Scientific Study Report

Sweers Island:Sweers changes over two hundred years since Island: Flinders’ visit changes over two hundred years since Flinders’ visit P. Saenger Centre for Coastal Management, Southern Cross University, Lismore, NSW 2480, [email protected] Introduction Horseshoe and Sweers Islands were ‘men ab- sent lands’ (Dangkawaridulk). These primary is situated at 17°06’S, indicators, as well as later observations, sug- 139°37’E in the south-eastern Gulf of gest that prehistoric use was sporadic and eco- Carpentaria, approximately 32 km offshore. logically insignificant. The island consists of remnants of a lateritic pe- Sporadic visits to the northern Australian neplain, with recent deposition of calcareous coastline by Maccassarese–Buginese fisher- deposits in the form of weakly cemented con- men lost and/or seeking trepang and other ma- glomerate and calcarenite. Most of the island is rine biota did occur, although rarely were less than 13 m above high water mark, except Sweers, Allen and Bentinck Islands included in for the small area around Inspection Hill, which these visits (Macknight 1976). However, some attains an elevation of 32 m. tamarind trees (Tamarindus indicus) on Fowler With the publication of A Voyage to Terra Island, recorded by Pennefather (1880), and the Australis by in 1814, Sweers observations by Flinders (1814) of trees cut Island with its safe anchorage, conspicuous el- with axes, remains of worked timbers of teak, evation and convenient water supply, became earthenware jugs and skeletons on Bentinck an important staging post for numerous subse- and Sweers Islands, suggest some visitation to quent visits. From journals and accounts of the area. Effects of these visits on the islands’ those visits, it is possible to identify to what ex- environmental resources are likely to have tent changes have occurred in the flora and been short-term and minor. fauna of the island over the intervening years; this paper is a first attempt to do so. The first recorded The island prior to 1802 impressions The use of Sweers Island by the The Investigator anchored off Sweers Is- people (Bentinck Islanders) is well docu- land on 16 November 1802, and remained for mented (Tindale 1962a; 1962b). As Tindale 15 days. Peter Good, the gardener of the expe- suggested, historical evidence indicates some dition, described Sweers Island as follows: occupation of Bentinck, Allen and Sweers Is- ‘This island appears very recently formed, lands with primary use focused on Bentinck Is- chiefly of coral sand and ironstone and a mix- land. The nomadic trips to Allens and Sweers ture of sandstone and ironstone. There is no Islands were largely dependent on whim, fresh- luxuriant vegetation or soil capable of produc- water supply and specific hunting and gather- ing such on the island. However, there is con- ing expeditions; all were controlled largely by siderable variety of vegetables … returned on weather. The Kaiadilt people were basically board … with fishing party which had been tol- gatherers of sea food, and the wave platform ar- erable successful and had fish served out to the eas and associated shorelands were probably crew’ (Edwards 1981). utilised on Sweers Island. Women gathered The Investigator was anchored in Investiga- tjilangind (small rock oysters), kulpanda (mud tor Road between Bentinck and Sweers Islands cockles) and crabs during low tide periods, in order to facilitate caulking. The crew began while the men explored the wider littoral areas repairs while Flinders took boat parties to spearing fish, turtle, sharks and dugong. On the Sweers Island to take fixes from Inspection Hill other hand, Aboriginal fish-traps on Sweers Is- and dig out a native well on the beach. The bo- land suggest a more sedentary use of the island tanical gentlemen made useful excursions, in the recent past (Saenger & Hopkins 1975). which were amply rewarded. Robert Brown The Aboriginal terms describing these (n.d.) noted that ‘during our stay at this anchor- places indicate that Bentinck Island was I went several times on the Islands & scarce ‘land of all’ (Dulkawalnged) while Allen, ever without finding additional so that

11 Sweers Island: changes over two hundred years since Flinders’ visit

before we left it I had made out a Florule com- the Cape Van Diemens area early in July 1841, prehending 190 species of perfect plants … The and charted much of the Wellesley Islands. rise of the spring tides was found to be about 11 Stokes (1846) noted that ‘Sweers Island ap- or 12 feet & a circumstance very remarkable peared to be very woody, and bounded by low was that while we remained the low of floods dark cliffs on the north-east side. We found a was commenced in the morning continued for long extent of foul ground, with a dry reef near 12 hours & the ebb during an equal time in the its outer end, extending off two miles in a S. night. During our stay the ship was supplied 33°E. direction from the S.E. extreme … A with fish & the Island where we watered a Bus- party was immediately dispatched in search of tard was shot perhaps not essentially different the Investigator’s well.’ Stokes also recorded a from Charadrius, it weighed 12½ lb & the flesh cloud of locusts which enveloped Sweers but was well tasted that of the legs was much whiter which later moved to Bentinck Island, and ob- than the breast …’ Collections of geological served that ‘Investigator Road … possesses an specimens were also made by Robert Brown equal supply of wood, fish, and birds, with tur- and these were later described by Fitton (1827). tles close at hand on Bountiful Islands … The A few days into caulking, Flinders received soil is chiefly a mixture of sand and decom- reports of extensive repairs required due to rot- posed vegetable matter; but it cannot boast of ting timbers, and a camp was established on fertility. The wood on the island, which con- Sweers Island under Lt Fowler. This group sup- sisted for the most part of gums, wattles, a few plied fish and freshwater to the Investigator. acacias, palms, and, near the beach, a strag- Despite the parlous state of the ship, Flinders gling casuarina or two, bespoke this by its decided to complete a survey of the Gulf, hop- stunted appearance; but as cotton grows well at ing to be able to return to Sydney via the west Port Essington, there can be little doubt that it and south coast in the winter, or retreat to the will thrive here. Several of the bustards spoken East Indies if required. When the repairs were of by Flinders, were noticed; but too wary to be completed, Flinders tried to sail out of Investi- killed. They were as large as those seen in the gator Road against south-easterly winds but ex- neighbourhood of Port Phillip, but much perienced difficulty getting around Locust browner. The other birds, most common, will Rock, anchoring south of Sweers Island. Dur- be found in an extract from the game book … ing this anchorage, Flinders wrote an extensive We saw no animals, except some large igua- summary of the fortnight spent in the vicinity of nas.’ Sweers and Bentinck Islands: ‘The soil, even in The extract from the game book indicates the best parts, is far behind fertility; but the that the island supported an abundant avifauna, small trees and bushes which grow there, and with ‘151 quails, 87 doves, 20 pigeons, 3 pheas- the grass in some of the less covered places, ants, 8 white and 2 black cockatoos, 5 save the larger islands from the reproach of be- spur-wing plovers’ being taken in the fortnight ing absolutely sterile. The principal woods are of the visit. Eucalyptus and Casuarina, of a size too small in general, to be fit for other purposes than the By June, 1856, in Sydney, there had been ap- fire; the Pandanus grows almost everywhere, prehension concerning the safety of the North but most abundantly in the sandy parts; and the Expedition (NAE) under A.C. Greg- botanists made out a long list of plants, several ory, which had left for the Victoria of which were quite new to them.’ River in the Tom Tough and Monarch on 12 Flinders (1814) named Bentinck Island after May 1855. Lieutenant W. Chimmo, R.N. was Lord William Bentinck, former Governor of ‘… sent to render assistance to the above expe- Madras; Allen Island ‘after the practical miner dition by his Excellency, the Governor General of the expedition’ and Horseshoe Island ‘from of ’ (Chimmo 1856; 1857). its form’. He named Sweers Island after The paddle steamer Torch sailed north from Cornelius Sweers, one of the Councillors of Newcastle on 24 June to gain news of the Batavia, who had authorised Tasman’s 1644 explorers. voyage. The Torch arrived off Sweers Island in the The next glimpse of Sweers Island was pro- evening of 30 July, and before dawn ‘… all vided by Stokes in the Beagle on her third voy- hands were on shore looking for water … By af- age in Australian waters, charting the shores of ternoon we had completed water (although Australia not investigated by Flinders or King. somewhat brackish) to about five tons; and in The Beagle sailed into Investigator Road from return deposited pumpkin seeds and Indian

12 Gulf of Carpentaria Scientific Study Report

corn round the well, where the soil was rich’ conveyed supplies for the search party led by (Chimmo 1857). Fred Walker, which had left overland from The next day, the Torch departed Sweers Is- on 25 August. land and headed for the Albert River mouth. Lt Anchoring off Bountiful Island on 27 Sep- Chimmo found no signs of the NAE, of which tember, the crew of the Victoria set about catch- the main party was travelling overland to the ing turtle and, according to Kirby (1862), 126 Albert River, reaching it some two months turtles were caught in two days. Proceeding to later. As the NAE’s support party had failed to Sweers Island, a depot was established, grass rendezvous with the main party at the Albert was cut for the horses, and a turtle pond was River, Gregory departed overland for Moreton built (Bourne 1862), although many turtles Bay. The support party had taken the Tom died before the pond was completed. Early the Tough to Coepang and Sourabaja, and replaced next morning, Landsborough went ashore, de- it with the Messenger, arriving off Sweers Is- scribing ‘… fine young grass not above a few land in mid-November. months old … The island is of sandstone forma- Thomas Baines, the artist of the NAE, re- tion and the land is very sandy. The grasses on it ported landing ‘on the shore three quarters of a are good. It is lightly timbered with the mile north of them [the wells] under a Cliff … pandanus palm, oak trees (casuarina), stunted Captain Devine and I walked some miles to the white gum, black figs, red plum and other trees. North passing over plains with silverleafed The fruit on the plum and fig trees, especially iron bark, Eucalyptus and a long but shallow the former, are very nice …’ (Landsborough gully filled with green grass moist soil and n.d.). clumps of pandanus but we could find no water though we saw several cockatoos. We returned Others also commented on the abundance of along the beach … We picked up a plank carved grass: Bourne (1862) states ‘… landed on with rosettes and other devices … We kept the Sweer’s Island to cut grass for the horses; took long boat going between the vessel and the our guns; grass plentiful. Saw many birds - such shore with heavy loads of wood all day’ (Baines as bustards, pigeons, quail, pheasants, crows, n.d.). native companions.’ Once loading of wood and water had been In his published journal (Laurie 1866), completed, the Messenger prepared to depart, Landsborough described Sweers Island as fol- and Baines (1857) noted that ‘I had a pair of lows: ‘Bentinck Island is about thirty miles in goats which I intended to leave, but the female circumference; Sweer’s, only three: both are unfortunately died. I planted cocoa-nuts in a well grassed and wooded … Further inland we variety of places on Sweers Island.’ found the grass of good quality, and fit for cut- From these early accounts, it seems that the ting … as the sheep we had on board could now vegetation was generally stunted, dominated have the advantage of grazing, and my horses by Eucalyptus and Casuarina, but sufficient to that of fresh fodder’. Kirby (1862) added that meet the visitors’ firewood needs. However, ‘there are no large trees, those we saw being the shrub- and ground-layers were floristically stunted in their growth, and of small size; we diverse and of considerable botanical novelty. saw neither plants nor fruits. The soil is a dark It also appears that birds and fish were remark- loam of considerable depth, and, except on the ably abundant. Although it is unlikely that the beach, there is little or no sand; no animals were corn and pumpkin planted by Chimmo sur- seen, but birds of the cockatoo, pheasant, and vived, later reports of large coconut palms on parrot tribe are abundant… Fish are to be had in the island (Pennefather 1880) suggest that the greatest abundance, more especially cod- Baines’ coconuts may constitute the first suc- fish, weighing from seven to twenty pounds, cessful introductions to the island. and I see no good reason why a fishery of a re- munerative character might not be established Early settlement there.’ Early in December, Walker’s relief expedi- 1861-1868 tion arrived at the Albert River, and after re- Leaving on 4 August 1861, the porting to Captain Norman, he was treated to Victorian Colonial Warship Victoria was des- turtle soup, together with fresh cress, onions, patched to the Gulf of Carpentaria, carrying the radishes, and sprouts which had been planted search party for the on Sweers Island. Apart from his gardening and overdue Burke and Wills Expedition. It also turtle pond, Captain Norman also maintained at

13 Sweers Island: changes over two hundred years since Flinders’ visit

least 7 sheep on Sweers Island—the first agri- extending to the east side, but at the north and cultural pursuits on the island. south ends there is a good deal of scrubby coun- Diedrich Henne, Baron von Mueller’s try…’. 26-year-old botanical assistant, was attached to When the schooner Lilly arrived at the Al- the Captain Norman’s expedition. He made ex- bert River from Bowen in late May, Landsbor- tensive seed, wood and plant collections on ough (n.d.) purchased 25 sheep, which were Sweers Island, bringing back six cases of bo- landed on Sweers Island, and signalled the be- tanical specimens to be deposited in the Mel- ginning of sustained grazing on the island. bourne herbarium. His diary, translated by Writing to Governor Sir George Ferguson Johnston (1970), suggests that snakes were Bowen, Landsborough (Port Denison Times 1/ common on the island following rain: ‘… we 12/1866) claimed that ‘This township on have snakes in pretty large numbers, especially Sweers’ Island is fast becoming a place of con- the harmless carpet snake: however, also one, I siderable importance. The harbour is found so believe venomous species: they are short and convenient that for some time back there has plump, about eighteen inches long, and are been always a few vessels in it, either discharg- brown and yellow banded, with blunt tail; also ing cargo, waiting for loading from the main- iguanos turn up.’ Henne also described the first land, or getting water or ballast … This place release of sheep onto the island. On preparing having a good port for loading and discharging to leave the island on 11 February 1862, the cargo, and having, I believe, the best climate in sheep grazing on the island had become so wild this part of the world, will, I imagine, have a that they could not be caught or shot—and were good chance of becoming one of the places of left behind to fend for themselves; the lack of the greatest importance in Australia. Coming surface water on the island would have ensured down from my high flight of vision allow me to their demise. remark that fishing is attended with consider- With the establishment of on the able success. A garden, commenced by Messrs. Albert River during 1865, it became the ship- Ellis Read and Co., promise well. Sheep and ping centre for the Gulf stations. However, in other kinds of stock do well. There are no native February 1866, the Margaret-and-Mary ar- dogs, and … the island therefore may become rived from Bowen at the Albert River, bringing valuable for sheep runs.’ with it an epidemic known as ‘Gulf Fever’— An anonymous ‘voice from Carnarvon’ re- now thought to be malignant tertian malaria ported (Port Denison Times 18/5/1867) that ‘… (Fenner 1990; Kettle 1993)—and within a few the land sale in Burke Town passed off well; all days, virtually the entire crew was dead, and lots were sold - consisting of 88 allotments, all soon, around 60 persons were recorded to have that were surveyed on the Island … Our gar- died in the district. When William Landsbor- dens on the Island give us an over abundant ough, the newly appointed Police Magistrate supply of vegetables, and we are longing to see for the district arrived in April, he arranged for the Ellesmere so that the passengers may get a the removal of most residents to Sweers Island. feed of them - what, I am sure, they have not Landsborough departed for Sweers Island in seen for some time. I have seen a few gardens - the pilot boat, accompanied by the surveyor, but a garden on Sweers Island, formed by two George Phillips, the pastoralist, John G. Mac- gentlemen, excels anything I have ever seen; donald, and the prospector, , who out of one small corner we gathered I should was to go on to discover large copper deposits say one hundred and ninety mellons, the most at Cloncurry in 1867. of them equal in circumference to a bucket … They arrived at Sweers Island, and camped Bananas and pine apples are not quite so plenti- at the site of the earlier depot. On revisiting the ful; the cherry and black currant trees have not island after five years, Landsborough (n.d.) done so well as we expected.’ wrote ‘… The country is high downs and a few By 1867, Sweers Island virtually replaced fine trees with thick foliage … The northern Burketown as the official government centre, end as well as the southern end of Sweer’s Is- with all vessels trading to the Gulf region call- land is rather thickly wooded. In the course of ing at Carnarvon, which had been laid out and one walk we saw several pigeons, cockatoos surveyed during mid-1866 by George Phillips. and bustards. Although shy Mr. Henry suc- The newly laid-out town of Carnarvon con- ceeded in shooting some cockatoos and a bus- sisted of 60 town and 15 suburban allotments tard’. Henry (n.d.), in turn, described the island and comprised several stores, around 15 as ‘… in the centre are some nice downs houses, a Customs House, a lock-up and, at

14 Gulf of Carpentaria Scientific Study Report

least, one hotel. The names of many of the fami- few other graziers. Around this time, the Xula lies associated with the settlement of loaded wool, tallow, hides and skin at Sweers Carnarvon are recorded on the ‘Plan of Town of Island direct for London, while Captain Till, in Carnarvon and Suburban Allotments - Sweers the Clara, loaded wool, tallow, hides and skin Island’. (Port Denison Times 10/10/1868), and it Shortly after South Australia assumed ad- seemed that a new phase of agricultural produc- ministrative responsibility for the Northern tion was imminent—intensive stocking. Territory, Captain Francis Cadell was commis- In February 1869, the Chief Inspector of sioned by the South to Sheep, P. R. Nordow (1869) wrote to the Minis- explore in detail the rivers of the Gulf of ter for Lands that ‘… an outlay of £120 for fenc- Carpentaria and Arnhem Land. He departed ing—in addition to wire and a few articles—is Sydney on 2 April, 1867 in the screw steamer asked for in order to make the quarantine avail- Eagle, arriving off Sweers Island on 22 August. able for the reception and dressing of imported The brothers T.A. and B.J. Gulliver, on instruc- sheep … During last year 41 imported sheep tions from Baron F. von Mueller, travelled were landed at Sweers Island and should scab aboard the Eagle and collected plants around be introduced there the consequences in such a Sweers Island, the Gilbert, Norman and far off District would be disastrous’. The re- Flinders Rivers in the Gulf of Carpentaria and quest was rapidly approved to safeguard this at Caledon Bay. Writing to the Queenslander blossoming agricultural industry. (16/11/1889), B.J. Gulliver reported that ‘… during the two days we stayed there I made Captain Till of the Margaret and Jane,re- some botanical excursions on the island, secur- cently returned to Bowen from Sweers Island, ing, amongst others, a specimen of a rare and reported that ‘… Sweer’s Island is deserted by peculiar red-flowering lily.’ all but the officials and their families and one By January 1868, William Landsborough Chinaman. Mr. Sandrock has 150 or 200 head and Surveyor George Phillips had surveyed a of cattle feeding on the island. Towns & Co. new township on the Norman River, and most cattle are being mustered by Mr. Morrisett for of Sweers Island residents relocated to transmission south’ (Port Denison Times 4/2/ Normanton during the year to escape the isola- 1871). At this time, only about 20 people were tion of island life. Perhaps as a departing ges- left on the island (Amstel 1871), accompanied ture, a large banquet in honour of the by numerous ‘cattle, sheep, horses, goats, pioneering settlers was held at the Alhambra fowls etc’ (Holder Cowl n.d.). Hotel on Sweers Island in August 1868 (Port Thus, Sweers Island was largely deserted in Denison Times 12/9/1868), attended by such favour of Normanton, and only a few families, notables as the Hon. John Robertson, J.G. Mac- including the Creffields, ‘… who keep cattle, Donald and George Sandrock, the Collector of goats and sheep on the island …’ remained until Customs. 1897 (Palmer 1903). When the publican, Don- The early attempts by Captain Norman at ald McLennan died on 4 February 1876, his agriculture and mariculture in addition to the herd of cattle was removed to the mainland via taking of wood for steamers and fires, are likely the Io (Port Denison Times 20/10/1877). The the first European resource utilisation of customs and pilot service, however, were not Sweers Island of any consequence. However, relocated to Normanton until August 1880. during the period of establishing Carnarvon, However, a month later, when Captain C. Sweers Island vegetation and fauna would have Pennefather arrived at Sweers Island from undergone significant changes, as all kinds of Thursday Island aboard Q.G.S. Pearl to chart stock were introduced to the island, human hab- the waters around Point Barker, he noted that itation and stores were erected, and timber har- the island is ‘… lightly timbered; with soil of vesting for fuel and construction purposes was loose sandy nature. At the time of our visit it widespread. presented a very sterile appearance owing to want of rain and its being overstocked; in fact, Sweers Island as a it seemed wonderful how the quantity of stock, stock run over 1,200 in number (cattle, sheep and goats), managed to exist.’ (Pennefather 1880). He also By the end of 1868, the township on the is- reported that ‘… there are two cocoa-nut trees land was virtually deserted; a few Government on the Island, thriving and doing well, also gua- officials and their families remained, as did a vas, dates, tamarinds, etc., - the climate of the

15 Sweers Island: changes over two hundred years since Flinders’ visit

place being apparently well suited to the goat per hectare. While such grazing intensity growth of fruits of the kind’. may have been sustainable during the wet sea- In 1901, the first anthropologist to visit the son, it must have placed severe stress on the area was Dr. Walter E. Roth, Northern Protec- vegetation during the long dry season e.g. in tor of Aborigines, who was accompanied by na- September, when Pennefather (1880) noted its tive police from the mainland, and J.F. Bailey, sterile appearance. It also seems likely that the Director of the Brisbane Botanic Gardens. J.F. sand blow-outs along the eastern shoreline Bailey collected 56 plant specimens from were caused by, and are reminders of, the ~ 55 Sweers Island, 15 from Bentinck, 6 from Boun- years of intensive grazing on the island. tiful and 5 from Mornington Islands during that June visit, including the type specimens of Recent changes on and Amyema villiflorum subsp. tomentillum from Sweers Island (Barlow 1984). Roth (1901) re- around the island ported that ‘… a few remains of Landsbor- In 1934, the island was declared a ‘reserve ough’s cottage are still visible. The island itself for the use of the Aboriginal inhabitants of the is at present held under occupation license: it is State’, exclusive of freehold allotments in the well watered, carries about 700 sheep and 400 town of Carnarvon and the access roads (Re- goats, and has a good anchorage.’ serve no. 5599, Government Ga- On a second visit to the area in June 1903, zette 1934.2.344). However, such traditional Roth was accompanied by Charles Hedley, a enjoyment of the island was not to last: as a re- malacologist from the Australian Museum, sult of a severe drought in 1946 and a cyclonic Sydney. Roth (1903) mentions that ‘… Mr. tidal surge in 1948, all Kaiadilt people were re- Hedley has made an excellent collection of ma- located to the mission on , rine zoology, including about 400 species of where they remained. In 1960, Norman molluscs: he is of opinion that the Gulf of Tindale, with a party containing 20 Kaiadilt Carpentaria fauna should be considered an people, visited the Bentinck-Sweers Island out-lier rather of the Indian than of the Pacific area. Various archaeological investigations Ocean. The salient characters of the region are were carried out around Inscription Point and the slight development of reef-building corals, in the coastal area west of Inspection Hill and their associated fauna, as compared with (Tindale, 1962a; 1962b). Since that time, the the Torres Strait and the East Coast of Kaiadilt people have returned to residence on Queensland. Towards the head of the Gulf, the Bentinck Island, with occasional visits to corals entirely disappear, and the man- Sweers Island. grove-swamp fauna is developed in great luxu- In 1970, however, Southers and Dickens riance…’ purchased freehold property in parts of the old From around 1908, John MacKenzie appar- township of Carnarvon, and the erection of a ently held an occupation lease over Sweers Is- tourist facility was commenced by two young land, keeping sheep, goats and horses. In French adventurers (Jean-Jacques Amella, addition, he carried out ‘lime-burning’ from a pers. comm.). Subsequently, these properties kiln constructed on the western side of Inspec- were purchased by Broken Hill South Pty Ltd, tion Hill (Stubbs2004). This mining venture who investigated the island as a potential ship- ceased sometime around 1922, but much of the ping point for Lady Annie phosphate rock, and stock was left on the island. Some of this stock to facilitate this development, all freehold land was shot by police troopers while searching the within the town of Carnarvon, with the excep- area for those responsible for the death of the tion of portions 2, 3, 8, 10, 11, 12, 13, was re- Reverend Robert Hall on Mornington Island. sumed by the Crown in March 1971 Others were speared by the Kiaidilt people, ( Gazette whose numerous folk tales surrounding the 1971.1.846-848). This was followed by a bio- killing of the last of MacKenzie’s goats and a logical survey of the island in October 1973, as horse (Roughsey 1977), signalled the end of the part of the investigations to assess the environ- occupation and grazing era, and a reversion of mental impact of the proposed port develop- the island to its traditional owners. ment. As a member of the survey team, the This grazing phase in Sweers Island’s past present author surveyed the mangroves and must have led to severe overgrazing of the veg- shallow water marine communities around the etation considering the stocking rate—which island. While the mangrove data were pub- would have been at around one sheep, cattle or lished (Saenger & Hopkins 1975), the

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Figure 1: Plate-forming Acropora hyacinthus in shallow water on the southern shore of Sweers Island, October 1973. remaining data remain unpublished, and have on a SPOT satellite image (Figure 2, page 18) been summarised below. from 1990. Using a structural classification Extensive seagrass beds occurred around based on vegetation height and percentage the island, particularly off the south-west and cover, seven communities have been recog- western shoreline. Common species include nised, and brief descriptions, based on field Halophila decipiens, H. spinulosa, Halodule surveys, are given below. The extent of these uninervis, Cymodocea serrulata and communities is given in Table 1 (page 19). Syringodium isoetifolium. Coral fringing reefs Dense vegetation occurred on the southern and eastern shoreline Two areas of dense vegetation have been between 1-4 m depth at low water, with coral mapped: one consists of tall, mid-dense stands cover varying between 30% on the landward of Corymbia grandifolia in the centre of the is- edge and to 100% on the seaward margin re- land, the other, immediately inland from the re- spectively. The dominant coral was Acropora sort, consists of lower, but dense, coastal hyacinthus (Figure 1, page 17), constituting up vine-thicket, with scattered Pandanus and to 70% of the total coral cover. Other common paniculata stands. genera included Oulophyllia, Lobophyllia, Favia, Goniastrea, Favites, Turbinaria, and Melaleuca woodlands Montipora. Along the northern and north-east- Dominated by Melaleuca viridiflora, attain- ern shore, rocky reefs predominated, with an ing heights of 5–10 m. These characteristic abundant algal cover, mostly comprised of stands occur throughout the island. Cystophyllum muricatum, Sargassum spp., Laurencia spp., Caulerpa racemosa, Melaleuca shrublands Asparagopsis taxiformis, Turbinaria ornata Comprised of Melaleuca viridiflora, 2–5 m and Spyridia filamentosa. high. These low open stands are most common The vegetation types were also mapped, and and particularly extensive to the south of the the map has been updated more recently, based airstrip.

17 Sweers Island: changes over two hundred years since Flinders’ visit

139°37’E

Quarantine enclosure

Suburban allotments Legend Mangroves Town Figure 3 Melaleuca woodland allotments Melaleuca shrubland

Bare sand

Sandy grassland Figure 4 Dense vegetation

Salt flats

17°08’S

012km

Figure 2: Vegetation of Sweers Island in September 1990, mapped from a SPOT satellite image. Note the site of the town and suburban allotments, as well as the quarantine enclosure. In addition, the locations and directions of the photographs in Figures 3 and 4 are shown.

18 Gulf of Carpentaria Scientific Study Report

Sandy grasslands and it seems likely that they have colonised Extensive grasslands occur in the centre of Sweers Island from Bentinck Island. the island, particularly along the eastern shore- line. Numerous species occur, including Spini- Saltflats fex longifolius, Heteropogon contortus, These are largely areas bare of vegetation, Xerochloa imberbis, Chrysopogon elongatus, although sporadic saltmarsh species occur, in- Eragrostis concinna and Aristida holathera. cluding Sarcocornia quinqueflora, Suaeda Scattered trees of Casuarina equisetifolia oc- arbusculoides, Halosarcia indica subsp. cur along the strandline. leiostachya and Tecticornia australasica. Around their margins, occasional shrubs are Bare sand present, including Excoecaria parvifolia and This community type includes all of the Grevillea dryandri. beaches, occasional bare dunes and sand blow-outs. These areas are virtually devoid of plants, or have seasonal plant cover only. Aboriginal Land Tenure Mangroves Following the abandonment of the phos- Scattered stands of mangroves occur, in phate shipping project on Sweers Island in sheltered locations where silty-sandy sub- 1977, the boundaries of the Aboriginal Reserve strates are found. Rhizophora stylosa and on the Island were redefined to exclude previ- Avicennia marina are widespread around the ously surveyed areas of crown land and the air- island. Aegialitis annulata forms dense stands, strip (Queensland Government Gazette approximately 1 m tall, on shingle banks along 1989.2.2329). Two sections were established, the western shoreline. Lumnitzera racemosa is the northern section comprising 775 ha, while scattered around the island, but a dense stand, the southern section was of 480 ha. These re- apparently the remnant of a more widespread serves, however, were repealed in 1994, when a mangrove community, occurs in drainage lines deed of grant in trust was granted to the Kaiadilt of the north-western part of the island. Scat- Aboriginal Land Trust. In 1996 a native title tered plants of Excoecaria ovalis occur along claim by the Kaiadilt people, as part of four ap- the western shoreline. Since the original man- plicant groups, was lodged for the land and wa- grove surveys in 1973, additional species have ters from the high water line on Bentinck and become established on the north-western Sweers Island to ‘as far as the eye could see’, a shoreline on Sweers Island. Between 1973 and claim recognised by the Federal Court to five 1990, Aegiceras corniculatum became estab- nautical miles seaward (The Lardil Peoples v lished (as did the cane toad), followed by State of Queensland [2004] FCA 298). Bruguiera exaristata between 1990 and 1994. Most recently, between 1996 and 2002, three A retrospective plants of Ceriops australis have become estab- lished in this area. These species are common in assessment the extensive mangroves of Bentinck Island, Judging from the early accounts of the vege- tation, it seems probable that few changes have occurred and/or persisted, and that recovery Table 1: Vegetation types and areas on from felling has occurred. Grass, herb and Sweers Island, based on remote sensing shrub cover has also apparently recovered from (SPOT 29/9/1990). intense grazing by introduced stock (Figures 3 Vegetation type Area (ha) Island cover (%) and 4, page 20), and the absence of macropod grazers has possibly facilitated this process. Dense vegetation 51 3.8 The flora of the island is diverse, and few weeds Melaleuca woodlands 521 39.2 have been identified (Thomas & Pedley 2004). Melaleuca shrublands 259 19.5 Few changes in the fauna appear likely; goannas and pythons remain common on the is- Sandy grasslands 258 19.4 land, although one early report, apparently of Bare sand 186 14.0 abundant death adders, is intriguing as they Mangroves 34 2.6 have not been recorded since. Cane toads be- Saltflats 20 1.5 came established on the island between 1973– 1990. Early accounts of an abundant avifauna Total 1,329 100 still hold today and bustards remain common—

19 Sweers Island: changes over two hundred years since Flinders’ visit

Figure 3: Identical views from one of the suburban blocks, looking north-west. Note the extensive use of Melaleuca saplings for fencing, the areas of overgrazed vegetation, and the large number of hides draped on the fence in the distance. (1871 photograph, Captain Sweet, courtesy of the John Oxley Library neg no. 67338; 1994 photograph, Brett Stubbs).

Figure 4. Identical views from the Customs House, looking north-east, over what George Phillips described in 1866 as ‘open country’. (1871 photograph, Captain Sweet, courtesy of the John Oxley Library neg no. 67334; 1994 photograph, Brett Stubbs). perhaps as a result of the non-introduction of available. Greg Luker is gratefully acknowl- rabbits, foxes, pigs or cats. edged for his assistance with the remote In terms of the inshore marine environment, sensing analysis. The owners of the Sweers Is- historical accounts of good fishing success still land Resort are thanked for their hospitality hold—presumably underpinned by the exten- over numerous visits, and the Royal Geograph- sive seagrass beds around the island, and the ical Society of Queensland is acknowledged generally increasing mangrove areas. On the for facilitating my visit in November 2002. I am other hand, hard coral cover around the island grateful for the useful comments on an earlier appears to have declined over recent years, al- version of this account kindly offered by Drs though no clear causes can be identified. M. Fogarty and P. West. Overall, the flora and fauna of Sweers Island has remained remarkably intact, despite a pe- riod when use and exploitation of the island’s resources was intensive. References Acknowledgements Amstel, J.W. Ploos van 1872, Verslag eener reis van den Nederlandschen It is a pleasure to thank Dr. Brett Stubbs, Consul-Generaal te Melbourne, aan boord who provided considerable assistance, particu- van Zr. Ms. stoomship CURACAO, langs larly on the historical documentation for this de oost-en noordkust van Australie, in project, and for making his photographs Julij, October, 1871.

20 Gulf of Carpentaria Scientific Study Report

Baines, T. 1857, Additional notes on the Johnston, W.T. 1970, Diedrich Henne, North Australian Expedition under Mr. Botanical Collector, based on a translation A.C. Gregory, Proc. R. Geogr. Soc. of Henne’s diary, Historical Society, London, Vol .2. [ML 910.6 R]. Cairns, , Bulletins No. Baines, T. not dated, Journal 1856-7, 5 vols, 133 and 134, unpag. [ML FM4/1373]. Kettle, D.S. 1993, Insect-borne diseases - Barlow, B.A. 1984, Loranthaceae, in: Flora Australia truly the lucky country, Proc. R. of Australia, Vol. 22, pp. 67-130. Soc. Qld, 103:17-25. Kirby, T. 1862, Narrative of a voyage from Bourne, G. 1862, Journal of Landsborough Melbourne to the Gulf of Carpentaria, Expedition from Carpentaria, in search of Melbourne. Burke and Wills, H.T. Dwight, Melbourne Landsborough, W. not dated, Papers in the [ML 042 P520]. Oxley Memorial Library [OM 69.030]. Brown, R. not dated, handwritten journal as Laurie, J.S. (Ed.) 1866, Landsborough’s transcribed from a microfilm copy held by exploration of Australia from Carpentaria the National Herbarium in Canberra. to Melbourne, J. Marshall & F. Laurie, Chimmo, W. 1856, Account of the search for London. the North Australian Exploring Expedition Macknight, C.C. 1976, The voyages to under Mr. A.C. Gregory, Proc. R. Geogr. Marege: Macassan trepangers in northern Soc. London, Vol. 1. [ML 910.6 R]. Australia, Melbourne University Press, Chimmo, W. 1857, Voyage of H.M.S.V. Melbourne. Torch, reprinted from the Nautical Nordow, P.R. 1869, Letter to Minister for Magazine, London. Lands from the Chief Inspector of Sheep, Edwards, P.I. (Ed.) 1981, The journal of dated Brisbane 22 February 1869: QSA Peter Good, gardener, on Matthew LAN/A15 1512/1869. Flinders’ voyage to Terra Australis Palmer, E. 1903, Early days in North 1801-1803, Bulletin of the British Museum Queensland, Angus & Robertson, Sydney. Natural History Series, Vol. 9:1-213. Pennefather, C. 1880, Explorations in the Fenner, F. 1990, History of Microbiology in Gulf of Carpentaria, and surveys in the Australia, Brolga Press, Curtin, ACT. vicinity of Point Barker, report to the Colonial Secretary dated 28th October Fitton, W.H. 1827, An account of some 1880. geological specimens, collected by Captain Roth, W.E. 1901, Report on a visit to some of P.P. King, in his survey of the coasts of the Wellesley Islands, handwritten report Australia, and by Robert Brown, Esq., on dated Burketown 6.7.01 and submitted to the shores of the Gulf of Carpentaria, Home Secretary’s Office 25 Jul 1901, pp. during the voyage of Captain Flinders, 14 + map Appendix C in King, P.P., Narrative of a Roth, W.E. 1903, Report to Under Secretary, survey of the intertropical and western Department of Public Lands, dated 27 June coasts of Australia, performed between the 1903, QSA A/19898 Z1347 (M1414) years 1818 and 1822, John Murray, Roughsey, D. 1977, Moon and Rainbow - The London, pp. 566-630. Autobiography of an Aboriginal, Rigby, Flinders, M. 1814, A voyage to Terra Adelaide. Australis, undertaken for the purpose of Saenger, P. & Hopkins, M.S. 1975, completing the discovery of that vast Observations on the mangroves of the country and prosecuted in the years 1801, south-eastern Gulf of Carpentaria, 1802 and 1803, G. & W. Nicol, London, 2 Australia, First Intern. Symp. Biology & vols. Management of Mangroves, University of Henry, E. not dated, papers of Ernest Henry Florida, Vol. 1, pp. 126-136. held by the Royal Historical Society of Stokes, J.L. 1846, Discoveries in Australia, Queensland, Brisbane. with an account of the coasts and rivers Holder Cowl, T. not dated, Some of my explored in the years 1837-1843,T.&W. Experiences during a Voyage to the Gulf of Boone, London, 2 vols. Carpentaria and three years residence at Stubbs, B.J. 2004, The ‘McKenzie massacre’ Normanton in the early Seventies, Besley on Bentinck Island: unravelling the myth, & Pike Ltd, Brisbane. in this volume.

21 Sweers Island: changes over two hundred years since Flinders’ visit

Thomas, M.B. & Pedley, L. 2004, In the footsteps of Robert Brown, 200 years on - plant collecting on Sweers, Bentinck and Bountiful Islands - November 2002, in this volume. Tindale, N.B. 1962a, Geographical knowledge of the Kaiadilt people of Bentinck Island, Queensland, Records of South Aust. Museum, Adelaide 14: 252-296. Tindale, N.B. 1962b, Some population changes among the Kaiadilt people of Bentinck Island, Queensland, Records of South Aust. Museum, Adelaide 14: 297-336.

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