n » r W / i l l ol i f i P " A Kc.«t 4 K h i j i i : l i b i ■ L H A lUtfte'® WORLD CONSERVATION MONITORING CENTRE
Natural Habitats, Wild Species and Conservation Areas ETHIOPIA ^ 3 7 - ^ 2 .
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BIODIVERSITY GUIDE TO ETHIOP
A report financed by the Commission of the European Communities
WORLD CONSERVATION MONITORING CENTRE
Prepared by the World Conservation Monitoring Centre Cambridge, UK
Contribution to CKMS
1991 CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION Physical Geography and Climate ...... 1 Population...... 2 Administrative Regions ...... 2 Economy ...... 3
BIODIVERSITY Flora ...... 4 Fauna ...... 4
V E G E T A T IO N ...... 8
P R O T E C T E D A R E A S ...... 12
O T H E R IM P O R T A N T A R E A S ...... 18
THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY Deforestation ...... 20 Soil Erosion ...... 22 Human Encroachment into Protcctcd Areas ...... 22
C O N S E R V A T IO N A C T IV IT IE S ...... 23
L E G IS L A T IO N ...... 23
R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S ...... 24
R E F E R E N C E S ...... 25
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES
F igure I: Relief ...... 1 F ig u re 2: Administrative regions ...... 2 F igure 2 a: New administrative regions...... 3 F ig u re 3t Local ccntres of planl endemism ...... 5 F ig u re 4: Vegetation and land use ...... 10 F ig u re 5: Protected areas and other areas of importance...... 16
T ab le I: Endemic specics ...... 6 T ab le 2: List of legally protected areas ...... 12 T a b le 3c List of priority high forests ...... 20 T ab le 4: Land use ...... 23 INTRODUCTION
Physical Geography and Climate
Ethiopia covcrs an area of 1,221.900 sq. km between latitudes 3 °40‘and 18°N and longitudes 33° and 48°E. It is separated from Saudi Arabia and Yemen to the north by the Red Sea, whilst Djibouti, Somalia, Kenya, and Sudan form its other borders. Figure 1 shows the general relief of the country. Elevations range from around 100 m below sea level in the Dallol Depression to a number of mountain peaks over 4,000 m, of which the highest is Ras Dashcn (4,620 m) in the Simcn mountain massif north-east of Lake Tana. Highlands above 1,500 m cover 43 per cent of the total area of the country and account for 90% of the agriculturally suitable land. The Rift Valley runs from the south-west com er of the country towards the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden in the north-cast. On cither side of the Valley lie heavily dissected highland plateaux of average altitude between 2,100 and 2,500 m, the highest parts being next to the Valley in the west, from which the land gradually drops away to the north-west and south-east. The Rift Valley itself ranges from 40 km to 60 km in width and its floor contains a number of lakes (Zwai, Langano, Abijatta, Shala. Awasa, Abaya, and Chamo). Near Addis Ababa, the western wall of the Rift Valley turns north and the eastern wall turns cast, leaving a wide open plain between the escarpments and the coast.
Although the entire country lies within the tropics, the wide range of altitude results in considerable variations in climate. The climatc of the hot lowlands is dry and scmi-arid in the coastal plains and tropical/semi-arid in the deep valleys, with average annual temperatures varying from 20°C to 29°C. The plateaux have a temperate climatc where the altitude produces an average annual temperature of 16°C to 20°C, whilst the high mountains arc characterised by a cold, alpine climatc with average annual temperatures between 10°C and 16°C. Relative humidity is very low on the eastern and western plains, but increases on the plateaux from 20% in the north to 80% in the south. Rainfall increases concurrently from 200 mm/ycar in the north and on the eastern plains, to over 2000 mm in the south-west (FAO/UNEP, 1981). The main rainy season lasts from June to August, with light rains from February to April but the country is very vulnerable to drought.
Figure 1: Relief (Gamachu, 1988) Population
In 1985 Ihc human population was estimated to be 51,700,000 (PRB, 1990), this figure gives Ethiopia the second highest population in tropical Africa after Nigeria. About 70 ethnic groups are represented and the population is overwhelmingly rural, with only 11 % being situated in the urban areas (FAO, 1988). Between 1980 and 1985 the average population growth rate was 2.5% per year and the population is expected to rise to around 70,800,000 by the year 2000 (PRB, 1990).
The distribution of population reflects the pattern of relief, with nearly all the major settlements being located in the highlands. Last (1984) estimates that 10% of the population live at altitudes below 1,000 m, 20% between 1,000 m and 1,8C0 in, and 70% above 1,800 m on the highland plateaux, it is in this last area that the climatc is more equitable and the best agricultural land is to be found. About 28% of the population live in the northern regions (Eritrea. Tigray, Gonder, and Welo) almost 23% in Shewa and Addis Ababa, 22% in the western regions (Gojam, Welega, Ilubabor, and Kcfa), 18% in th< southern regions (Arsi, Bale, Sidamo, and Gamo Gofa), and 10% in Hararghe. The presence of the malarial mosquito, bclov 2,000 m, has led in the past to the non-occupation of some otherwise suitable lowlands, however with the eradication of malaria in some areas and increasing population pressure, some movement is taking placc towards lower elevations. Sincc 1975 the Government has followed a policy of resettling citi/.cns from degraded areas in the north and north *cast to little usc
Administrative Regions
Ethiopia is divided into 14 administrative regions (Figure 2): Arsi, Bale, Eritrea, Gamo Gofa, Gojam, Gonder, Hararghe, Ilubabor, Kcfa, Shewa, Sidamo, Tigray, Welo, and Welega. These arc in turn subdivided into 102 sub-regions (Awrajas) am 586 districts (Worcdas). Within the latter, fanners are organised into Peasant Associations which typically include 200-400 families with access to at least 8 sq. kjn of land (FAO. 1988). In late 1987 the National Shcngo (the supreme organ of pow c of the Republic) approved a reorganisation of regions, resulting in 30 administrative regions, this new structure is being implemented and is shown in Figure 2a.
Figure 2: Administrative regions (Gamachu, 1988) Economy
The Ethiopian cconomy is predominantly agricultural (89% of the population lives in rural areas) and small-scale subsistence farming provides 85% of both employment and of export earnings (FAO. 1988). The main food crops are cereals, pulses, and oilseeds, with coffee, oilseeds, cotton, sisal, tobacco, fruits, pepper, and sugarcane being the main cash crops. In 1987 Ethiopia's major agricultural exports, by volume in thousands of metric tons, were coffec (73), sesame seed (7) and sugar (11) (World Bank. 1989). The most important export crop is coffee, with livestock being tile next biggest export resource. Ethiopia has perhaps the largest livestock population in Africa with estimates of 27 million cattle, 24 million sheep, 18 million goals, 7 million donkeys, and 1 million camels, although these figures date from the early 1970’s and therefore pre-date the 1972-74 and 1979-80 droughts and the 1984-85 famine. Between 70 and 80% of all livestock arc in the highlands.
Figure 2a: New administrative regions
- 3 • BIODIVERSITY
Flora
The flora of Ethiopia is still rather poorly known (Hepper, 1979) and a major new project to prepare a Flora of Ethiopia was launched in 1980 (Hedbcrg, 1986). The vegetation of the country is very heterogenous and has a rich endemic element. Estimates put the size o f Ethiopia's flora at about 5,765 species (IUCN. 1986) with Brenan (1978) estimating endemism to be of the order of 20.9% i.e. approximately 1,100 spccics. The staff of the Flora of Ethiopia project regard 20.9% as being too high and conicrd that a more realistic percentage endemism could be somewhere between the latter figure and 10% (I. Friis, pers. comm.).
Endemism is particularly high in the sub-desert Ogaden in the south-east, and in the forests of the south-west, with a few high mountain endemics and a few in the deep river gorges of the Plateau. Perhaps one in four Ethiopian species is found only in ti e arid-species rich south-east of the country, which is characterised by its diversity of Acacia and Commiphora species. The latter arc particularly important since about half of the 150 to 200 species of the genus are cndcmic to the small area of soulh-cait Ethiopia, north-east Kenya, and Somalia (Vollcscn, 1986). The Simcn mountains have been identified as an area of plant endemism of continental importance and provide probably one of the best examples of high altitude vegetation in Ethiopia. Thor flora is diverse and, Afromontanc representatives apart, shows affinities to South African, European, and Himalayan floras. The level of endemism of these mountains is high but unqualified; that they are the locality from which some 50 new species wen: first described reflects their richness. The Sanetti Plateau in the Bale Mountains are also of continental importance (I. Friis, per? comm.). The areas of Aningeria broadleaved evergreen rain forest in south-western Ethiopia are also a vegetation type wilh high level of endemism, having affinities to the Congolian forests of western Africa. Numbers of strict Ethiopian endemics arc. misleadingly low since, as already mentioned for Commiphora, many species, although having very restricted distributions, ar • also present in the immediately adjacent areas of Kenya and Somalia (Gilbert, 1986).
Friis (1983; 1986) identifies the following four local centres of endemism in the mountains of Ethiopia (see Figure 3):
1. a south-western centre characterised by cndcmics of montane rain forest and humid evergreen bushland such a Aframomum korarima and Cirsium deruler,
2. a central plateau centre containing most of the deciduous woodland and montane grassland endemics;
3. an eastern escarpment and south eastern slope centre, typified by spccics such as Spiniluma oxyacanlha which occur ii upland dry evergreen forest or evergreen bushland, and
4. altimontanc centres, in which the endemics occur in ericaccous bushland or in afro-alpine vegetation types, on the high mountains. Endemic spccics include Jasmimiun slans and Rosularia serniensis.
Fauna
Ethiopia is very rich in wildlife, with this great variety reflecting the diversity in climatc, vegetation, and terrain. The highland regions, although having fewer specics than many lowland parts of tropical Africa, have a large number of cndcmics, particularly birds, mammals, and amphibians. Eastern low-lying parts of the country have many Somali-Masai species, notably antelopes am reptiles, which otherwise occur only in Somalia and to a lesser extent in Djibouti and northern Kenya. The west and south-wes of the country shares its fauna largely with southern Sudan, and is rich in species.
Some 242 terrestrial mammal species are found in the country (IUCN. 1984) of which 23 arc believed to be cndcmic (IUCN 1989). Of these, 20 arc highland forms, seven of which have been recorded from both sides of the Rifl Valley, eight only frort the east (Bale mountains), and the remaining five from the west. These figures indicate the importance of the eastern plateau and mountain region for the endemic mammal fauna. Fifteen cndcmics occur there, eight of these exclusively so, despite the rcgior being far smaller than the western highlands. The fertile agricultural areas of the highlands arc densely settled, so larger wildlife species are confincd to montane extremes of the Simcn and Bale mountains, the arid lowlands, and the Rift Valley (WCO, 1985) Some 847 bird spccics have been recorded from Ethiopia of which 26 are cndcmic. Thus Ethiopia has a larger number of endcmu bird spccics than any other country in mainland Africa; being approached only by Tanzania and Zaire, each with 15. As with other groups the cndcmic avifauna is dominated by highland forms, with at least 19 of the species being normally found abovt 1,000 m. Most of these arc found in the highlands on both sides of the Rift Valley, in contrast to the marked importance of the south-eastern highlands for cndcmic mammals and, to a lesser extent, for amphibians. Although very little has been published on the amphibians or reptiles of the country, six reptile spccics and 34 amphibian specics arc believed to be cndcmic. Table 1 lists the cndcmic spccics for these various classes. Figure 3: I^ocal centres of plant endemism (Friis, 1986)
A: South-western centre of endemism B: Central plateau centre of endemism C: Eastern escarpment and south-eastern slope centre D: High mountains centre of endemism Table 1: Endemic spccka (1UCN 1984; 1989)
1. Mammals Crocidura baileyi Musk shrew Crocidura thalia Musk shrew Crocidura phaeura Musk shrew Crocidura lucina Musk shrew Crocidura glassi Musk shrew Aseltia patrizii Ethiopian leaf-nosed bat Myotis morrisi Morris's Bat Myotis scotn Scott’s mousc-earcd bat Kerivoula erbphora Ethiopian woolly bat TberopUhtcus gelada Gctada baboon GerbiUus pulvinatus GerfaU Dendromus iovaii African climbing mouse Megadendromus nikolausi Climbing mouse Tachyorycleti macrocephalus Giant mole rat Lophuromys melanonyx Brush-furred mouse Muricutus imberbis Slripcd-backed mouse Pelotttys harringtoni GroovMoothcd creek rat Pelomys rex Groove-toothed creek rat Stenocephaiemys aibocaudata Ethiopian narrow-headed rat Stenocephaiemys griskauda Ethiopian narrow-headed ret Canis simensis Simen jackal Capra walie WaUa ibex Tragetaphus buxionl Mountain nyala
2. Birds Bostrychia carunculala Waltlcd ibis Cyanachen cyanoptera Blue winged goose Francolinus harwoodi Harwood’s francolin Rallus rougetii Rougct’s rail Vanetlus meianocephaius Spot-breasted plover Poicephaius jlavtfrons Yellow-fronted parrot Agapornis taranta Black-winged lovebird Tauraco ruspolii Prince Ruspoli’s turaco Lybius undatus Banded barbel Dendropleos abyssimcus Golden-backed woodpecker HeUromlrajra sidamoensis Sidamo lark Mirqfra degodiensis Dcgodi lark Hirundo megaensis White tailed swallow Macronyx Jlavicollis Abyssinian long-claw Mymtecocichla semiriffa White-winged oliff-chat Mynnecocichla melaena Ruppel’s chat Paropftastna galinitri Abyssinian catbird Parus teuconolus White-backed black tit Serinus ankoberensis Ankober serin Serinus jlaviguia Yellow-throated serin Serinus nigriceps Black-headcd serin Serinus xanthoiaema Serin Table 1: (continued):
Onycliognathus aibirosiris White-billed starling Oriolus monacha Black-headed forest oriole Zavattariornis stresemanni Ethiopian bush-crow Corviis crassiroslris Thick-billed raven
3. Amphibians Biffo asmarae
- 6 - Bufo bisidanae Btffo bianctfordi Biffo chappuisi Bi(fo langanoensis Bi(fo sibillal Nectophrynoidts malcobni Nectophynoides osgoodi Hemisits microscaphus Hyperotius deste/anii Hyperotius zavaltaril Kassina parker I Afrixalus clarkei 4ftlxalus enseticola Tornierella kounhiensis Tornierella obscura Leptopelis gramtneus Leptopelis raga&il Leptopelis susanae Leptopells vannuteiiii Leptopelis yaldeni Leptopelis clivii Xenopiis clivii Phrynobalrachus sciangaUarum Phrynobatrachus tellinii Phrynobalrachus zavaltaril Conraua beccaril Ptychadena cooperi Ptychadena erlangeri Ptychadena nana Ptychadena neumanni Rana cornii Rana demarchii Geotrypetes grandlsonae
4. Reptiles Hemidactylus laticaudatus Panaspis tancredii Leptotyphbps vartabilis Lamprophls erlangeri Pseudoboodon Icmniscatus Bit is parviocula
Nine vertebrate spccics endemic to Ethiopia arc considered by IUCN to be threatened;
Endangered • Canis slmensis: Simcn jackal. Fewer than 1,000 individuals arc left. Two races are recognised: C. s. slmensis which is found in the Simcn mountains and Menz, and C. s. citernii which is found in the Bale mountains. C. s. slmensis is closcto extinction with its main population, in the Simcn mountains, having been reduced to about 40 by habitat loss and shooting. C, s. citernii numbers between 350 and 475 and its population is possibly increasing in size, especially in the Bale Mountains.
• Capra walie: Walia ibex. Confined to the Simcn mountains, especially the northern escarpment. Number about 300, of whioh 240 are in the Simcn mountain National Park. The specics is now restricted to the most impregnable parts of its former range with the main threat to its survival being habitat destruction caused by agriculturalists.
R are • Tauraco ritspoliU Princc Ruapoli’s lumco, Overall abundance of this forest-dwelling bird is still uncertain. It is restricted to a few scattered localities in the south of the country, in the drainage system of the upper Dawa valley from Arero to Kibrc Mcngist, as well as the adjacent radially drained section of the Ganale Dorya Valley. The main threat is habitat alteration, however the spccics is apparently relict and possibly suffers from competition with Tauraco leucotis - the white checked luraco.
- 7 - ® Hirundo megaensis: White-tailed swallow. This open country species is restricted to its small range (approximately 10,000 sq. km) around Mega and Yabcllo in southern Ethiopia. It is common in this small area hut no part of this range is protected and any development in the area could place the spccics at risk.
• Serinus ankoberensis: Ankobcr serin. This cliff-frcqucnting montane finch spccics was only described in 1976. It is confined to the area near Ankobcr on the extreme eastern escarpment of the West Highlands. The population size is unknown. Bccaunc of its habitat of sheer rockfaccs it is unlikely to be directly threatened by human factors, however the apparent restriction of the spccies’ range is a cause for conccm.
« Zavattariornis stresemanni: Ethiopian bush-crow. This spccics is restricted to an area of about 6,000 sq. km around Yabclio in Sidamo Province, southern Ethiopia. In this area it is common but the fact that no part of its range is protected and the factors restricting its distribution arc unknown, means that it is considered to be at some risk. This spccics, together with the Congo peacock Afropavo congensis, may be judged to represent the two most remarkable ornithological discoveries maJo in Africa this ccntury. The spccics is an extraordinary anomaly, and has generated considerable debate about its affinities (or lack of them) to the crows, Corvidae, and starlings, Stumidac. It is also unusual in that evidence suggests that it may be a co-opcrative breeder, and its scientific interest is very high.
Indeterminate • Mirafra degodiensis: Dcgodi lark. This spccics is known from two specimens collected together near Bogol Manya in the Dcgodi region of southern Ethiopia. Further ornithological fieldwork is needed to establish the range and conservation sLitus of this spccics.
• Heterornirafra sidamoensis: Sidamo long-clawed lark. This spccics is known from two specimens collected independently nca r Ncghclli in Sidamo Province. Numbers are unknown but are likely to be small and their range is likely to be very restricted No threats are known but until more is known about this species it is considered to be threatened.
• Serinus flavigula: Yellow-throated serin. This spccics had not been seen in the wild for over 50 years until it was rccorde I again recently. It is known from three specimens collcclcd 100 years ago in Shewa Province, eastern Ethiopia (IUCN, 1984) Fieldwork is needed to determine its range, population, and any possible threats it may face.
An additional 15 vertebrate spccics are also found in other countries but are considered to be threatened in Ethiopia:
ENDANGERED Geronticus eremita Northern bald ibis Eretmochelys imbricata Hawksbill turtle Chelonia rnydas Green turtle Equus africanus African wild ass Equus grevyi Grcvy's zebra VULNERABLE Bugeranus carunculaius Wattled crane Crocodylus niloticus Nile crocodile Lycaon pictus African hunting dog Acinonyx jubatus Cheetah Loxodonta africana African elephant Dugong Dugong Diceros bicorn 'is Black rhinoceros Dorcatragus megabtis Bcira Amnuxiorcas clarkei Dibatag INDETERMINATE Sarothrura ayresi White-winged flufflail
VEGETATION
The dominant factors responsible for the distribution of the main plant communities in Ethiopia are altitude and humidity. The Kolia altitude zone (up to approximately 1,800 m) is characterised by steppe, savanna, and woodland, while dense forests occupy the Woina Dcga (from roughly 1,800 m to 2,300 m) and the lower part of the Dcga (2,300 m to 2,900 m), in which savanna and steppe formations again reappear. Montane forests and alpine formations arc found in the Wurch (2,900 m to 3.500 m) and Upper Wurch (3,500 m +) zones. The steppe, savannas, and woodlands arc distributed over the drier parts of the country, whereas forests arc conccntrated in the semi-humid and humid areas (von Brcitcnbach, 1961) (Figure 4).
White's vegetation map of Africa (White, 1983) provides the best synthesis of the available information on the potential vegetation of Ethiopia. Three phytochoria arc found in the country: the Sudanian, Somalia-Masai, and Afromontane regional centres of endemism, with nine main vegetation types identified. These are described briefly below:
1. Cultivation and secondary grassland: replacing upland and montane forest.
2. Undifferentiated montane vegetation': Afromontane rain forest occurs mostly between 1,200 m and 2,500 m. It is found on the wetter slopes of most of the higher mountain massifs from Ethiopia to Malawi. Mixed montane forest and Juniperus procera forest occur in the Ethiopian uplands.
3. Undifferentiated woodland: This type is found to the west of the Western Plateau and occupies most of the lowlands to the Sudan border. This woodland is dominated by Anogeissus leicarpus, Combretum collinum, Boswellia papyrifera, and Commiphora africana, etc., with most spccics occurring either as 3-5 m high multi-branched shrubs, or as scattered small trees up to 8 m.
4. Transition from undifferentiated woodland to Acacia bushland and wooded grassland: This vegetation unit, found only in the south-west of the country near the Sudan border, forms the transition between the edaphic grasslands of the Nile flood plain to the Anogeissus-Combretum liarlmannianum woodland flanking the Ethiopian highlands. Acacia seyal and Balanites aegyptiaca occur throughout.
5. Evergreen and semi-evergreen bushland and thicket: This occurs on the drier mountain slopes and upland areas of both plateaux at altitudes from 900-1,800 m, and often forms an ccotonc between the montane forest above and the Acacia-Commiphora bushland and thicket at lower altitudes. Characteristic spccics include Carissa edulis, Euclea schimperi, Acokanthera schimperi, Rhamnus stadda, Maytenus Senegal and Juniperus procera. Over most of its area this vegetation takes the form of a scrub woodland with only a few small trees reaching more than 6 m in height.
6. Somalia-Masai Acacia-Commiphora deciduous bushland and thicket: This occupies the eastern and southern lowlands, the Rift Valley bottom, and narrow areas at the northern escarpment of the Ethiopian Plateau. Most of this area is dense bushland up to approximately 4 m, with scattered trees up to 9 m. Thickets occur locally. The flora is dominated by spccics of Acacia, Commiphora, Grewia and Capparidaceac, although considerable variation occurs from place to placc.
7. Sahel Acacia wooded grassland and deciduous bushland: This vegetation type is only present in a small area in the north-west around the town of Agordat. The main tree spccics include Acacia torlilis. Commiphora africana and Acacia Senegal, with grasses such as Andropogon gay anus, Cenchrus biflorus and Aristida stipoides. Bushy spccics such as Dichrostachys cinerea, Acacia mellifera and Boscia senegalensis occur in rockier areas.
8. Semi-desert grassland and shrubland: This occurs along the northern coast, extending south into the plain between the escarpments of the plateau where rainfall is less than 200 mm per year. The semi-desert grassland is dominated by Eragrostis hararensis, Panicum turgidum, or Asthernalherum glaucum, with shmbland composed mainly of Indigo/era, Euphorbia, Ipomoea, Acacia and Commiphora shrub spccics.
9. Altiinontane vegetation: These vegetation types occur in the plateau areas where the altitude is greater than 1,800 m. Cultivation and secondary grassland have replaced upland and montane forest in many areas, but in those placcs where the natural vegetation still remains a wide variety of growth forms are exhibited and most stands arc floristically mixed.
'The upland and montane forests, because of their great conservation importance, arc described in more detail below (following Friis, 1986).
- 9 - Figure 4: Vegetation and land use (adapted from Ethiopian Mapping Authority, 1988: White, 1983)
400* Agricultural land n .•Vlpinc vegetation n Montane forest m Mosaic of cultivated land and na';!.-*! vegetation M Woodland m Bush land and thicket n Bushland and wooded grassland Semi-desert and exposed rock or sand - 10 - A. Montane Dry Evergreen Forests 1. Dry Forests of Eritrea and the Eastern Escarpment These arc found on freely draining rocky ground from 1,600-2.400 m in areas where annual rainfall is between 400 and 700 mm. Information about these forests is scanty but those in Eritrea are dominated by Juniperus procera with associated tree spccics including Acokamhera schimperi, Apodytes dimidiaia. Halleria lucida. Ilex mitis, Millettia ferrugmea, Mimusops launfolia and Rhus rennorrhoea. On the eastern escarpmcnt of the plateau conditions have led to the development of a drier type of forest than is found on the plateau itself. Barbeya oleoides. Tarchonanihus camphoratus and Berberis holstii arc characteristic species o f this type. 2. Dry Forest of the Plateau This occurs at altitudes from 1,600-3,300 m on the plateau top, where rainfall is between 500 and 1500 mm. Only scattered remnants of this vegetation type remain and those in the north in particular arc still quite poorly known. Typical co-dominant specics in the upper storey include Juniperus procera and Olea europaea ssp. africana, with associated tree specics in the northern plateau area including Cordia abyssinica, Dombeya schimperiana. Ehrelia cymosa var. sylvatica, and Ficus sycomorus. South of Lake Tana the natural forest of the plateau is probably mixed Podocarpus gracilior-Juniperus procera forest, with a rich lower storey that includes spccics such as Aliophylus abyssinicus, Apodytes dimidiaia and Teclea nobilis. 3. Dry Forest of Sidamo, Bale and Harerge These occur on the plateau of Sidamo. Bale and Harcrgc, at altitudes from 1,500-2,700 m. with annual rainfall between 700 and 1100 mm. They arc poorly documented but, in Harcrgc at least, the composition is very similar to that of the plateau forests to which it appears to form a transition. The canopy consists of almost pure Juniperus procera, with some Podocarpus gracilior. Shrubs include Carissa edulis, Calpurnia aurea, CUrodendrum myncoides and Spiniluma oxyacaniha. Mixed Podocarpus forests occur in north-east Harcrgc, with the canopy spccics being Podocarpus gracilior, Juniperus procera and Olea hochstetteri and common sub-canopy trees being Dombeya lorrida, Erythrina brucei and Prunus africanus. Both the shrub and herb layer are rich, and similar forests are found on the north side of the Bale mountains and in Arsi. B. Montane Rain Forest 1. Humid Mixed Forest This occurs around the southern part of the Rift Valley and in Harcrgc between 1,500-2,500 m. These forests arc characterised by a mixture of Podocarpus and broadleavcd spccics in the canopy, which is usually from 10-30 m tall and includes spccics such as Croton macrostachyus, Ilex mitis, Olea hochstetteni and Schefflera abyssinica. As altitude increases so the species composition changcs to includc large specimens of Hagenia abyssinica. Hypericum revolutum and Schefflera volkensii. All of the upland rain forest types have rich sub-canopies of smaller trees, as well as rich shrub and herb layers. 2. Humid Broadleaved Forest This type is found widely distributed in the south-western part of the plateau in Soutfiem Welcga, llubabor and Kcfa. It occurs between 1.500 and 2,500 m with an annual rainfall over 1500 mm. Aningeria adolfi-friederici is the single emergent over the 20-30 m high canopy, which consists of Albizia gummifera. Celiis africana. Croton macrostachys. Ilex muis. Olea welwilschii, Macaranga kilimandscharica. Syzygtum guineense ssp. afromontanum. etc. There arc at least 27 spccics of smaller trees below this main canopy, and over 110 spccics in the herb layer, including Aframomum korarima. Begonia wollastonii, Impatiens eihiopica and Melastomastrum capitalum. 3. Transitional Forests of the South-west Escarpment This type is only known from scattered examples from the south-west escarpment in Wclcga, llubabor and Kcfa. They quite closely resemble the previous forest type and also contain a number of specics from the lowland forest. The transitional forests arc important bccausc several forest tree specics not found in these other two forest types occur in them, these includc Aningeria ahissima. Anthocleista schweinfurthii, Dracaena fragrans, Morus mesozygia and Trichilia dregeana. C. Lowland Evergreen Forest This lowland (semi-) evergreen forest is found in llubabor and has only rcccntlv been described. This forest type occurs in a flat, low-lying area between 450 and 600 in. Annual rainfall is low, probably in the order of 1300 to 1800 mm. This sctni-dcciduous forest type has a 15-20 in tall canopy of Baphia abyssinica (a spccics cndcmic to south-west Ethiopia and adjaccnt areas of the Sudan) mixed with less common spccics such as Celtis toka, Diospyros abyssinica, Lecaniodiscus fraxinifolius and Zanha golungensis. Emcrgcnts includc Milicia excelsa and Antiaris toxicaria whilst below the canopy is a more or less elosed stratum of small trees, and a dense shrub layer. The herb layer is not very well developed. PROTECTED AREAS Ethiopia's protccted areas (Figure 5) consist of national parks, sanctuaries. wildlife reserves, and controlled hunting areas. Of the 13 major protected areas (where some sort of conservation development has occurred). Dahlac Marine National Park exists on paper only. Gambeila National Park has ostensibly ceased to exist as a conservation area, and Yabello Sanctuary has been taxen over for a livestock project. The wildlife reserves also oniy exist on paper and so only about 22.829 sq. km of Ethiopia is acuvelv managed as waldiife conservation areas: some 1.9% of the country's land area. Of the national parks only two (Awash and Simen Mountains) have been legally gazetted. Action is progressing to gazette the other parks as well as to upgrade and revise, where necessary, management plans for the gazetted parks, and prepare new plans for the remainder. Tabic 2: List of legally constituted protected areas, including classified ’natural’, protection and conservation forests (WCMC, 1991) Map reference (see Figure 5)/Name of area Management Area Category^ sq. km ETHIOPIAN WILDLIFE CONSERVATION ORGANISATION National Parkf t Abiiatta-Shalla Lakes T 887 2 Awash T 756 3 Bale Mountains T 2.471 4 Gambeila T 5,061 5 Mago T 2.162 6 Nechisar T 514 7 Omo T 4,068 8 Simen Mountains' T 179 9 Yangudi Rassa T 4,731 Marine National Parks 10 Dahlac T 2.000 Wildlife Reserves 11 Alledeghi 12 Awash West P 1.832 13 Bale P 1.781 14 Chew Bahr P 1.766 15 Gash-Setit P 4,212 16 Gewane P 709 17 Mille-Sardo P 2,439 18 Nakfa P 8,766 19 Shire P 1,639 20 Tama P 753 21 Yob P 3.269 P 2.658 Sanctuaries nd Babilc Elephant nd Scnkelle Swavne's Hartcbecst P 6.982 24 Yabello P 54 P 2.537 ------ / continued Controlled Huntuiu Areas 25 Afdem-Gcwane P 5.932 26 Akobo P 5.049 27 Arsi P 10.876 28 Awash West P 9.136 29 Bale P 9.663 30 Borana P 45.366 31 Bovo Swamp P nd nd Chcrcher and Arba Gugu P 3,045 33 Dabus Valley P 5.127 34 Eastern Hararghe (Harar-Wabi Shcbclie) P 23.788 35 Ercr-Gota P 2,386 36 Jikao P 3,375 37 Maze P nd 38 Mizan-Tcfcri P nd 39 Murlc P 4,172 40 Omo West P 4,561 41 Segen Valley P 42 Tedo P 2,347 STATE FOREST CONSERVATION AND DEVELOPMENT DEPARTMENT National Forest Priority Areas’ nd Adaba Dodola Laio P 50 nd Akobo Gog P 1,500 nd Bclcte Gera P 390 nd Bonga P 70 nd Deme Laha P 150 nd Gebre Dima P 500 nd Gedo Ycrcr Dire P 20 nd Gerbiciia Zukuala P 3 nd Gergeda P 200 nd Godere P 400 nd Gore Belc P 98 nd Gura Ferda P 800 nd Harena Kokossa P 200 nd Jorgo Watto P 30 nd Kubavu P 50 nd Ltnche Dali Gewc P 100 nd Megada P 50 nd Mena Angetu P 200 nd Scle Anderaeha P 1,000 nd Sibo Tole Kobo P 280 nd Sigmo Geba P 677 nd Tiro Botor Bccho P 160 nd Yayu P 200 nd Ycki P 100 (Numbers correspond to map. see Figure 5) w = World Heritage site - natural 1 = Total protection (no extractive uses): P = Partial protection (local, sustainable extractive uses) • = To date, only Awash and Simen Mountains national parks have been legally gazetted. The remaining conservation areas and national forest priority areas have been declared, and arc therein managed as existing protcclcd areas. = Onlv the area of 'natural' forest within NFPAs has been stated. The total area ol each NFPA is usually greater and includes non-lorcst and plantation, nd = no data available - 13 - Gambeila National Park This park was established a* a wildlife reserve and has not been gazetted. Nevertheless, it has been under legal protection and development since 1974 and is now under development as a national park. It is located in llubabor Province in the extreme west of Ethiopia and is bordered to the north by the controlled hunting areas of Jikao and Tedo. The park itself is situated in the lowland plains flanking the Gilo and I tang Rivers which constitute the eastern extreme of the Upper Nile marshlands of neighbouring Sudan. The average altitude of the park is 515 m. The vegetation is dominated by deciduous woodland, with some areas of dense forest which are of some botanical interest (1. Friis. pers. com.) but poorly protected. The remaining areas arc open savanna grassland and marshes. Gambclla is considered lo be one of the most important wildlife areas m the country, with the park being of particular importance for the migration of large herds of white-eared kob Kobus kob leucotis. Forty-one mammal species have been recorded (Hillman. 1988) including: a remnant elephant Laxodoma africana population, buffalo Syncerus caffer, Nile lecnwe Kobus Uche, rhinoceros Diceros bicomis, bcisa oryx Oryx gazella. giraffe Giraffa Camelopardalis, lion Panthera Uo. leopard Panthera pardus. cheetah Acinonyx jubatus, spotted hyena Crocuta. genet Genetla sp., serval Felis serval, and mongoose (Viverridae). Over 154 bird specie* have been recorded. Crocodile Crocodylus miotic us arc present. Poaching is a problem w this protected area, which was "re-defined" at the time of resettlement and. essentially does not exist at present. Yangudi Ra&sa National Park This area is situated in Hararghe and Welo Regions, 350 km north-east of Addis Ababa. It is bordered by Gewane and Mille Sardo Wildlife Reserves and Afdem-Gewane Controlled Hunting Area. The area was declared in July 1976 and has been under development since 1976 but has yet to be gazetted. The park area is mainly plains, but also contains Mount Galalo Daba, Mount i Yangudi and the Awash River on the western boundary. Vegetation is open grassland, riverine forests and savanna, and the pane includes the conservation area proposed by Beals (1968) to protect a sample of the fine open grasslands and wooded grasslands in the southern part of the Afar Depression. The 36 recorded mammal spccics includc African wild ass Equus africanus. oryx, Soemmemng's gazelle Gazella soemmemngi, warthog Phacochoerus aelhiopicus. gcrenuk Litocranius walleri. Grevy's zebra Equus grevyi. greater kudu Tragelaphussirepsiceros&nd lesser kudu T. unberbis. serval. cheetah, leopard, and golden jackal Cams aureus. 136 bird spccics have been recorded, including two cndcmic species. Mago National Park This park has been under development since July 1978, but is not yet gazetted. It lies in Gamo Gofa Region, cast of Maji, at altitudes of from 500 m to 1,000 m. The park is contiguous to Tama Wtldlife Reserve in the Omo-Tama-Mago complex. The Mago valley floor (at about 600 m) is very flat, the western wall is formed by the Nyalibong Hills whilst the eastern wall of the rift rises steeply to the Baco Highlands. At the southern end of the Nyalibong Hills the land is very dissected with steep eroded slopes whereas the Plain of Death between the hills and the Omo River is generally flat. The hills forming the eastern .vail of the Mago valley have open broadleaf savanna of Combreium and Terminalia spccics with thickets along the gulleys. Other conspicuous trees arc Piliostigma ihonningii, Stereospcrmum kunihianum and Gardenia luiea. On the drier valley floor, the broadleaved savanna is replaced by thombush with scattered tall Acacia lortilis trees. Predominating bush species include Acacia mellifera. Salvadora persica. Cadaba farinosa, Maerua oblongifolia. Euphorbia grandicomis and E. scopana. Sansevieria is abundant and Adenium obesum (the desert rose) is frequent in more open areas. The area is particularly important for buffalo and oryx. Other mammals include zebra Equus burchelli. waterbuck Kobus ellipsiprymnus. greater kudu, lesser kudu, topi Damaliscus lunatus. Grant’s gazelle Gazella granti. Lclwel hartcbecst Alcelaphus buselaphus lelwel, elephant, giraffe, duiker Sylvicapra grimmia. lion, leopard, and hunting dog Lycaon ptcius. Over 150 bird spccics have been recorded, including three endemic spccics (Hillman. 1988). Crocodilcs are present. The Karo tnbe cultivate the seasonally flooded tcrraces and there are settlements on the hills of the east wall, although the presence of tsetse precludes permanent settlement. Murse cattle graze on the Plain of Death, but there are no dwellings there. Poachers operate throughout the Mago valley, coming mainly from the hills to the east. Bale Mountains National Park This park has been under development since 1969, but is not yet gazetted. It is loeated in the Bale Region, south of the Wcbe Shcbcle River, 400 km south-east of Addis Ababa at ajtiludes of from 1,500 to 4,377 m. The park contains one of the best preserved high altitude plateaux systems in Ethiopia and comprises the tableland surrounding Mount Batu (4,307 m) and Tullu Deemtu (4,377 m) with several valleys and alpine lakes. The major rivers are the Web and Danka. The park can be divided into three subsections on the basis of land forms and altitude. The northern Gaysay area is composed of broad valleys and ridges. The ccntral peaks and Sancui Plateau area comprise the mountainous section of the park, all above the treeline elevation of 3,400 m. South of the mountains lies the Harenna forest where elevation drops abruptly from the Harenna escarpment and then more gradually to the park boundary at 1,500 m. The Bale Mountains arc an important water catchment area containing the headwaters of four major rivers. The spectacular Sof Omar Caves are adjacent to the park. Hillman 11985) has classified five vegetation zones delineated by altitude. The northern grasslands of the Gaysay area lie on flat land with poor drainage. Many piaccs arc therefore dominated by swamp grasses and sedges, especially of Cyperus and Scirpus. Relatively higher parts arc covered in low bush vegetation, dominated by Artemesia afra and Helichrysurn splendiduin. Both spccics are important food plants for mountain nyala Tragelaphus buxtoni. Above the valley bottoms (3,000 m) up to the treeline at 3,400 m are found the northern woodlands. The specics that dominate here arc Juniperus procera and Hagenia abyssinica. Most Junipers arc relatively small (15-20 m tall), since the area is the upper limit to the spccics growth, and few arc found near the upper treeline. Regeneration bv Juniperus is good, but by Hagenia is poor. Extensive grass areas occur within the woodlands, especially on the steepest slopes. - 14 - These contain similar spccics to the flat areas below, with the exception of the sedges. Between 3,400 m and 3,800 m arc found the heather moorlands with Erica and Phillipia the dominant genera. Afroalpinc moorlands arc found at the high altitude regions. Steep rocky slopes and cliffs support very little vegetation growth but flat swampy areas arc dominated by the sedge Carex monoslachya. A distinctive feature of the vegetation in this zone is the giant plant Lobelia rynchopetalum which rcachcs a height of 6 m when flowering. The Harcnna Forest zone comprises almost half of the park area and contains moist forest of which little is known. Dense stands of mountain bamboo Arumiinaria alpina covcr large areas. Podocarpus gracilior and Coffea arahica arc found at the lower elevations. Sixty four mammal species have been recorded including at least 1,150 cndcmic mountain nyala Tragelaphus buxloni, at least 700 cndcmic Simen fox Canis simensis, and the cndcmic giant molcrat Tachyoryctesmacrocephalus. In all there arc 11 endemic species present in the park. Other spccics include Mcnciik's bushbuck Tragelaphus scriptus meneliki, olive baboon Papio anubis, leopard, scrval. golden jackal, Abyssinian hare Lepus capensis and rock hyrax Procavia capensis capillosa. The rich birdlifc (220 species) includes 16 of Ethiopia’s 26 cndcmics, and several pairs of the wattled cranc Bugeranus carunculalus. The rivers have been stocked with introduced rainbow trout Salmo truita (now breeding freely), and brown trout Salmo gairdneri. Some 2,500 people currently live in the park along with 10,500 livestock, plans have being drawn up to remove the majority of these, but arc not been implemented (I. Friis, pcrs. com.). High altitude mineral water sources are used by cattle and heather moorlands arc burned in dry years to improve grazing. Poaching is almost non-existent, but Simen fox arc occasionally struck by vehicles on the Sanclti Plateau road. A large modem hotel is situated in Goba, close to the park, and camping is permitted. A new road has been constructed from Goba over the Sanetti Plateau to Mena in the south. Surveys and studies of the mountain nyala and Simen fox have been carried out and a detailed inventory of park resources has been completed by Hillman (1985). A management plan has been prepared. Nechisar National Park This protected area has been under development sincc July 1973, but has yet to be gazetted. Arba Minch Forest Reserve was added in 1983. It is situated between Abbaya Lake and Chamo Lake on the border between Gamo Gofa and Sidamo provinces. The altitudinal range o f the park is from 1,500 to 2,000 m and it's 700 sq. km contain the 'white grass plains’, Lake Haro Robi, and the Kulfo, Scrmalc, and Mio Rivers. The vegetation is mainly open grassland plain with savanna woodland, however, riverine forest occurs along the lakeshorcs, and highland forest is found in the cast. The park partly protects the conservation area proposed by Beals (1968) for the protection of luxuriant Acacia nubica and Acacia mellifera scrub with fine stands of Euphorbia lirucallii. Some 38 mammal species have been recorded, including large herds of BurcheU's zebra and Grant's gazelle. Other mammals includc Swaync’s hartcbccst Alcelaphus buselaphus swaynei, buffalo, greater kudu, klipspringer Oreotragus, black and white colobus monkey Colobus guereza, and warthog. Predators includc leopard, lion, black-backed jackal Canis mesomelas, and caracal. Hippopotamus amphibius and crocodile Crocodylus sp. occur in the rivers. Some 190 bird spccics have been identified, including two cndcmic spccics. Nile perch is common in the lakes. Cultivation, nomadic grazing, removal of firewood and illegal fishing arc prevalent in some parts of the park. But about 90% of the total area had been freed from human occupation by 1983. Abijatta-Shnlla Lakes National Park This park is situated in the Rift Valley towards the northern end of the lakes, 200 km south o f Addis Ababa in the Shewa region. It has been underdevelopment sincc 1971, primarily as a bird sanctuary, but has not yet been gazetted. The park lies at altitudes of between 1,500 and 4,000 m and covcrs an area of 887 sq. km, over 50% of which comprises lake surfaces. The setting of the park between Lake Abijatta (196 sq. km) and Lake Shalla (432 sq. km) consists of plains interrupted by two hills, with six rivers flowing into the lakes, neither of which has an outlet. Lake Abijatta is shallow (14 m) and saline whereas Lake Shalla is deep (over 260 m deep) and alkaline. Lake Shalla is an important wetland site. The vegetation surrounding the lakes comprises mainly Acacia and Ficus savanna, with small areas of riverine forest and open scrub on the rocky slopes. The park includes the conservation areas proposed by Bails (1968) for Acacia torlilis woodland on old lake flats and Acacia-Euphorbia woodland on volcanic outcrops. Some 300 bird spccics have been recorded, including eastern white pelican Pelecanus onocrotalus, of which there is a breeding colony on an island in Lake Shalla, Egyptian goose Alopochen aegyptiacus, storks (Cieoniidae), including breeding colonics of Abdim's storks Ciconia abdimii, eagles (Accipitridac), flamingoes (Phocnicopteridae), egrets and herons (Ardeidae), sacred ibis Threskiornis aethiopicus, breeding colonics of white-necked cormorant Phalacrocorax lucidus, sand grouse Pterocles sp., plovers (Charadriidac), and ducks (Anatidac). The area is important for migrant birds, particularly northern hemisphere ducks and waders in Decembcr-January. Mammals includc klipspringer, Grant's gazelle, oribi Ourehia ourebi, greater kudu, and eastern black-and-white colobus guereza, but only baboon, jackal Cants sp. and hyena occur in significant numbers. A population of the cndcmic Swayne’s hartcbccst is maintained in Scnkclle Sanctuary which is under park jurisdiction. Disturbances to the park include tree cutting, cultivation, irrigation, grazing of livestock, charcoal burning, and fishing by the local population. There has been commercial lake fishing, but this no longer occurs. A soda factory operates on the lake shore. Awash National Park This park was established on 6 January 1969 by Order No. 54 in the Negarit Gazcta. It lies at the foot of the Shewa escarpment on the eastern edge of the Rift Valley overlooking the Danakil (Allcdcghi) plains, 225 km cast of Addis Ababa in Shewa Province. These plains are crossed by the Awash River, which forms part of the southern boundary. It has an altitudinal range from 850 m to 2,005 m (Mount Fantallc). Vegetation varies from open, semi-arid savanna with occasional Acacia lortilis, A. nilotica and Balanites aegyptiaca, to thombush dominated by Grewia spp., A. Senegal, and A. nubica. Riverine forest savanna occurs along - 15 - Figure 5: Protected areas and other areas of coaservation importance (WCMC, 1991) (Num ber* correspond to Uhoae in Tabk 2 ami to Lho*c Hstcd under Other Important Arcaa) the coursc of the Awash, and palm forest occurs around the hot springs. The park includes the conservation areas proposed by Beals (1968) for the protection of Pislacia chinensis woodlands, and the grasslands that arc so important for game in the area. Some 4 O hio National Park This park lies in Kcfa Province in the south-west comer of Ethiopia. It has been developed since 1966 but has not yet been gazetted. The altitudinal range of the park is from 500 to 2,000 m and its 4,068 sq. km are contiguous to Tama Wildlife Reserve (to the cast) and Omo West Controlled Hunting Area (to the west and south), which arc themselves contiguous to Mago National Park (2,162 sq. km). Chew Bahar Wildlife Reserve, and Yabello Sanctuary. There arc three open grassy plains, the Sai, Illilbai and Acicl on the west bank of the Omo River. The park is surrounded by hills, and drained by tributaries of the Omo, which forms the eastern boundary. The vegetation is generally savanna bushland but includes several vegetation types: riverine forest of Ficus sycomorus and Tamarindus iruiica along the major watercourses; bush dominated by Acacia mellifera with A. elatior ssp. lurkanae, Combretwn greenwayi and Hibiscus lunariifolius\ scrubland with Dobera glabra and Acatypha fruticosa', and grassland plains dominated by Pennisetum mezianum, Setaria incrassala, Chrysopogon plumulosus, Sorghum brevicarinatum, Andropogon sp. and Sporobolus fimbrialus. Some 29 larger mammal spccics have been recorded. There are large herds of buffalo and eland Taurotragus oryx, whilst elephant, giraffe, lion, leopard, greater kudu, lesser kudu, oryx, and topi arc just a few of the other mammal species found. The 306 recorded bird species include ostrich Slruihio camelus, fish eagle Haliaeelus vocifer, harrier hawk Potyboroides typus, and pied kingfisher Ceryle rudis. This park is particularly important for its large herds of eland, and for the conservation of elephant. An important archaeological find in the area was the discovery of a 2.5 million year old Australopithecus jaw bone. The Hamer, Gcleb, Bumc, Caro, Mursi, and Surma nomadic tribes live in the area. Simen Mountains National Park This area was gazetted on 31 October 1969 by Order No. 59 in the Ncgarit Gazcta. It was accepted as a World Heritage Site in 1978 and boundary changes were proposed in 1983 to exclude some cultivated land in Wazla Valley and to includc Bwahit Mountain summit. This area lies between 3,500 and 4,624 m in the western Simen Mountains, 120 km north-east of Gonder. The park occupics a broad undulating plateau of vast grassy plains bordering the northern edge of the Ethiopian Amlmra plateau. The area is part of the Simen Massif (which includes the highest peak in Ethiopia, Ras Deshan, which is not in the park). The plateau is bounded on the south and north-east by the deep valleys of the Tacazze River and its tributaries and is biscctcd from north to south by the Mayshasha River, for which it is the principal catchmcnt area. The floristically rich vegetation is a mixture of Afro-alpine woods, heath forest, and montane moorland with typical species including tree heath Erica arborea, giant lobelia rhynchopetalum, Solanum sp., Rosa abyssinica, yellow primrose Primula verticillata, everlastings Helichrysum spp., lady’s mantle Alchemilla, Thymus, Uriica, and mosses (Grimmiaccac). Lichen Uxnea spp. drapes the high altitude forest trees. Ridge tops and gorge sides support coarse grassland whilst forests of St. John's wort Hypericum spp. once flourished at 3,000-3,800 m. There arc high, but unqualified, levels of endemism, and the park includes the conservation area proposed by Beals (1968) to protect the north Ethiopian type of Afromontane moorland. Two large endemic mammals are found in the park; the Walia ibex and the Simen jackal (Canis simensis). The Walia ibex Capra walie, found on the north scarp of the massif, is endemic to Simen Mountain, and most of the population occurs in the park. Other mammals include gclada baboon Theropithecus gelada, scrval, leopard, caracal, wild cat F. silvestris, spotted hyena, Golden jackal, and several large herbivores including bushbuck Tragelaphus scriptus, and common duiker . The 63 bird spccics include Iamincrgcicr Oypaetus barbalus, Vcrreaux's eagle Aquila verreauxii, kestrel Falco linnunculus, lanner falcon F. biarmicus, and augur buzzard Buteo rufofuscus. Four management z.ones have been defined, but not yet implemented. The Prime Protection Zone (65 sq. km) includes the least disturbed woodland habitat of the Walia ibex. Here only non-destructive and administrative use will be permitted. The Extensive Use Zone (60 sq. km) will have some tourist access, rccrcation, and environmental education but grazing will be prohibited. The Recovery Zone (95 sq. km) from which inhabitants will be relocated and where selective reafforestation will be implemented; and a Development Zone (5 sq. km) for the main tourist, education, and administrative facilities. Because of its importance this park has been the focus of much conservation activity. A detailed management plan was prepared in 1986 (Humi, 1986) whilst other action includes the relocation of a farming community of 1,500 fanners who previously lived in the park. Rangers protect Walia ibex from poaching and IUCN/WWF Project 1241 aimed at establishing a qualified warden to assure proper management and survival of the Walia ibex and other rare species. About 80% of human interference has been eliminated sincc March 1980, before which the main problems were grazing, agriculture, burning, hunting, and collection of firewood. Dahlac Marine National Park This area has been proposed as a national park, but has yet to be gazetted. It is part of the Dahlac Archipelago, at the southern end of the Red Sea, off the north-east coast of Ethiopia. The archipelago covers an area of about 3,000 sq. km, but only part of this is proposed as a national park. The Dahlac Islands form a large archipelago of some 400 islands. The larger islands arc made of limestones but arc interspersed with coralline islands, patch reefs, and sandy stretches composed of marine sediments. Tidal - 17 - ranges of 50-120 cm have been recorded. The climatc is mainly arid, and there is little freshwater input. The islands have arid vegetation of scattered Acacia trees. Euphorbia, palms, thorn bush and scrub, and open grassland. Mangroves arc found on several islands, with Avicennia marina being the most common spccics. Sargassum flats surround some of the islands, while on low saline sandy stretches outside the mangrove zones, zones of Suaeda and Slatice arc found, with AtripUx and Zygophyllum further down the beach. Mammals which have been seen in the area includc the threatened dugong Dugong dugon. Some of the islands support camels Camelux spp. and Socmmerring’s gazelle. Both the green turtle Chelonia mydas and hawksbill turlc Eretmochetys imbricata have also been recorded, the former breeding. Birdlifc on the islands is diverse with 62 recorded species, including osprey Pandion haliaetux, pink-backcd pelican Pelecanux rufexcenx, white pelican P. onocrotalus, brown booby S..la leucogaster, and red-tailed tropic bird Phaethon rubricauda, as well as many waders, terns and gulls. A high diversity of corals occur, including small delicate branching corals, lace coral (Stylastcridae), and mushroom coral. Small stagshom coral Acropora sp. is typical of some of the patch reefs in shallow water. There are also coral heads with Parties (interspersed with Sargasxum; . The reefs support a rich fish fauna which includes milkfish Chanos, barracuda , black bass Micropterus sabnoides, pipefish, and moray eels. The large area of mangrove swamps is critical for the productivity of the region. Commercial fishing occurs on i small scale, and this could be boosted by development of the park, as this should ensure protection of fish breeding grounds. The coral reefs and tropical fish stocks arc exploited for commercial trade whilst overgrazing and subsequent erosion is occurring on some of the inner islands. It is proposed to develop the area as a tourist park, and the potential is quite high. Mits'iwa is the nearest coastal town. OTHER IMPORTANT AREAS Most of Ethiopia’s vegetation types are represented in the protected areas network, however several important areas are still unprotected; these arc described below from the data of Friis and others. All the concentrations of wildlife have been identified, and this knowledge has been used when determining the sites of protected areas (Ashine, 1981); the main problem facing the protection of the areas of faunal importance is to ensure the integrity and status of the protected area system. (The numbers in bold in this section refer to locations on Figure 5): 1. The most noticeable limitation of the protected areas system is the absence of coverage of any of the humid montane forests of the south-west and the representation of very little lowland forest. These vegetation types are disappearing rapidly but are important since they arc centres of plant endemism. In addition, the forests of the south-west arc thought to be me original home of Coffea arabica, one of the world's most important cash crops. Reserves should be established to protect at least one representative example; possibly the important remnant forests of Bellela and Sai mentioned by Beals (1968) or in the area between Gore and Tcpi (49) (A. Wood, pens. comm.). 2. The arid Ogaden area (56) along the Somali border which, as well as having a diverse succulent flora, is an important area of endemism for reptiles and ungulates and the threatened Yaheb nut bush Cordeauxia edulis is found near Gedlegubc and Bokh (IUCN. 1989; Stuart el al., 1990). 3. Wetlands and marine habitats, consisting primarily of isolated mangrove stands, reed swamps, and extensive salt-marshes, arc also unprotected (Dahlac is planned for conservation but is currently inaccessible) (J.C. Hillman, pcrs. comm.). 4. The forest at Tiro Botcr (north of Jima) has been identified as a worthy representative of the medium altitude and rainial! Afromontane forest type and a proposal has already been made to have this area designated as a nature reserve (Roos, 1987). Such a reserve would not, however, protcct the transitional vegetation types found between 1,000 rn and 2,000 m and so another area is needed, either in western llubabor or north-western Kcfa. 5. Presently only limited protection is offered to the dry montane forest of the plateau in the Menagcsha State Forest and in the Bale Mountain National Park. Beals (1968) proposed the addition of sites on Gara Adcs Mount to protcct Podocarpux-Juniperus-Olea forest, and on the west slope of the Arsi mountains to protcct Junipenix-Podocarpux forest 6. Other forest types which are considered to be outside the protected areas network are the dry montane forest of the eastern slope of the plateau and riverine forest, of which only small patches are under protection. A conservation area around Lat:c Asaita (43) and Lake Gargori would protect a fine example of the latter (Beals 1968). 7. The deciduous woodland on the well-drained slopes of the central Ethiopian plateau is rich in endemics and not included in any conservation area (I. Friis, pcrs comm.). 8. Bale Mountains and Simcn Mountains National Parks are particularly important as centres of species diversity and endemism; together they afford protection to much of Africa’s altimontanc vegetation and to a significant number of Ethiopia's cndcmic animal specics. - 18 - 9. The abscnccof any protcctcd areas in the eastern lowlands of the country, especially the Danakil Depression, is a significant gap in the protection of Ethiopia's fauna, however conservation activities in this area arc hampered by political unrest. 10. Stuart el al. (1990) list the following as critical key forest sites: Amhara, Gamo Gora, Gojam, Harergc, lllubabor Montane Forests, Keffa, Sidamo, Welega and Wclo. 11. In the upper Dawa and Ganalc Dorya valleys near Arero and Ncghelli, there are forest patches dominated by Juniperus procera, where the Prince Ruspoli's turaco is cndcmic (Collar and Stuart, 1988). 12. Asaita Lakes are a number of lakes (Gainari, Gargori, Afambo and Bario), to the north-west of Lake Abbd (51), where riverine forest supports bushpig, and crocodiles, hippopotami and watcrbirds occur in and around the lakes (Burgis and Symocns, 1987). 13. Living coral reefs are almost continuous along the coastline but arc especially well developed at Aseb (45). 14. Extensive lakcshore marshes, swampy woodlands and wet grasslands are found around Ch’amo Lake (47) (450 sq. km) at an altitude of 1,233 m. Dominant fish includc Bagrus docmac and Lates miotic us. There arc some hippo, a large population of Nile crocodile and a rich avifauna including flamingoes. 15. The Chire Conservation Area, a northern area, is important for the conservation of antelopes; and Eritrea South (48) (13°21'N and 41°40'E) harbours the threatened Nubian dragon tree Dracaena ombet (Stuart el al., 1990). 16. Deciduous woodlands on well-drained slopes arc rich in endemics, and not included in any protected areas. The Ethiopian Central Plateau houses endemics such as the rodents Praomys ruppi, Colomys goslingi and Lephuromys melanonyx (Stuart eia l., 1990). 17 Situated in the semi-arid north, is a woodland some 60 sq. km in area of Juniperus exclesa, Olea africana and Rhus abyssinica. On high slopes from 2,000 m to 2,700 m this is an ideal site for the study of ccotoncs among Afromontane forest, Acacia wooded grassland and a more Mediterranean flora. There is overgrazing by stock and soil erosion (Frame, 1987). 18. The Harenna Forests is an area of forest at the south-eastern limit of the Ethiopian Highlands which supports numerous endemic spccics such as amphibians (11), birds (15), as well as mountain nyala and hunting dog. Threats includc clearing, littering, heathland burning, bamboo grove exploitation and Podocarpus sapling extraction (Frame, 1987). 19. Mcpham and Mcpham (in press) list several lakes of conservation importance, namely: Lake Abaya (50) where twenty-eight spccics of fish have been recorded and where crocodilc, flamingoes and hippo arc present; Lake Abbd the size of which has been reduced by one third due to water being diverted for irrigation; Lake Afrcra (52) covering 125 sq. km and situated in the Danakil Depression is saline and fed by subterranean thermal water; Lake Langano (53) where birdlifc is abundant and the lake is important for flamingoes; Lake Tana (54) which contains small volcanic islands supporting numerous birds and fish, including the endemic Clarias tsanensis; the Asalc Lakes (44) which cover 70 sq. km at 125 m below sea level in the Danakil Depression and which arc fed by underground water, but their biology is little known; Awasa Lake (46) covers an area of c. 120 sq. km at an elevation of 1,608 m and has extensive fringing marshes, wet grassland and rccdbeds, especially important to flamingoes and is starting to achieve prominence as a recreational area, and Zwai Lake (58) where eight spccics of fish have been recorded, including one probable endemic Barbus zwaicus, hippopotami occur and where the avifauna is reasonably rich with flamingoes and pclicans. 20. Small mangrove stands dominated by Avicennia marina which require protection arc found in Mersa Berissa and Mcrsa Mubarcc. 21. The Omo River Delta (57) is an interesting site where the river Omo enters Lake Turkana and consists of a swampy delta with two lakes. The combined wetland covers 1,200 sq. km and the river supports riverine forest. 22. Menagasha State Forest (55) 23. Junction of Ethiopia, Somalia and Djibouti (59) Other outstanding sites arc: the proposed Gambella National Park, an area of undisturbed tropical woodland with one of the richest concentrations of wildlife in Ethiopia which is now included in the national resettlement programme and has suffered greatly in recent years; Omo, Mago, and Ncchisar national parks, which are among the last relatively untouched wilderness areas in Africa; and Yangudi Rassa National Park, with an important population of the endangered African wild ass Equus africanus and possibly of Grevy’s zebra, as well as other regionally important species. THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY Deforestation Ethiopia was originally a heavily forested country with about 34% of the total area of the country (and approximately 87% of the total area above 1,500 m) covered by dense forests and a further 20% by woodland/savanna (Gamachu, 1988). Deforestation l as occurred to such an extent that now only 2.2% (i.c 27,500 sq. km)(FAO, 1988a) of the country as a whole (and only 9% of the area above 1,500 m) is still covered by elosed broadleaved forest. This is perhaps not surprising sincc the highlands have been settled for more than 5,000 years and widespread deforestation started about 2,500 years ago (Humi, 1985). In the recent past the pattern of deforestation has mirrored the accelerating population growth which has led to increased demands for arable land, fuclwood, and building material in and around the growing settlements. Deforestation of closed broadleaved forest was estimated to be 60 sq. km during 1981-85 (FAO, 1988a) with a total deforestation (including broadleaved open, coniferous and bamboo forest) of 880 sq. km. Most of the remaining forest is confined to remnant patchcs in inacccssible or remote areas. Of the remaining forest in Ethiopia, 54% is in the western administrative regions of Ilubabor (48.2%), Kcfa, Welega, and Gojam. 38% is in the southern administrative regions of Bale (19%), Sidamo, and Gamo Gofa. Shewa region has 3.1% and Hararghe only 0.6%, with the four northern regions of Eritrea, Tigray, Gonder, and Wdo accounting for only 4.1% These latter figures illustrate the excessive deforestation that has occurred in the north of Ethiopia, however there is no reliable nationwide assessment of the status of the remaining forests (I. Friis, pcrs. comm.). In many areas forest patches now exist only on church properly, such as near monasteries or in churchyards. Coniferous forest composed primarily of Podocarpus spp., and Juniperus spp. softwoods, the most commonly used timber in Ethiopia, originally covered about 176,000 sq. km in central, eastern, and northern parts of the country . This type of forest has been extensively removed and now only 0.9% of the original remains, accounting for only 4% of the total forest resource of i!ic country. Broadleaved forest is mostly confined to the highlands in the south-west and originally covered about 257,900 sq. km, of which only ca. 11 % now remains. These still account for 65 % of the total remaining forest in Ethiopia and have a high fore;.: -v potential although they consist of mixed hardwood species and arc therefore difficult to exploit. Table 3: List of priority high forests Regions Priority Areas Estimated Area (in sq. km) Shewa Mcnagesha forest 96 Sidamo Mcgada forest 210 Zenbaba-Woha Anfcrara-Wadcra forest 750 Welega Jorgu-Watto forest 199 Gcrgeda forest 1,374 Kcfa Tiro-Boter-Becho forest 850 Bclclc Gera forest 1,810 Bonga forest 1,614 Hararghe Arsi-Dindin-Arba Cuga forest 610 Ilubabor Sigmo-Geba forest 2,800 Subtotal: 10,313 ThIiU* 3 could. Regions Priority Areas Estimated Area (in sq. km) Shewa Jibat-Muli-Jegcnto forest 1,315 Chillimo forest 220 Wuf-Washa forest 100 Yerer Gara-Dirc-Gerbecha Zuquala forest 40 Bale Dolo-Adabal-Lajo forcsl 590 Mcna-Angctu-Welmel (Dello) forest 5,930 Kubayo forest 510 Alloshe-Batu 70 Sidamo Ncgelc 100 Yabello-Arero 1,010 Burgi 20 Kcfa Fola forest 740 Ilubabor Zylum-Wangus forest 4,150 Mcscngo forest 3,250 Ycki forest 2,220 Akobo-Goz forest 3,530 Welo Dcnkoro forcsl 150 Erke forcsl 100 Yogof forest 50 Gumburda-Grakasu 260 Welega Konto-Waja-Tsigic forest 370 Konchi forest 130 Chalu-Sengi-Dencb 633 Gojam Guangua 150 Hararghe Jclo-Muketar-Mctakcsha Addes forest 28 Jargo-Gursum forest 15 Garamullclta 20 Sub total: 25,701 Grand total: 36,014 The woodland/savanna region originally covercd 371,900 sq. km (30% of ihe country) in the semi-arid and sub-humid regions surrounding the highlands. Only about 7.6% of the total area is now covered by this vegetation type. The only national inventory of the closed natural forests was carried out between 1974 and 1979. This put the figure of undisturbed closed high forest at 23.400 sq. km in the mid 1970s. Table 3 lists 37 priority forcsl areas of 36,000 sq. km identified for conservation and management in the future (FAO, 1988). Some of these will certainly have high conservation value but more dala is needed on the precise value of these sites. Conservation for production should be combined with conservation for ecological services and biological diversity. Although the figure for total deforestation has been put at 2,000 sq. km per year, deforestation rates of closet! broadleaved forests - 21 - arc generally low because of the remoteness and inaccessibility of the remaining forests (exceptions being where resettlement into forested areas occurs). The major part of present forest destruction is occurring in the savanna woodlands and shrublands which arc cleared for pasture-land and agriculture. The recent accclcralcd clearing of these relatively lowland areas is associated with the increasing movement of farmers from the highlands into the previously malaria-prone areas. The energy situation in the country is critical and the collection of fuelwood to meet increasing energy needs is an important contributory factor in the spread of severe soil erosion (see below) and environmental degradation in the country. An example of the latter is the clcarancc of vegetation by charcoal burners who are converting the Rift Valley Acacia forest into semi-desert at the rate of 600 sq. km per year. The current fuelwood demand is estimated to be about 2.5 times the sustainable supply, with the household sector accounting for about 82% of forest energy consumption. A major problem with fuelwood supply is the mismatch between the location of the resources and the population concentration (which is mainly in the deforested areas), as a result of which 75% of the country's regions experience fuelwood scarcity (FAO, 1988). The level of tree planting for industrial purposes is low, approximately 170 sq. km (FAO, 1988), and the extent of mature plantations available for exploitation is very small. To meet estimated 1992 domestic energy needs the World Bank calculate that the equivalent of 28,000 to 32,000 sq. km of fuelwood plantations are needed; a massive expansion of current rates. Soil Erosion As population growth has accelerated, so serious land degradation has resulted, partly from the adherence to traditional land-use practices but also due to recurrent drought conditions in many parts of the highlands. More and more ecologically fragile environments (such as steep slopes) and marginal lands (such as waterlogged plateaux and basins) have been brought unccr cultivation, and the situation has been exaecrbatcd by the fact that traditionally no soil protection measures have been practised (Gamachu, 1988). Soil erosion is now a severe problem in much of the country, with total estimated soil loss from slopes being 1,493 million tonncs/ycar or 12 tonncs/ha/year. A particular problem is degradation from cultivated land on slopes. Su;n cropland covers about 14.7% (179,950 sq. km) of the total area of the country, with approximately 37% of this being in the four northern administrative regions, 26% in the four western administrative regions (mostly in Gojam), almost 19% in Shewa, about 13% in southern Ethiopia, and 6% in Hararghe. Estimated soil loss from cropland is 672 million tonncs/ycar (almost 40 tonnes/ha/year) (Gamachu, 1988). therefore soil loss from these areas accounts for 45% of the total loss. In highland areas, soils arc becoming increasingly shallow (less than 35 cm deep). On 34.5% of the area above 1.500 m the soils arc now less than .’{5 cm deep, with almost 50% of this area being loeated in the four northern administrative regions (where agriculture has had the longest history). Particularly hard hit by this problem are the northern regions of Welo and Eritrea, where almost 90% and 77% of the highlands respectively, fall into this category. Figures for the other regions arc 61% of Hararghe, 31% of Shewa, 26% of the four southern regions, and 14% of the four western regions (Gamachu, 1988). Table 4 shows present land use. Various actions are already being taken to counter the twin problems of deforestation and soil erosion. Important examples arc the soil conservation and reafforestation activities under the Food for Work Programme (FFWP) and Soil Conservation Research Project (SCRP), and various fuelwood programmes organised by international agcncics such as the Scandinavian SIDA, DANIDA, and FINIDA who have initiated some 150 sq. km of plantations al provincial towns such as Gonder and Dabra-Berhan. The FFWP has concentrated on the construction of bunds (embankment) on croplands and the reafforestation of denuded hillsides Legal actions arc needed to provide for ownership rights of the communities over certain types of forests and defining the individuals’ rights to use trees. More emphasis also needs to be placed on spccics choice and potential interactions with grazing There is a view that Eucalyptus should be abandoned as a fuelwood species since, although a good pole producer, it is a bad choice for conservation, for grazing, and for household fuel needs (N. Winer, pcrs. comm.). Overall some 16.000 sq. km have benefittcd from the soil conservation and community forestry projects of the FFWP. However, when it is taken into account that 270,000 sq. km require such measures, it is obvious that such efforts have to be considerably expanded in the future, the addition of more resources. Human Encroachment into Protected Areas Given that the country's protected areas are well sited to protcct what remains of Ethiopia's natural resources, it is very disheartening to see the extent to which many of them suffer from human encroachment. Examples of areas suffering from this arc Abijatta-Shalla Lakes National Park and Awash National Park. The former is probably one of the most heavily settled protcctcd areas on the continent, with the entire area having been overrun by people and permanent settlements established Although being one of only two gazetted wildlife areas in Ethiopia, Awash National Park is also being severely degraded as a result of the illegal presence of people. The northern part is overrun by nomadic pastoralists and parts arc already badly overgrazed, with few large wild animals to be seen. Such problems are not confined to these two parks and, indeed, Nechis:ir National Park is perhaps unique in Ethiopia in being the only conservation area that is virtually free from human encroachment Table 4: Land use (FAO, 1988) 7“ Zone Area Remarks (sq. km) Upper Wurch 14,280 5,710 degraded Wurch 6,540 agricultural land 2,030 treeless Dega 128,000 19.000 degraded 27.500 agricultural land 11.000 high forest 70.500 others Wcina Dega 398,000 73.000 degraded 134.000 agricultural land 29,700 high forest 161,300 others Kolia 700,000 12,300 degraded 17,500 agricultural land 4,000 high forest 666,200 arid areas CONSERVATION ACTIVITIES Ethiopia has been the focus for widespread conservation interest for some time and there are many projects concerned with resource management and wildlife conservation. FAO (1988) lists the following on-going projects involved in the conservation of tropical forest ecosystems: 1. Ethiopian-Soviet biological expedition to Gambeila Basin. Part of a continuous study of the wildlife of the Gambeila area, in collaboration with the Plant Genetic Resources Centre of Ethiopia. 2. New York Zoological Socicty/IUCN/WWF Advisor to Wildlife Conservation Organisation. Assisting with the preparation of a management plan for Bale Mountain National Park. 3. WWF Management assistance to Simen National Park. In addition WWF have provided the services of a wildlife ecologist and parks expert. 4. UNDP/FAO assistance to the development of crocodile farms. Ethiopia, with the help of IUCN, initiated a National Conservation Strategy development programme, which, in 1990 entered the policy formation phase. International Con vent ions 1) Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage Convention): ratified 4 March 1977. Simien National Park was inscribed in 1978 2) Convention on International Trade in Endangered Spccics of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES): ratified 04/07/89. LEGISLATION The principal legislation for wildlife protection and trade regulation is the Forest and Wildlife Conservation and Development Proclamation No. 192 of 1980. This provides for the establishment of a Forest and Wildlife Conservation and Development Authority which has the necessary power to establish and administer national parks, wildlife reserves, sanctuaries, and controlled '■ n t . . - 23 - Anncultunl e s e a r c l> hunting areas. The role of this authority has since been taken over by the Natural Resources Conservation and Development Main Department, Ministry of Agriculture (IUCN, 1989). The Wildlife Conservation Regulations of 1972 (Legal Notice No. 416) and their 1974 amendment (Legal Notice No. 445) provide detailed provisions for the regulation of hunting and the possession of game animals or trophies, as well as their importation and exportation (IUCN, nd). Accession to CITES look effect in January 1989. RECOMMENDATIONS Uncontrolled deforestation combined with overgrazing and destructive agricultural practiccs over millennia have already rcsultec in a marked degradation of the country's ecosystems. The following recommendations represent a synthesis of the main measure needed to safeguard what remains of Ethiopia’s biological diversity. 1. Reafforestation The remaining areas of natural forest should be afforded the highest protection possible as a matter of urgency. Measures arc alst needed to accelerate the rehabilitation of degraded lands through afforestation and community tree planting. Plantations nec^( to be developed to meet fuelwood and industrial timber needs, and state forests need to be expanded, with afforestation aimed .'.t creating habitats similar to the indigenous ones which have been lost. Incentives should be made to increase the participation oi the people in forest development and conservation; this would include clarifying the laws on land tenure. Reafforestation needs to be managed so that tangible benefits accrue to the communities, in order to replace what they sec as lost access to traditional systems of grazing and fuelwood gathering. 2. Soil conservation Soil conservation measures need to be expanded to cover more of the affectcd area. The Food for Work Programme (FFWP) and the Soil Conservation Research Projcct (SCRP) have already shown themselves to be successful in organising soil conservation projects nationwide, and expansion of these programmes should be encouraged. More emphasis needs to be placed on introducing conservation measures which are economically attractive to the people per se. 3. Strengthening of the Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Organisation The administration of protcctcd wildlife areas in Ethiopia comes under the remit of the Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Organisation (EWCO). Al the moment this organisation is poorly equipped to carry out the important tasks entrusted to it, and is virtually powerless to enforce regulations in many areas, due to its shortage of manpower and basic resources. Long-term financial support at an increased level is essential, and this will depend upon governmental and development aid sources. One way to raise funds would be to encourage tourism, the extra revenue could be ploughed back into conservation. 4. Gazettenient of all protected areas Presently only two wildlife conservation areas arc gazetted (Simcn Mountains and Awash national parks). Gazcttement of the remainder is a top priority if there is to be any real progress in solving the management problems posed by encroachmcnt and other disturbances (such as the presence of a soda-ash extraction factory on the shore of Lake Abijalta). Apart from any other benefits, gazcttement will significantly increase the chances of attracting much needed international funds to the protcctcd areas system. 5. Re-establish the integrity of protected areas A major problem facing the effective management of protected areas is human encroachmcnt. The problem is particularly severe in Awash, Bale Mountains, Simcn Mountains, and Abijatta-Shalla Lakes National Parks. Integrity of protected areas depends largely upon local people having a direct interest in their maintenance, hence local participation in the conservation work in these areas is needed. 6. Conservation of genetic variety Bccause of widespread habitat degradation there is a real threat to the gcnelie resource base of some internationally important crops. Among the crops derived exclusively from Ethiopian stock, wild Coffea arabica is probably the most seriously threatened, other examples being sorghums/millets and leff. The Plant Gcnctic Resources Centre of Ethiopia should be aided in its efforts to conserve the gene pool of these, and other important spccics. In situ conservation should be given a high priority. - 24 - REFERENCES Ashine, T. (1981). National Parks and protected areas of Ethiopia. In: Conserving Africa's Natural Heritage. Proceedings of the 17th Meeting of lUCN's Commission on National Parks and protected areas. Garoua, Cameroon, 17-23 Nov. 19fi0. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland, and Cambridge, UK. Beals, E.W. (1968). "Ethiopia". In: Hedberg Acta Phytogeography. Conservation of vegetation in Africa South of the Sahara. Suec. 54. Brenan, J.P.M . (1978). Some aspects of the phytogeography of tropical Africa. Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. 65: 437-478. von Brei ten bach, F. (1961). Forests and woodlands of Ethiopia. A gcobotanical contribution to the knowledge of the principal plant communities of Ethiopia, with special regard to forestry. Ethiopian Forestry Review 1: 5-17. Burgis, M.J. and Symeons, J.J. (1987). African Wetlands and Shallow Waterbodies. ORSTOM, Paris. Collar, N.J. and Stuart, S.N. (1988). Key Forests fo r Threatened Birds in Africa. ICBP Monograph No. 3, International Council for Bird Preservation, Cambridge. 102 pp. Ethiopian Mapping Authority (1988). National Atlas of Ethiopia. Ethiopia Mapping Authority, Addis Ababa. FAO (1988). Report o f the mission to Ethiopia on Tropical Forestry Action Plan. July 1988. 189 pp. FAO (1988a). An Interim Report on the Slate o f Forest Resources in the Developing Countries. FO: MISC/88/7. FAO, Rome. FAO/UNEP (1981). Tropical Forest Resources Assessment Project. Forest Resources o f Tropical Africa. Part II. Country Briefs, FAO, Rome. Frame, G.W. (1987). African forest sites. Unpublished document. Friis, I. (1983). Phytogeography of the tropical north-east African mountains. Bothalia, 14(3 & 4): 525-532. FriLs, I. (1986). The forest vegetation of Ethiopia. Symb. Bot. Ups. 26(2): 31-47. G am arhu, D. (1988). Environment and Development in Ethiopia. International Institute for Relief and Development, Food for the Hungry International. Geneva. Pp. 35. Gilbert, M. (1986). The flora of south and south-east Ethiopia. Symbolae Bot. Up.sal. 26(2): 86-93. Hedberg, I. (1986). The flora of Ethiopia: a progress report. Symbolae Bot. Up.sal. 26(2): 17-18. Hepper, F.N. (1979). Sccond edition of the map showing the extent of floristic exploration in Africa South of the Sahara. In: Taxonomic Aspects of African Economic Botany. Proceedings of IXth Plenary Meeting of AETFAT Las Palmas de Gran Canaria. 18-23 March 1978. Pp. 157-162. Hillman, J.C. (1985). Bale Mountains National Park, Management Plans. EWCO. 246 pp. Hillman, J.C. (1988). EWCO, Conservation Area Summaries. Mimco, 41 pp. Hurni, H. (1985). Erosion-Productivity-Conservation Systems in Ethiopia. Paper presented at the IV International Conference on Soil Conservation. Venezuela, 3-9 November 1985. Hurni, II. (1986). Management Plan, Simen Mountains National Park and Surrounding Rural Area. Wildlife Conservation Organisation. Ethiopia. 122 pp. IUCN (no date). African Wildlife Laws. IUCN Environmental Policy & Law Occasional Paper No. 3. IUCN Environmental Law Centre, 1712 pp. IUCN (1984). A preliminary report on threatened and endemic vertebrate spccics in Ethiopia. IUCN Conservation Monitoring Centre June 1984. 50 pp. IUCN (1986a). Plants in Danger, What do we Know? IUCN, Gland, Switzerland, and Cambridge, UK. 461 pp. IUCN (1987). Directory o f Afrotropical Protected Areas. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland, and Cambridge, UK. 1,034 pp. IUCN (1989). The IUCN Sahel Studies. IUCN, Gland. Switzerland, and Cambridge, UK. Pp. 152. Last, G.C. (1984). Ethiopia, Physical and Social Geography. In: Africa South of the Sahara 1984-85. 14th Ed. Pp. 355-356. Mephnm, R.ll. and Mepham, J.S. (in press). Directory o f African Wetlands. IUCN Gland, Switzerland/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. PRB (1990). 1990 World Population Data Sheet. Population Reference Bureau Inc., Washington D.C. Roos, I). (1987). Recommendations for the establishment of Chcro Nature Reserve within Tiro-Boler Bccho Pilot Area. An ecological survey. Orgut-Swedforest, Stockholm. 26 pp. Stuart, N.S., Adams, R.J. and Jenkins, M.D. (1990). Biodiversity in Sub-Saharan Africa and its Islands. IUCN Gland, Switzerland. Volksen, K. (1986). Commiphora: some thoughts on the classification of an "impossible” genus. Symbolae Bot. Upsal. 26(2): 204-212. WCMC (1991). Tropica! Managed Areas Assessment: Ethiopia. World Conservation Monitoring Centre, Cambridge. Draft document. WCO (1985). Wildlife Conservation in Ethiopia and Development Priorities. Wildlife Conservation Organisation, Addis Ababa, 1985. White, F. (1983). T)ie Vegetation o f Africa. A Descriptive Memoir to Accompanythc Unesco/AETFAT/UNSO Vegetation Map of Africa. Natural Resources Research 20, Uncsco, Paris. 356 pp. World Bank (1989). Sub-Saharan Africa - From Crisis to Sustainable Growth. The International Bank for Reconstruction ai\d development. The World Bank, Washington, D.C. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This environmental profile has been prepared by staff of the World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC). The work was financed by the Commission of the European Communities. We are indebted to the following people who have provided up-to-date information and have so kindly taken the time to review early drafts of the document and offer advice: Dr I. Friis, Dr J.C. Hillman, Dr J. Thorsell, Dr A. Wood, and Mr N. Winer.