, amphibious houses has been developed in severals flood prone areas in the central of Vietnam. Floating houses are usually 15-20 m2 in area, made with wooden frames and covered by iron or timber. The house can float with a simple floating foundation made of plastic or iron drums under the floor. The house is tied to two pillars of 6-8 meters in height [Vietnam Bridge, 2014]. It is reported that thses amphibious houses have been very effective in protecting local people’s life and their properties in the floods. However, current amphibious houses still have severals problems that need to be solved to create the better sustainable concepts of amphibious house. These problems are outlined below:

- The amphibious houses were built using simple construction methods and materials. These houses were not capable to withstand the serious damage of large floods with high winds or storms. - Most of the flood proof houses are temporary houses located beside the main houses, and without functioning energy and sanitation system during floods. They need prepare foods, water enough to last 1-2 weeks. In this case, it is necessary to create amphibious houses as

224

main and permanent houses which are afforable, comfortable and safe for local people. The houses can save not only their life, properties but also protect their livelihood and even provide all its need for local daily living during flood event. - Current amphibious houses just can be adaptive with flood areas in high flood areas with less than 6 m water levels. The architect and practictioners of “Flood proof house” organization reported that until now the maximum length of guide piles which are produced in the factories in Vietnam is 6 m. In the areas where are predicted the high flood areas more than 6 m, the architects proposed to build amphibious houses on the second floor of the house in order to extend the limitation height of guide piles. Therefore, mooring and movement systems should be considered to improve in the new concepts of amphibious houses.

7.3 Considerations for flood resilient housing

Research from Lake Macquarie City Council, to achieve resilient housing that has in-built adaptability and flexibility in relation to flooding and tidal inundation, developed four principles: 1) Relocation3; 2) Raising of floor height4; 3) Redundancy5; 4) Site analysis and design [Lake Macquarie City Council, 2014].

The principle of site design is based on the premise that the predicted flood and sea level rise risk can be treated by appropriate site design and construction, and optimizing the position of the building on the site. The basis of site analysis and design is utilizing the site appropriately and designing for inundation impacts. An amphibious home can be built by ensuring that the site will maximize the way water will enter and flow across the property and minimize impact on the building [Lake Macquarie City Council, 2014]. These factors need to be considered:

3 Relocation: the principle of relocation is based on the premise that the building can be removed from the area at risk and repositioned in an area with no or much lower risk of inundation, either onsite or removed to another site

4 Raising of floor height: the principle of raising of floor height is based on the premise that the building floor level can be raised above the predicted flood and sea level risk point as they increase.

5 Redundancy: the principle of redundancy is based on the premise that the portion of the building that is predicted to be at risk can be converted to a new use or become redundant space, with the remaining structure continuing to be livable.

225

- Site analysis: evaluate the site soil structure and type, surface water run-off or ponding, drainage measures and suitable outlets, safest point of the site for building. - Site design: utilize the safest part of the site, design suitable protection works.

In the case of Vietnam, types of flood-proof houses are related to the methods of relocation, raising of floor height, and redundancy. However, the method of site analysis and design is considered less. As mention above, due to climate and topographic characteristics, the floods in Central Vietnam are often major storm-flood with high flood water level and currents. Faced with this reality, the use of site analysis and design methods integrated with other methods will minimize the impact of floods on the house, as well as, to optimize the design of flood proof houses. Thus creating the appropriate site design and landscape of amphibious houses should be considered.

On the other hand, as a report from Office of the United Nations Vietnam, flooding response plan was referred by three sectors: Food security and livelihood, shelter, water sanitation and hygiene [United Nations Vietnam, 2018]. In particular, the strategies for flood prone areas in Vietnam includes:

1. Ensure that the acute needs including access to food, safe housing, livelihoods support, and clean water.

2. Support the repair of public service infrastructure, ensure food security and access to sustainable water, sanitation, housing, replacement of productive assets, and access to basic social and public services while enhancing preparedness for future hazards and climate extremes.

3. Support the resilience of affected communities to cope with and recover from the impacts of the flooding.

According to the above strategies and analysis of current situation of flood proof houses, the main target of amphibious house concept is to protect local people and their properties, to ensure the acute needs during floods, and to strengthen the resilience of the household to cope with and recover from the impact of the floods. The particular requirements for the proposed concept of amphibious houses would be:

226

- Site utilization: Creating appropriate site design and landscape to maximize natural protection and optimize the position of amphibious house on the site. - Protecting resident’s livelihood and ensure food security during the floods. - Providing safe shelter: The housing structure is robust enough, using suitable mooring and movement systems, using environmentally lightweight materials to facilitate ease of raising, using flood resilient-materials. - Self-sufficiency: The house can provide acute needs of living such as food, energy, water, sanitation, all year round, even during floods. The raising floor is able to allow for reconnection to infrastructure and utilities. - Cost efficiency: Using available local materials, using construction techniques that are flexible, fast and easy to assemble with minimal maintenance needs.

Figure 7.5: Amphibious house concepts created by Flood Proof House organization for Tan Hoa a) The concept applied in 2014; b) The concept applied in 2017 Source: Dinh Ba Vinh, 2017

227

7.4 Proposed concept of self- sufficient amphibious house

7.4.1 Design layout

One of the indispensable elements of traditional rural housing in Vietnam is the landscape surrounding each homestead. The surrounding living space of homesteads includes choosing the direction of the house, the position of entrance gate and fence, the surrounding tree, the garden space, the pond. That creates completely the best value for housing architecture. As mentioned in Chapter 4, a traditional rural homestead in Vietnam is a complex arranged in order that includes: the gate to the yard and front garden; then to the main house, side block, kitchen, sanitary area; then livestock cages and fish pond; then back garden with the surrounding tree fence [Nguyen To Lang, 2012]. The traditional Vietnamese village in both Northern and Central Vietnam have traditionally been settled close together and surrounded by a bamboo hedge, or sometimes an earthen wall [Carlo Caldarola, 1982]. Following this characteristic of traditional architecture, the bamboo hedge around the house would be a natural protective layer that reduces the impact of the storm, slows down the flow of the flood, as well as prevents the houses from the damage of sharp objects in the flood water. In conclusion, the typical layout of traditional rural homestead inspires a solution for site design and landscape that is able to enhance the resilience of amphibious houses.

In addition, homestead raising could be also effective solution of landscaping to reduce the impact of floods [K. Iftekhar Ahmed, 2005]. A homestead can be built for one household but also can be built for a cluster of houses. Raising homesteads would create low spaces between homesteads. These places would help to reduce horizontal force created by flood waves or currents affecting to houses. Moreover, these low space can be used to store rainwater for agriculture in dry season to avoid drought (Figure 7.6, Figure 7.7). These homesteads would link together to form a flood resilience cluster.

228

Figure 7.6: Side view of a flood resilience cluster including raising homesteads. Source: By author

Figure 7.7: Plan of a flood resilience cluster including raising homesteads. Source: By author

The traditional rural homesteads are built within an ecological cycle system providing a closed food chain engaging to the natural environment: garden – pond – cages (Figure 7.8(a)). This characteristic of rural houses in Vietnam provided a basic inspiration for the author to create the idea to apply aquaponics systems to for flood prone areas (Figure 7.9). The concept combines amphibious houses, biogas system and aquaponic system which are connected together to make a cycle system providing food, water, energy supply systems and sanitation for local people throughout the year, even during the floods (Figure 7.10 (a)). The amphibious houses, floating garden and fish tank would be able to move upwards and float along vertical guide posts as the flood comes, and then return to their original positions as the floodwater recedes (Figure 7.10 (b)).

229

Figure 7.8: Ecological system garden- pond- cages. Source: By author a) in traditional rural house in Vietnam; b) in amphibious house in rural flood prone areas; c) proposed planning for a homestead including amphibious houses in rural flood prone areas

Figure 7.10: The proposed concept of an amphibious house. Source: By author a) in the normal time; b) in the flood time

230

Aquaponic system

Figure 7.11: Illustration of a small deep water culture without a mechanical solid separator or biofilter Source: United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, 2014

The research proposes to apply an aquabonic system, using a polystyrene bed, in order to improve and secure inhabitant’s livelihood all year. There are several different types of aquaponic systems that have developed over the past 30 years. In flood prone areas, residents should use ‘deep water culture’ (DWC). It works on the idea of suspending plants in polystyrene sheets floating on the water surface, with their roots hanging down into the nutrient-rich water. The method is to grow the fish in a fish tank and pump the water through a filtration system and then into long channels where polystyrene sheets filled with plants float on the water surface and extract the nutrients. The water must be filtered before it reaches the channels as particulates and solids in the water will clog up the root systems of the plants and will inhibit their ability to take up oxygen and nutrients [United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, 2014]. Aquaponic DWC units can be designed without external additional filtration (Figure 7.11). The advantage to this method is the reduction in initial economic investment and the weight of system to facilitate ease of raising when floodwaters come. However, these units carry a very low stocking density of fish, and then rely mainly on the interior areas of the channels and the plant root space as the surface area to collect the nitrifying bacteria. The large solid waste is captured by simple mesh screens and the channels serve as settling tanks for fine waste. Often, this method requires nutrient supplementation to ensure plant growth [United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, 2014]. Fish tanks will be 231

attached with floating platforms. Fish tanks and polystyrene sheets can float along vertical guide posts in case of a flood. As the result, the aquaponic system is capable of protecting the household’s livelihood from the destruction of flooding and providing vegetables and fish during the flood events.

Biogas system

Biogas is an important renewable energy resource for rural areas in developing countries all over the world, particularly in Vietnam. Biogas technology uses the natural processes of anaerobic digestion to convert animal manure and human excreta into a renewable, reliable and affordable source of energy. Biogas consists of methane that can be used for cooking and lighting. Therefore, biogas helps to tackle environmental, health and energy supply challenges in rural areas in developing countries [The Department of Livestock Production of Vietnam]. As reported, until March 2017, the Vietnam Biogas Programme has facilitated the construction of 158,500 domestic biogas digesters, across 55 provinces and cities of Vietnam. The biogas plants are simple underground structures of bricks and cement, known as the “fixed dome type” [Teune, B., 2007]. Farmers who keep more than two heads of cattle or seven pigs can generate enough fuel to meet their daily cooking needs. Within underground structures, biogas systems will not be affected seriously by floods. It can continue working and producing biogas to provide energy for the house during floods allowing to keep connection to utilities and biogas by using stretch flexible pipe or telescopic pipe for utility system.

7.4.2 Amphibious houses

Organization of space

Based on the organization of space in a traditional rural house in Vietnam, the paper proposes the plan concept design of an amphibious house for a 4 member family including living room, kitchen, 2 bed rooms, toilet, storage for grain, and a multifunctional room where the household can act to prepare bins and harvesting equipment to ensure that the grain will remain in good condition.

232

Figure 7.12: Plan of an amphibious house. Source: By author

233

Structure and Material

Figure 7.13: Structure of amphibious house Source: By author

The primary consideration in the proposed design of amphibious houses are cost-effective materials, the reinforcement of structure and the construction time reduction. In this research, the design strategy for the amphibious house is the prefabricated modular bamboo house, using a light steel frame as a load-bearing component and bamboo panels as building enclosures, such as walls and roofs (Figure 7.13). Meanwhile, great efforts have been made to improve the water-proofing and comfort for residence. 234

Assembled light steel frame

Steel framing offers a number of advantages that increase design and construction flexibility over traditional framing materials. Light steel frame members are lighter per unit length than traditional wooden framing members [Canadian sheet steel institute, 2000]. It is easier and faster to construct and less costly with fewer lifting-related injuries. Moreover, steel is immune to termite attack or damage from insects, rodents, or other vermin. Furthermore, since steel framing does not absorb moisture, it does not support the growth of destructive, parasitic and biohazardous molds and fungi. Especially, steel does not absorb water, so the moisture- related to problems of warping, shrinking and twisting that are common to more traditional products are not a problem with lightweight steel framing. The use of lightweight steel framing is a suitable and affordable for flood proof housing.

Bamboo panels

Bamboo is one of the most common materials used to build houses in Asian countries generally, and in Vietnam particularly. It is a low cost, locally available, natural, environmentally friendly and light building material. Moreover, its durability and resilience, with a tensile strength close to steel. Compressive strength bamboo is two times higher than concrete. Moreover, bamboo fiber has a shear stress that is higher than wood and bamboo and also can be curved without breaking. Its capacity to absorb energy and the higher bending strength makes bamboo an ideal material for seismic-resistant constructions [Anagal et al., 2010]. Therefore, bamboo panels enable both requirements of cost-effectiveness and reinforcement of amphibious houses for rural flood prone areas in Vietnam. Bamboo panels could be used for both the wall and roof of the amphibious house. The structure of bamboo panels as following:

- Walls: the walls are characterized with a sandwiched structure that uses bamboo mat laminated panels as exterior and interior surface. The middle layers are bamboo frame and polystyrene for sound and heat insulation [Zehui J, et.al, 2009].

- Roofs: the structures of roofs are nearly the same as those of walls. The outer surface of roof is further covered with a leaf thatching layer or with corrugated metal sheets for better water proofing. Inside the house, suspended ceilings with mineral wool boards are used for both better appearance and heat insulation [Zehui J, et.al, 2009]. 235

Floating structure

The technology of the floating structure should correspond to owner’s economic condition. For low cost concepts of amphibious houses, the paper proposes to use recycled materials and pontoons for floating platform. Currently, local people has been using plastic drums as pontoons. This are a low cost and suitable design solution for rural flood prone areas. However, pontoon connecting system must be created robust enough to ensure the safety of floating foundation from the impacts of storm and floods. In the areas where are predicted the high flood water levels greater than 6 m, telescopic tempered aluminum pipe can be used as vertical guide posts. The strength of telescopic guide post when it is extended should be considered and tested to ensure the safe of house in storms and floods.

In addition, one point is that architects and local people need to consider about design solutions for the cover of floating foundation/pontoons to ensure the aesthetic of amphibious houses on the ground in the normal time. Moreover, the cover is also able to protect partly pontoons from logs, sharp branches, heavy objects that could ram and damage floating houses in fast flowing flood waters. The grid covers can be made from many kinds of material such as steel, aluminum, wood, bamboo or concrete. The choosing of shape and material of the cover must be suitable with the architecture of the house and create a harmony with the surrounding landscape. On the other hand, designers can also propose solutions to hide the floating foundation underground.

7. 5 Conclusion

Amphibious prototypes have been built in several countries all over the world including both developed countries such as UK, US, France, Canada and developing countries such as Bangladesh, Thailand and even Vietnam. In industrialized countries, most recent examples of amphibious buildings are built as a new construction where they predominantly serve moderate to high income residents. By contrast, in developing countries, amphibious buildings have much to offer to rural and low income populations in flood prone areas [Nikhila Nelson, 2019]. These amphibious houses are built as new low-cost flood proof homes or as a retrofit solution to increase resilience in flood regions. For example, in 2018 the Buoyant Foundation Project (BFD) that received funding from the Global Resilience Partnership and led by architecture professor Dr. Elizabeth English of the University of Waterloo, Canada. The project worked

236

alongside local experts and community members to retrofit four houses in Vietnam’s Mekong Delta region.

Through a detailed analysis of basic architectural characteristics, regarding rural housing and traditional solutions for flood mitigation, the paper not only accumulates precious experience from traditional approaches to flood resistant houses, but also points out the weaknesses that need to be considered for optimal design of future amphibious houses. Based on these studies, as well as the aforementioned requirements, the paper proposes an affordable concept of self- sufficient and eco-friendly amphibious house for rural flood prone areas. The concept combines amphibious houses, biogas system and aquaponic system. Throughout the year, the combination would produce a closed cycle system providing food, water, energy supply systems and sanitation for the house. During flood events, it would secure local people’s livelihood, as well as enable people to stay on their land of origin and simultaneously ensure a safe and healthy environment with all adequate services maintained. The proposed concept would improve the standard of living and the quality of life of local people. It would help them break the cycle of generational poverty and promote sustainable living concepts.

Through the review of this case study, it is emphasized that the affordable and self-sufficient concept for amphibious houses would be an effective solution to flood-prone rural areas in Vietnam. For example, the Mekong Delta is also a flood pronearea in Vietnam. Floods may reach an area of about 1.2 to 1.4 million ha in a regular flood event and even 1.7 to 1, 9 million ha in a major flood, event with a water depth of between 0.5 to 4.0 m and a duration of between 3-6 months [Delta Alliance, 2011]. In recent years, climate change and sea level rise have caused flood events to increase in severity in the Mekong Delta. The floods have inundated homes or caused structures to be abandoned, damaged or collapse. “Therefore, low-cost but permanent housing is an urgent social issue here," say local architects [Vu, Thi Thu Ha, 2017]. As the result, there is the possibility to apply the affordable and self-sufficient concept of amphibious houses as an effective solution adapting to climate change and rising sea levels, and that help local people be able to live with floods and reduce the affects of floods on their livihoods.

Based on the result of this case study and inspired by a report that mentioned concerns related to amphibious buildings [Nikhila Nelson, 2019], in further research, the author would like to create guidelines to build the capacity and resilience of flood prone communities in Vietnam. 237

Such a guideline would address socio-political issues and technical issues related to the development of amphibious houses engaging with flood prone communities. The sociopolitical issues would consider policy, certification concerns, and community resilience issues. The technical issues would concern spatial and land use planning, site selection of amphibious buildings in multiple-lines-of-defense systems, infrastructure, mechanical systems and utilities, system components.

Figure 7.14: The possibility of amphibious houses for the Mekong Delta Source: Vu, Thi Thu Ha, 2017

238

Chapter 8 - Conclusions and Discussion

8.1 The results of research

The thesis utilized three case studies from three very different geographical, climatic and cultural regions of Vietnam: the North, the Central and the South. Each case study examined an area including different statuses, climatic conditions, socio-cultural and regional economic development potentials, that resulted in different recommended design solutions for the sustainable development of floating settlements, as well as, a strategy to improve the ability to apply floating houses for new resilient living in each specific locality. In case study 1 and case study 2, the research is focused on the possibilities to create sustainable floating settlements in the North and in the South of Vietnam respectively. Case study 1 proposes the new sustainable concept in combination with the development of eco tourism, in order to revive the floating villages which were demolished in Ha Long Bay. While, for case study 2, the research proposed a new sustainable concept of floating settlements, in order to develop the existing floating village sttructure in the Mekong Delta. Furthermore, case study 3 represents design solutions to apply floating houses as a type of flood proof houses for flood prone areas in the Central region of Vietnam.

A comparision between case study 1 and case study 2 shows the differences between natural conditions, topography, climate, socio-economic characteristics, venacular architecture, as well as, aquaculture practices that led to differences in the reccomended solutions for the planning for floating settements and the architectural design solutions for mooring systems, floating structures and architectural features of floating houses towards sustainable development. For example:

- Living purpose on water: In general, the topography of river systems in the North of Vietnam often have a high gradient and high flow volume. This means that living on water is not always a convinient option. The main reason that currently people choose to live in floating village is because of fisheries and aquaculture as the main means of their livelihood. By contrast, in the Mekong Delta, in the South of Vietnam, floating settlements have become a convenient and familiar residence for inhabitants for many centuries. Due to the crisscrossing river systems, gentle river gradients, low flow rates, andmild climate condition, living on water is often chosen by residents as a favorable living place associated

239

with nature, and exploiting aquatic resources from the aquatic environment. Living on water also gives them the advantage of waterway transport, and traderoutes which have been utilised for centuries. Therefore, the residents living in floating villages in the South are more diverse than the North. They are not only fishermen or people working on aquaculture cultivation, but they are also farm laborers working on land but still living in floating villages because of economic conditions or family traditions. - Economic potentials: In the first case study, the selected location was Ha Long Bay- the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Heritage Site. As such this area has great potential for tourism development. As the result, besides developing aquaculture, developing ecotourism combined with other tourism services is a huge economic development potential for floating villages in this area. On the other hand, in the second case study in the in Mekong Delta in Southern Vietnam, due to the favorable characteristics of the natural environment, as well as, the long tradition of farming on the river, the means of livelihood for water dwellers are diverse. Therefore, the research results emphasise design solutions for floating houses which enhance the possibilities of viable livelihood options for the local people. For example, to combine aquaculture and floating agriculture or to develop hydroponic systems, aquaponic systems, as well as, to develop eco-tourism. In addition, there is also the possibility of using river water for daily activities through water treatment systems. - Layouts: In the first case study area, floating settlements are built on a large surface area of the sea. Therefore, the arrangement of floating houses is also flexible. They can be designed in clusters or arranged in rows along the surrounding mountains to avoid obstructing waterway traffic. In the second case study area, floating residential areas are often built on rivers, or canals with limited width, floating houses are often arranged in rows along the river banks, so as not to obstruct waterway traffic. - Utilities: The location of offshore floating villages means that distance from shore makes them independent from the land. Therefore, in case study 1 the author emphasized self sufficient design solutions for utility systems, especially about using renewable energy from natural resources. On the other hand, in the Mekong Delta floating houses an floating settlements are built up not too far from the river bank, or even close to the river bank, as the result the utility system of floating houses can be directly connected to utility systems on shore.

240

In conclusion, the results of both case studies have shown that a sustainable floating community can be formed on the basis of respecting, protecting and improving the habit of residents associated with the surrounding nature and local culture, developing sustainable livelihoods to enhance the local economy, based on sound local resources, as well as, optimizing the advantages and limiting the weaknesses of vernacular architecture, by the use of new construction techniques and materials. Especially, in the current context of existing floating settlements combined fish farms has been used without appropriate sanitation systems causing serious water pollution. It can be determined that the sustainability in the environmental and in local economic and livelihood development are two prerequisites for forming a sustainable floating village.

The third case study showed the application of floating house for resilient living. The study represented a design solution to apply floating houses as a type of flood proof houses for rural flood prone areas in the Central Region of Vietnam. The amphibious house was linked to aquaponic system including the concept of floating garden and floating fish tank. When the flood comes, the amphibious house and the aquaponic system would rise up owith the rising water level, protecting lives and liviehoods and providingadequate needs during flooding. The case study emphasized that the proposed concept of amphibious house would not only be as a safe flood shelter, which enables people to stay on their place of origin and simultaneously ensure a safe and healthy environment during times of flooding, but it also would be designed as an affordable and permanent housing prototype which provides self-sufficient living and ensures sustainable livelihoods all the year for the low income families of rural flood prone areas.This would help local people break the cycle of poverty and the burden of annual floods every year. A traditional ecological system of rural traditional houses in Vietnam: garden - pond – fish cages, inspried the research solution of a cycle and self-sufficient system combining an amphibious house, garden and fish tank. The circle and self-sufficient system includes the combination of amphibious house, biogas system and aquaponic system that creates a ecological circle process to provide all inhabitants’s need from energy, water, food and waste treatment the year around. It additionally provides protection for lives and livelihoods in times of flooding.

Beyond the concept of amphibious house for a single household, the research looked at solutions to upscale the idea to amphibious settlement structures and patterns. These would be integrated with solutions for the principle of site design, in order to enhance the resilience of 241

amphibious houses. The principle of site design is based on the premise that the predicted flood and sea level rise risks can be treated and mitigated by appropriate site design and construction, and by optimizing the position of the building on the site. The basis of site analysis and design is to utilize the site appropriately and design in-built resilience for flood impacts. An amphibious home can be built by ensuring that the site maximizes the way water will enter and flow across the property and minimize impact to the building [Lake Macquarie City Council, 2014].

The three in-depth case studies have highlighted that the goal of study is not only to preserve and protect existing floating villages, but also is to develop floating structures for flooding resilience, as well as, developing floating house as a unique kind of accommodation for tourists and furthermore, housing space due to predicted future lack of construction ground due to the growing and expanding populations in coastal areas and delta regions of Vietnam. Based on precious values of traditional architecture, integrated with modern floating technologies, the dissertation outlined the sustainable concept of floating housing units embedded in a floating community. The sustainable floating house is both sustainable and affordable, using innovative floating structures and materials in accordance with the environmental, climatic and social conditions in Viet Nam and adapting to climate change and sea level rise. The sustainable concept of floating settlements would improve the life quality that provides necessary, comfortable and convenient living conditions, as well as, to protect surrounding environment and secure sustainable livelihood for water dwellers. The future floating settlements would ensure a safe, stable and permanent living for inhabitants adapting to climate change and rising sea level. Livability, sustainability and resilience are three intertwined elements that together will define the quality of life of current and future residents [P. Jamnický, 2006]. Therefore, the two main questions in this thesis to be answered were defined as “How to manage and create sustainable floating houses and sustainable floating settlements in Vietnam” and “How to apply floating houses for new resilient living”.

8.1.1 How to manage and create sustainable floating houses and sustainable floating settlements in Vietnam?

To answer the first question, the research proposes management strategies for living on the water for local authorities and to create guidelines for the sustainable development of floating settlements in Vietnam. Moreover, the research also suggests a framework of design criteria 242

for the sustainable development of floating houses which is helpful for the government to establish offical regulations and laws to promote and manage floating settlements in Vietnam.

8.1.1.1 Governance

In order to move towards the national goals for sustainable development, municipal authorities in floating settlements in Vietnam should focus on the issues which most concerned by water dwellers. Such issues are improving the life quality on the water, and the requirements for enhancing floating settlement management. These issues would also be an important tool for ensuring balance and coherence between cross-sectoral assistance to water environments and sector-specific operations such as in water transport or energy, water and sanitation services. There are four factors that influence the management process and expansion of floating houses: local natural conditions; local government; local perception; management strategies (Figure 8.1).

• Local natural •Sociocultural resources perspectives and • Local topography biases • Local climatic • Economic preference characteristics • Environmental awareness • Vernacular Local natural Local • architecture conditions perception

Management Local strategies government

• Carrying out • Policies and strategic analysis regulations for • Making strategies floating houses • Preparing strategic • Goverment plan performance

Figure 8.1: Factors influence the management process of floating settlements. Source: By author

243

The aim of strategic management6 of a floating settlement is to find an approach how to ensure a floating settlement grows as moving towards to sustainable development by integrating all the available resources and adopting an effective method of a floating settlement management. The strategic management process comprises of four stages (Figure 8.2):

- Stage 1- Strategic intent: identify the current mission, vision and objectives - Stage 2- Strategy formulation: conduct external and internal analyses, swot analysis; formulate strategic plan and action plan - Stage 3- Strategy implementation: execute action plans (structural, resource allocation, procedural, behavioral ) - Stage 4- Strategic evaluation: mornitoring and evaluating to what action plans have been successful and making changes to adjust and improve the planning and management of floating settlement. The management strategies for the sustainable development of floating houses and floating settlements in Vietnam would be proposed according to the State management of domestic waterway transport (Article 99. State management responsibilities for inland waterway traffic of the Government, ministries and ministerial- level agencies). Moreover, currently the main reason for residents to live in floating settlements is to develop aquaculture. The aquaculture not only brings economic benefits to water dwellers but also brings huge potential to many other types of services to develop the local economy, such as trade in groceries, the trade of raw materials, catering services, rowing boat etc. As the result, the management strategies for floating settlements must be associated with the management of aquaculture development in water bodi in Vietnam.

6“Strategic management of a city is the process of specifying goals, developing policies and plans to achieve these objectives, and allocating resources so as to implement the plans. A city’s strategy must be appropriate for its resources, circumstances, and objectives” [P. Jamnický, 2006].

244

STAGE 1- Identify the current mission, vision and objectives STRATEGIC INTENT

STAGE 2- Law and policy formulation STRATEGIC (definitions, policies, strategies, versions) FORMULATI ON

Policies and Guideline/ Management strategies for Framework regulations of Spatial supporting for floating planning of ION and sustainable buildings floating improving development (standard settlements inhabitants’s of floating design livelihood settlements criteria)

STAGE 3 Management implementation

STRATEGIC (Multiple comprehensive cooperation and specific task assignment IMPLEMEN- with responsible related ministries/ institutions/ agencies) TATION

Law enforcement to Awareness, Communication manage floating house Training and strategies for construction, Education stakeholder livelihood, programme engagement environment, socio- culture activities

STAGE 4 Annual mornitoring and transparent reporting STRATEGIC EVALUATION Provide feedback to adjust and improve the planning and management of floating settlement

Figure 8.2: The strategic management process of a floating settlement .Source: By author

245

The strategic management process of floating settlement involves multiple following stakeholders:

- The Ministry of Transport is responsible for performing the state management of inland waterway traffic. The Ministry of Public Security shall assume the prime responsibility and coordinate with the Ministry of Transport, the Ministry of Defense and the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment in taking measures to protect inland waterway traffic order and safety; organise the water traffic police force to patrol, control and handle violations of the legislation on inland waterway traffic for people and means participating in inland waterway traffic according to provisions oflaw; statistics, providing data on inland waterway traffic accidents. Ministries and local agencies within the scope of their tasks and powers shall coordinate with the Ministry of Transport in performing the state management of inland waterway communications and transport. - The Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development assumes the prime responsibility, and coordinate with the Ministry of Transport and related ministries/institutions/agencies in formulating the planning of dike systems and irrigation constructions, the planning of flood and storm prevention involving to inland waterway traffic; direct the implementation and maintenance of inland waterway signals for irrigation construction and the timely clearance of irrigation constructions which are no longer in use but affect to the flow and stream protection corridors. - The Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment shall assume the prime responsibility and coordinate with the Ministry of Transport in elaborating river basin development planning, managing and exploiting natural resources related to fairways and stream protection corridors, traffic safety and environmental protection on inland waterways. - Directorate of Fisheries, is a government organization, under the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development shall assume the prime responsibility and coordinate with the Ministry of Transport in elaborating a planning on fishing port networks, fishing wharves and fishery activity areas on inland waterways; direct the implementation of measures to ensure traffic safety for fishing ships operating on inland waterways.

246

There are three objects of the stage 2- strategic formulation for floating houses and floating settlements in Vietnam:

(1) Establish a Floating Home Study Committee to consider the policy implications of floating homes from a local government perspective

(2) Establish the Guidelines of Spatial Planning Design for a floating settlement

(3) Establish Design Criteria as well as Law and Policy Research regarding floating houses

(1) Floating House Study Committee

According to Article 2 of Circular No.01/2019/TT-BGTVT, providing for management and maintenance of inland waterway works, issued by the Ministry of Transport, Floating house is one of a kind construction managed by the Department of Inland Waterways of Vietnam - a specialized agency of the Ministry of Transport, and the Department of Transport - the specialized agency of Provincial People's Committee. According to Clause 2, Article 11 of Circular 15/2016 / TT-BGTVT on the management of inland waterways, the floating house construction permit is approved and issued by the Department of Transport. And after the building permit is issued, the household can submit application for renting water surface for the construction of floating houses to the provincial People's Committee according to the provision of Vietnam Land Law 2013 - Law No. 45/2013/QH13. The operation and maintenance of floating houses are managed by provincial authorities and department of transportation. There are not building code and specific management regulations for floating houses in Vietnam.

Thus, a Floating Home Study Committee should be established. The Floating Home Study Committee plays an important role as a bridge between national level and local level in management system for floating settlements in Vietnam (Figure 8.3). The Committee would consider the policy implications of floating houses from both local government perspectives, as well as, from the perspective of stakeholders, industry and water dwellers in waterbodies in Vietnam. As suggested by Middle Peninsula Planning District Commission in a planning report: Law and policy regarding floating homesthe intentions of the Committee would not identify and determine the issues of floating houses, which should be allowable, but rather how to manage floating houses as one of a kind residence [Middle Peninsula Planning District 247

Commission, 2010]. It is necessary for the Study Committee to take the initiative to encourage amendments in laws, to change legislative, to determine the protective zones of water - in both for the private and public industrial purposes. It is necessary to determine procedures for the construction of floating houses, how to attach it to the shore and connected to infrastructure and communication, to ensure fire safety, and also to define and enter property rights, if the floating house is situated at the edge on public waters not on private waters.

Figure 8.3: Management system for floating settlements in Vietnam. Source: By author

248

(2) Spatial planning for floating settlements

Figure 8.4: The spatial planning process of a floating settlement. Source: By author (based on diagram created by M.V.Phuc, T.T.Vinh, 2018)

The strategic management of a floating settlement is realized by the regional policy, which can be considered as a set of measures by which the spatial development is realized. The strategic management contains a wide range of issues of floating settlement’s spatial planning. The purpose of the spatial planning7 for a floating settlement is to shape spatial development

249

through the coordination of the spatial impacts of sector policies and decisions. Based on law and policy research and criteria for the sustainable development of floating settlements in Vietnam, as well as, surveys and consultation with local residents, local authorities should create the spatial planning for new floating settlements, as well as for existing floating settlements engaging in reviewing, adjusting, reducing number or moving, demolishing floating houses which are not fit with the law and policy of floating houses or polluting surrounding environment. According to the research results of Ma Van Phuc integrating strategic values into current Vietnam master planning process [M.V.Phuc, T.T.Vinh, 2018], the author would propose the spatial planning process of a floating settlement consisting of four main stages (Figure 8.4):

 Stage 1- Identification stage: identificating the stakeholders and participation and flexible features of strategic planning. It is necessary to help decision makers identify the feature determination and set up the mission of spatial planning; build the understanding of critical spatial development trends and drivers, market demands and needs, the transformations of infrastructure, institution, and the social, economic and environmental impacts of development.  Stage 2- Formulation stage: - The spatial planning creates the analysis of options through visioning and strategic approaches; makes the generation of alternatives and options assisted by sustainability appraisal/strategic environmental assessment; devises solutions to protect the ecological and cultural environments of the floating settlements. This stage is divided into 2 steps as below:

7 Spatial planning is facilitating a change of emphasis by governments in the way they think about the role of planning to support and manage economic growth and improve quality of life through a growing understanding of the dynamics of development, including where and when it occurs. Spatial planning emphasises that planning can be more than the traditional regulatory and zoning practices of land use [Royal Town Planning Institute, 2007]. 250

 SWOT analysis: is to evaluate the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats of a floating settlement. The analysis takes information from natural, economic, socio- cultural condition evaluation and determines if the information indicates something that will contribute the settlenent in accomplishing its objectives (a strength or an opportunity), or if it indicates an obstacle that must be overcome or minimized to achieve desired results (a weakness or threat).  Action planning: proposed contents for prioritized investment programs and implement resources are able to meet the implement process with high feasibility and practicality. Vision including the feature, the objective, the development dynamic and the spatial scale of orientation of a floating settlement would be defined when converging many correlative advantages and high approbation of stakeholders. - According to moorage characteristics, there are three spatial classifications of floating settlements; each includes a recommended starting point for a definition. The spatial planning would be created based on three spatial classifications of floating settlements (Figure 8.5):  Inland water: The position of floating settlement is close to the shore. The floating structures should be moored at a marina setting or near a marina. Floating structure which are dependent for utilitiesupon a utility linkage to a source originating on shore (i.e. water, electric and sewage).  Seashore/ Inland Sea: When floating settlements are placed away from the shore, communities become more independent of the mainland. Therefore, the additional functions of the floating community should be added such as a hospital, a school and perhaps a landing strip. The semi-independent position of floating settlements helps the linkage of communication, facilities, infrastructure between floating villages and the mainland be maintained.  Into offshore (Outside separated zone): When the floating settlement is located in the open sea, it is completely independent of the mainland in terms of life supporting services, social facilities and economic infrastructures. In this case, the local government develop a management approach that help the floating settlement become entirely self-sufficient that ensure food, energy and water security, even ensure livelihood for residents. The settlement will be built within adequate infrastructures and facilities including family floating houses, educational and recreational facilities, such as schools, clinics, markets and public buildings etc.

251

Figure 8.5: Spatial classification of floating settlements in Vietnam Source: By author (based on diagram created by The Seasteading Institute, 2014

By classifying floating settlements within spatial groups, the Study Committee and local government will develop multiple plans for management depending on how proactive or reactive of a position of floating structure (Figure 8.5). The economic development potential, use conflict and environmental impact is directly related to the spatial classification of settlement. Mooring floating homes at a marina is a positive economic development and tourism tool. Marinas are equipped to address water and sewage services, provide maintenance services, and are better equipped to handle higher density seasonal living. When the floating settlements move away from a marina setting, the likelihood for water quality concerns, environment impact and independent requirement for floating settlement increases, thus making marine spatial planning, management, and enforcement is more challenging for local authorities. As the result, the development of comprehensive public policy of a floating community should expand from points of moorage.  Stage 3- Implementation stage: Management regulations according to master planning: the mission needs to integrate with the contents of action planning so as to conjoin the implementation procedure, resources as well as stakeholders following the plan.  Stage 4- Evaluation stage: When the spatial planning project is qualified for promulgation and development of planning project implement work. Monitoring and evaluation is required frequent implementation in the principle of cooperation between stakeholders to consolidate the flexibility and effectively of the whole process. Measures performance of the spatial planning informs understanding of spatial development and the application of 252

the strategy in influencing sector policy and decision-making. Regular adjustment of components of plan around consistent vision.

Figure 8.6: Spatial planning system in Vietnam. Source: M.V.Phuc, T.T.Vinh, 2018

The case of creating new spatial planning for existing floating settlements integrating with existing aquaculture and fishing activities, the process would be more complicated and need the comprehensive actions from many related departments. The reducing or demolishing plan of floating houses needs the consideration about the support plan for households affected by the loss of properties and the loss of production, as well as, the losses of production investment costs engages in aquaculture during the process of relocating and arranging floating houses in accordance with the master plan. In recent years, there have been many existing floating settlements which have been threaten by demolitions from local authorities, therefore the

253

dissertation concentrates to propose the solutions to manage and arrange these floating settlements as the following steps:

 Analysis and evaluation of the current status

The differences of geography, site planning, and climate, producing custom and traditional producing methods of aquaculture distinguish the differences in the characteristics of environment, socio-culture and economy of each floating settlement. The evaluation should be addressed based on the SWOT analysis of specific areas, and then local authorities will propose suitable development strategies and management solutions for each floating settlement.

- Location: Mapping the existing floating houses and settlements - Classification: According to specific situations of local areas, there are various ways to classify floating housing units within the number in the floating settlements: Classification by permitted uses and structures: Marinas; Public access/open space/recreational uses; Lodging and residential establishments including, but not limited to: family floating houses combine with working place/ fishing farm, family floating houses combine with working place and business, floating houses used for only business/ groceries/ tourism services/hotels/ restaurants Classification by household registration paper Classification by sorting the time of formation Classification by properties on the land

 Implementation:

Communication and dialogue between government and local water dwellers

Creating surveys and consultation with local residents to specifying design and construction standards for floating houses and fishing farms, as well as, to establish and submit master plans for floating settlements to local People's Committee for the adjustment and management. Based on design criteria for the sustainable development of floating settlements in Vietnam, local authorities should create a sustainable master planning for local floating settlements and design the standard concept which ensures the basic criteria for sustainable floating houses. Then the floating houses which are fit with the basic standard concept would be retained for

254

rearrangement and redistribution in accordance with the master planning. If not, the households have to adjust or retrofit and improve the quality of their houses to meet the management requirements. - Arranging specific areas for aquaculture development: Sustainable aquaculture development is one of the main strategies for sustainable economic development in coastal areas in Vietnam. The aquaculture development affects intensively and directly to environment in floating settlements. The suitable distribution of aquaculture areas not only improves the quality and quantity of aquaculture, but also helps the local government to monitor effectively environmental management that protect the water environment and landscape of floating settlements. - Registering house number plates to manage eligible floating houses. - For floating houses which are not eligible, local authorities should persuade and negotiate with households to retrofit their houses in accordance with design and construction standards of floating houses. In case, if the floating houses must be moved or demolished, local authorities must provide access to a supporting programme in accordance with the government law and policy for the households affected by damage of properties during the process of relocation or rearrangement of aquaculture facilities according to the master plan. - Most aquaculture facilities (fishing cages) have been developed spontaneously and have not been assigned, and permitted by the competent authorities. When the local government conducts a reduction in the number of floating houses to implement the master planning, it will result in many households losing their jobs, main income source, even without accommodation and the ability to change jobs is very difficult due to low culture and education and lack of existing qualifications of the residents and farmers. Therefore, most of owners don’t want to be removed and demolished. As the result, planning and reducing the number of floating houses within fishing farms is a difficult and complicated process that could create negative reactions and conflicts among and between the government and local residents. The implementation process must ensure fairness and compliance with the specific law and comprehensive cooperating actions between many departments of government and local residents.

Creating the supporting programme

- Identify support mechanisms and policies 255

In this case, the reduction and demolition of floating houses belong to the group of land acquisition contents without compensation and support for land that only need to implement policies to support properties, construction, livestock, support life stabilisation and production for the owners.

- Determining items and objects to implement support policies: the objects and items are determined to apply the support mechanism including the following groups:

Building construction

The structure of the fish cages The structure of floating foundation The structure of the house on the floating foundation Utility systems

Support for local labours

Support for stabilizing life and production Providing support fee for labours Support for job training programme, for seeking a career change and seeking new jobs - Proposing for support fees Proposing support fee for architectural objects which must be demolished Support fee for stabilising production life Support fee for new occupational training Support fee for moving vehicle rental Support fee for harvesting or decreasing production due to moving

Multi-stakeholders cooperation

- Department of Agriculture and Rural Development coordinating with Department of Natural Resources and Environment and related departments should create a marine aquaculture spatial planning on local water bodies - Local related agencies shoud make a review of aquaculture site-selection, after that adjust and arrange the number of aquaculture facilities, as well as, to create a planning for aquaculture facilities. Moreover local authorities should reduce the number of bamboo and

256

foam buoys which are dilapidated and easily damaged, thus affecting the environmental landscape. In parallel with that, it is necessary to have a detailed planning of fishing farm areas in appropriate forms to ensure corresponding areas and limit environmental impacts. - Local Land Fund Development Center is responsible for coordinating with the Department of Agriculture and Rural Development and the local related departments and agencies to make compensation and support plans according to regulations. - The Department of Natural Resources and Environment coordinates with the Department of Agriculture and Rural Development and relevant agencies to develop a plan to advise the District People's Committee to implement the allocation and lease of marine areas for aquaculture in accordance with regulations. - Agricultural and Fishery Extension Station should propose and apply new aquaculture methods using high-tech and environmental-friendly technologies in production.

(3) Law and policy/ Design criteria regarding floating homes

Relevant government departments and agencies should cooperate together to establish standard design criteria for floating buildings. According to standard criteria, as well as, based on local particular conditions of environment, socio-culture, economy and vernacular architecture, the local authorities should establish local planning, land use regulations and rules governing the construction and use of floating homes, in order to protect the public health, safety, and welfare of their residents. The details of design criteria regarding floating homes are going to be proposed in the next content.

 Local coastal governments might consider (based on the report of Virginia local coastal governments [Middle Peninsula Planning District Commission, 2010], and developed by author): - What is a floating home? - What public services should or could be required? - What are requirements of floating houses and floating settlements that secure the safe, comfort and sustainability for water dwellers? How are the regulations of moorage system, utility system and floating structures? - How to use zoning as a tool to manage areas of moorage? - What rights do floating homeowners have? - How might these homes be taxed? 257

 Floating Home Residency Law - To address landlord-tenant issues that might arise between the owner of the floating home and floating home marina owners. The residency law handles, among other issues, governs rental agreements, tenancy terminations, and the sale or transfer of a floating home - To address rights for floating house owners. Because the floating home marina management does not own the floating home but still collects rent, the floating home owner has rights similar to, but slightly different from a traditional tenant. These rights exist even if the lease between the homeowner and marina management does not address them because many states have passed specific laws to address the issue of floating home residencies. A floating home homeowner has the right to:  Use the services and facilities of the floating home marina  Occupy their floating home  Have access to their floating home  Keep the management out of the floating home except with prior written consent or in the case of an emergency

Conclusion

The strategic management process for the sustainable development of floating settlements in Vietnam will be inherently complex and require the coordination of many related ministries that improve the coherence and complementarity of policies across a wide range of sectors, to respond to the current and complex development challenges ahead. Relevant departments, Floating Home Study Committee and the Local Related Agencies need to establish effective transparent laws and policies to manage and support residents to ensure socially responsible economic development while protecting the natural resouces and the environment for their benefit and for the benefit of future generations. Each region has its own characteristics of natural, socio-cultural conditions, as well as, potentials for economic development involving different water bodies. Therefore, based on the common standards for floating houses issued by Floating Home Study Committee and by the national departments, the local authoritiest and local agencies of each region should make its own strategies to improve development plans that are appropriate and can exploit all local economic strengths and natural resources to enhance livelihood for local people, as well as to prevent and improve the resilience of floating settlement to natural disasters. Based on national general planning, each locality will elaborate 258

a specific spatial planning for its floating settlement, clearly defining the Pass-Through Zones, Mooring Zones, No Discharge Zones and even Aquaculture Development Zones. According to the details of the spatial planning and management regulations, as well as, according to national strategies for economic development, environmental protection, annual monitoring and inspection must be conducted seriously and provide transparency reports to government. In addition, local management agencies should communicate with stakeholders to discuss, exchange and collect the opinions and wishes of residents. Thereby reflecting Floating Home Study Committee and the relevant national departments to adjust and supplement laws to enhance economic and social benefits, protect the environment of floating settlements, as well as ensure and defense national security in coastal areas.

8.1.1.2 Guidelines for the sustainable development of floating settlements in Vietnam

• Preserving and promoting • Livelihood development/ local culture poverty reduction • Improving standard of • Cost-effective floating living, social and houses educational facilities

Social and Economic Cultural Consideration Consideration

Architectural Environmental Consideration Consideration

• Preserving and developing • Local environmental vernacular architecture adaptation • Design the concept of self- • Environmental protection sufficient floating • Prudent use of natural settlement resources • Climate change and rising sea levels

Figure 8.7: Guidelines for the sustainable development of floating settlements in Vietnam. Source: By author

259

The development of sustainable floating settlements requires respect for environment keeping the symbiotic relationship between man and nature, and the achievement of local economic objectives, as well as preserve and promote local culture and vernacular architecture. This needs to optimises the advantages and limits the weaknesses of local architecture by the use of new construction techniques and materials. The guideline intends to guide the applicant in the principles of planning and floating building designs according to considerations of social, economic and environmental sustainability.

(1) Social and cultural considerations

A sustainable concept for floating settlements needs to consider the following:

 Preserving and promoting local culture

Local authorities and local people need to preserve and improve traditional occupation and the traditions of aquatic lifestyle and develop indigenous culture of floating settlement as a tourist attraction which could be one of the essential factors of ecotourism development.

Collective culture is a basic characteristic of villages in Vietnam. Due to the geographical and historical characteristics, Vietnamese people have a long history of coming together to combat natural disasters and foreign invasions, thus the collective culture was formed to create a long historical tradition of people in production and country development. Especially, living on the water depends heavily on nature, so in daily life water dwellers have to link together and support each other. The Vietnamese people always have a demand to exchange, interact, and engage with the community where they live. Therefore community areas within cultural activities is an important functional space in the design and planning of floating villages. Living in a cluster including people who are related by family or professional relations is a prominent feature of the floating communities in Vietnam. Moreover, floating market is also an intersting attraction of aquatic lifestyle which need to be considered and developed as an unique tourist attraction.

 Improving social facilities and social activities

Developing the concept of floating settlement which provides all adequate facilities for a sustainable community such as educational and recreational facilities, health care service,

260

school, market, place of worship and community areas.

 Establishing the strict and offical management regulations of living on the water, as wellas, increasing education, awareness and responsibility toward to enviromental protection and sustainalble livelihood development for waterdwellers.

(2) Economic considerations  Livelihood development and poverty reduction

According to Arlene Christy D. Lusterio (2018), livelihood development in floating settlements can occur at three levels: (1) large-scale infrastructure development for floating agriculture, aquaculture production and ecotourism in the support of nation’s economic objectives; (2) small-scale support for water dwellers directly benefits the individual households that livelihood space is allocated with the residential plots, for example homestay, fishing farms, handcraft or bussiness services is allocated in individual floating family house; (3) household member skills training support directly benefits the individual household. According to the specific social, economic and environmental characteristics of local areas, local authorities and local people would chose suitable levels and methods to develop their livelihood and their economic potentials.

 Cost-effective floating houses

The following are strategies to create the affordable floating houses:

- Creating self-sufficient floating houses, using renewable energies from natural resources as well as using local environmental materials in order to reduce energy consumption and greenhouse gases as well as to improve waste and waste water treatment system of floating houses. - Smart design: Innovative designs and master planning can help to use space efficiently and effectively that save on cost and space as well as creating more community interaction, increasing quality of life and the benefits of creating mixed-use developments with community spaces and commercial areas. - Self-construction: Self-construction refers to homeowners driving the construction of their own homes, which allows them to work within their own financial requirements and

261

timeframe. Self-construction requires simple and assemble prefabricated structures which can be constructed by local labour.

(3) Environmental considerations  Local environmental adaptation

The floating buildings are subjected to external loadings such as impacts of water depth, waves, wind, currents, local climate. The additional attacks by chemical and physical components of salts, ph-values, ions etc. and the special components of the local climate cause the corrosion of materials. Boundary conditions are given for specific locations. Therefore, the solutions for the planning and the architectural design solutions for mooring systems, floating structures and architectural features of floating houses must be adapted to local environment.

 Environmental protection

The environmental protection in floating communities is to control water damage and reduce water pollution affecting to aquatic ecosystem, livelihood and human life and property. The innovative solutions of sanitation and solid waste management are considered.

 Prudent use of natural resources

Living on the water being far away from grid on the mainland has difficulties in the installation of infrastructures and utilities, therefore innovative solutions using natural resources such as wind, solar, water, even biomass which improve energy efficiency and energy self-sufficiency should be considered.

 Climate change and rising sea levels

The design of floating settlement needs to consider the climate change effects such as intensifies wind energy and fetch, surface-temperature, increasing tidal heights, flooding, wave strength, and salt-water intrusion, that are negative environmental factors affecting to the architecture of floating houses, as well as, the livelihood and the life of water dwellers. That requires sustainable concept designs within innovative architectural features and new construction techniques and materials which would reduce the damage of climate change and rising sea levels in Vietnam.

262

(4) Architectural considerations

Based on the vernacular architecture features combining with the use of new construction techniques and materials, the floating building has to be self-sufficient, has to reduce its carbon footprint and ecological impact in order to approach to the sustainability.

 Site selection

Site selection has to be primarily in accordance with local planning administered by the Provincial People’s Committee. Other criteria include: (1) having good water quality for living and aquaculture development; (2) convenient accessibility to social infrastructures (market, school, health center, place of worship) and the source of livelihood; (3) safety from natural hazards such as floods, erosion and typhoon, even preparing the plan of an effective response to an emergency such as rescue and evacuation procedures for water households

- Accessibility (boat parking/ docking/ harbour structures): A floating settlement is largely dependent on the water traffic as this is the most flexible way of travelling from the mainland to floating houses. In floating settlements, access to water and to land is important for efficient movement of people and goods between settlements, especially during construction. Suitable docking infrastructure should be provided to accommodate water transport as well as to connect between floating settlements with facilities on the land. Boat parking areas need to be considered in the concept of planning. - In case, the floating settlements which are located nearby the mainland can be connected to the mainland for transportation and import/export reasons by floating dock system. The floating dock system also links floating houses with each other. And in this case, the pipes of utility system including energy system, watering and sewage system can be installed under the floating dock and connect to existing utility system on the mainland. - Floating breakwater/ wave protection system need to be built to protect the floating settlements from the serious effect of climate change such as tidal heights, flooding and strong wave.  Planning

Based on Housing Construction Law [Ministry of Construction Vietnam, 2014], floating house construction planning must:

263

- In accordance with the objectives of the strategy and overall planning for socio-economic development; ensure national defense and security, and create motivation for sustainable socio-economic development; being appropriate with the development planning of related industries. - Organise and arrange the water surface on the basis of rational exploitation and the reasonable use of marine resources, historical relics, cultural heritages and resources in accordance with natural, socio-economic conditions, as well as, historical, cultural, scientific and technological characteristics of each region. - Protect environment, prevent natural disaster, response to climate change and mitigate adverse impacts on floating village communities. - Preserve, embellish and promote the values of cultural heritage, beliefs, religions, vernacular architecture of floating villages. - The planning concept will be created for both living and working that includes family floating houses within working place, educational and recreational facilities such as health care service, school, market and place of worship as well as offering public water-oriented recreation areas, community areas or the places to enjoy water leisure, natural view, landmark and social activities for water dwellers. The working place will be designed based on the potential of livelihood as well as regional economic development strategies - The organisation of architectural spaces should be flexible and open to increase ventilation, and to reduce the level of humidity. The main block frequently faces south to welcome the cool prevailing wind. The southern direction also prevents the house from solar radiation from the east and west and a cold wind from the north in winter in the north and central coastal zones.

 Building design

The general requirement of floating house is to secure a safe, comfortable and convinient living for water dwellers. The floating building design shall comply with the criteria design which will be presented in next contend, and shall concern about following guidelines.

Structure and Joining System

264

- Load-bearing structure: prefabricated, modular structures and light-weight structures; Using timber or steel post and beam structures or other innovative structures which are light-weighted, flexible and easy to construct. - Floating foundations is necessary to be safe and stable. It should have high strength, high buoyance and high corrosion protection. The technology of floating structures would correspond to the owner’s economic condition. For poor communities, to reduce the cost of houses, floating platforms can be built with recycled floating materials such as oil drums, barrels etc. For wealthier people, designers can use innovative floating structure such as EPS, concrete etc. - Moorings: A mooring system is necessary to ensure that the floating structure is kept in position and prevented from drifting away under critical sea conditions and storms [K.K.M. KO, 2015]. Known mooring systems for floating platforms are: the dolphin-frame guide system, the cable and chains system, the tension leg method and the pier/quay wall method. Moreover, moring piles help the floating building rise up and down according to sea level rise - Connections between platforms which are accessible by people, vehicles and public transport. The connections between multiple floating structures are very important in the design. With regard to the structural strength of the structure, longer elements suffer from large bending moments as the structure becomes heavier [K.K.M. KO, 2015]. And this adds to the weight of the floating platform resulting in a larger draught and maybe even the incapability to float. To realize floating clusters and settlements, the floating structures have to be coupled with each other.

Architectural features

- The form of floating houses should ensure their stable position on the water. The heights of buildings are limited due to stability issues and the fact that high-rise buildings catch a lot of wind, making wind loads a very important aspect for the stability of the floating platform and the building itself. Floating buildings also need to be distributed over the whole surface to avoid tilting and rotation. - The aesthetic of floating houses: The aesthetic, the color, shape and structure of floating buildings must be suitable in harmony with the natural landscape and surrounding water environment. 265

- Bioclimatic architecture: Based on vernacular architecture, the architectural design solutions of floating houses should toward to bioclimatic architecture which consists on the design of buildings taking into account the tropical climate conditions in Vietnam and taking advantage of available resources (sun, vegetation, rain, wind) to reduce environmental impacts and attempting to minimize energy consumption. The architectural features should be designed based on improving the microclimate environment: design for natural ventilation / passive ventilation systems and minimum insulation standards, and based on protecting water dwellers from natural disasters due to climate change. Ventilation: As part of the bioclimatic strategies being applied, the natural ventilation or passive ventilation systems such as cross ventilation should be taken into account. Based on vernacular architecture, the solutions of ventilation which make the wind flows to run through the selected location (speed and direction) should be considered in the design of space organization, architectural features and thermal insulation materials for the floating buildings. Solar protection: According to Vietnamese traditional architecture, there are several solutions to prevent heat to entrance into the house. For example: the shaded patio or porch which is a transitional buffer space between the interior and exterior of the floating houses protects from flying rainwater and direct solar radiation; using louvres or using awning to shade windows; using window retraction etc… Thermal mass: Air conditioning system (whether heating, cooling or both) is an importance feature for bioclimatic architecture because it is typically the most energy consuming systems in buildings. The structure and material of the floating building’s envelope plays an important role. It must allow the solar energy to be efficiently used without the use of special mechanisms, such as photovoltaic cells or solar panels; must decrease in energy losses, must be well insulated and sealed, avoiding leaks (high- performance carpentry, high levels of insulation and reduce thermal bridges); must allow heat storage: Constructive components can absorb and accumulate heat during sunny days and release it slowly when temperatures drop in the winter. Natural disaster: Creating innovative architectural features which can protect water dwellers and their properties from hazard and natural disasters due to climate change such as flood, strong wind/wave and typhoon should be taken into account as a significant feature of Bioclimatic architecture in the design and construction of floating buildings.

266

- Material usage: Using local materials and eco- friendly environmental materials: bamboo, mangrove, and wood...; Using recycled materials; Using light-weighted materials; Using durable material with high corrosion protection. The decision of material usage depends on the household's economic conditions, regional environmental conditions and regulations.

 Utilities

Float homes shall be supplied with an approved source of potable water, an approved sewage disposal system, plumbing system, lighting and cooking system. And the floating homes should comply with the Electrical Safety Regulations, Sewerage System Regulation or the Municipal Wastewater Regulation, and have to be approved by the technical inspections of authority having jurisdiction.

- For dependent or semi-dependent floating settlements, the floating houses can be connected to the approved electrical, plumbing, potable water and sewage disposal system on the shore. In this case, the link between the utility system of floating settlement in a connection to the land should be considered and secured. - For independent floating settlements and even for semi-dependent floating settlements, the floating houses will be built to approach a self-sufficient concept which can provide electrical, plumbing, potable water and sewage disposal system by itself. Local environmental solutions for the utilities which use renewable energy such as solar enargy, wind energy, sea energy [Habibi S, 2015], and natural resources such as, rainwater harvesting and water reutilization, purification of river water for drinking and living purpose, biological waste treatment, recycling waste or tranforming waste into energy …etc should be considered and developed. Moreover, the floating homes will be further supported by boats which can provide fresh water, gas… etc, and collect solid and recycle waste or faecal tanks from the floating houses to the main land or to waste treatment stations. Water: Using natural water resource: rainy water, water from lake, river; treating and recycling waste water for usage in daily life Waste: Improving waste treatment system and septic tanks; Improving waste recycling for transferring to energy

267

Energy: Promoting energy efficiency and Use renewable energy. The floating houses adopts various renewable energy systems such as solar energy, and wind power, hydrogen energy from river water, and even energy from recycling waste.

8. 1. 1. 3 Design criteria for floating houses in Vietnam

The State and local governments need to formulate specific regulations on design criteria, rights, obligations and responsibilities of agencies, organisations, individuals and state management in the investment activities of floating house construction in Vietnam. Floating building is considered as a type of residential accommodation, therefore firstly, the design, construction and operation of floating houses must comply with national technical regulation on residential and public buildings QCVN 04-1: 2015 / BXD which was established based on various others related regulations and documents [Ministry of Construction of Vietnam, 2015]. In addition, depending on the type of building, there are specialised national standards that require floating buildings to comply.

Furthermore, floating houses are a special type of housing built on water that directly interacts with the environment and are strongly influenced by the environment, thus there must be specific regulations for the construction and management of this kind of house. The specific regulations would ensure the safe, obligations and rights for users, as well as, limiting risks and negative impacts to the surrounding environment. According to the regional conditions, local governments in Vietnam do have zoning authority, which they may exercise as long as they do not conflict with state laws. As long as floating settlements meet a state or local definition of "floating home," the settlement would be subject to all rules and regulations that would apply to floating houses.

Purpose

Based on the Vietnamese national standards as well as, references of floating building criteria from another countries such as Queensland Floating Building criteria, British Columbia Float Home Standard, City of St. Helens floating home regulations etc., the research accumulates and adapts these references and proposes new updated regulations in order to create a basic criteria of the design, construction, location, relocation, materials, use and occupancy of all floating structures in Vietnam. The main purpose of the criteria is to protect life, property, and public welfare for residents living on the water. 268

Scope and application

To provided design criteria for permanently moored floating buildings not intended for navigational use and built on a floatation system.

Referenced Standards

Law No. 50/2014/QH13, Construction Law, Vietnam Government

Law No. 65/2014 / QH13, Housing Law, Ministry of Construction

TCCS 05: 2014/CHHVN, Marina Berthing Facilities – Specifications for design, Ministry of Transport Vietnam,

QCXDVN 01:2008/BXD, Vietnam Building Code, Regional and Urban Planning and Rural Residential Planning, Ministry of Construction Vietnam

QCVN 06:2010/BXD, Vietnam Building Code on Fire Safety of Buildings, Ministry of Construction Vietnam

QCVN 04-1:2015/BXD, National technical regulation on residential and public buildings - Part 1: Residential buildings, Ministry of Construction Vietnam,

23/2004/QH11, Inland Waterway Transport Law, Vietnam Government,

24/2015/NĐ-CP, Vietnam Government’s Decree: Detailing regulation and implementation a number terms of inland water transportation laws

Circular No.16/2015 / TT-BNNPTNT, National technical regulation on freshwater fish cage culture - conditions for food safety and environmental protection, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development

The National Technical Regulation on the Prevention of Pollution caused by Inland Water Vehicles QCVN 17: 2011 / BGTVT was issued according to the Circular No. 70/2011 / TT- BGTVT dated December 20, 2011 and Circular No. 08/2013 / TT-BGTVT, dated May 6, 2013 of the Ministry of Transport.

269

Definition of terms

For the purpose of these criteria, the main terms are defined as follows mainly based on British Columbia Float Home Standard:

 Floating home: The Department of Natural Resources in Washington has defined “floating house” as: any floating structure that is designed, or has been substantially and structurally remodelled or redesigned, to serve primarily as a residence. “Floating houses” include house boats, house barges, or any floating structures that serve primarily as a residence and do not qualify as a vessel. A floating structure that is used as a residence and is capable of navigation, but is not designed primarily for navigation, nor normally is capable of self- propulsion and use as a means of transportation is a floating house, not a vessel [Washington State Legislature, 2019].  Dwelling unit: a suite operated as a housekeeping unit, used or intended to be used as a domicile by one or more persons and usually containing cooking, eating, living, sleeping, and sanitary facilities.  Landlord: means the owner of a floating home marina and includes the agent of the landlord.  Marina or float home moorage: means a waterfront facility for the moorage of one or more floating homes and the land and water premises on which such facility are located.  Moorage site: means a part of a floating home marina located over water and designed to accommodate one floating home.  Pier: a structure extending into navigable water for use as a landing place or promenade or to protect or form a harbour.  Freeboard: the vertical distance from the waterline to the top of the floatation device or the lowest opening into the floatation device.  Buoyancy: the ability of the flotation system to support the displacement of the float home.  Damaged stability: the ability of the floatation system to support the dwelling unit and itself, when its watertight integrity has been breached.  Dead loads: the static, constant loads comprising the effects of the structure of the dwelling itself and furnishings, etc.  Deadweight (DWT): the total weight of all variables aboard; people, personal effects, stores, fuel, water, sewage holding capacity, etc.

270

 Live loads: the dynamic, variable loads (basically attributable to deadweight items) used as design criteria for structure.  Lightship weight (LW): the total weight of the float home (pontoon and dwelling together), fully furnished but without people, stores, personal effects, fuel or water, etc. on board.  Walkway: a structure extending into navigable water used to accommodate pedestrian traffic other than a pier or wharf.  Waterplane: the total area of the floatation device on the plane of the water surface.  Wharf: a structure built along or at an angle from the shore of navigable water so that ships may lie alongside to receive and discharge cargo and passengers.  Depth (D): the vertical dimension of the floatation device from top to bottom.  Length (L): the longest dimension of the floatation device parallel to the waterline.  Resident organisation: means a tenant or homeowner's association, whether or not incorporated, the membership of which is made up of tenants of the floating home marina and/or owners of a floating home.  Stream corridor protection: A stream corridor protection is a limited part of a water body or a strip of land along the two sides of a channel for installing signals, protecting the flow and ensuring traffic safety ( according to 24/2015/NĐ-CP, Vietnam Government’s Decree).

Components and design requirements

 General regulations

The design of floating building:

- Must be created according to approved urban planning and all appropriate Vietnamese building and engineering standards and guidelines for marine engineering and naval architectural principles. The construction site must have adequate technical infrastructure: electricity system, water supply, drainage, garbage collection, communication system. - Does not adversely affect the use of adjacent structures and the stability of the bed and the banks of the waterway in which the works are to be constructed. - Must be structurally adequate to allow for the scour resulting from flood and tidal conditions (if applicable).

271

- In the process of construction, repair and operation, floating buildings must ensure that it does not pollute water sources and surrounding landscape environment. - In the process of construction, repair and operation, floating buildings must meet the fire safety requirements according to QCVN 06: 2010 / BXD [Ministry of Construction of Vietnam, 2010], and additional provisions in this Regulation. The equipment, layout, inspection and maintenance of means of fire prevention, firefighting and rescue must be ensured according to current regulations. - Located in areas affected by earthquakes, wind storms, thunderstorms, floods, sea level rise, tsunamis must be designed and built in accordance with the requirements of QCVN 02: 2009 / BXD [Ministry of Construction of Vietnam, 2009], about Natural conditions of the construction area. Technical solutions must comply with the selected standards. - The floatation system shall be designed according to accepted marine engineering and naval architectural principles. - The floatation device shall be durable and protected from deterioration by water, mechanical damage due to floating debris, electrolytic action, water-borne solvents, organic infestation or physical abuse. - The overall buoyancy and stability of the floatation device and superstructure shall be designed to accommodate local wind conditions and water turbulence, moving and launching, wave action, tides, loads imposed by vessels and walkways moored to the structure, live and dead loads and the possibility of water flooding associated with fire fighting - Based on the above guidelines for the sustainable floating settlements, as well as, National technical regulation on residential and public buildings QCVN 04-1: 2015 / BXD [Ministry of Construction of Vietnam, 2015], the research proposes specific design standard for floating houses including: (1) Technical criteria and; (2) Sociopolitical criteria

(1) Technical criteria  Floating buildings

Floating structure have to address special operate conditions and environmental factors on the water such as waves, wind forces, corrosion and sea depth. Thus, the analysis and design of floating structures need to have special considerations when compared to land-based structures. The main requirements of floating buildings are safe and sustainable requirements.

272

These requirements are summarized in below components: Location; Density; Access; Flotation system; Mooring system; Material (generally and fastenings); Minimum water depth; Building height; Safety equipment; Fire prevention; Disaster resilience.

Based on Law and Policy Regarding Floating Homes of the Middle Peninsula Region; City of St. Helens Floating Home Regulations; Queensland Development Code for Floating Building; British Columbia Float Home Standard; as well as, local regulations and research, the author proposes following technical criteria for floating buildings in Vietnam:

Location/ Moorage site regulations

According to the research provided by the Floating Homes Study Committee of the Middle Peninsula Region [Middle Peninsula Planning District Commission, 2010], as well as, local perspectives, the author proposes that the location of a floating settlement in Vietnam should be determined into four following zones:

- Pass-Through Zones: According to inland waterway transport corridors, any locality may establish pass-through zones in any portion of a waterway where operators of watercraft shall maintain a reasonable and safe speed and shall be prohibited from stopping, anchoring, loitering, or otherwise engaging in recreational activity [Middle Peninsula Planning District Commission, 2010]. Moreover, in the scopes of inland waterway protection corridors, floating buildings, aquatic activities and other activities must not be obscured or signaled, that affecting to the vision of the person controlling directly the means of water transportation and must follow the instructions of the inland waterway management department. Provincial People's Committees shall specify the activities of markets, fishing villages, trade villages and other activities in the district of inland waterway transport corridors, that would avoid the congestion of watercraft traffic routinely poses a significant safety risk to water dwellers as well as ensuring environment protection. When the inland waterway transport corridors changes, the inland waterway management department must notify and request organizations and individuals engaged in fisheries activities or other activities to move, narrow or clear obstacles caused by them. Based on the characteristics of each local area, the inland waterway management department shall assume the prime responsibility and coordinate with the Natural Resources and

273

Environment Services in specifying the natural edge of the river in order to specify the inland waterway transport corridors. According to Article 3, Decree No. 24/2015 / ND-CP, Vietnam Government, regulating: the scopes of inland waterway protection corridors specified in Clause 4, Article 16 of the Law of inland waterway transport determined from the edge of inland waterway to each side and according to the technical grades of inland waterways and the following regulations: In cases where the channel is not close to banks, the scope of channel protection corridor shall stretch at least 10 meters but not exceeding 25 meters, measuring from the channel edge toward each bank and the following: For inland waterways on lakes, bays and river mouths to the sea, coastal areas and special supply channels, from 20 meters to 25 meters; For inland waterway of grade I and II, from 15 meters to 20 meters; For inland waterway of grade III and IV, from 10 meters to 15 meters; For inland waterway of grade V and VI, 10 meters. In cases where the channel is close to a bank, the scope of the channel protection corridor on the side close to the bank measured from the natural bank edge inward shall be at least 5 meters wide; for channels within cities, provincial capitals or district townships, the scope of each channel protection corridor may be under 5 meters wide as decided by provincial- level People’s Committee presidents. - Mooring Zones: “By default, any area not designated as a pass-through zone and not located in the district of inland waterway transport corridors would exist as an area of moorage for floating structures” [Middle Peninsula Planning District Commission, 2010]. In order to help a locality manage moorage, a house or building number shall be assigned to each dwelling or other building which shall be tracked by GPS location tracking tool. The tracking number of floating houses shall be assigned in a floating building permit. If the households want to move their floating houses to another location, they must submit a report asking for permission from the local government. The location of floating buildings must comply with the following regulations: a) The location or alteration of floating buildings must be in accordance with detailed planning, ensuring maritime safety and of inland waterway transport safety regulations. b) The location of a floating building must maintain an acceptable level of amenity between any other building and any proposed building. A floating building is located so that the minimum distance between the outermost projection of the floating building

274

to any other building and the location of any proposed building is 3 meter plus 1 mm for every 3 mm in height in excess of 4.5 meter [Queensland department of housing and public work, 2006]. c) Water depth under a floating building must at all times be sufficient to prevent grounding of the building. The minimum water depth for any floating house mooring site shall be sufficient for the floating house to float free at mean low water. The water depth under a floating building is at least 1 meter at all times [Queensland department of housing and public work, 2006]. - No Discharge Zones: Establish zones where the discharge of sewage and other waste is not allowed based on public health and water quality [Middle Peninsula Planning District Commission, 2010]. No Discharge Zones allows a coastal locality to control what pollutants enter their waterways. In these zones, floating buildings must be installed adequate sewage holding tank pump-out facilities and wastewater filter systems before discharging into the water bodies. - Aquaculture development zone: For floating settlements in combination with aquaculture development, the locality must cooperate with relevant agencies such as the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development to clearly identify areas where aquaculture is permitted to develop. In addition, relevant departments and agencies must establish specific support policies and laws to regulate aquaculture activities in these areas to avoid the pollution of water environment, the damage of water ecosystem and surrounding landscapes, as well as, affecting inland waterway transportation. Specific requirements for fishing farms and design criteria for floating houses attaching with fishing farms shall be established in the next content.

Density requirements

a) The maximum density of floating houses shall not exceed one for each 15 meter of water frontage. Local authorities in approving a floating house moorage may reduce the density below the maximum allowed upon, because development at the maximum density would put pressure on public facilities, basic utility or any other applicable service. Moreover, the development at the maximum density would endanger an ecologically fragile natural resource [Middle Peninsula Planning District Commission, 2010].

275

b) Floating homes may be relocated within a moorage provided the distance between units is not diminished [City of St. Helens, 2006]. c) A space of at least 1800 mm will be provided between adjacent structures measured from building wall line horizontal to wall line. Roof eave projections shall be no closer than 1200 mm [City of St. Helens, 2006].

Access

A floating building must have adequate means of access provided for emergency exit, rescue and firefighting, as well as, being provided with continuous, unobstructed pedestrian access to a public way. The perimeter of a floating building and all pontoons, wharfs, gangways, walkways, ramps and the like which provide access to a floating building, must be constructed with a barrier which must be continuous and extend to protect people from accidentally falling from the floor or roof or through the opening, as well as, from the hazard; capable of restricting the passage of children.

a) As the requirement of QCVN 04-1:2015/BXD [Ministry of Construction of Vietnam, 2015], a floating building must have more than one exit, at least one permanent access for each required exit; or at least one permanent access. The permanent access such as gangways, ramps, walkways: shall be a minimum of 1.5 meter in width for exits and provided around all floating homes except those portions of structures where boats will be docked. Main walkways shall be a minimum of 1.8 meter for the primary pedestrian ingress and [Ministry of Transport Vietnam, 2014]. Walkways shall support a live load of 50 pounds (about 22, 5 kilograms) per square foot (about 0,09 square meters) and a concentrated load of 1,000 pounds (about 450 kilograms) placed on any space 0,125 square foot [City of St. Helens, 2006]. b) Non-slip surfaces: The external floor surfaces of a floating building and the floor surfaces of all gangways, pontoons, wharfs, stairways, ramps and the like which give access to a floating building shall have a nonslip surface [Ministry of Transport Vietnam, 2014]. c) Piling: The moorage walkways, ramps, and floats shall be anchored by piling which is adequate to resist lateral forces produced by any combination of wind current, wave and/or impact. The minimum piling height shall be 1.2 meter above the floor surfaces of a floating building and the floor surfaces of all gangways, pontoons, wharfs, 276

stairways, ramps which are designed within maximum freeboard height at mean high water. As the result, minimum piling height shall be normally about 2m above mean high water [Ministry of Transport Vietnam, 2014]. d) Guardrails and Handrails: The perimeter of every part of a floating building not wholly enclosed by walls has a continuous guardrail or handrail which is fixed at a vertical height of not less than 1000 mm and not much than 1200 mm above the floor surface and in the space between the handrail, guardrail and the floor surface there are no openings, or windows or panels which can be opened, which are either wider than 100mm when measured horizontally, or if wider than 100 mm when measured horizontally, wider than 100 mm when measured vertically [Ministry of Transport Vietnam, 2014]. If access through the balustrade is required—a gate specifically designed to restrict access by young children is provided. The perimeter of all gangways, pontoons, wharfs, stairways, ramps and the like which provide access to a floating building have a continuous handrail which is fixed at a vertical height of not less than 800 mm and not much than 1000 mm above the nosing of the treads and the floor surface of the access bridge or landing, and in the space between the handrail and stair treads or floor there are no openings, or windows or panels which can be opened, which are either wider than 300 mm when measured horizontally, or if wider than 300 mm when measured horizontally, wider than 420 mm when measured vertically [City of St. Helens, 2006]. e) Illumination: Lights shall be designed, constructed, and maintained to provide a minimum average of 2.5 foot candle of light per square foot (a foot-candle is defined as one lumen per square foot)at the walking surface, in order to illuminate gangways, ramps, walks and walkways at all times [City of St. Helens, 2006].

Flotation system

Floating structures shall be constructed and maintained to provide a flotation system that complies with the requirements of this section. The external surfaces of all flotation devices shall be water resistant and protected from deterioration, or corrosion, and from damage by impact or chafing. The flotation system and decking shall provide access to and protection for the sewage holding tank or sewage pump.

277

a) Reserve Buoyancy: The floatation device shall have sufficient buoyancy to maintain a minimum freeboard of 200 mm under the most adverse combination of loads to which the floating building is likely to be subject including dead loads, live loads and wind loads and loads resulting from: (1) water turbulence; or (2) flooding of the waterway; or (3) tidal action; or (4) water flooding associated with firefighting or accidental cause; or (5) accidental impact. The floatation device shall maintain a minimum freeboard of 400 mm under normal load conditions (under the action of dead and live loads only). So that the metacentre is always above the centre of gravity when the floating building is tilted and so that the metacentric height is not less than 300mm [British Columbia, 2003]. b) Static Stability: The floatation device shall have sufficient stability in both the longitudinal and transverse directions to limit the amount of trim and heel resulting from wind forces to a maximum of one half of the freeboard at rest or 5 degrees, whichever is less. This can be established by application of a wind heel criteria as follows: GM = PAH W tan (T) where P = 0.028 tonnes/sq meter A = projected area in sq meters of the portion of the float home (floatation system and superstructure) above the waterline H = vertical distance in meters from the centre of "A" to one half the draft T = 5 degrees or the angle of heel at which one half the freeboard is immersed, whichever is less [British Columbia, 2003]. c) Damaged Stability: The floatation device shall be subdivided by watertight bulkheads, have integral floatation material or employ alternate methods of limiting the ingress of water such that in the event of damage to any two adjacent compartments, the minimum freeboard of the floatation device after damage is not less than 100 mm at any point [British Columbia, 2003]. d) Pontoons: The selection of buoy materials must take into account the environmental impacts, the structural frame of floating house, and the buoyancy characteristics of the pontoons, local materials and costs. Environmental impacts include: saline water, fresh water, water flow, waves, tides, floods, storms, high temperatures, ultraviolet exposure and geological activity. The pontoons must be selected and designed to be compatible with the structural frame of the house in relation to the clamping details; being easy to maintain, repair, or replace; flexibility, high rigidity and high use efficiency [Ministry of Transport Vietnam, 2014].

278

Mooring system

Mooring piles must be designed to adequately and safely resist all lateral loads resulting from the most adverse combination of loads which are likely to act on the flotation system and superstructure of the floating building and any vessel attached to the floating building or mooring piles.

Piles used as moorings for floating buildings resist the combination of loads acting on the floatation system and superstructure of the floating building and any vessel attached to the floating building or mooring pile.

Material (generally and fastenings)

All materials used in any structure associated with a floating building or used for decking, mooring, gangway, pontoon, cladding, or the like giving support or access to a floating building are suitable for marine use and must be suitable for the conditions to which they are exposed. According to TCCS 05: 2014/CHHVN [Ministry of Transport Vietnam, 2014], the materials must be considered as following:

- Available and local sources and be valuable or have a cultural value in their environment - Have a low economic cost, being recyclable, reusable or biodegradable. - Their origin must be from an environmentally friendly place of production; must not be polluting to the user or to the environment. - Must be natural that they come from renewable and abundant sources. - Have corrosion resistance, have innovative surface structure that avoids the electrochemical aspects of corrosion. - Have impact resistance, strength and durability, tensile strength. - Have thermal expansion. - Light weight, their shape and colour are suitable with landscape and vernacular architecture - Flexible, adjustable and adaptable to a particular model. - Visible and accessible for maintenance purposes.

Building height

279

Buildings and houses on a floating platform are included as the dead load of the floating structure. They give the largest amount of dead load aside from the floating platform itself. The dead load that is affordable to stay afloat is dependent on the type and draught of the floating structure. Buildings and houses also need to be distributed over the whole surface to avoid tilting and rotation. The heights of buildings are limited due to stability issues and the fact that high-rise buildings catch a lot of wind, making wind loads a very important aspect for the stability of the floating platform and the building itself. Another problem with high-rise building is that buildings on floating platforms have limited ways of being founded on the concrete or steel platform compared to buildings on the mainland. High-rise buildings on the vast ground are usually founded on very long piles to support the dead load of the building and in a lesser extent the overturning moments of the building. These pile foundations are not possible anymore or very limited on floating platforms. There is no absolute value of the maximum floating building height that always depends on the shape and dimensions of the platform and the building [K.K.M. KO, 2015].

Utilities and sanitation

a) Electrical: Electricity is provided by electrical grid on the land or generated by renewable energy system such as solar panels, wind turbine. Protection systems, such as grounding, shall be based on sound engineering practice and be in compliance with the Electrical Safety Regulation [Ministry of Construction of Vietnam, 2015]. b) Gas and Flammable Liquids: Lighting, heating and cooking systems consuming either natural or liquid petroleum gases or flammable liquids such as gasoline, naphthalene and kerosene shall be inspected and permitted by the authority having jurisdiction. c) Water: Where a piped water supply is available, each float building shall be provided with a potable water connection. Float buildings shall have a plumbing system which is accepted by the authority having jurisdiction. Where a piped water supply is not available, each float building shall have a rainwater harvesting system or water septic tanks for potable water storage which is delivered from the main land. d) Sewage Disposal: Float building shall have, or be connected to, an approved sewage disposal system. Sewage disposal systems shall comply with the regulations on discharging waste and oil and water waste according to the provisions of the National Technical Regulation on the Prevention of Pollution caused by Inland Water Vehicles

280

QCVN 17: 2011 / BGTVT and Circular No. 08/2013 / TT-BGTVT of the Ministry of Transport and other regulations on environmental protection on inland waterways. In cases, floating buildings located far away from the main land and cannot be connected to sewage disposal system on land, floating buildings shall have septic tanks for sewage disposal and faecal storage. Sewage disposal and faecal and will be collected by a ship within a sewage suction system, or be moved to waste treatment station on the land, or be treated by its own sewage disposal treatment system before releasing sewage into rivers.

Safety equipment

A float building must have appropriate life safety devices suitable for marine use. A floating building is provided with at least 1 marine type life ring per person who will live in the building [Queensland department of housing and public work, 2006].

Fire prevention

A float building must have access to appropriate levels firefighting equipment to safeguard against fire spread to other parts of the building or to other buildings. The firefighting equipment help occupants undertake initial attack on a fire so that allow occupants time to evacuate safely without being overcome by the effects of fire, as well as, to provide the fire authority the necessary equipment for firefighting operations. Fire prevention shall comply with the Fire prevention Regulation [Ministry of Construction of Vietnam, 2015].

A floating building is located so that no point on the floor of the floating building is either beyond the reach of a fully extended hose reel that is connected to the water supply and positioned in or in the area of the floating building.

Disaster resilience

The creation of innovative architectural features and floating technologies which can protect water dwellers and their properties from hazard and natural disasters due to climate change such as floods, strong winds/waves and typhoons should be taken into account in the design of a floating building.

281

 Fishing farms

Nowadays, the existence of floating villages is associated with the development of aquaculture and fishing farms. Therefore, beside general technology criteria for floating buildings, the specific criteria for floating houses attaching with fishing farms shall be established.

According to Circular No.16/2015 / TT-BNNPTNT, dated on April 2015, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, the requirements of fish farm management are summarised in below components: Permission; Location and distribution; Construction and design

Permission

Fish farm establishments must be located in the water surface zone which is planned for aquaculture development by competent agencies. According to current regulations, organisations and individuals conducting fish farms must get a permission to use water surface for aquaculture. The permision consists of the following three papers:

a) Decision on the allocation and the lease of water surface zones for aquaculture from competent state agencies; The contract for the lease of water surface use right for aquaculture is certified by the People's Committee of the commune, ward or township where the water surface is located and remains valid for at least 2 years. b) A written permission by local authorities for the implementation of fish farming. c) The organisations and individuals conducting fishing farms must register at the People's Committee of commune/ward/town and will be checked by a specialized agency at the district/town/city level Department of Agriculture and Rural Development to qualify for food safety and environmental protection for fish farming. And based on the results of the eligibility inspection record, organisations and individuals will be approved to conduct aquaculture by the local People's Committee

Location and distribution

a) The location of fish cages and not affected by floods, waterway transportation. The water level of selected location is not abruptly changed; the water flow is from 0.2-0.5

282

meters / second (m / s); the water depth of selected location must be at least 3 meters deep; there is no vortex flow and is not affected by pollution sources. b) The water quality of selected location where fish cages are located is required as following

Table 8.1: The water quality of fish cages. Source: Circular No.16/2015 / TT-BNNPTNT, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development.

c) The bottom of fish cages must be at least 0.5 metres from the bottom surface at the lowest water level. d) Distance between fish cages:

The size of fish cages with a minimum size of 15 m3 is arranged at least 1m apart from each other; in case the fish cage is large, the distance between cages is larger according to the corresponding ratio. In case of locating fish cages into clusters (maximum of 6- 10 cages/clusters, maximum sizes of 150 m3 / cluster), the distance between two cluster when placed in parallel is at least 10 metres apart from each other, and when placed in staggered arrangement and serial arrangement is at least 200m apart from each other in order to not interfere the flow of water.

e) The density of fish cages in the flowing water area accounts up to 0.2% of the water surface area at the lowest water level; when in the static water area accounts up to 0.05% of the water surface area at the lowest water level.

283

Construction and design

a) Fish cages: - Design of fish cages should be easy to clean and disinfect and easy to move and install. According to the conditions of cages, the shape is rectangular, square or circular and has a minimum size of 15m3 / cage. - Mobile cages: The structure consisting of cage frame system, bamboo / wooden gangways, walkways, and floating foundation should be convenient for installation and movement. - Fixed cages: The structure consists of cage frame system within bamboo/wooden gangways, walkways which are fixed by mooring system to secure the permanent position of fish cages during the farming season. b) Materials and Equipment: - Fish cages are made of durable materials and capable of being resistant to water, wave, wind and disinfectant substances. - Tools and equipment used in the fish farming must not cause damage to fishes and molluscs, as well as to be easy to clean and disinfect. - Engine and equipment used in the fish farming must ensure no gasoline and fuel leaks into the water source. c) Auxiliary constructions: - Eating, resting and living areas must be clean and not affect farming activities. - Food storage must be covered, ventilated, dry and capable to prevent food from insects and harmful animals. Gas and fuel storage areas are arranged separately with food storage. The equipment storage area and equipment must be neat and not affect farming activities. - The fish food processing zone must be in a separate location. Food processing equipment and tools must be arranged and installed conveniently for inspection, cleaning and disinfection. - Toilets must be arranged suitable to the number of labourers in fishing farm (at least 1 toilet for 25 people) and must ensure that environment surrounding fishing farms is not polluted. d) Waste treatment: Each floating house within a fish farm must install garbage bins and transfer waste to centralised garbage collection points. Waste must be collected and treated to ensure that it does not cause environmental pollution and adversely affect water sources.

284

 Floating buildings combining with fishing farm

This kind of construction includes two parts, the floating building and the Fish farm, thus the design standards for this construction must comply with both technical criteria for floating buildings and fish farms which are mentioned above. The main design requirements of this construction is to ensure safety, sustainability for living on the water combining between living and working, as well as to reduce the impact of production activities on the life quality of water dwellers. Therefore, besides complying with the technical criteria mentioned above, the design of this construction shall comply with requirements as follows:

- The distribution of living area and production areas avoids overlapping and using the parts of living space for production activities such as fish feed processing, seafood processing etc., that causes to unsanitary affecting water dweller’s health. - The design of space organisation must be reasonable and flexible. The production line, as well as, living and producing habits of local people must be taken into account, in order to ensure safety and convenience for interaction between living activities and production activities. The space organisation of this construction shall include three functional areas: Living area; Buffer area; Fishing cage area (Figure 8.8): Living area: Space for households to sleep and recover after a day of work, depending on the size of the number of people that can have the number of bedrooms, and the appropriate area. The living area includes main housing block, kitchen and toilet. Buffer area including terrace and auxiliary block: Terrace located in front of the main housing block is a buffer space connecting living area to fishing farm. It takes place not only production activities such as weaving nets, drying seafood, gathering fishing gears and catching seafood, but also many social activities in daily life. The terrace is a place for social communication and for organising holidays, events, traditional commemoration etc., so this space will be built with a large area and convenient access to waterway as well as traffic connecting to the functional spaces in the house. Auxiliary block includes storages for equipment used in fishing process and seafood production, and includes sanitation. Fish cage: designed to comply with the above technical standards. The location of fish cage is directly accessible to the terrace.

285

Figure 8.8: Space organization of floating buildings combining with fishing farm. Source: By author

(2) Socio-political criteria  Laws and ordinances a) Occupancy and construction classification: The Ministry of Construction shall classify the occupancy of each floating structure and classify the construction type of each structure. b) Floating Building Code Based on the proposed criteria for floating buildings mentioned above, competent state departments and Floating Home Study Committee should establish a Floating Building Code that applies to construction, location, relocation, use and occupancy of all floating buildings. The main purpose of Floating Building code is to protect the environment, public health, safety and general welfare as they relate to the construction and occupancy of floating buildings. The Floating Building Code becomes law of a particular jurisdiction when formally enacted by the appropriate governmental or private authority.

286

A floating Building Code must meet all state building codes including electrical, structural, mechanical, plumbing and fire safety. As floating structures interact with the environment differently and have distinctive design requirements compared to land-based structures, applying land-based building codes to floating homes has often added confusion to the construction process. c) Permits Required

Prior to placement of a floating structure, the owner has to apply for a temporary permit from the Ministry of Construction in accordance with the Law on Housing Law No. 65/2014 / QH13. Construction permits include:

- New building construction permit - License for the repair and renovation of existing building - Permits for the relocation of existing building

The owner shall furnish the Department of Construction with a location drawing, showing the general dimensions of the structure and its proposed place of location. If the proposed dimensions are matched within the floating building code, the Department of Construction shall issue a temporary permit to the owner. Within 30 days of placement of the floating structure, the owner shall apply for final inspection and approval with the Department of Construction. The final inspection shall be based on the following:

- Safety Inspection: The structure shall be determined to be in good repair, safe and sanitary condition, and constructed in accordance to sound engineering practices and in conformance with applicable building codes as well as in accordance to Safety regulation [Ministry of Transport Vietnam, 2014]. - Mechanical Inspection: All permits must have been granted and all connections must have been performed in a satisfactory manner to receive the Department of Construction’s approval. - Electrical Inspection: All electrical work shall be designed and installed in accordance with the Electrical Specialty Safety Code QCVN 06:2010/BXD [Ministry of Construction Vietnam, 2010]. The appropriate permits and inspections are required for all work.

287

- Fire Safety Inspection: All fire safety requirements shall be in accordance with the Fight prevention regulation QCVN 06:2010/BXD [Ministry of Construction Vietnam, 2010].

 Taxation

Almost all provinces in Vietnam categorise floating homes as personal property and water dwellers do not have to pay any taxes for living on the water. However, in order to move towards the sustainable development of floating communities, the Vietnamese government, as well as local authorities should establish specific regulations to classify floating homes and respective tax codes. When floating homes are considered as real property, floating home owners are required to pay real estate taxes, which may be used to support municipal services, and may be required to pay taxes upon transfer of the property. In contrast, when floating homes are considered as personal property, owners would not be required to pay annual real estate taxes, but may have to pay personal property taxes [Middle Peninsula Planning District Commission, 2010].

8.1.2 How to improve floating houses for new resilient living

“Community resilience is the capability to anticipate risk, limit impacts, and bounce back rapidly through survival, adaptability, evolution, and growth in the face of turbulent change” [Community and Regional Resilience Institute (CARRI), 2013].

This definition contains the core concepts identified above: resilience as an attribute, with adaptability at its core. It indicates the desired trajectory, and can enable communities to determine how resilient they are and to take actions to improve their resilience.

Resilient features of floating houses can be slightly different from those of the usual house on land. The following resilient features are focused on the floating house in terms of climate change and social-economic change.

288

8.1.2.1 Resilience to environmental issues

Resilience to water-related disasters and hydrological hazards

Buoyant features of the floating houses can basically make them resilient to water-related disasters and hydrological hazards. Amphibious houses and floatable houses are responsive to both a speedy and unexpected rise of water level due to flooding or hurricanes and to an ongoing rise in sea or river levels due to climate change. In Vietnam, water-related disasters are divided into primary hazards (flooding) and secondary hazards (subsidence and landslide).

Traditionally in Vietnam, there are various methods of flood proofing that are outlined in the Table below. Floods are categorised into three levels: Firstly, low flood levels (less than 1 meter); medium to high flood levels (up to 3 meters); and finally high flood levels, that exceed of 3 meters. Floating and amphibious constructions are flexible options matching with all level of floods. Especially, for high flood levels, floating and amphibious constructions are the most obvious options. Most flood proofing methods are permanent solutions within the fixed height of flood proof houses which are suitable to the expected flood depth; however, floating and amphibious buildings can adjust easily according to water levels. Therefore, floating and amphibious buildings is the most preferable solution for unexpected flood depth, as well as, unexpected flood duration.In addition, the concept of amphibious houses can be applied for waterfront houses that help people protect their life and their properties from high tide and landslide erosion. However, there are many difficulties to ensure the success of the amphibious housing solution in these areas, due to the impact of sea waves, especially in the rainy season, complicated changing flows, the sea level often rises etc. The landslide erosion often happens quickly and intensely that causes the houses to be submerged by uneven force affecting to the different parts of the house. Therefore, in the designing process of amphibious houses, it is necessary for designers and researchers to pay attention to the solutions of wave reduction, sedimentation for coastal protection as well as to create technical solutions to secure the house balanced, stable and float on the water when the landslide erosion happens. For example: planting mangrove, constructing wave reduction structures such as T-shaped wave barriers, soft walls with common trees in coastal localities such as melaleuca, bamboo are simple and friendly solutions and very suitable for geomorphologic characteristics, coastal geology in this area (Figure 8. 9) [Hoang N.T., Do Minh T., 2020].

289

Figure 8.9: T-wave barriers of GIZ in Bac Lieu province. Source: Hoang N.T., Do Minh T., 2020

Resilience to energy shortage

Living on the water has abundant renewable energy sources such as hydro, solar, wind, and wave energies. Furthermore, most renewable energy systems on the water bodies perform better than these installed on land, because there are not so many physical obstacles on water bodies, the sea, river or lake [Moon Changho, 2015]. Typically, more solar and wind energies can be obtained by a structure on water than on the urban land. Along with modern technology, the development of floating architecture has aimed to create floating buildings which are more comfortable, sustainable and self-sufficient. In this case, investigating self - sufficient energy supply system for floating building is one of significant tasks approaching to the sustainable development of floating settlements. The environmental awareness, the political environment tax revenues, and financial resources, as well as, greater independence from private utilities are positively related to attitude towards the realisation of energy self-sufficiency for floating buildings. As the result, the potential use of self-sufficient energy supply system can make floating buildings resilient to energy shortages.

 Solar energy

In many floating villages in Vietnam, the usage of solar panel has become popular. Generating solar energy on water bodies is not only an effective method of self- sufficient energy supply systems for floating buildings, but also has a huge potential for renewable energy resources that connects and feeds into the power grid and provides electricity to communities. Nowadays, 290

solar floating farms have emerged quickly in many countries. The floating solar refers to an array of photovoltaic panels on a structure that floats on a body of water. There are several advantages to the solar floating system. Firstly, it saves agricultural land; especially it provides space for areas that have limited land space, such as islands, places for capturing solar energy. One additional benefit is that solar panels are less efficient at high temperatures, because evaporating water keeps them cooler. The cooler temperature allows for a more efficient operation. Therefore, most floating systems also perform better than solar panels installed on land. Moreover, the installation of a solar floating farm has the lack of excavation, which means there is no impact to water quality. Furthermore, solar panels shield water from the sun and slow the growth of algae, as well as, reduce water evaporation saving water used for drinking and irrigation that brings an essential benefit for reservoir placement [World Bank Group, 2019].

 Wind energy

Wind power will be widely used in floating housing, because wind is frequently abundant in sea or river locations and small wind power turbines with little noise are under development. Hybrid systems composed of solar photovoltaic cells with wind turbines are generally complementary because the sun usually comes up when there is no wind during the day and the wind usually blows when there is no sun. So solar-wind hybrid renewable energy system will be popular if the design of a hybrid system is integrated with that of a floating house.

 Hydrogen energy - Thermal energy: In case of floating houses, water is the best and closest source of energy. Potential for hydrogen production is key renewable resource in floating buildings. waterbodies such as oceans, lakes, rivers store the large reserves of thermal energy which can be used to heat or cool nearby buildings and infrastructure, because the temperature of water is usually lower than that of outdoor air in summer and the reverse in winter. Therefore thermal energy can be used as cooling in tropical regions and heating in cold regions. For example, lake water can be used for underwater heat exchangers and passive cooling and heating of floating buildings. Underwater heat exchangers: One of the most effective methods of energy supply of a floating house is the use of underwater heat exchangers with connection to a heat pump, which provide as floating house with heating and cooling energy with a minimum of energy 291

costs. Solar panels and batteries are the best way to gain required energy for such systems. Figure 8.10 represents two example of underwater heat exchangers used in floating houses which were examined and simulated in the Institute for Floating Building at BTU Cottbus- Senftenberg, in order to optimise form, materials, and thermal transfer processes of underwater heat exchangers for improving the energy efficiency of the whole heats supplying system lake [Horst Stop, 2016]. Passive cooling and heating-systems with capillary tube mats: Lake water can be used for heating during the cold season and cooling of buildings in summer time: Passive cooling and heating-systems consists of capillary tube mats with lake water inside. Cooling systems consists of plastic pipes filled with river water. Under the influence of the uneven solar radiation from both sides, there is a difference in temperature and density of water, which causes circular movement of water in the tubes and thereby cools the building (Figure 8.11). - Tidal and wave energy: Tidal energy and wave energy can be considerable if a proper system could be integrated with floating home design and harmonized with the natural environment.

Figure 8.10: Spiral and compact heat exchange heat exchanger tested in floating house in Lusatian lake, Germany. Source: Institute for Floating Building, BTU Cottbus-Senftenberg, Germany

Figure 8.11: Experimental investigation of thermal component activation by means of a floating model. Sketch for the cycle of a building envelope flowing between sunny and shaded side of floating house Source: Institute for Floating Building, BTU Cottbus-Senftenberg, Germany 292

Resilience to environmental impacts

In Vietnam, most floating settlements integrate with aquaculture development that causes the location of floating buildings to be far away from the main land. Therefore, living off the grid is one of the most significant solutions to the sustainable development of floating settlements in Vietnam. As the result, the self-sufficient concepts of floating buildings are able to reduce the impacts to the surrounding natural environment. The self-sufficient floating building as an off the grid building is also able to operate completely independently of all traditional public utility services. It includes a renewable energy supply system, water supply system; waste water treatment system, water cycle system and even gardens can provide foods for daily needs. The use of renewable energy from surrounding natural resources integrating with traditional architectural solutions can additionally improve the microclimate within and around floating buildings. This would reduce the amount of energy consumption and emission needed for cooling and or heating. Moreover, the construction of floating buildings prefers to use light weight and local environmental materials that also helps floating buildings decrease the environmental impacts. In addition, due to the difficulties of construction on the water, prefabrication and modular system in floating homes are usually constructed that leads to both construction waste and construction time being minimised. This type of off-site construction involving minimal site work does not disrupt the calm atmosphere of the floating home community. Furthermore, the assembling and moveable capacity of the floating building improves its recycled use capacity over the long time in different locations with a variety of different purposes. On the other hand, the strategies of sustainable tourism development in floating villages are able to raise awareness of environmental protection for both the local people and tourists.

Features of long life usage, prefabrication and modular construction, movability, the self- sufficient supply energy and potentials of eco-tourism development in floating settlements can contribute to the conservation of the environment through resource saving, and can be regarded as resilient to the environmental impacts.

293

8.1.2.2 Resilience to social-economic issues

Out of poverty

In the past, floating villagers lived mainly by fishing, as well as, by trading on the river, with often low and unstable income. In recent years, aquaculture, mainly fish farming, production has developed widely in floating villages and has become the main method to increases both income and reduce the poverty. In addition, according to the characteristics of each region, there are several potential livelihood methods to enhance the local economy in floating villages, such as eco-tourism, floating agriculture, and handcrafts production. Regional economic capacity will improve income for local people and help them escape from poverty and develop a sustainable local economy and society. On the other hand, the floating house’s capacity of resilience to floods can not only rescue residents from injuries but also protect their properties and livelihoods from the damage of floods that help people living in flood prone areas break their cycle poverty due to the damage from annual floods.

Improving local people’s quality of life

As mentioned above, due to poverty, rivers and canals have become the backyard of urban civilization which were seen as worthless and neglected for several decades. Water bodies have become the shelter for the poor and the homeless people living in a community with low educational status and low quality of life standards. Eventually, many floating settlements began to contain a lot of social evils. The strategies for the sustainable development of floating settlements would improve local people’s quality of life, public services and enhance education attainment for young generations. It would solve the negative social problems that exist in many of the floating settlements in Vietnam, as well as, developing water bodies to become a potential location for living and working.

Reducing urbanisation impacts

Nowadays, due to the impact of urbanisation, more and more people who are young tend to abandon the tradition of living on the water, in order to go to the main land for living and working. This has caused a loss of aquatic style and unique river culture in Vietnam. Therefore, sustainable development strategies for floating settlements should ensure a certain sustainability of livelihood and living, that will help water dwellers stay in their floating 294

settlements permanently. This would help to avoid migration from coastal areas in main cities and also would help reduce pressure on population, labour market, environmental and social issues in the main urban areas.

Preservation of aquatic life style

Due to characteristic of geography, the water environment does not only affect the physical activities, but also affects the spiritual activities of the Vietnamese people. River culture has become an important element that constitutes the cultural identity of Vietnam. Therefore, the sustainable floating settlements which ensure a comfort and sustainable living for residents help to maintain, preserve and improve aquatic life style and local culture of water dwellers. Moreover, the development of eco-tourism in floating villages combined with local cultural exploration activities can contribute to promoting and enhancing people's understanding of the life style and culture of living on the river, as well as, improving responsibility of local people to preserve and develop their traditional culture.

Improvement of human and social spirit

Through the observation of several floating villages, it was perceived that residents enjoy the peaceful and pure atmosphere of the living on the water. The living close to nature promotes both the mental and physical wellbeing for the residents. The water dwellers of the floating communities approach life with a sense of optimism. As the result, in the recent years more and more people have been interested in living on the water far away from the stresses in polluted cities.

Furthermore, the living on the water always faces risks of natural hazards, thus floating village residents must always cooperate and support each other in aquaculture activities and in preventing or responding to natural disasters. That leads to very strong social relationships and a spiritual unity which are essential characteristics in floating communities.

8.1.3 Conclusion

In developed countries, the main reason of living on the water surface is due to social change, when the demand of a higher quality life is increasing. People want to live in a healthy and fresh environment close to nature and enjoy activities on the water. As the result, residents in

295

developed countries choose floating houses as an attractive type of residence for living or relaxing purposes. By the contrast, in Vietnam, as well as, some other developing countries in South East Asia, the main reason for living on the water surface is due to residents's livelihood. The initial inhabitants of the floating villages were fishermen who earned their living from fishing. The floating villages are not only houses, but also places where they work and earn their living. In recent years, the floating villages have been revived and the number of villages has been increased due to the booming development of aquaculture. Subsistence is the main reason for living on the water, thus in order to create a stable, permanent and sustainable living, the prerequisite issue is to ensure sustainable livelihoods for water dwellers. Therefore, it cannot be denied that sustainable livelihood development combined with environmental protection must be the main core of strategic solutions towards to the sustainable development of floating settlements. The sustainable livelihood would increase the income of water dwellers, ensure food security, improve infrastructures and floating technologies.

However, in order to build a sustainable floating village, it is necessary to ensure sustainability in all four factors: economy, environment, socio-culture, and vernacular architecture. The management, as well as, making strategic plans for the sustainable development of floating housing communities in Vietnam will be more complex and require the coordination of many related ministries that improve the coherence and complementarity of policies across a wide range of sectors, to respond to the complex development challenges ahead. Relevant Departments, Floating Home Study Committee and Local Agencies need to establish effective transparent laws and policies to manage and the support residents to ensure socially responsible economic development, while protecting the natural resouces and the environment for their benefit and for the benefit of future generations.

At the same time, propaganda and education are nessesary to raise up the water dweller’s responsibility to protect natural resources and the environment, which directly affects the quality of their life and their livelihoods, as well as, directly relates to the sustainable development of the local economy. From a sense of responsibility to themselves, their families and communities, the water dwellers will be aware of compliance with the management regulations and design standard criteria of floating houses. Moreover, the inhabitants will be aware of improving the quality of floating structures, utilities, waste collection and treatment systems to ensure safety for their lives and properties, as well as, protecting the surrounding environment. In addition, they will be aware of the value and benefits of building a self- 296

sufficient floating house, using renewable energy to save energy, reduce the amount of waste to protect the environment, and enhance independent capacity out of power supplies on the land.

In conclusion, in the context of the economy, socio-culture, environment, indigenous architecture and the policy mechanism of Vietnam, the thesis has used comprehensive research methods in order to investigate two main questions: “How to create and manage sustainable floating houses and sustainable floating settlements in Vietnam?” and “How to apply floating houses for new resilient living?”. According to this goal, the author analysed, evaluated and accumulated learnt lessons from the experience of floating house construction, as well as, valuable traditions and river culture in the process of forming and developing floating communities in Vietnam. At the same time, through case studies of floating buildings and floating communities all over the world, the dissertation studied sustainable design principles of floating architecture within innovative affordable floating techniques, which can be applied into the sustainable concept of floating settlements in Vietnam. Based on the inheritance and promotion of the available values of floating villages, as well as, based on the innovative principles of sustainable floating architecture, the thesis has created guidelines for the sustainable development of floating settlements and created Vietnamese design criteria for floating buildings. Beside technical criteria, the research also proposed the framework of strategic management process for the sustainable development of floating settlements in Vietnam that not only ensures livelihoods, enhances the quality of life for water dwellers, but also improve the resilient capacity of living in coastal areas in the context of climate change and social change. On hand results of the dissertation, the government can establish offical regulations and laws to manage floating settlements, that not only preserve the traditional culture of living on the water in Vietnam, but also develop floating houses to become an alternative accommodation adapting current and future to rising sea levels.

297

8.2 Discussion and recommendation

Finally, the following recommendations were made to increase the sustainable development and management of floating houses and floating settlements in Vietnam.

Design and technical recommendations

- The first recommendation is to develop floating buildings as a new potential type of accommodation in water bodies. Due to the characteristic of geography, there are many cities situated along the banks of rivers in Vietnam. Riverside areas are always great potential locations for residential building development. There are many real estate projects that have been built along the river banks in big cities such as Ho Chi Minh, Hai Phong, and Ha Noi. In addition, according to the social demand, people would like to live and enjoy the pure atmosphere on the water. In this case modern floating houses which provide a comfort and sustainable way of living would be a potential residence for wealthy people, as well as, for citizens of coastal cities in Vietnam such as Ho Chi Minh- a megacity where have been occurring a lack of construction land due to rising sea level and the rapid growth of population. - The second recommendation is to increase resilience to climate change of floating houses. This can be an effective kind of flood proof house, not only for flood prone areas, but also for urban areas. The scientists, architects, planers should focus on studying new paradigms of amphibious houses, which could be suitable for retrofitting existing houses or for setting a new house as a flood proof house in existing urban areas. Moreover, the concept of amphibious house would be not only an effective solution for houses in flood prone areas, but also for houses built on the riverside. Due to climate change and sea level rise, many the riverside areas which have weak ground are in danger of subsidence in the near future. Therefore, when to design real estate projects, investors, planners and architects need to consider the scenario of rising water level and landslide erosion affecting the construction works on the river bank. In this case, amphibious houses which normally rest on dry land and only float when the level of the lake rises to accommodate flood water would be an effective solution to increase resilient living for residents who live at the water’s edge. - The third recommendation is to investigate low cost and local friendly materials and floating technologies for floating structures.

298

- The fourth recommendation is that local authorities should start to build experience with improving self-sufficient concepts of floating houses, as well as, with using more innovative technologies to generate renewable energy based on natural resources. For example: generating energy from solar panels, windmills and water wheels. All these methods to generate energy are environmentally friendly. Especially, the development of floating solar farms and offshore wind farms should be considered as a significant method for the further development of renewable energy in Vietnam in the near future. - The fifth recommendation is to develop a “Smart floating farm”: Based on a Floating Multi- layered strategy which combines Aquaculture(fish), Hydroponics- Aeroponics (crops) and Photovoltaics (solar power and other renewable energies) into a single platform, the aim is that these floating farms can provide not only food for water dwellers but also provide food for coastal urban areas. This will cause a positive social and economic impact, with the potential for creating new emergent economies, ensuring national food security, while many coastal areas have been submerging under the water such as Mekong Delta in Vietnam.

Socio-political recommendations

- The first recommendation is that the creation of supportive institutional frameworks and legal incentives, as well as, floating house management policies should include long term envisioning with multiple stakeholders as a standard component of floating house policy to increase awareness of long term problems. - The second recommendation is to avoid the conflict between government regulations and locality’s treatment of the floating structures. Based on the specific local conditions of environment, economy, socio-culture and vernacular architecture, local government and local agencies have authority to regulate floating homes, enact local planning and enforce land use regulations to protect the public health, safety, and welfare of their residents. This authority provides localities with the right to adopt and enforce regulations, as long as they do not conflict with government laws. - The third recommendation is that Floating Home Study Committee and Local Related Agencies play an important role in the management process of floating houses. It needs to be established as soon as possible in order to create, implement and monitor transparently the regulations of floating buildings.

299

- The fourth recommendation is that the regulations of floating houses should be established not only in accordance with technical and environmental standards, but also take into account climate change and rising sea level scenarios, as well as, natural hazards and disasters. - The fifth recommendation is to scale up the development of floating architecture through improving marketing activities and strengthening scientific propaganda and education activities relating to floating architecture. For example, to create a commercial market for floating structure innovations, and to organise forums, seminars, conferences of floating architecture for experts, stakeholders, and local people to exchange ideas and investigate the innovations of floating technique. These recommendations can contribute to the better implementation and construction of floating houses in order to increase the sustainable development of floating settlements in Vietnam.

300

References

1. A. H. M. Saadat et al (2018) Desalination Technologies for Developing Countries: A Review, Journal of Scientific Research 10 (1), 77-97 2. Akadiri, Peter O., Chinyio, Ezekiel A., Olomolaiye, Paul O. (2012) Design of a Sustainable Building: A Conceptual Framework for Implementing Sustainability in the Building Sector, In: Buildings n. 2, 2, pp. 126–152. DOI: 10.3390/buildings2020126 3. Agnes Nyilas (2016) On the Formal Characteristics of Kiyonori Kikutake’s ‘Marine City’ Projects Published at the Turn of the 50’s and 60’s, Architecture Research 2016, 6(4): 98-106 4. Andreea Constantinescua, Simona Frone (2014) The Role of Technological Innovation in Sustainable EconomicDevelopment,https://www.academia.edu/6392130/The_Role_of_Technological_Inn ovation_on_Sustainable_Economic_Development accessed on 20 February 2021 5. Anon (1988) Dictionary of the Vietnamese language, Hanoi: Social Sciences Publishing House (in Vietnamese) 6. Anagal, V., Darvekar, G., & Gokhale, V.A. (2010) Bamboo Construction: Learning Through Experience, ARCHITECTURE - Time Space & People, page 36-43 7. Arlene Christy D. Lusterio (2018) Living With Water: Formal Models of Settlements in Vietnam MekongDelta,https://nanopdf.com/download/sustainable-urban-coastal-human-settlements-in- southern-vietnam_pdf, accessed on 12 February 2020 8. A.T. Nguyen, S. Reiter (2017) Bioclimatism in Architecture: an evolutionary perspective, International Journal of Design and Nature and Ecodynamics, Volume 12, Issue 1, 2017, Pages 16-29 9. Autartec https://www.autartec.de/ 10. Autotark-home https://rotterdam2017cube.wordpress.com/2017/03/11/autark-home/ accessed on 22 February 2018 11. Ballantyne, Roy, Hughes, Karen (2001) Interpretation in Ecotourism Settings: Investigating tour guides’ perceptions of their role, responsibilities and training needs, The Journal of Tourism Studies T Vol. 12, No. 2, DEC. ‘01 12. Besset M, Gratiot N, Anthony E. J., Bouchette F, Goichot M, Marchesiello P. (2019) Mangroves and shoreline erosion in the Mekong River delta, Viet Nam. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, 226, 106263 13. British Columbia (2003) Float Home Standard, http://www.floatinghomesbc.ca/government-and- regulations, accessed on 15 September 2019 14. Canadian sheet steel institute (2005) The lightweight steel frame house construction handbook, ISBN 978-1-895535-61-7 15. Canadian sheet steel institute (2000) Residential steel framing: Trainning and Curriculum, https://cssbi.ca/assets/resources/Design_Manuals/CSSBI-56-00.pdf, accessed on 12 March 2017 16. Carlo Caldarola (1982) Religions and Societies: Asia and the Middle East, Publisher: De Gruyter, https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110823530 17. Cesar Cuello Nieto, Fundacion Neotropica (2008) Sustainable Communities in a Self-Sufficient Province: “Planning Our Future Together”, Philosophy and Technology 2:2 18. City of St. Helens (2006) Moorages and Floating Structures Code, https://www.codepublishing.com/OR/StHelens/html/StHelens15/StHelens1516.html, accessed on 15 September 2019 19. Cuello, C. (1997) Toward a holistic approach to ideal of sustainability, Philosophy and Technology 2:2, 41-48. 20. C.M. Wang, B.T. Wang (2015) Large floating structures: Technologycal advances, Spinger 21. Cong, Nguyen Van. (2017) An overview of agricultural pollution in Vietnam: the aquaculture sector (English). World Bank regional agricultural pollution study. Washington, D.C.: World Bank Group. http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/353191516774529352/An-overview-of-agricultural- pollution-in-Vietnam-the-aquaculture- sectorhttp://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/353191516774529352/An-overview-of-agricultural- pollution-in-Vietnam-the-aquaculture-sector 22. Country Report Vietnam (2015) Natural Disaster Risk Assessment and Area Business Continuity Plan Formulation for Industrial Agglomerated Areas in the ASEAN Region, https://openjicareport.jica.go.jp/pdf/1000023398.pdf, accessed on 15 January 2020 23. Community and regional resilience institute (2013) A report: Definition of Community Resilience: An Analysis, https://merid.org/case-study/community-and-regional-resilience-institute/, accessed on 15 June 2019 301

24. Cox, William E. (1987) The role of water in socio-economic development, ISB N92-3-102534-1, http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0007/000776/077659eo.pdf, accessed on 2 March 2018 25. David Grierson, Carolyn Moultrie (2011) Architectural Design Principles and Processes for Sustainability: Towards a Typology of Sustainable Building Design, Design Principles and Practices: An International Journal Volume 5, Number 4, ISSN 1833-1874 26. Dao, D. (1938) Outline of the cultural history of Vietnam, Hanoi: Bon Phuong Publishing House (in Vietnamese) 27. Delta Alliance, Deltares (2011) Vietnam-Netherlands Mekong Delta Masterplan project, Mekong Delta Water Resources Assessment Studies, January 2011, https://123doc.org/document/5108512- vietnamnetherlands-mekong-delta-masterplan-project-me-kong-delta-water-resources-assessment- studies.htm, accessed on 4 January 2019 28. Deltares (2013) Mekong Delta Plan Long-term vision and strategy for a safe, prosperous and sustainable delta, December 2013, The Socialist Republic of Vietnam and the Kingdom of the Netherlands, https://www.deltares.nl/app/uploads/2014/01/Mekong-delta-plan-Long-term-vision-and-strategy.pdf, accessed on 2 September 2018 29. Dinh Ba Vinh (2017) A report of Flood proof house organization, in the forum of Floating Architecture, Vietnam Institute of Urban and Rural Planning, Hanoi 5/ 2017 30. Dura Vermeer (2012) A report of FloodProBE: Technologies for flood proofing “hotspot” buildings, http://www.floodprobe.eu/partner/assets/documents/Technologiesforflood- proofinghotspotbuildings_DeltaSync_18032013.pdf, accessed on 10 August, 2019 31. Eawag, Dorothee Spuhler Composting Chamber Published on SSWM- Sustainable Sanitation Water Management, http://www.sswm.info/, accessed on 20 August 2019 32. E. Watanabe, C.M. Wang, T.Utsunomiya and T.Moan (2004) Very large floating structures: Application, Analysis and Design, Core Report No. 2004-02 33. European climate adaptation platform (2015) Amphibious housing in Maasbommel, the Netherlands, http://climate-adapt.eea.europa.eu/metadata/case-studies/amphibious-housing-in-maasbommel-the- netherlands, accessed on 28 February 2018 34. Eureka (2011) Floating houses Eurekabuild Floatec, http://www.eurekanetwork.org/content/e-4446- eurekabuild-floatec, accessed on 1 March 2018 35. Factor Architecten bv (2011) Project review: Floating Homes 'De Gouden Kust' Maasbommel, the Netherlands,https://climate-adapt.eea.europa.eu/metadata/case-studies/amphibious-housing-in- maasbommel-the-netherlands/11310092.pdf, accessed on 2 April 2020 36. Federal Ministry of Education and Research Germany (BMBF), Unternehmen Region, Unabhängig auf dem Wasser, https://www.unternehmen-region.de/de/9625.php, accessed on 22 February 2018 37. Federal Ministry of Education and Research Germany (BMBF), Independently on the water https://www.unternehmen-region.de/de/9625.php, accessed on 22 February 2018 38. Fraunhofer (2015) The Self-Catering Houseboat, https://www.fraunhofer.de/en/press/research- news/2015/December/the-self-catering-houseboat.html, accessed on 22 February 2018 39. Fraunhofer, Autartec: Self-Sufficient Living on Water, https://www.ivi.fraunhofer.de/en/research- fields/energy-systems/autonomous-utility-systems/autartec.html 40. Fukuda, Hitoshi (1976) Irrigation in the World: Comparative Developments.Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press 41. Grierson, David; Moultrie, Carolyn Mary (2011) Architectural design principles and processes for sustainability: Towards a typology of sustainable building design, In: Design Principles and Practices, pp. 623–634. 42. Ha Xuan Thong & Nguyen Duy Thieu (2009) The van chai and its role in the hierarchy of fisheries administration in Vietnam, In K. Ruddle & P. L. Tuong (Eds.), The van chai of Vietnam: Managing nearshore fisheries and fishing communities (pp. 21–34), Hong Kong: International Resources Management Institute 43. Habibi S (2015) Floating Building Opportunities for Future Sustainable Development and Energy Efficiency Gains. J Archit Eng Tech 4:142. doi:10.4172/2168-9717.1000142 44. Hoang N.T., Do Minh T. (2020) Coastal erosion in An Minh - An Bien, Kien Giang province, causes and countermeasures. In: Duc Long P., Dung N. (eds) Geotechnics for Sustainable Infrastructure Development. Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering, vol 62. Springer, Singapore 45. Hosam El-Din, H. S., Alaa, M. R, Basil, A. S. (2010) Durability and strength evaluation of high performance concrete in marine structures, Journal of Construction and Building Materials, 24(6), 878– 884 46. Heather Christine Anderson (2014) Amphibious Architecture Living with a Rising Bay, Master thesis, California Polytechnic State University 302

47. Hong Thi Khanh Nguyen, Tran Thi Nang Thu, Philippe Lebailly & Hossein Azadi (2019) Economic challenges of the export-oriented aquaculture sector in Vietnam, Journal of Applied Aquaculture, 31:4, 367-383, DOI: 10.1080/10454438.2019.1576568 48. Hong, T. K. N., T. T. H. Phan., T. N. T. Tran., and L. Philippe. (2017) Vietnam’s fisheries and aquaculture development’s policy: Are exports performance targets sustainable? Oceanography & Fisheries Open Access Journal 5 (4):555667.doi:10.19080/OFOAJ.2017.05.55566. [Crossref], [Google Scholar] 49. Horst Stopp and Peter Strangfeld (2010) Floating houses- Chances and Problem, , Architecture Civil Engineering Environment, No. 4/2010 50. Horst Stopp, Peter Strangfeld, Anna Malakhova (2016) Floating Architecture and Structures – an Answer to the Global Changes, REAL CORP Proceedings/Tagungsband, ISBN 978-3-9504173-0-2 (CD), 978- 3-9504173-1-9 51. Houseboat Museum (2014), The history of Hendrika Maria, In a Journal of Houseboat Museum, Amsterdam, Netherlands 52. Hosam El-Din, H. S., Alaa, M. R, Basil, A. S. (2010) Durability and strength evaluation of high performance concrete in marine structures. Journal of Construction and Building Materials, 24(6), 878– 884. 53. Human Rights Watch (2003) The Iraqi Government Assault on the Marsh Arabs, https://www.hrw.org/legacy/backgrounder/mena/marsharabs1.pdf, assessed on 10 Febuary, 2018 54. IBA Hamburg GmbH: International Building Exhibition IBA Hamburg (2006-2013) https://www.internationale-bauausstellung-hamburg.de/projekte/iba-dock/projekt/iba-dock.html 55. International Union for the Conservation of Nature (1989) Estrategia mundial para la conservacion en los años noventa. San Jose, Costa Rica: International Union, in conjunction with the U.N. Environmental Program and the World Wildlife Foundation 56. Institute for Sustainable Communities, Definition of Sustainable Community, https://www.iscvt.org/impact/definition-sustainable-community/ accessed on 15 March 2018 57. Isabel Gu¨nther and Charles B. Niwagaba and Christoph Lu¨thi and Alexandra Horst and Hans-Joachim Mosler and Innocent K. Tumwebaze ETH Zurich (2012) When is shared sanitation improved sanitation? The correlation between number of users and toilet hygiene, Online at http://mpra.ub.uni- muenchen.de/45830/ MPRA Paper No. 45830, posted 8. April 2013 58. Jessica E. Tierney, Peter B. deMenocal, Paul D. Zander (2017) A climatic context for the out-of-Africa migration, Geology ; 45 (11): 1023–1026. doi: https://doi.org/10.1130/G39457.1 59. Jick, T.D. (1979) Mixing Qualitative and Quantitative Methods: Triangulation in Action, Administrative Science Quarterly, 24 (4), 602-611 60. Khoury, Milia Lorraine (2017) Architecture “with the other 90%”-an African Story, Taylor & Francis, ISBN: 978-1-138-02966-8, http://hdl.handle.net/11189/5952 61. K. Iftekhar Ahmed (2005) Handbook on Design and Construction of Housing for Flood-prone Rural Areas of Bangladesh, ADPC Asian Disaster Preparedness Center , ISBN: 984-32-2163-X 62. K. Ruddle (1998) Traditional community-based coastal marine fisheries management in Viet Nam. Ocean and Coastal Management, 40(3), 1–22 63. K.K.M. Ko (2015) Master Thesis: Realising a floating city, http://resolver.tudelft.nl/uuid:cb4bddef- 1eb8-49ec-9ff9-670a30dd4b72 64. Koda, Wesley Kean, Christan Mcconnell (2017) Marine City, http://www.kodamiami.com/blogs/miami- marine-city, accessed on 10 March 2018 65. Lake Macquarie City Council (2014) Flood Resilient Housing Guidelines, accessed on 3 July 2019 https://www.lakemac.com.au/downloads/B64F9C872B8333ADD1A861BEB1ED0743283695EE.pdf 66. Luu C; von Meding J; Mojtahedi M (2019) Analyzing Vietnam's national disaster loss database for flood risk assessment using multiple linear regression-TOPSIS, International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, vol. 40, pp. 101153 - 101153, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2019.101153 67. Ly Tung Hieu (2009) Southern Region: Location and Cultural Characteristics, the Faculty of Culture, The University of Social Sciences and Humanities – Vietnam National University Ho Chi Minh City, http://vanhoahoc.edu.vn/nghien-cuu/van-hoa-viet-nam/van-hoa-nam-bo/1238-ly-tung-hieu-vung-van- hoa-nam-bo-dinh-vi-va-dac-trung-van-hoa.html, accessed on 1 January 2019 68. Maarten Willems (2014) Seminar 7X865 - The Autarkic dwelling, Eindhoven University of Technology Architecture, Building and Planning, http://www.patrickvandodewaard.nl/assets/autarky--- sustainability-final.pdf, accessed on 1 March 2021 69. Maarten Koekoek (2010) Master Thesis Connecting Modular Floating Structures, TU Delft, Netherland 70. Maciej Olszak (2013) Technology Case Study Anaysis: Brockholes Visitors Centre by Adam Khan Architects https://issuu.com/maciej.s.olszak/docs/olszak_sketchbook_a5, accessed on 15 February 2018 303

71. Madan M. Dey, M. A. Rab, K. M. Jahan, A. Nisapa, A. Kumar & M. Ahmed (2005) Food Safety Standard and Regulatory Measures: Implications for Selected Fish Exporting Asian Countries, Aquaculture Economics & Management, 9:1-2, 217-236, DOI: 10.1080/13657300590967450 72. Mahravan, Abbas (2012) Eco-tourism and its architecture: a methodological framework for assessing progress towards sustainable development. 73. Mart A. Stewart, Peter A. Coclanis, 2011, Environmental Change and Agricultural Sustainability in the Mekong Delta, Advance in Global Change Research 45, Springer ISBN 978-94-007-0933-1 74. Ma Van Phuc, Tran Trung Vinh (2018) Integrating strategic planning values into urban master planning process in Vietnam, MATEC Web Conf. 193 04017, DOI:10.1051/matecconf/201819304017 75. Marlies Rohmer (2011) Floating Houses in IJburg https://www.archdaily.com/120238/floating-houses- in-ijburg-architectenbureau-marlies-rohmer 76. Maciej Olszak (2013) Technology Case Study Anaysis: Brockholes Visitors Centre by Adam Khan Architects, https://issuu.com/maciej.s.olszak/docs/olszak_sketchbook_a5, accessed on 28 January 2018 77. Meike Schalk (2014) The Architecture of Metabolism. Inventing a Culture of Resilience, Arts 2014, 3, 279-297 78. Middle Peninsula Planning District Commission (2010) A planning report: Law and Policy regarding floatinghomes,https://www.deq.virginia.gov/Portals/0/DEQ/CoastalZoneManagement/FundsInitiatives Projects/task2-02-08.pdf, accessed on 20 February 2017 79. Minderhoud, P.S.J., Coumou, L., Erkens, G. et al. (2019) Mekong delta much lower than previously assumed in sea-level rise impact assessments. Nat Commun 10, 3847. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467- 019-11602-1, accessed on 20 December 2019 80. Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (2016) Regional Environmental Assessment Report on Mekong Delta Integrated Climate Resilience and Sustainable Livelihood Project ((MD-ICRSL) http://documentos.bancomundial.org/curated/es/855731468312052747/pdf/SFG1760-REVISED-EA- P153544-Box396254B-PUBLIC-Disclosed-5-16-2016.pdf, accessed on 10 January 2019 81. Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (2009) Climate Change, Sea Level Rise Scenarios for Vietnam https://www.preventionweb.net/files/11348_ClimateChangeSeaLevelScenariosforVi.pdf, accessed on 10 October 2017 82. Ministry of Construction Vietnam (2008) QCXDVN 01:2008/BXD: Vietnam Building Code, Regional and Urban Planning and Rural Residental Planning, https://vanbanphapluat.co/qcxdvn-01-2008-bxd- quy-hoach-xay-dung, accessed on 9 September 2019, (in Vietnamese) 83. Ministry of Construction Vietnam (2009) QCVN 02:2009/BXD Vietnam Building Code Natural Physical & Climatic Data for Construction, https://vanbanphapluat.co/qcvn-02-2009-bxd-so-lieu-dieu- kien-tu-nhien-dung-trong-xay-dung, accessed on 9 September 2019, (in Vietnamese) 84. Ministry of Construction Vietnam (2014) Law No. 65/2014 / QH13, Housing Law, https://vanbanphapluat.co/law-no-65-2014-qh13-on-housing 85. Ministry of Construction Vietnam (2015) QCVN 04-1:2015/BXD, National technical regulation on residential and public buildings - Part 1: Residential buildings, http://www.cauduongcang.com/, accessed on 9 September 2019, (in Vietnamese) 86. Ministry of Transport Vietnam (2014) TCCS 05: 2014/CHHVN: Marina Berthing Facilities – Specifications for design, https://vanbanphapluat.co/data//2014/12/122942_1247-qd-chhvn.pdf, assessed on 5 July, 2019, (in Vietnamese) 87. Miller,E .Willard. (1977) Manufacturing: A Study of Industrial Location. University Park, PA :The Pennsylvania State University Press 88. Moon, Changho (2014) Applications of Sustainable Factors in Floating Architecture. World Sustainable Building 2014 Barcelona Conference - Conference Proceedings - Volume 4 89. Moon, Changho (2014) Three dimensions of sustainability and floating architecture. In: International Journal of Sustainable Building Technology and Urban Development n. 2, 5, pp. 123–127. 90. Moon, Changho (2014) Renewable Energy Application in Floating Architecture. In: 30th International Plea Conference http://www.plea2014.in/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/Poster_PF_2623_PR.pdf, accessed on 20 February 2018 91. Moon, Changho (2015) A study on the Floating House for New Resilient Living, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/285635430 92. Moon, Changho (2017): Architectural Characteristics of Floating Building. In: UIA 2017 Seoul World Architects Congress, http://www.uia2017seoul.org/P/papers/Full_paper/Paper/Oral/PS3-41/O-0627.pdf, accessed on 10 March 2018

304

93. Nhu Van Can, Pham Anh Tuan (2012) Marine fish farming in Vietnam, Global Aquaculture Alliance, https://www.aquaculturealliance.org/advocate/marine-fish-farming-in-vietnam/ accessed on 15 December 2018 94. Ngo Van Le (2014) Floating Market in the Mekong Delta - a Cultural Characteristic of Vietnamese people in the South, the University of Social Sciences and Humanities – Vietnam National University Ho Chi Minh City, Science & Technology Development, Vol 17, No.X3 95. Nguyen Cong Binh, Le Xuan Diem, Mac Duong (1990) Culture and Residents of the Mekong Delta, Social Sciences Publishing House, Hanoi, (in Vietnamese) 96. Nguyen Duy Thieu (2002) Fishing communities in Vietnam. Social Science Publishing House. Hanoi, (in Vietnamese) 97. Nguyen, D. T. (2009) The role of floating fishing villages in the social life of fishers in the South Central Region. In K. Ruddle & P. L. Tuong (Eds.), The van chai of Vietnam: Managing nearshore fisheries and fishing communities. Hong Kong: International Resources Management Institute, pp. 36–46. 98. Nguyen, D. T, Kenneth Ruddle (2010) The van chai System of Social Organization and Fisheries Community Management, in Kenneth Ruddle, Arif Satria, Managing Coastal and Inland Waters. Vietnam: Springer, ch.6, pp. 129 – 160. 99. Nguyen Hanh Nguyen et.al (2019) Handbook of Safe House, reported by Flood Proof House organization, (in Vietnamese) 100. Nguyen Khoi (2017) River Valley Civilizations and Saigon Urban Rivers https://ktds.vn/n52-sai-gon- xuoi-nguoc/n2834-van-minh-song-nuoc-va-do-thi-song-nuoc-sai-gon.html accessed 25 March, 2018, (in Vietnamese) 101. Nguyen Minh Duc (2011) Value chains analysis Vietnam, Nong Lam University, Vietnam, http://www.fao.org/valuechaininsmallscalefisheries/participatingcountries/vietnam/en/ 102. Nguyen Ngoc (2017) When have floating fish farms appeared initially, The Vietnam Journal of Education, https://giaoducthoidai.vn/nghe-nuoi-ca-be-o-dbscl-co-tu-bao-gio-3723159.html, accessed 20 March 2020, (in Vietnamese) 103. Nguyen Tri Nguyen (2011) Mekong River Civilization- a New Structure of River Civilization, http://vanhoahoc.edu.vn/nghien-cuu/van-hoa-viet-nam/vhvn-nhung-van-de-chung/1906-nguyen-tri- nguyen-van-minh-song-cuu-long-mot-cau-truc-moi-cua-van-minh-song-nuoc.html, accessed on 1 January 2019, (in Vietnamese) 104. Nguyen To Lang (2012) Development of Green Architecture Adapting to Climate, Economic, Social and Cultural Conditions in Vietnam, Conference Green House in Vietnam- The combination of tradition and modernity, Goethe Institute Hanoi, (in Vietnamese) 105. Nikhila Nelson (2019) Envisaging The Scope of Floating Architecture in Below Sea Level Regions of Kuttanad, Bachelor Dissertation, University of Kerala 106. NLEWORKS (2012) Heinrich Boll Stiftung, Makoko research, http://www.nleworks.com/publication/makoko-research-heinrich-boll-stiftung/, accessed on 20 February 2019 107. NLEWORKS (2016) Makoko Floating School Collapse &Regeneration Plans http://www.nleworks.com/case/makoko-floating-school/, accessed on 20 February 2019 108. Office of the Deputy Prime Minister (ODPM) (2003) Sustainable communities. Building for the future. London: Department for Communities and Local Government 109. Phan Phuong (2019) Quang Binh Emagazine, Quang Binh Provincial Party Committee https://www.baoquangbinh.vn/kinh-te/201909/xa-tan-hoa-nguy-co-tre-hen-nong-thon-moi-2170400/, accessed on 20 January 2020, (in Vietnamese) 110. Phan Thanh Tinh (2011) Research of floods in Quang Binh province and solution to prevent, Journal of Quang Binh Science and Technology, No.5, Quang Binh Department of Science and Technology, https://skhcn.quangbinh.gov.vn/3cms/tap-chi-so-5---2011.htm, accessed on 10 May 2017, (in Vietnamese) 111. Pierdolla, Marc (2008) Floating Homes. Eine schwimmende Wohnform als neues städtebauliches Element in Deutschland (German), VDM Verlag Dr. Müller, ISBN-10: 9783639018851 112. P. Jamnický (2006) The strategic management of a city development, Slovak Journal of Civil Engineering, 2006/1 pages 30 – 3 113. Province of New Brunswick (2008) Sustainable communities in a self-sufficient province: A case study for the greater Saint John region, Saint John: City of Saint John 114. Queensland department of housing and public work (2006) Queensland Development Code: Floating Building,https://www.business.qld.gov.au/industries/building-property-development/building- construction/laws-codes-standards/queensland-development-code, accessed on 10 October 2019

305

115. Quang Ninh Provincial People’s Committee (2014) Final report: Environment Planning in HaLong Bay to 2020 vision to 2030, (in Vietnamese) https://www.quangninh.gov.vn/So/sotainguyenmt/Lists/TinTuc/Attachments/1346/Environmental%20p laning%20of%20Halong%20bay.pdf, assessed on 8 July, 2017 116. Quang Ninh Provincial People’s Committee (2012) Decision 2178/QD-UBND approving the floating house demolition plan in HaLong Bay, (in Vietnamese) 117. Quang Ninh Provincial People’s Committee (2015) Decision 1139/QD-UBND approving the Master Plan for Conservation and Promotion of Ha Long Bay up to 2020, (in Vietnamese) 118. Redclift, Michael (2005) Sustainable development (1987‐2005): an oxymoron comes of age, In: Sustainable development n. 4, 13, pp. 212–227. 119. Riise, Jan; Adeyemi, Kunlé (2015) Case study: Makoko floating school. In: Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability, 13, pp. 58–60. DOI: 10.1016/j.cosust.2015.02.002. 120. R O Khastini et al ( 2019) IOP Conf. Ser.: Earth Environ. Sci. 383 012040 121. Roy Ballantyne and Karen Hughes (2001) Interpretation in Ecotourism Settings: Investigating tour guides’ perceptions of their role, responsibilities and training needs. The journal of tourism studies Vol.12, No. 2, Dec.’01 122. Royal Town Planning Institute (2007) Shaping and Delivering Tomorrow’s Places: Effective Practice in Spatial Planning. Report, findings and recommendations. Royal Town Planning Institute. 123. Rutger der Graaf (2009) Chapter 6: Case study Netherlands: Using the surface water for urbanisation, Cum Laude Phd study on innovations in urban water management to reduce the vulnerability of cities, http://www.ecoboot.nl/ecoboot_new/?p=351, accessed on 12 September 2019 124. Sassi, Paola (2006) Strategies for sustainable architecture. Abingdon: Taylor & Francis. 125. Sherine Mohy El Dine Wahba (2010) Friendly and Beautiful: Environmental Aesthetics in Twenty-First- Century Architecture, Nexus Network Journal, Springer – Vol.12, No. 3, pag. 461 126. Shireen Gonzaga (2013), Lineage of Andes’ Uros people traced back 3,700 years, Human world, http://earthsky.org/human-world/lineage-of-andes-uros-people-traced-back-3700-years, accessed on 2 March 2018 127. Shi, Xing (2010) Performance-based and performance-driven architectural design and optimization, In: Frontiers of Architecture and Civil Engineering in China n. 4, 4, pp. 512–518. DOI: 10.1007/s11709- 010-0090-6. 128. Silke Steinbronn (2009) A Case Study: Fish Production in the Integrated Farming System of the Black Thai in Yen Chau District (Son La Province) in Mountainous North-Western Vietnam-Current State and Potential, Phd Desertation, Faculty Agricultural Sciences at University of Hohenheim 129. Teclaff , Ludwik A., EileenTeclaff (1973) A History of Water Development and Environmental Quality, In Environmental Quality and Water Development. Eds. Charles R .Goldman, James McEvoy III , and Peter J. Richerson. SanFrancisco: W .H .Freeman and Co. ,1973, pp.26-77. 130. Teune, B. (2007) The biogas programme in Vietnam; amazing results in poverty reduction and economic development. SNV Vietnam, Biogas Programme Division, Hanoi 131. The Seasteading Institute (2014) Floating City Project Report, https://www.seasteading.org/floating- city-project/ accessed on 8 March 2018 132. The Department of Livestock Production under the Vietnam’s Ministry of Agricultural and Rural Development (MARD), Vietnam Biogas Programme, , https://snv.org/project/vietnam-biogas- programme, accessed on 10 April 2020 133. The Socialist Republic of Vietnam and the Kingdom of the Netherlands (2013) Mekong Delta Plan Long- term vision and strategy for a safe, prosperous and sustainable delta, https://www.deltares.nl/app/uploads/2014/01/Mekong-delta-plan-Long-term-vision-and-strategy.pdf, assessed on 10 July, 2017 134. Thoburn, John (2009) Vietnam as a role model for development, WIDER Research Paper, No. 2009/30, ISBN 978-92-9230-201-6, The United Nations University World Institute for Development Economics Research (UNU-WIDER), Helsinki 135. Thuy T. Nguyen and Miguel Coulier, ,Oanh Luong Nhu, Ian Wilderspin (2012) Report: A preliminary analysis of disaster and poverty data in Quang Binh province, Viet Nam, Under a project of the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development and the United Nations Development Programme, Viet Nam: ‘Strengthening Institutional Capacity for Disaster Risk Management in Viet Nam, including Climate Change Related Disasters”, https://www.preventionweb.net/files/26597_26597apreliminaryanalysisofdisaster.pdf, accessed on 10 December 2019 136. Trang, N. T. T. (2016) Architectural Approaches to a Sustainable Community with Floating Housing Units Adapting to Climate Change and Sea Level Rise in Vietnam. World Academy of Science, 306

Engineering and Technology, International Journal of Civil, Environmental, Structural, Construction and Architectural Engineering, 10(2), 168-179. 137. Trang N.T.T., Vukorep I., Stopp H. (2019) Floating Village Cua Van: Promoting Climate-Adaptive Ecotourism with Principles of Living Spaces. In: Stankov U., Boemi SN., Attia S., Kostopoulou S., Mohareb N. (eds) Cultural Sustainable Tourism. Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation (IEREK Interdisciplinary Series for Sustainable Development). Springer, Cham, 13-28. ISBN978-3-030- 10803-8 138. Unesco (1987) The role of water in socio-economic development, publishedi by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, place de Fontenoy,75700 Paris, ISBN 92-3-102534-1 139. Unesco Vietnam (2014) State of conversation report by the State Party, Ha Long Bay, 38th session of the World Heritage Committee, WHC.14/38.COM/, https://whc.unesco.org/en/documents/127604, accessed on 10 August 2018 140. United Nations Vietnam (2018) A report : Viet Nam: Flooding Response Plan, https://vietnam.un.org/en/14820-viet-nam-flooding-response-plan-dec-2017-nov-2018, accessed on 15 November 2019 141. United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (2014) Small-scale aquaponic food production. Integrated fish and plant farming, Fisheries and Aquaculture Technical Paper No. 589 http://www.fao.org/3/a-i4021e.pdf 142. Van Tho N. (2020) Coastal erosion, river bank erosion and landslides in the Mekong Delta: Causes, effects and solutions. In: Duc Long P., Dung N. (eds) Geotechnics for Sustainable Infrastructure Development. Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering, vol 62. Springer, Singapore 143. Van Nu Quynh Tram (2020) River culture of the Mekong Delta, http://vanhien.vn/news/van-hoa-song- nuoc-cua-cu-dan-dong-bang-song-cuu-long-75162, accessed on 10 March 2020 144. VIETNAMNET Bridge (2014) Residents in central region make floating houses for flood season, https://english.vietnamnet.vn/fms/vietnam-in-photos/108997/photos--residents-in-central-region-make- floating-houses-for-flood-season.html 145. Vietnam Government (2014) Law No. 50/2014/QH13, Construction Law, http://www.xaydung.gov.vn, accessed on 9 August, 2019 146. Vietnam Institute of Meteorology, Hydrology and Environment (2010) Report: Impacts of Climate Change on Water Resources and Adapting Solutions in Mekong Delta, in Vietnamese, https://xemtailieu.com/tai-lieu/tac-dong-cua-bien-doi-khi-hau-len-tai-nguyen-nuoc-va-cac-bien-phap- thich-ung-dong-bang-song-cuu-long-1624853.html, accessed on 4 January 2019 147. Vu, Thi Thu Ha (2017) Application of Mota Framework for Assessment of Sustainability of Amphibious House in An Giang Province, Mekong Delta, ICAADE 2017, Waterloo, Canada 148. Vu,T. H. Hanh, Viet Duong (2019) Morphology of water-based housing in Mekong delta, Vietnam, In: Floating Settlements in Mekong Delta, Proceedings of an international Competition and a Symposium Series 2019 ISBN 978-3-00-059920-0 149. Washington State Legislature (2019) Aquatic land management WAC 332-30-106 Definitions, https://apps.leg.wa.gov/WAC/default.aspx?cite=332-30-106&pdf=true, accessed on 12 December 2019 150. Whyte, W.F. (1989) Advancing Scientific Knowledge Participatory trough Action Research. Sociological Forum 4 (3), 367-385 151. World Bank (2016) Rapid Flood Damage and Needs Assessment, Vietnam http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/935391503548807702/pdf/119060-WP-PUBLIC-Rapid- Flood-Damage.pdf, accessed on 15 February 2020 152. World Bank Group, ESMAP and SERIS (2019) Where Sun Meets Water: Floating Solar Market Report. Washington, DC: World Bank 153. Wordpress (2010) Floating city https://dprbcn.wordpress.com/2010/05/10/floating-cities-reloaded/, accessed on 10 March 2018 154. Yin, Robert K. (1993) Applications of case study research. Newbury Park, Calif.: Sage Publication 155. Yin, Robert K. (2009) Case study research: design and methods. 4. ed. London: Sage Publication 156. Young-Jun You, Youn-Ju Jeong, Min-Su Park, Du-Ho Lee (2014) Study on Connecting Method of Box Pontoons, World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology International Journal of Civil and Environmental Engineering Vol:8, No:6 157. Zehui J, Xuhe C, Yan Y (2009) Prefabricated bamboo panel house for disaster relief. Annual 2009 (IAWS) plenary meeting and conference, International Academy of Wood Science, Saint Peterburg- Moscow

307