CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY, NJRTHRIIX:;E

THE EFFECT OF LUNAR PERIODICI1Y

ON

HUMAN BEHAVIOR

A graduate project submitted in partial satisfaction for the degree of Master of Arts in Educational Psychology, Counseling and Guidance

by Janis Cash Graham

May, 1984 The Gragua~roject of Janis Cash Graham is approved:

Dr. Robert Docter

Dr. Bernard NisenhOlZ

Dr. Stan y Charnofsky ( ainnan)

California State University, Northridge

ii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page

ABSTRACT . • • • • ~ • • . • . • ~ . • • • • . • • . . . . • • . • v

Chapter 1

INIRODUCTION 1 Purpose of the Project . . • . 5 Limitations of the Project 6 Chapter 2

HISIDRY 8 Religion •.•...... 8 Folklore and Superstition. 14 Lycanthropy ...... • 19 Chapter 3

IN SEARCH OF 'IHE ''LUNAR EFFECT'': PRESENT DAY INVESTIGATIONS • • • • 30 The Phases of the Moon 32 Case Studies • • . . . . 34 Studies on Marine Life . 36 Biological Rhythms . . . 39 Medical Studies ..... 41 Studies of Human Behavior .. 44 The \IJork of Lieber and Sherin. 48 Chapter 4

MCDN AND MAN: 'IHEORIES . • . • 52 The Light of the moon. . . . . 52 The Geophysical Environment. . 55 The Biological Tides Theory. 60 Other Theories of Man and the Moon 66 Chapter 5

APPLICATION AND St.M1ARY 71

Application to Research and Clinical Psychology. 71 Conceptual Application . 76 S'llii.llilary . • . . . • . . . • ...... 83

iii ~-' '

Page REFERENCES. 89 APPENDICES

A DEFINITION OF TERMS 93

B ''A PERS01':W... NOTE'' • • 97

iv ABS'IRACT

'lliE EFFECT OF LUNAR PERIODICITY

ON HUMAN BEHAVIOR

by Janis Cash Graham Master of Arts in Educational Psychology Counseling and Guidance

The belief in the power of the moon to influence life on our planet has existed from earliest recorded history, and plays an important role in the history of religion, folklore, and superstition. The conviction that man is to same degree controlled by the forces of the moon contin- ues with great vigor into modern times. In the last several decades, psychologists and other researchers have exhibited an increased interest in the "lunar effect" on human beings, and particularly on human emotions and behavior~ Numerous studies have been designed to explore possible relation- ships between phases of the moon and variables such as suicide, homi- cide, assault, arson, crisis center calls, psychiatric hospital admis- sions. While results have been mixed, there are several which show considerable positive correlation between lunar phases and violent or

v erratic behavior. Most impressive among these is the 1972 study perfonn­ ed in Dade Cotmty, Florida by Lieber and Sherin, which shows significant peaks in homicides at full and new moons. Studies such as this indicate the importance of further research on the effect of lunar rhythms on man:

.Among those who have become convinced of the possibility of a lunar effect on human behavior, several theories have been advanced, based on research in such fields as biochemistry, biometeorology, physics, and psychology. Perhaps the most convincing explanation for the moon' s influence on man is the "biological tides" theory, which involves gravi­ tational influences on body water distribution, and its subsequent effect on the nervous system.

Studies such as that of Lieber and Sherin, and other recent evi­ dence relating to various aspects of biological rhythms, indicate the importance of further research in this field. This information is impor­ tant on a conceptual level in studying issues such as environmental in­ fluences on man. It is of critical importance to the psychological clinician in relation to areas such as testing; and in recognition and treatment of cyclical disturbances such as bipolar mental disorders~

vi Chapter 1

INIRODUCITON

"It is the very error of the moon; She comes more nearer earth than she was wont, And makes men mad. 11

-William Shakespeare, Othello

From earliest recorded history there is evidence of man's belief in the moon's ability to strongly influence life on earth. Moon lore and superstition are the most enduring of all mythology, and appears in nearly all cultures. The ancient world worshipped the moon, and used the lunar phases as a guide for making agricultural and medical decis- ions. The changes of the ·moon were to be scrupulously observed in the raising of livestock. The Druids, among many others, worshipped the moon and considered it a symbol of fertility and prosperity. It was a prevalent practice among German Jews in the Middle Ages to marry only during the full moon.

The moon was used in ancient times, as well as in some modern cultures, to mark time. Whereas our concept of the "day" relates to the sun 1 s light, the "month" was developed from observations of the moon 1 s cycle. The lunar crescent has been found to symbolize one month, both on prehistoric cave-wall drawings and in Egyptian hierglyphics. Even today, Chinese and Muslim calendars measure time by the lunar month, rather than the solar year. The Hebrew calendar uses both the sun and moon, and is based on a year of thirteen lunar months. Many modern

Christian holidays continue to rely on lunar traditions; for instance, the full moon helps to determine the date of Easter. Some cultures have

1 2

used the moon to influence time, as well as to mark its passage; it is

said that certain tribes in New Guinea still throw spears and stones at

the moon to hasten its movement, thereby hastening the return of friends

who have departed (Harley, 1970).

r-·~-·~e of the most persistent themes of lunar lore identifies the moon

with irrational and psychotic behavior in man. Evidence of the univer- iI l sality of this belief can be seen in the linguistic roots of many of the l words which denote insanity. ''Luna" is the Latin word for moon and l month. The word "lunacy" has been used traditionally to describe a type j \ of periodic insanity, which was interrupted by periods of lucidity, and

I which was presumed to fluctuate in accordance with the phases of the l \ -~meon. The great 18th-century English law expert, Sir William Blackstone, defined a lunatic, or "non-compos mentis", as one who "hath ... lost the

use of his reason and who hath lucid intervals, sometimes enjoying his

senses and sometimes not, and that frequently depending upon the changes

of the moon." (Oliven, 1943) The generality of this term is shown also

in the French ''avoir des lunes'' or ''lunatique" the Italian "lunatico" ' ' and Latin ''lt.maticus''. The German ''mondsucht'' signifies both lunacy and

somnarnbulancy.

The modern English language is filled with terms which reflect be-

lief in the unbalancing effects of the moon on the hLmJan mind. The word

"moony" implies a dreamy or absent-minded quality; he who is "moonish"

is variable, fickle, flighty, as if affected by the moon; a "mooncalf'

is someone born deformed or retarded; "moonshine", nonsensical talk.

The ''lunatic fringe'' is composed of the frantic and irrational members

of society. Both Milton and Byron used the word "moonstruck" to imply

a state of being crazed or deranged. Shelley speaks of ''moon-madness'', 3

The works of Shakespeare contain numerous references to the unsettling

effects of the moon on man' s sensibilities.

There seems to be no culture where belief in the moon's effects on

the human mind has not prevailed in both the past and the present. In

the earliest literature we find references to the moon's role not only

in causing insanity, but also in diseases such as epilepsy. The Talmud

implies that epilepsy may be acquired by standing naked before a shining

light (the full moon), and that intercourse in an undarkened room may

result in producing epileptic children. It further warns epileptics,

and others as well, not to sleep in the moonlight (Harley, 1970). The

Bible concurs with this theory, and in Matthew 17: 15 uses the term

''lunatick'' in referring to an obvious case of epilepsy (Ibid.) . The

Latin term ''lunaticus'' was used to imply both madness and epilepsy. It

was held commonly by both Aristotle and Galen that epileptic seizures

were a result of influence by the full moon. This idea was modified by

Ptolemy in his belief that the condition which linked lunacy to epilepsy

was that of ''moisture in the brain'' . In the ancient Mediterranean world

it was generally held that insanity, as well as epilepsy, was actually

caused by demons and gods from the moon, the intensity of whose activi­

ties varied in relation to the lunar phases. Dreams and nightmares were

considered in many cultures to be a result of sleeping in the light of

the full moon. A much-guarded secret Egyptian cure for insanity was to make meatballs out of the flesh of a snake and to eat them under the

light of the full moon.

There are an inexhaustable number of folk tales and superstitious beliefs concerning the effects of the moon on the mind of man. These beliefs were held not only by the ignorant and uneducated people of past 4 cultures, but by the most respected doctors and scientists of the times. There exists, even today, a wide popular acceptance of the concept of "moon madness", which perseveres from generation to generation, on the strength of little more evidence than empirical observation and oral tradition. While the relatively few scientific studies on the subject have produced mixed results, there are a gro,ving number of scientists and physicians in the past two centuries who have become convinced of the validity of the lunar hypothesis. In his 1791 book on mental disorders, the noted French psychiatrist Daquin wrote, "It is a well established fact that insanity is a disease of the mind upon which the moon exer­ cises a considerable influence." (Oliven, 1943) In 1882, the German psychiatrist Koster reported on his lifelong investigation of cases of periodical insanity, and attempted to prove statistically the disease's close relation to the lunar cycle. In 1920, the psychoanalyst Sadger discussed a pathological condition known as "moon-walking", which he saw as related to a periodic condition of hysteria and hypnotic somnambu­ lism, and which he believed was triggered by the presence of the full moon. In recent years, an increased interest in physiological influences on human emotion and behavior has resulted in a sudden increase of new studies on lunar rhythms in living organisms. A prime example of the changing attitude in the scientific commun­ ity is that of biologist Frank A. Brown, a pioneer in the field of biological rhythms. While working toward his doctorate at Harvard Uni­ versity in 1934, Brown was warned by an older colleague of the profes­ sional dangers of pursuing his interest in the effect of lunar cycles on 5 ,, .

plant and animal life~ \vith this advice in mind~ he turned to more con­ ventional academic pursuits until 1948, at which time he had achieved a full professorship with permanent tenure. Today, Brown is renmvned for his contributions to the field of crustacean endocrinology, and has pro­ duced a number of significant studies over the past thirty years which demonstrate the effect of lunar rhythms in living organisms.

PURPOSE OF THE PROJECT

The overall attempt of this project is to study in some depth the idea that certain aspects of human behavior may be influenced by the periodic forces of the moon. As this belief has prevailed throughout man' s history, the most thorough understanding can be gained by tracing its roots from the past, and examining the framework from 'vhich our present beliefs developed. Therefore, the first purpose of this project is to explore the evolution of the idea that man' s behavior and very psychic processes are deeply affected by the phases of the moon. We will trace this belief from its first appearance in human civilization in the form of religion, myth, and folklore; and follow its development into the age of scientific research. The primary goal of this explora­ tion and investigation is to gain perspective as to which aspects of the lunar hypothesis may warrant further research; and which may be, at least temporarily, relegated to the category of colorful superstition. The second purpose of this paper is to discuss some of the philoso­ phical implications of the hypothesized lunar effect, in regard to the way man sees himself in relation to his environment. There are two main themes in this discussion. The first involves a discussion of dualistic elements in man's nature, and our struggle to integrate these seemingly 6 contradictory qualities. The other theme in this section involves man' s individual freedom and responsibility versus his domination by physical forces in his environment. The final purpose of this project is to explore haw our increased knowledge of ltmar influences, and other environmental influences on the individual human mind, can be applied to the fields of clinical and research psychology.

LIMITATIONS OF THE PROJECT

It is beyond the scope of this paper to either prove or disprove the idea of ltmar influence on human life. As we will see, this one aspect of the study of environmental influences on man is so broad, that no one project can hope to explore the entire field in any depth. In the course of this paper, designed to gain an overall perspect­ ive for further research, there are numerous sections which could easily be expanded into an entire project. Within the realm of religious his­ tory, there is considerable material available for a lengthy exploration of varying perspectives of the moon, as having malevolent versus benev­ olent powers over man. Another subject, worthy of considerable expan­ sion is the symbolism of the moon in folktales from various cultures, and how these stories represent views of man's relationship to himself and to the lunar sphere. For example, we find an almost universal myth that the "man in the moon", which can be seen when the moon is full, is a thief who was exiled there as punishment for his crimes. The moon has been seen in many cultures as the seat of hell. We are able to trace the roots of man's thinking in lunar lore in areas such as the incest taboo. A prevalent myth is that the sun and the moon were brother and 7 sister, and that the moon was robbed of its light as pilllishment for sexual transgression against its sibling.

One area of folklore which was chosen for a more thorough treatment in this paper is that of lycanthropy, or werewolfism. As the primary theme in lilllar lore is the moon's power to transform man from his normal state into a violent, beast-like creature, the lycanthrope can be seen to symbolize man's entire thinking about lunar influence on human be­ havior. Second, there are numerous case studies on bleeding, reproduc­ tion, the menstrual cycle, body water balances and metabolism. Studies in the relatively new field of heliobiology, which examine the effect of the Silll on terrestrial life, have led to the awareness of biological cycles \vhich are influenced by both the sun and the moon.

The attempt here is to limit the scope of the project by mentioning such related studies when appropriate, without losing sight of the main area of interest; that is, the effect of lunar periodicity on human behavior. Chapter 2

HIS'IDRY

"Nowhere can a primitive solar cult be found unprecedented by a lunar cult. All solar myth­ ologies exhibit the inconstancies which reveal the clumsy adaption of lunar attributes by which they have been produced.''

-Anne Kent Rush

RELIGION

e,. :> ":, ··>~ 1 "\-n ·0" ·';J,t ·l . It is generally ac2~~ted that no form of idolatry is older than the w6f~ht~ of the moon. While there is disagreement among ~~AciliH's as to whether lunar worship is older than solar, or whether it developed sim­ h~:,l ultaneously, there appears to be little dotibt that luniolatry is as old

as the human race (Harley, 1970). Arc~d~t~gists have found thousands of drawings and carvings , <\(C) 'l\J r-j; dating rougHly from 8,000 to 40,000 B.C., which refer to the moon as

"God". However, our first in-depth knowledge of moon worship begins with ancient Chaldea, a land at the head of the Persian Gulf, which eventually merged with Babylonia. The word "chaldee" is considered by

some to have derived from the Armenian ''Khaldi'', signifying worshippers of the moon. In Chaldea, the moon diety was granted a decidedly greater status than the sun, and was considered responsible for all cosmic order. Referred to in the masculine gender as the ''night-king'' the Chaldean moon god was lmown as ''Sin'' and ''Hur'', Hur being thought by

some scholars to be the exact equivalent of ".Khahdi". The origin of the name "Sin" is of less certain etymology, but is found applied to the moon in many Semitic languages. This word was used for Monday by the

8 9

Sabeans, as late as the 9th-century, and is thought by some to be the origin of the word "Sinai" (Harley, 1970, p. 92) .;},t;J\1) Stephen Langdon, a respected student of mythology, states that the earliest seeds of Judaism are in the worship of the three individual astral deities of the Moon, the Sun, and Venus (Langdon, 1964, p. 3). The existence of lunar worship in the History of the Hebrews is testi- fied by the importance placed on Mount Sinai, which ImlSt have been, in ancient times, consecrated to the moon (Harley, 1970, p. 93). There is evidence that the moon was associated with the feminine gender, known as the ''Queen of Heaven'' , and was associated with Ashtoreth or Astarte, the principal goddess of the Phoenicians. Like other lunar deities, she was represented in the form of a heifer, with crescent-shaped horns. The worship of this deity was renounced under the reign of Samuel, appearing again during the time of Solomon, after which time it appears never to have completely died out. The moon, as Ashtoreth, appears to represent an omniscience which is neither good nor evil, and is a symbol of pro- ductive power. In the evolution of the primitive Semitic theology to the Hebrew religion, the roots of a number of words referring to the moon remained present in the names of "god". In "Mythology of all Races," Langdon writes that the common Semitic word for god, "Ilah" or "il", which cor- responds to the Hebrew and Aramaic deity "El" or "Elohim", is one of the names of the moon god. Even the day and name of the Hebrew sabbath re- fleets this heritage of moon worship. The Babylonians called the day of the full moon, the fifteenth day of their lunar month, "Sapattu". The Hebrew "sabbath" was probably adapted from the Babylonian "sabattu" or '" 1~{\\i ·~"(' "\d "y'\ ..- "day of rest". An interesting etymological cousin to the word "sabattu", 10

derives from the belief of the Babylonians that the moon itself men-

struates. This monthly bleeding was thought to take place at the time

of the full moon, and was called "Shabathu" or "evil day". This tem

was gradually applied not only to the day of the full moon, but also to

the days of the new moon, first quarter and third quarter (Langdon, 1964,

pp 152-153). The Hebrew calendar is still lunar oriented, as are many

holidays.

In ancient Gaul and Britain, the moon occupied a high position in

the religion of the Druids, who are often pictured as having a crescent

in their hands. The Druids, who lived simple lives in the forest and

caves, served as religious instructors, teachers of children, philoso-

phers, prophets and judges. Their knowledge of the stars and of medi-

cine added to their prestige. Little is known of the religious rituals

of the Druids , since participants were sworn to secrecy, but we have

evidence of some of their ceremonial rituals. The hours of noon and mid-

night were sacred to them, as were the oak tree and the mistletoe. One

of their rituals consisted of cutting the mistletoe with a golden sickle

in the light of the full moon (Atkinsin, 1981).

/ Modern man has shown great fascination with the ruins of Stonehenge I in Southern England, which has been closely associated with the Druids. Various alignments of certain stones in the prehistoric temple are said

to have been used to predict eclipses as well as other lunar and solar

events essential to the religious, agricultural, medical, calendric, and ~ t -·- --4{@.gical ceremonies of ancient religious groups. It has been popularly

assumed that the Druids were responsible for building Stonehenge. How-

ever, modern excavations and radio-carbon dating have shown that this

circular formation was built in several stages, beginning about 2800 11

B.C. , which precedes the Druidic religious order by 2, 000 years. More­

over, accounts of the Druids by the Romans state emphatically that the

Druids built no temples of their own, but held their ceremonies in

clearings in the forest (Atkinson, 1981). It has been speculated that

the Druids inherited the knowledge and observations of astronomy and

other natural events, which was handed down over the centuries (Ibid.) . r-----, A structure similar to Stonehenge was built by the Anasazi In~~,·-"""~·~ I on an isolated butte in New Mexico around 950 A.D. These three stone

l slabs are perfectly aligned so that light from the sliD and moon produces l ,l 1 a ceremonial spiral pattern only during specific solstices, equinoxes,

}I and eclipses. This structure is said to have played an essential role l I in the agricultural and ceremonial lives of this culture between 950 and \ ._,.,_.--~ \, 1300 A.D. (Katzeff, 1981). -~~-~·----... ___,___'""_~--- Among the ancient Egyptians, moon and sliD worship appear to have

been the earliest form of religion. There were two moon gods, both

masculine, named Khons or Khonsu, and Tet or Thoth. Thoth was particu-

larly distinguished as being both the god of wisdom and the keeper of

time, attesting to the Egyptians use of the lliDar year. All pictures of

these two deities show them with the ll.IDar crescent, sometimes worn upon

the head. In hieroglyphic representation, figures of moon deities

actually took on the crescent form, or were depicted near a crescent.

The importance of another religious entity was judged by how close to

the moon or a moon god it was placed (Ibid.).

The cat, possibly the most venerated animal in Egyptian culture,

was closely associated with the moon. This connection was thought by

Plutarch to relate to the way the pupils of a eat's eyes dilate and de­

crease with the moon (Harley, 1970). The importance of the moon in 12

Egyptian theology is further confirmed by the existence of the mummies

of cats found inside the tombs of royalty.

An ancient myth of the god Thoth provides an interesting illustra­

tion of the attitude of the ancients toward the powers of the moon over

man. Briefly, the moon god once wrote a wonderful book containing

everything relating to life. The man who read the book of Thoth could

control the seas, the mountains, the heavens, the fish and all animals

of earth. The moon god sealed this knowledge within a box of gold, which he placed within a box of silver, within a box of ivory, within a

box of ebony, within bronze, brass and iron. He then threw it into the

Nile. \Vhen it was finally found, it gave its possessor tremendous know­

ledge and magical powers, but it always brought on him misfortune

(Ibid.) . And so, throughout history, we have vie\ved the moon with great

ambiguity, as the possessor of infinite power and wisdom, and also the bearer of ill fortune.

Man' s concept of the dual nature of the moon is further evident in

the highly developed Greek and Roman mythologies, which combine religion with poetry and fictional literature. The embodiment of the moon is now

feminine; known to the Greeks as Artemis, to the Romans as Diana, sister

of the sun god Apollo. However, her name at any particular time would vary with her attitude and purpose. She could be both stern and gentle; both serene and mischievious. While she was the Greek Selene or the

Roman Luna in the heavens, Artemis and Diana on Earth, she was Hecate in the world belo¥7. As Selene she was known to move across the heavens in a white chariot from which her soft light illuminated the earth. On

Earth, Diana was the guardian and protector of streams and animals, and the playmate of nymphs. 13

As Hecate, the Moon Goddess was the special patroness of witches and wizards, and moved about with the souls of the dead. Her appearance among men, generally on the full moon, was heralded by the barking and yelping of the hell-hounds. In her incarnation as Hecate, the full moon was known by the Greeks to cause a variety of bizarre behaviors, notably epilepsy and lunacy. Hippocrates reflects this belief in his statement regarding lunacy, "as often as one is seized with terror and fright and madness during the night, and leaps up from his couch and rushes out of doors, he is said to be suffering from visitations of Hecate ... 11

(Kelley, 1942, P. 408).

It is said that a 4th-century sect of Christians worshipped the moon in the person of the Virgin Mary, and in fact some scholars feel that the Virgin Mary retained her lunar symbolism throughout the middle ages (Katzoff, 1981). Many Christian holidays have reportedly evolved

from lunar rituals; for instance, the feast of the AssliDlption, and

Easter. However, it is not until the Hiddle Ages that the Christian theologians began to explore the true source of the moon 1 s influence on the behavior of man, as an instr1.IDlent through which the devil was able to impose his will. The basic consensus was that it is easier for the devil to assume control of the moon at certain phases, notably the new moon and the full moon. At these times he is most able to extend his evil influence over certain men whose resistances are weak; and in this way discredit God, who is known to control all the planets and stars.

The devil, via the moon, was particularly adept in the Middle Ages at creating certain specific ailments on the non-resistant man. Most notable among these were loss of control over the sexual passions, the

"sacred disease" epilepsy, and the "brain disease" known as lunacy. 14

St. Jerome is the chief defender of the moon in reminding us that the moon does not choose to wreak such havoc; but is itself a victim of the devil's tricks (Trapp, 1937). Despite St. Jerome's noble attempts on the moon's behalf, the increasing de-emphasis on the powers of demons brought a renewed emphasis on the moon's own power to cause misfortune in man.

FOL.T(L()RE AND SUPERSTITION

"Santa Luna, Santa Stella farmni crescere questa rnamella."

(Holy moon, holy star, make this breast grow for me.)

-Italian chant, intended to increase breast size. Repeat nine times at the time of the waxing moon (McDaniel, 1950).

i)-1\t ~\l\1 \:V\\"J f(1 \'"ol'i? A predominant theme in lunar lore is that the moon provides good luck and causes living things to flourish as it grows fuller, but causes misfortune and evil as it wanes. The full moon is thought to have the ability to produce the greatest effects, especially those associated lJ I \) , with misfortune and evil. The new moon is itself considered drained of energy, and so is able to exert little influence on earth. This view of the moon's cyclic effects is known as "lunar sympathy" (Katzef, 1981).

~'i ,-,,, /l ):·l·-:.v. The most obvious illustration of the doctr:lne of lunar sympathy is in agriculture.[, From ancient times to the present, the planting, grow­ ing, and harvesting of crops in accordance with the phases of the moon has been a common practice of farmers and gardeners. Crops are thought to grow more vigorously as the moon increases, and are best picked when the moon is on the wane.J According to the medical historian, William 15

I \l'\·J ~' \1 $' ~ '¥1 ~J . Stahl, the expression ''harvest moon'' testifies to the once prevalent be.., lief that the moon is responsible for the ripening of fruit. The Romans ' especially verte'~iitJd the harvest full moon, .at which time they celebra- . ..L;"',. ii)tn'N]:li.('l 1 r,·r\ \J l 1 / i) 91'W ,iJ ted Diana's Day. Dnrnkenness and sexual 1abandon in the fields at this a!\"ll \''}\ "d~'~i\ time were believed to produce fe!jt~litry to man, beast and crops alike

(Stahl, 1937).

The concept of lunar sympathy has been traditionally applied to man, as well as to animals and plants. A cormnon belief existent in many cultures is that children, as well as animals, who are born at the time of the waxing moon are stronger and larger than those brought forth in l~-" _, )\ ~ (< -;:) ) ..,\A r the wane. One English folk belief is that a child born in the interva],

"A'\/v·'l A lj0'1))'l 1,\0). between the old moon and the appeafance of the new one will never l~ve until the age of puberty. [An interesting Lithuanian custom is to wean boy children during the waxing moon, and girls at the waning, with the effect of producing strong and vigorous boys, and slim and delicate girls (Harley, 1970) .J Lunar influence over man's physical health and disease is a precept which appears universally in folklore and superstition. There seems to i j'u'\I\' ~ n~~J be no malady or disease which has not been attributed at one time to the effects of the moon. The moon lore of India tells us that illnesses in general worsen on the days of the full and the new moon, and that those likely to die will most often do so on these days. The Indians also be- lieve that certain medicinal herbs possess stronger healing qualities during particular lunar phases. The belief that cgildren born during ------·-. ··- ~-- ... __ , ····-· ...... -~-- certain lunar phases are sickly. or mentally unstable is cormnon to many cultures. Conditions most often attributed to the moon are epilepsy, jaundice, hydropsy, apoplexy, paralysis, colds, catalepsy, lethargy, 16

retardation and insanity. References to the deletarious influences of the moon on the health of man may be found throughout the writings of the Hebrews, Greeks, and Romans. The concept of ''moonstroke'' can be formd throughout history. The Roman Pliny was not alone in his opinion that the moon induced any number of ill-effects in those Who slept rmder its rays. In the 2nd-century, the physician Galen spoke of lrmar influ­ ence on a variety of maladies, and particularly of lrmar rhythms in the cycle of epileptic seizures. Lucian, the 2nd-century Greek Sophist, tells the story of a girl Who could not find a husband because she had periodic fits during the waxing moon. During the Middle Ages the effects of the lrmar phases on epileptic and hysteria attacks appears to have been widely accepted. In 1901, the noted Swedish chemist Berzelius reported that he had long been tormented by severe migraines Which oc­ curred precisely on the days of the new and full moon (Oliven, 1942).

The concept of "moonstroke" can be formd throughout history. The

5th-century Greek, Macrobius, wrote that women afflicted with certain diseases were said to be moon-struck. But long before this, the Latin term for moon-struck, "lrmaticus", was used specifically for victims of epilepsy. It has been cormnonly assumed that there are those individuals

Who are especially susceptible to the moon's effects; the most likely candidates being young children and adults Who are weak of spirit and offer no resistance. Stahl speaks of the Brazilian mother Who carefully shields her newborn infant from the lrmar rays, believing they will cause illness. In Iceland it is said that if a pregnant woman sits with her face to the moon, the child will be a lrmatic. The psychologist

Slaughter, in 1913, reports that the moon's presence excites yormg children to the ''point of abandon'' Whereas older children have a tend- 17 ency to gaze and languish in its light (Oliven, 1943). According to

Paracelsus in the Middle Ages, the spirit of an insane or weak man may be attacted to the moon like the needle of a compass; and when the attraction is strongest, especially at new moon, he will "grow worse, and begin to rave. The moon's influence is cold; and insane people have been called 'lunatics' because they were often injuriously affected by the moon whose influence acts upon the brain and stimulates the sex­ ual passions, and causes injurious dreams and hallucinations'' (Trapp,

1937). Long after Paracelsus, the English artist Norman Lindsay, por­ trayed the bizarre visions of the insane, while under the influence of the full moon; while Raphael depicted an excited, screaming youth, en­ titled ''Moonstruck Boy''.

The psychoanalyst Sadger, in 1920, described at some length a par­ ticular pathological condition known as 1 'moonwalking'', which differs from other types of somnambulism in its cyclic occurence with the full moon. His opinion was that the susceptible individual is disturbed dur­ ing this particular lunar phase because the roundness of the full moon awakens sexual memories of the mother figure 1 s body, her breasts and her buttocks. The conception of the moon as mother figure is found through­ out history. Such varied cultures as the Eskimos, the Mongolians and the Polynesians believed that women could become pregnant by gazing too long at the full moon, or that the husband's ftmction was merely that of breaking the hymen or enlarging the vaginal passage, while the moon is the real spouse and fertilizer (Harley, 1970).

A prevalent theme in lunar lore is the association of the effects of the moon with the bringing of moisture. According to ancient

Egyptian medical theory, all maladies were the effects of the anger of 18 p ' the Goddess Isis, the moon goddess, whose name literally means

''moisture''. The name Athensic, who the Hurons said was the moon, is de­ rived from their word for water. Aztec theology strongly links the gods

Citatli and Atl, who represent the moon and water. In pre-Columbian

Peru, one word could be used to signify "woman" sea or moon (Katzeff,

1981). The moon has traditionally been seen as having the ability to increase moisture in man's geophysical environment; specifically, in the oceans, the rain, and the morning dew. In Chinese Taoist theory, the

Yin represents the moon and is considered the source of all water. In

\.Jestern lore, the pail carried by fairy tale Jack and Jill (or Hiuki and

Bil in the original Norse myth), has been theorized to represent the filling and emptying of the moon's image in its periodic cycle. The spilling of the water is said to represent the casual link bebveen the moon and the earth's rains (Harley, 1970).

The moon's ability to increase moisture has commonly been seen as a cause of many of the maladies which also affect man' s internal environ­ ment. Pliny the Elder expressed the belief that the moon causes not only the usual dew in the earth's atmosphere, but makes the brain itself unnaturally moist and creates epileptic attacks in predisposed individ­ uals (Kelley, 1942) . In his famous Tetrabiblias, Ptolemy warns of the effects of the full moon in his statement, " ... and they will become de­ monic and afflicted with moisture of the brain, if the moon being in face with the stm (full), should be governed by Saturn when operating her conjtmction ... " (Ibid.) . This concept of "moisture on the brain" has been seen throughout history to provide a further link between the moon, epilepsy, and insanity. In 1740 the great Francis Bacon writes,

"It is like that the brain of man waxeth moister and fuller upon the 19

full of the moon; and therefore it were good for those that have moist brains, and are great drinkers, to take some of 1 ignum aloes, rosemary, frankincense, etc., about the full of the moon. It is like, also, that the humours in men 1 s bodies increase and decrease as the moon doth; and therefore it were good to purge some day or two after the full; for that then the humours will not replenish so soon again." (Harley, 1970)

Henry Howard, Earl of Northhampton, wrote in 1583 that "The moone is founde, by plaine experience, to beare her greatest stroke upon the seas, likewise in all things that are moiste, and by consequence in the braines of man.''

LYCANTHROPY

''I'm a bad dog, a mad dog, teasing silly sheep; I love to sit and bay the moon, to keep fat souls from sleep.''

-Irene Rutherford McLeod ''Lone Dog,'' Stanza I

A subject deserving of special consideration in any detailed his­ tory of moonlore is that of lycanthropy, or ''werewolfism". The concept of man's transformation into a violent beast, and particularly into a wolf, is one of the oldest and most primal of man's superstitions.

Appearing in some form in nearly all cultures this transformation is nearly always described as occurring cyclically during the period of the full moon. vJhile much abused in literature and the modem media, the symbol of the werewolf can be seen as a metaphoric representation of the phenomenon of periodic insanity.

The term "lycanthropy" is derived from the name of Lycaon, an ancient Greek king. According to myth, Lycaon dared to test the omni- 20

science of the god Zeus by secretly serving him a meal of human flesh.

CM.traged, Zeus destroyed his palace and turned him into a raging animal which was half man, half wolf. According to Ovid's description, "His vesture was changed into hair, his limbs became crooked; A wolf, he retains yet large traces of his ancient expression. Hoary he is as afore, his cotmtenance rabid. His eyes glitter savagely still, picture of fury." (Katzeff, 1981)

During the time of ancient Greece, lycanthropy was referred to as

"Lupinam Insanit.nn", literally wolf-madness, but even then it was some­ times described as an actual disease which was periodic in nature. It was considered by some to be a fonn of melancholy; a fonn of dementia or madness, which appeared most often during the period of the full moon.

The theme of transformation of man into wolf prevails in most

European conntries, and in most other parts of the war ld. The Book of

Daniel describes the Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar as suffering from a periodic depression which grew steadily worse, until he became convinced that he was a wolf. In "Satyricon", the novelist Petronius tells of an eye-witness accotmt of a soldier who became a "verespellis", a turnskin or werewolf, one night when the "light of the moon was almost as bright as of the midday sun" (McDaniel, 1950). Stories of the Navaho Indians speak of werewolves as nocturnal ghouls who attack sheep, exhume the dead, and cannibalize their live human victims. Jean Bodin, a

16th-century French physician, writes that "the devil can really and materially metamorphose the body of a man into that of an animal and thereby cause the sickness" (Katzeff, 1981). In some parts of France it was believed that excommunication by the church brought with it the predisposition to becoming lycanthropic. 21

According to the distinguished Latin professor, Walton Brooks

McDaniel, belief in the "lupo mannaro" has never entirely died out in

modern Italy. Italian writers on popular medicine recognize "lycantrop­

ia1 1, also known as 1'mal di luna'', as either a fonn of epilepsy, or a

melancholia. Particularly at times of the full moon, victims are seized

with convulsions, rush madly howling through the streets, scratch on

house doors with their hands crooked like claws, and throw themselves

down on the grmmd to roll in the dirt and mud. The next morning they

awaken to their natural selves, generally subdued and exhausted from the

previous night 1 s activities. Between seizures, these unfortunates may

be recognized by their weak sight, pallid or hollow faces, and dryness

of tongue which accompanies their intense thirst. In some parts of

Italy it is said ;::hat persons who have a family history of this afflic­

tion should beware of sleeping in the direct rays of the moon at any

time. Another bt~lief is that the werewolf often experiences a type of

·aura which warns of his approaching seizure, so that he may lock himself

away to protect his family and his livestock (McDaniel, 1950).

According to Germanic legend, the magic change into a werewolf may

be accomplished by donning a wolf's pelt, taking to the woods, and

living as a nocturnal hunter and killer. Capitalizing on this belief

and fear, the terrorist and para-military "Operation Werewolf" was es­

tablished after World War I. In 1945 Rimmler vowed to harass "like

werewolves" the alli~d lines of communication in occupied Germany. In

speaking of the education of Hitler Jugend, the Fuerer himself stated

his wish to "see once more in the eyes of a pitiless youth the gleam of

pride and independence of the beast of prey" and to "eradicate the thou­

sand of years of human domestication" (Eisler, 1978). 22

There are a number of well-documented cases of individuals con­ sidered to be werewolves, both in past and recent history. Some 30,000 cases of lycanthropy were reported to church and secular officials be­ tween 1520 and 1630 (Katzeff, 1981). Fear of these people was so great during the Middle Ages that anyone unlucky enough to be born with the slightest lupine features, such as long canine teeth or an unusually hairy face, was in danger of being accused and tortured into confession. A common safeguard to insure the permanent disposal of the lycanthrope was to finally shoot him with a bullet of silver, the metal said, in folklore, to represent the moon. In the 16th-century a Frenchman named Gilles Garnier confessed to being a werewolf, actually describing in his 1573 trial how he had attacked and devoured numerous young children. He was burned at the stake, as was the particular custom at this time. Jacques Rollet, a Parisian of the same era, was leniently sentenced to life in an asylum for a similar confession. In the late 18th-century, "the Werewolf of Bordeaux" was executed, in the person of the fifteen-year-old cowherd, Jean Grenier. Following his confession and proper elimination, savage attacks which had occurred on humans and cattle in the district ceased, and order was restored. There have been several reportings in modern psychiatric literature of individuals convinced of their own lycanthropy. In each of these cases, the patient was actually seen to exhibit wolf-like behavior, which appeared to be episodic in its occurrence. In 1977 , Rosenstock and Vincent report the case of a 49-year-old woman suffering from peri­ odic episodes in which she exhibited delusions of werewolf transforma­ tion, an obsessive need to frequent graveyards and woods, and primitive 23

expression of aggressive and sexual urges in the form of bestiality.

The patient responded to treatment protocol used for acute schizophrenic psychosis, and was released during the ninth week of hospitalization on neuroleptic medication.

Surawicz and Banta discuss the recent case of a 37-year-old

Applachian farmer, who behaved episodically in a bizarre manner. During these occasions, he would allow his facial hair to grow, pretending it was fur. He would sleep in cemeteries, howl at the moon, and sometimes lie down in the highway in front of oncoming vehicles. Episodes of this behavior were shown to occur specifically during the period of the full moon. On his first admission to a psychiatric hospital he was given a diagnosis of "psychosis with mental deficiency", and a marked deteriora­ tion of cortical functioning was found. During his second hospitaliza­ tion, the patient himself explained his strange behavior by explaining that he was periodically transformed into a werewolf. After extensive psychological and neuro-psychiatric testing, the patient was finally discharged with a diagnosis of ''chronic brain syndrome of undertermined etiology". The periodicity of his psychosis, occurring only at the time of the full moon, remains unexplained on an organic level. At the time this case was reported, Mr. W. had been free of these episodes for a period of one year of outpatient treatment, on a maintenance of thiorid­ azine hydrochloride. He appeared, however, unusually subdued and child­ like, offering little spontaneous conversation and answering most quest­ ions with one-word responses (Surawicz and Banta, 1975).

The ordeal of Mr. W. is reminiscent of a July 15, 1949 press report from the London Daily Telegraph. This article was noted by Dr. Robert

Eisler, who had just completed a lecture on lycanthropy, sadism,, and 24

masochism before the Psychiatric Section of Britain's Royal Society of " '

Medicine. Eisler quotes the following:

''Howls coming from the bushes in gardens in the centre of Rome last night brought a police patrol to what seemd a "werewolf". Under the full moon they foillld a yoilllg man, Pasquale Rosini, covered in mud, digging in the groillld with his finger-nails and howling. On being taken to hospital Rosini said that for three years he had regularly lost conscious­ ness at periods of the full moon and had fOillld him­ self wandering the streets at night, driven by l.IDControllable instincts. He was sent to a clinic for observation." (Eisler, 1978)

It seems not unreasonable to assume that there may be some basis in fact for a belief so widespread in time and place as that of lycanthropy.

Scholars have offered a number of theories which might explain this phe- nomenon. One medical explanation is derived from the physical features of the lycanthrope. From the notably similar eye-witness descriptions which have appeared throughout the ages, this being is characterized by an extreme preponderance of hair which often covers the palms or the hands, as well as the entire body. A rash sometimes appears on the chest. A male werewolf's unruly beard appears to merge with his hair and eyebrows, so that it resembles a lion's mane. The hands become curved like talons, and the nails grow long and thick like claws. The teeth develop a reddish color. The red and hollow-appearing eyes appear to glow in the dark. The feet become crooked and the toes distorted, and great calluses grow on the soles of the feet from running barefooted at night in the woods and over rocky terrain.

Basil Copper notes other disease-like features in the description of the lycanthrope. He suffers from profOillld thirst, headaches, dif- ficulty in breathing, and excessive perspiration. His skin becomes swollen, scarred and coarse, giving the appearance of leprosy. Copper 25 ,, '

refers to a thesis presented to the Royal Society of Medicine in October

1963 by a Dr. Lee Illis of Hampshire, England, entitled "On Porphyria

and the Aetiology of Werewolves". Dr. Illis pointed out the "symptoms" of the werewolf correspond significantly to the symptoms of a relatively rare congenital form of the medical condition known as ''porphyria''. This disease is brought on by a recessive gene Which makes a person's skin extremely sensitive to sunlight or to any form of contact. This sensitivity would most likely cause the victim to let his facial hair grow, rather than to shave it, and to be more comfortable outdoors in the dark or the moonlight, rather than in the light of the sun. Other conditions associated with porphyria are discoloration of the skin, skin rashes and lesions, progressive mutilation of cartilaginous structures such as the nose and ears, as well as of the fingers and eyelids. A gradual reddening of the teeth generally takes place due to the deposit of porphyrins. Dr. Illis is further quoted as describing the ''nervous manifestations" of the disease, Which may include " ..• mental disorders, ranging from mild hysteria to manic-depressive psychoses and delirium. Epilepsy may occur". It is not difficult to imagine that the victim of porphyria in the Hiddle Ages might join with his persecutors in assuming that he had, indeed, become transformed into a werewolf. The greatest tragedy about What Dr. Illis refers to as the "werewolf disease" is that its dramatic effects can now be arrested by treatment with modern drugs (Copper, 1977).

As has been alluded to earlier, the prevalent interpretation during the Hiddle Ages was religious/ superstitious in nature. As with other afflictions considered lunar-related, notably lunacy and epilepsy, ly­ canthropy was seen as a manifestation of possession by the devil, Which 26 could be either voluntary or involuntary. Physicians and scientists began gradually to adopt a compromise position, seeing the condition as a physical disease which could be brought upon a person by spells or black magic. Advancing the disease theory, Donato Antonio Altmari, a physician in 16th-century Naples, explained that this condition was a disease which occurred often in February, and was characterized by excessive thirst and complete loss of memory upon recovery (McDaniel,

1950). Another position was that it was caused by noxious herbs and poisons, among which mentioned are belladonna, various nightshades, opium, peyote, strychnine, mandrake and hashish.

As the disease concept of this disorder was increasingly emphasized, execution and torture became a less prevalent solution, and the sus­ pected werewolf was more likely to be incarcerated within the confines of a mental institution. Interestingly enough, life in the asylum did not always provide relief from society's persecution. A not uncommon practice in the treatment of all such "lunatics" was to automatically lock up or restrain the afflicted during the waxing moon, in anticipa­ tion of increased agitation and violent behavior. Kelley discusses an

1833 report of one institutional overseer who automatically ''bound, chained, flogged and deprived these miserable people of food, according as he discovered the moon's age by the almanac'' (Kelley, 1942) . It is easy to see how these practices might themselves create the very condi­ tions they professed to avoid, as these patients become increasingly agitated in anticipation of this treatment. Thus, each full moon helped to confirm the original supposition, and assured the continuation of these methods.

In our own century, psychiatrists have interpreted cases of self- 27 assumed lycanthropy as a fonn of hysteria. Symptoms such as the severe withdrawal, bizarre behavior, delusions, and impaired impulse control seen in this disorder would tend to support a diagnosis of schizophrenia in some cases. However, in more than one recent case in which lycan­ thropic symptoms occur, these episodes are thought to have been initia­ ted by drugs such as LSD and strychnine. It is possible then that 16th­ century theorists may have been entirely correct in their view that lycanthropic symptoms could be induced in some individuals by the ingest­ ion of certain herbs and poisons.

In an article entitled 1 'Lycanthropy as a Psychic Mechanism'' , Nand or

Fodor describes the phenomenon of werewolf transformation as an ''evolu­ tionary regression, an escape from the human to the animal level"

(Fodor, 1945).

Motives for this escape mechanism are seen, according to this view, as "sexual and sadistic, cannibalistic and necrophilic''. These persua­ sions may be freely expressed behind the guise of lycanthrope, because

''on the animal level, no guilt is attached to satisfying them'' (Ibid. ) .

Another facinating theory is that of Dr. Robert Eisler, who sees the emergence of the werewolf as a result of man's failure to integrate and accept the irrational and violent ''beast'' side of his nature.

Eisler's particular treatment of this problem finds its support in

Jung 1 s theory of archetypal ideas which survive in the ancestral sub­ conscious. This anthropological approach attests that man was once primarily a fanner and fruit gatherer. Due to changes in available food supply which occurred as a result of climactic changes, man entered into an evolutionary transition, to become a hunter. This journey from the peaceful non-aggressive herd to the lupine pack, the change from omni- 28

vore to carnivore, is symbolic of man 1 s discovery of his violent, beast

side. Man appears equally capable, by nature, of characteristics such as gregariousness and peaceful cooperation, and the qualities of aggres­

sion and murderous violence which emerge as he learns he must kill for his own survival.

The wolf itself was fomerly widely distributed over the earth, but because of urbanization and over-shooting, survives mainly today in

Canada, Russia, Eastern Europe, and parts of Asia. This scarcity is a primary factor in the gradual decrease in awareness of what is referred to by Dr. Montague S1IDlffiers as the 1 'mystic bond between the figure of the wolf and the man-beast, the werewolf'. Surmners describes the distinct­ ive features of the wolf itself as "unbridled cruelty, bestial ferocity, and ravening hunger. His strength, his cunning, his speed, were regard­ ed as abnormal, almost eerie qualities; he had something of the demon, of hell ... In Holy Writ the wolf is ever the emblem of treachery, savag­ ery and bloodthirstiness." Moreover, Summers adds that the wolf "typi­ fies the eternal enemy of the lamb, and by the Lamb is Symbolized Our

Lord and the Saviour Jesus Christ" (S1.mlffiers, 1930). The special rela­ tionship between the wolf and the moon could not have escaped the atten­ tion of our ancestors. Human hunters following the wild herds at night would have been well aware of the baying of the wolves at the moon. The bright full moon provided a great advantage to the nocturnal stalker, and man was quick to follow the example of his teacher in utilizing this light. It is not difficult to see how man could view his imitation of the wolf, and later cooperation with the wolf in their domestication for lnmting, as a juncture of his choice between good and evil. According to Dr. Arnold Lieber, "The werewolf is a reminder of the human race 1 s 29

fall from grace. He is the individual who remembers too well, when he feels the pull of the full moon, the blood tratm~a of the first hunter."

(Lieber, 1978). Chapter 3

IN SEARCH OF THE I 'LUNAR EFFECT'': PRESEl'IT-DAY INVESTIGATIONS

'~en the moon's in the full, then wit' s in the wane.''

-1658, "Witch of Edmonton," author unknown (Harley, 1970)

As we have seen, the idea that the human mind is affected by the phases of the moon is one of the oldest and most deeply rooted beliefs of mankind. The state of periodic insanity, which increases and de­ creases with the waxing and waning of the moon, has come to be referred to as ''ltmacy''. In the 18th-century, the eminent English lawyer Sir

William Blackstone codified and legalized the belief in ltmar influence on the sanity of man, and also differentiated between insanity and true

11 ltmacy", with the following definition: "A ltmatic, or 'non compos mentis', is one who hath ... lost the use of his reason and who hath lucid intervals, sometimes enjoying his senses and sometimes not, and that frequently depending upon the change of the moon. 11 (Oliver, 1943)

England's Ltmacy Acts of 1842 defined a ltmatic as someone "afflicted with a period of fatuity in the period following after the full moon. 11

(Neuhaus, 1983) During the past two centuries, there are stalwart groups of physicians and psychological researchers who accept the pos- sibility of ltmar influence on the human mind.

The 18th-century Philadelphia physician and Fotmding Father,

Benjamin Rush, initiated a study of the moon's affect on mental patients.

A proponent of the idea that mental disorders often derive from physical

30 31 ' '

causes, he came to the conclusion that those susceptible to lunar in­

fluences are responding to the increase of light and rarified atmosphere

produced by the full moon. The French psychiatrist Daquin, in his book

on mental disorders, makes no distinction between lunacy and other forms

of insanity when he writes, "It is a well established fact that insanity

is a disease of the mind upon which the moon exercises an unquestionable

influence." (Oliver, 1943). In 1882, the German psychiatrist Koster

discussed his lifetime of work with cases of periodic insanity, in the

course of which he attempted to prove statistically the lunar effect on

this condition.

The idea that mad men and eccentric people in general develop in­

creasingly bizarre behavior as the moon becomes full, has been widely

accepted, even in recent times. In Britain, the practice of binding and

flogging asylum inmates to "prevent violence" during certain phases of

the moon is known to have been practiced in more than one institution.

It was not until 1808 that this custom was abolished in that country.

George Sarton, editor of "Isis'', reports that as late as 1936, he was

told during a tour of a West Indies insane asylum that "special re­

straints" must be used to handle the inmates during the full moon

(Oliver, 1943).

The link between moon phases and cyclic mental disturbance has been

studied in relation to various specific disorders. Several psychia­

trists, notably Cramer and Laycock, have cited cases of periodic intol­

erance to alcohol which occurs with the full moon, producing violent ef­

fects in patients otherwise well accustomed to alcohol (Ibid.). Pyro­ mania, the urge to start fires, has been reported in several studies to have a relation to the phases of the moon (Stahl, 1927). The occurrence 32

of suicides during the full moon has been the subject of a number of modern studies. Among investigations of the moon' s effect on criminal offenses, is the famous study on homicides conducted by Dr. Arnold

Lieber in Dade County, Florida. We will discuss Lieber's study in some detail later in this chapter.

Before entering into any detailed discussion of some of the more involved contempory studies of lunar periodicity on human behavior, it is necessary to have a basic understanding of the lunar-phase cycle, and what it actually represents in the world of astronomy.

THE PHASES OF THE t-IOON

"I with borrow' d silver shine, What you see is none of mine. First I show you but a quarter, Like the bow that guards the Tarter: Then the half, and then the whole, Ever dancing round the pole.''

-Jonathan Swift, On the Moon

The changing figures of the waxing and waning moon are among the most conspicuous of celestial phenomena and were among the first to be understood by science. The moon is actually a dark globe, which shines only by reflected light from the sun. As it revolves around the earth, its sunlit hemisphere is shown to us in successively increasing or dim- inishing amounts. These are known as the phases of the moon.

The new moon, considered the start of the lunar-phase cycle, is actually invisible because it passes between the earth and sun with its dark side facing us. In the early lunar calendars, the new month began on the second day of this phase, when a very thin crescent moon appears in the western sky shortly after sunset. The "waxing crescent" gradu- 33

ally widens every night until, at the "first quarter", half of the disc

is seen. Next comes the "gibbous" hase, as the bulging sunrise line

gives the moon a lopsided appearance. Finally, the round full moon is

seen rising in the east at nightfall. At this halfway point in the lun­

ar cycle, a single line is formed with the moon and sun on opposite

sides of the earth, so that the entire side of the moon which faces the

earth is illuminated.

The phases are now repeated in reverse order as the sunset line

moves across the disc. The full moon decreases to "waning gibbous",

then "last quarter", until the cycle begins anew. The moon's "age" is

the interval at any time since the preceding new moon.

If calculated with reference to a fixed star, the moon moves in its

orbit around the earth in an average of 27 days, 7 hours, and 43.2 min­

utes. This period of time, known as the "sidereal month", is the true

period of the moon's revolution. It represents the interval between two

successive conjunctions of the moon's center with the same star, as seen

from the center of the earth. The sidereal month varies as much as

seven hours because of irregularities of the moon's motion.

The average length of lunar-phase cycle is 29 days, 12 hours, and

44.1 minutes; and varies more than half-a-day. This month of the phases

known as the "synodic month", is longer than the sidereal month by more

than two days. The difference in orbital time for these two lunar months arises from the fact that the earth and moon revolve together

around the sun. In the time it takes for the moon to complete one revo­

lution around the earth, the earth has moved forward in its own orbit

around the sun. To complete the synodic cycle, the moon must travel

another 53 hours before it is in the same position relative to both sun 34

and earth.

A further significant aspect of the moon's orbit relative to the

earth is the apogee-perigee cycle. As the moon's orbit is elliptical,

or oval, its distance from the earth fluctuates along a major axis. At

"apogee", its farthest point, it is approximately 253,000 miles away

from the earth. At this time, the moon's orbital speed slows down. The

moon increases its speed when it is nearest to earth at ''perigee'', at

which time it is only 221,000 miles away. The "line of apsides", the

major axis between perigee and apogee, constantly revolves eastward to

complete a revolution once in about every nine years.

\------~' Because the force of gravity varies with the distance between two \ attracting objects, the strength of the moon's pull is increased at \ \ perigee. As gravitational forces on the earth are strongest when sun i, \ \ and moon are aligned, a coincidence of new or full moon with lunar peri- \ \ \ gee has an tmusually high gravitation impact on the earth. The physical \ \ and biological effects of this gravitational variance will be discussed \ at a later time, in relation to the biological tides theory of Dr.

Arnold Lieber.

CASE STUDIES

"It was the hand of Edward Hyde. I must have stared at it for near half a minute ... before terror worked up in my breast as sudden and startling as the crash of cymbols; and bounding from my bed I rushed to the mirror. At the sight that met my eyes, my blood was changed into something exquisitely thin and icy. Yes, I had gone to bed Henry Jekyll: I had awakened Edward Hyde."

-Robert Louis Stevenson

Dr. Michael Stone of Columbia University and New York State Psychi-

atric Institute reports the recent case of Mr. L. , who was born in 1947. 35

His symptoms began during late adolescence, shortly after the termina­ tion of his parents 1 quarrelsome and violent marriage. At this time the patient began to experience perceptual distortions and feelings of un­ reality. As he withdrew socially, he developed an imaginary friend named "Eddie". After eloping with his fiancee and entering college, his symptoms became worse. He entered psychotherapy, displaying evidence of depression, inability to concentrate, extreme dependence, considerable weight gain, and compulsive rituals. He was hospitalized twice, placed on antidepressant medication, and given a total of 32 electroconvulsive treatments. Mter a short period of relief from symptoms, his behavior became even more erratic. Alone in his apartment one afternoon, he be­ gan to sing and dance and write notes to himself on a black board. Cer­ tain words would appear in his mind, and he would repeat them over and over, rhyming them with other words. He felt he was constantly watched from somewhere in the living room. While in the shower he imagined people calling his name.

Noting the extreme variations of mood between his patient's "good days" and "bad days", Dr. Stone began to record these changes of affect on graph paper. It was gradually discovered that Mr. L. 1 s most severe depressions generally occurred for no longer than two or three days at a time, and only about once a month. Each of these periods occurred within 24-hours of the full moon. This cyclic emotional fluctuation was brought under control almost immediately with administration of lithium carbonate. At the time this case was reported, Mr. L. had suffered only one relapse, when a new doctor temporarily substituted medication. On

January 26, 1975, one day before the full moon, the patient became ex­ tremely excited and euphoric, only to become overwhelmed the next day by 36

a life-threatening depression. With the restoration of lithium, he

returned to productive life and planned to re-enter college.

The case of Mr. L. is by no means unique in the current literature.

Charles Hyde, an English laborer charged with housebreaking, was des­

cribed in court as "a Dr. Jekyll and a real live Mr. Hyde". According

to his defense, Hyde was normally a good father, husband and cooperative

member of society. But, according to his lawyer, he "suffers from a

kind of moon madness. He seems to go off the rails when the moon is

full.'' One year later, Hyde was returned to court for breaking proba-

tion. During a full moon, he had impulsively fled the cmmtry and join-

ed the French Foreign Legion. He was finally sentenced to an 18-month

prison term after burglarizing his brother-in-law's home on the night of

a new moon.

At a 1963 meeting at London University, Dr. E. A. Jannino of Lynn,

Massachusetts presented a paper exploring the possibility that both Jack

the Ripper and the Boston Strangler were genuine "lunatics", driven to

violence by certain phases of the moon. According to Dr. Jannino, mod-

ern investigations indicated a change in man's electrical potential

twice a month, coinciding with the new and the full moon. This higher

voltage reading in the maladjusted group appeared associated with feel­

ings of tenseness and irritability (Cottrell, 1969).

~-;~IES ON MARINE LIFE ;

''I do not know whether I understand your meaning when you say 'Astrology'. I do not know all the influences which go from body to body. I do know that if man is not affected in some way by the planets, Sun and Moon, he is the only thing on J Earth that isn It. II f { -Robert Millikin, 1924 Nobel Prize \ winner and President of the Calif­ ~·~~--·------·------ornia Institute of Technology 37

(~ Belief in the "lunar hypothesis", fondly referred to in some cir-

cles as the "Transylvania effect", survives with full vigor among to­ / day's psychiatric workers, police, taxi-drivers, and others who work I' I regularly with the public. However, in keeping with the nature of folk- L.----~-----· lore, this belief system is kept alive primarily on the basis of person- al observations, as well as stories of others' personal observations. While a considerable collection of data has been gathered on the moon's influence in the recent literature, the majority of this data has been based on casual surveys that lack careful scientific methodology.

Our assumption heretofore has been that a certain amount of ere- dence must be granted to the word-of-mouth transmission of lunar lore, simply by virtue of its universality and unwavering persistence in human history. However, observational experience and reports of the subject- ive experiences of others do not constitute sufficient evidence on which to base decisions. We know from psychological research that the indi- vidual observer has a tendency to remember evidence that supports prior experience or opinions, and to forget that which does not. Actual studies dealing with various aspects of lunar influence have

yielded mixea,and even conflicting, results. As is the bane of every psychological researcher, the human mind has a tendency to resist the scientific method, when finding itself the actual subject of the invest- igation at hand. It appears inherent in the nature of man to resist neat categorization, objective testing, or any other such challenge to the unique nature of the individual. (One very important factor in studying a phenomenon such as lunar influence is that individuals may vary tremendously as to their susceptibility to such an effect). Many modern scientists have hesitated to risk their own credibility 38

by seriously researching a subject often associated with such unscien­

tific "nonsense" as astronomy, werewolves, magic, and possession by the

Devil. Contemporary studies of lunar influence on earth have, therefore,

proceeded very cautiously.

The close relationship between the phases of the moon and the tides

of the seas and oceans has been established for some time. It seems

logical that the studies which produced the first significant evidence

of lunar influence on organic life were performed with marine animals.

One of the more well-lmown and well-accepted of these studies was

performed in 1953 by Dr. Frank Brown, of Northwestern University in

Evanston, Illinois. Dr. Brown had oysters shipped by air from the

Connecticut shore, and placed them in a salt water tank in his labora­

tory in Evanston. The water level and temperature of their environment

were held constant, and the room was lit by a dim but steady light. The

oysters, known to open and close their shells according to the rising

and falling of the tides, were allowed no external cues in the control­

led conditions of the laboratory.

For the first week, the oysters opened their shells and began to

feed at the time of the high tides in their ancestral beds in Ne\v Haven.

However, after t\vo weeks, the entire group of shells remained closed

until four hours later than their normal schedule. Adjusting to their

new geographical location, they now began opening at a time when the moon was at its zenith over Evanston. If Evanston were a coastal city,

it would have been the time of high tides. However, the occurrence of

this change within the controlled laboratory environment demonstrated

that the oysters were responding not to tidal forces, but to the posi­

tion of the moon. Further studies of marine life have demonstrated 39

various other aspects of hmar influence. For instance, it has been

fotmd that the waning period of the moon stimulates adult eels to begin their migration from European rivers, in a 3,000 mile journey to their

spawning grounds in the Sargasso Sea (Cottrell, 1969).

Another interesting example of highly sophisticated lunar sensitiv­ ity is in the palolo worms of Samoa and Fiji. The palolo lives almost

its entire life inside coral reefs, emerging only twice a year to mate.

These two occasions occur during the months of October and November, precisely on the first day when the moon enters the last quarter. This timing is so regular that the natives of Samoa and Fiji include the worm's appearance in their calendar. For the islanders these are feast days, as they swoop up the worms from the surface of the water by the basketful. For the palolo this timing does not depend on maximum tidal pull, which would occur with the full moon, but on a particular sequence in the lunar cycle (Cottrell, 1969).

Having successfully demonstrated major sensitivity to lunar influ­ ences in oysters and fiddler crabs, Dr. Frank Brown then turned his attention to the study of hamsters. He found that they peaked in meta­ bolic activity shortly after the full moon and the new moon. Dr. Brown is now considered the chief proponent of the "extrinsic timing theory" of biological rhythms, which will be discussed in greater detail in the next chapter. Brown's work has been of significant importance in study­ ing the effect of lunar periodicity in man.

BIOLCX;ICAL RHYTHHS

"Man is a symphony of rhythms and cycles."

-Dr. Arnold Lieber 40

Since ancient times, we have been aware that rhythm affects not

only the heavenly bodies, but plant and animal life as well. Until

recently, man has become increasingly aware of such life rhythms as eat-

ing, sleeping, feeding, and reproduction as it affects less complex

species of the animal kingdom. However, in the last century, there has

been a growing interest in the study of biological rhythms in man. In

1898, the Danish Nobel Laureate Svante Arrhenius published a paper Which

discussed various biological rhythms in animals and man (Lieber, 1978).

These biological cycles were given the name "circadian rhythms" over 30 years ago by Dr. Franz Halberg and his associates at the University of

Minnesota. The word "circadian", meaning "around the day", refers to

the cycles, such as sleeping and waking, Which occur repetitively over

the period of one day. There are other biological cycles, such as the menstrual cycle, Which repeat themselves over a longer period of time.

Others, such as the various stages of sleep, are of much shorter dura- tion. Biological rhythms have been demonstrated in almost every aspect of man 1 s functioning; for instance, body temperature, heartbeat, pain,

sensitivity, and color perception (Lieber, 1978). These cycles are, however, susceptible to interference by environmental factors such as weather, trauma, disease, heat and cold. One example of environment~~ / I disturbance of normal metabolic rhythms is the phenomenon of "jet lag",, ) experienced after long distance travel.

It has been recently discovered that any of four substances--heavy water, an antibiotic known as dalinomycin, alcohol, and lithilml--can shift biological rhythms. It is interesting to remember Dr. Michael

Stone 1 s patient "Mr. L.", whose dramatic sensitivity to the ltmar cycle was finally treated with the continued use of lithilml carbonate. 41

Natural body cycles can also be shifted with the use of artificial light, when the subject is isolated from sunlight. These rhythms will, however, continue their regular :functioning even though shifted in tim- ing.

MEDICAL STUDIES

''The wavering planet most l.ll1stable, Goddess of the waters flowing, That bears a sway in each thing growing And makes my lady variable. Oft I seek to undermine her, Yet I know not where to find her.''

-Anonymous, Sixteenth Century (Lieber, 1978)

In discussing any subject which deals with environmental influences on the human mind, it becomes apparent that there is no aspect of the problem which can be isolated as being purely biological, nor that which can be considered purely psychological. An important trend in modern psychology is to view the individual person as a holistic unit, who con- stantly acts upon and is affected by the surrounding environment. While it is beyond the scope of this paper to present a thorough discussion of recent medical studies which have attempted to relate human biological functioning to environmental rhythms, and specifically lunar rhythms, it is important to have some awareness to recent findings in this area.

Throughout history the moon has been associated with reproduction and the menstrual cycle. In recent years, studies have shown that there may be some truth in this assumption; The human menstrual cycle is the same length as the synodic or l1.U1ar-phase cycle, an average of 29.5 days.

Hedical studies have been published by Romer (1907), Bramson (1929), and

Guthmann and Oswald (1936) showing that a significant number of menstrual 42

cycles began with the full or the new moon (Lieber, 1978).

In 1959, Walter and Abraham Menaker studiea the human gestation period, using 250,000 births. Their results showed this period to be

265.8 days, or precisely nine lunar months, and concluded that the human reproductive system follows lunar time rather than sidereal time. It was also concluded that more births occurred at full moon than during any other phase (Lieber 1978). There are several theories as to how the connection between the moon and the reproductive cycle developed. One is that menstruation, like the flow of ocean tides, became synchronized according to the moon's gravitational pull, and has been genetically continued. Charles Darwin suggested that this synchronization originated as a result of our ancestors' life by the sea. Other theorists propose that various stages of the moon's light set off a biochemical chain reaction leading to men­ struation and ovulation (Katzeff, 1981). Several recent studies indicate that, While they do not menstruate, men undergo periodic biological and emotional cycles Which are similar to those of women. A 1977 study by Alice J. Dan of the University of Chicago demonstrated the existence of such male biological rhythms Which occur over the lunar month (Katzeff, 1981).

Dr. Estelle Ramey, a professor of physiology and biophysics at Georgetown University, described in a 1972 study how changes in body temperature, physical strength, and adrenal hormones fluctuate according to monthly cycles in both men and women. In his presentation of the case of Mr. L., Dr. Michael Stone discusses "circurmnensual" (approxi­ mately a month) biological rhythms Which often appear in men; and Which in this particular client, happen to coincide with the full moon 43

(Stone, 1976).

Numerous studies have been performed to investigate the longstand- ing notion that bleeding from an injury or from surgery is worse during the full moon. A four-year study by Dr. Edson J. Andrews of Tallahassee,

Florida showed an "amazing association of the full moon on the increased incidence of bleeding". In his investigation of over 1,000 tonsillec- tomy patients, he made special note of those Who bled persistently enough on the operating table to require unusual means of control, such as suture. He found that 82% of these episodes occurred around the per- iod of the full moon. This study was replicated by Dr. Andrews with the assistance of Dr. Carl S. McLemore of Orlando, Florida, Who included cases of excessive bleeding in his tonsil and adenoid patients between

1950 and 1956. Andrews further confirmed his findings in his study of bleeding peptic ulcer patients at Tallahassee Memorial Hospital

~,..- .. ,... .,; (Andrews , 1960) . <~~~·. \

Dr. Norman Shealy, a highly respected Wisconsin neurosurgeon, con- \ firmed Dr. Andrews' findings in a 1979 study. In compiling records from nation-wide blood banks, Shealy found that the demand for blood trans- \ fusions is always highest between the time of the full moon and the two \ \., days following. He concluded his report with the opinion that, except \ \ ' in cases of emergency, surgery should not be performed during the full '~ \ /' moon (Katzeff, 1981, p. 218).

Several cases have been reported of excessive bleeding during the new moon, as well. An article in a 1979 edition of the St. Louis Hedi- cal and Surgical Journal discussed the case of a young man Who coughed blood from his lungs for six months, but only during each period of the new moon. Another case was reported of a man Who hemorrhaged from his 44

left thumb every new and full moon from infancy tmtil age sixteen. This hemorrhaging was eventually stopped by cauterizing the responsible art- ery (Katzeff, 1981). In a 1973 study by Rotmds, a biologist at Wichita State University, blood chemical effects of stress in men, mice, and cockroaches were examined. The results of this involved experiment shm.,r that certain chemicals which speed up the heartbeat in all three of these species peak arotmd the full and new moons. In interpreting his results, Rotmds wrote in 197 5 that the event to which the organisms appear to be re- spending is a direct or indirect effect of gravitational force which accompanies the synodic lunar cycle (Ibid.). In Michael Stone's discussion of Mr. L., he reports that a study by Murphy and Weiss (1972) found a periodic monthly decrease in platelet monomine oxidase in bipolar manic-depressive illness, and that Nies (1971) found this increase in some depressed patients. Stone theorizes that should a number of patients exist with lunar-related cyclic dis- turbances, they may be concentrated in this manic-depressive category. In this type of disorder, cyclical, including seasonal patterns have been reported for some time. Dr. Stone goes on to discuss the use of lithium in the treatment of cyclical mental disorders (Stone, 1976).

STUDIES OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR

"What is there in thee, Moon! that thou shoulds't move My heart so potently?" -Keats, Endymion

In the recent literature we have seen a dramatic increase in re- ports and studies exploring the possibility of lunar influences on 45 increased aggressive behavior. Behaviors most often examined in these studies are homicide, suicide, arson, assault and various aspects of disorderly conduct. In addition, there have appeared numerous attempts to correlate lunar phases with crisis calls and admissions to psychia­ tric hospitals. This new plethora of information on lunar influence is confmmd­ ing, to say the least. Studies and statistical compilations have been perfonned by researchers of every level of experimental training, and have appeared in publications ranging from weekly gossip tabloids to the most respected psychiatric journals. Results have been mixed and contradictory. One study of calls received in a Florida crisis intervention clinic over an eight-year period shows no significant correlation be­ tween crisis calls and lunar phase (Michelson, Wilson and Michelson, (1979). On the other hand, a study of patients seen in a Staten Island emergency mental health center shows a significant increase during the full moon (Blackman and Catalina, 1973). Walters, Markley, and Tiffany (1975), failed to replicate the work of Blackman and Catalina, conclud­ ing that the statistically significant results reported to date are the results of a Type I error; that is, the erroneous rejection of the null hypothesis. A comparison of statistics for psychiatric emergencies at the Bronx Municipal Hospital shows no significant relationship, but sug­ gests that the number of patients whose illnesses are markedly influen­ ced by the lunar cycle may be small enough that they would not affect a large sample (Bauer and Hornick, 1968). A University of Nevada study of crisis calls and suicide-threat calls over a bvo-year period finds a significant difference across lunar phases, however, the largest per- 46

centage of calls occurred at the First Quarter and the New Moon, which does not support the lunar hypothesis (DeVoge and Mikawa, 1977). The Journal of Police Science and Administration reports a South Carolina study investigating the possible relation between moon phases and the following classification of police calls: domestics, assaults, disorder1 y conduct, fights, drunks, robberies, breaking and entering, larcenies, and shoplifting. Results show a significant rise in police activity involving the one category of breaking and entering, but this researcher suggests the possibility that the light of the full moon may simply provide visibility necessary for the commission of this type of crime (Purpura, 1979). The results of a study by Tasso and Miller appear to conflict with those of Purpura, although it is difficult to compare the two directly, in that the length of time for the study and the list of criminal of­ fenses vary some,..mat. Tasso and Miller compiled statistics over a one­ year period for the following eight categories of crimes committed in Cincinnati, Ohio: rape, robbery and assault, burglary, larceny and theft, auto theft, offenses against family and children, drunkenness, and disorderly conduct. A statistically significant increase in offen­ ses during the full moon phases is reported in all categories, with the exception of homicide. The authors of this investigation also noted that offenses against family and children, which involve interpersonal relationships, resulted in the highest value of chi square (X2=122.00); whereas auto theft, which involves a material object, resulted in the lowest value of chi square (Tasso and Miller, 1976). A number of studies have been performed which investigate the relation of moon phases to mental hospital admissions. Among these, 47

Chapman (1961) finds no relationship between lunar phases and admis­ sions, and no relationship between the moon and incidents of assaultive behavior in already hospitalized patients. The Journal of Psychiatric Nursing and Mental Health Services re­ ports an analysis done on admissions to the inpatient psychiatric facil­ ity at Ohio State University. Findings of this study show a significant rise in admissions occurring regularly several days after the full moon. The probability of chance occurrence is listed as one in a thousand. It is theorized that if the moon does affect psychotic disorders, actual hospitalization may follow onset of the illness by several days (Osborn, 1968). Another study Which indicates significant relationship between ab­ normal behavior and the full moon appears in the Journal of Psychiatric

Nursing and Mental Health Services under the title, "The Moon, Weather and Mental Hospital Contacts: Confirmation and Explanation of the Transylvania Effect". Data in this study were categorized into three major types of variables: (1) Out-Patient Department variables, (2) over-all hospital variables, and (3) climactic and lunar variables. In all, nineteen different variables were studied within these categories. Chief findings are that temperature, barometric pressure, hllll1idity, and days from the full moon all relate significantly to both the number of new patients and the number of continuing patients assessed. The nl..ID1ber of telephone calls received by the Out-Patient Department increased When the temperature rose, hl..ID1idex rose, or barometric pressure dropped. A significant relationship is also reported between moon phases and weather conditions; in that the closer the moon to its full moon phase, the more likely the weather is to be hot and hllll1id. These findings are 48

supported by computer analyses during the past sixty years, which indi- cate that hurricanes fonn more frequently when the moon is waxing toward its full phase (Geller and Shannon, 1976). While this study does not purport to explain cause-and-effect relationships between the variables of lunar phase, weather, and mental health, it provides an important background for further investigation.

THE WORK OF LIEBER AND SHERIN

''Don't go around tonight, For it's bound to take your life. There 1 s a bad moon on the rise. 1 1

-Credence Clearwater Revival

Perhaps the most extensive and impressive of investigations into the field of lunar influences on human behavior is that perfonned by Dr.

Arnold Lieber, a psychiatrist at the University of Miami School of Medi- cine. Detennined to avoid observer biases, Lieber teamed up with Dr.

Carolyn Sherin, a clinical psychologist and statistician, to study the effect of lunar periodicities on violent behavior. The variable chosen for the measurement of violent behavior was homicide. The study was conducted in Dade County (Miami) , Florida, where the Medical Examiner has a national reputation for keeping meticulous computerized records of all violent deaths in the county. In addition to exact time of death, the time of actual injury is recorded, whenever possible. Later, in attempting to replicate this study, it was difficult to find such ac­ curate data as to time of injury. This information was finally found in the records of Cuyahoga County (Cleveland) , Ohio.

After eliminating homicides for which exact time of injury was un- 49

known, two samples were gathered, as follows: 1, 887 cases from Dade

County, spanning a fifteen-year period (1956 to 1970) and 2,008 cases

from Cuyahoga County, over a thirteen-year time span (1958 to 1970) .

Using a lunar-synodic decimal scale, rather than a solar calendar, homi­

cides were plotted on a graph in relation to their position in the lunar

cycle. Homicides were grouped according to their occurrence in periods

of seventy-two, forty-eight and twenty-four hours before and after each

phase of the moon. The number of homicides in each of these categories

was then compared with the number likely to occur by chance. Results

in the Dade County study show a striking and consistent correlation with

the lunar-phase cycle, with peaks occurring at the new and the full moon.

Peaks in the Cuyahoga County study are strikingly similar, but show less

significance due to a shift further right on the graph. The peaks on

the second graph appeared slightly later than those of Dade County, sig­

nifying an increase in homicides about three days after both full and

new moon (Lieber and Sherin, 1972).

As Dr. Lieber later continued his research on lunar influences, he

happened to come across a chart of metabolic activity in hamsters which

resulted from studies by Dr. Frank Brown in 1964 and 1965. As noted

earlier, Dr. Brown is especially renowned for his studies of lunar per­

iodicity in oysters and other marine life. Following his study of homicides, Dr. Lieber was amazed to find that the metabolic curve of hamsters charted by Dr. Brown was almost identical with the Cleveland

curve. In comparing the two studies, it was discovered that Chicago, where the hamster study had been conducted, was in almost the same geo­ graphical latitude as Cuyahoga County.

Lieber and Sherin next extended their studies to include examina- tion of aggressive behavior other than homicide. They obtained Dade

County records extending from five to fifteen years, of incidents of aggravated assaults, suicides, fatal traffic accidents, and psychiatric emergency-room visits. Cases were again screened to eliminate those with imprecise records of occurrence time. Attempted suicides, which comprised approximately one-fourth of the emergency-room cases, were the only exception, as there were usually no witnesses to document the time of injury. Many of these cases had to be discarded from the study be­ cause of obviously unreliable estimates.

In charting each type of behavior relative to the moon-phase cycle, a significant correlation was found in every category of behavior, with the exception of suicide. Validity of these negative suicide figures are, however, questionable because of the lack of accurate data in­ volved. Consistent with the homicide findings, aggravated assaults were found to consistently peak armmd the full moon, with a secondary peak shortly before new moon. Fatal traffic accidents peaked between first quarter and full moon, and again at last quarter. Psychiatric emergency-room visits peaked around the first and last quarter, with a significant decrease at new moon and full moon. In discussing emerg­ ency-room findings, Lieber and Sherin note the study by Dr. Roger

Osborn, in which it is theorized that moon-influenced disturbances may not be recognized as serious enough to warrant hospitalization until a few days have passed.

Further research in the fields of biological rhythms and cyclic occurrences in the geophysical envirorunent led Dr. Lieber to develop a distinctive theory, which offers a possible explanation for the effect of the moon's gravitational pull on living organisms. This approach to 51

the study of lunar influences, which Lieber refers to as the ''biological tides theory'' , will be discussed in the next chapter. Chapter 4

MX>N AND t-W'J: TIIEORIES

"The man who has seen the rising moon break out of the clouds at midnight, has been present like an archangel at the creation of light and of the world."

-Ralph Waldo Emerson Essays, First Series: History

THE LIGHT OF THE MX>N

A commonly held belief in folklore and among some researchers is

that the light of the moon itself is a crucial variable in hmar influ- ence, and is capable of directly or indirectly producing behavior changes. In 1845, the French physician Esquirol writes, "It is true that the insane are more agitated at the full moon as they are also at the early dawn of the day, but is it not the bright light of the moon that excites them as that of day every morning? Does not this bright- ness produce in their rooms an effect of light which frightens one, re- joices another and agitates all?" (Kelley, 1942) In 1924, Hyslop agrees with these findings, and adds, "I think we may rightly assume that light stimulates the brain to activity, hence the greater excite- ment of some patients at the period of the full moon." (Kelley, 1942)

In the past, this insistence on the effects of moonlight was for the most part, speculative in nature. More recently, serious study has been nndertaken to support this theory. In 1967, the physicist Edmond

M. Dewan, set out to demonstrate his hypothesis that women's menstrual cycles could be regulated by manipulating moonlight. He reasoned that this light might produce a triggering effect, releasing hormones and

52 53

enzymes which produce ovulation. In two separate experiments, Dewan was able to regulate cycles in thirty-four women who had previously suf­ fered from severe cramps and irregular menstruation. He was able to accomplish this by using bedroom lighting on the fourteenth through six­ teenth nights of each woman 1 s cycle. One woman who had suffered from an irregular cycle ranging up to forty-five days long achieved a regular twenty-nine day cycle for three years by continuing this technique on her own. However, when she discontinued this technique for two months , her cycle returned to its previous irregularity (Katzeff, 1981).

A number of experiments have been designed for the purpose of studying the effects of light variance on biological rhythms. In 1972, when Margaret Klinowska verified the Brown study of the full moon 1 s effect on hamsters, the light of the moon itself appeared to play a sig­ nificant role. Exposing his hamsters to artificial light, Brown had fotmd a monthly peak in metabolic activity arotmd the full moon. Using similar techniques, Klinowska fotmd that this peak in activity occurred on whatever day after the full moon that the moon happened to rise after solar twilight. While the moon was shown to be the crucial variable, the critical day appeared to be that with the longest period of rminter­ upted light (Ibid.).

Another theory is that moonlight exerts its tmique influences be­ cause it is polarized, and therefore essentially different from direct light. According to Kelley, there are several fallacies in this belief.

While it is true that light from the moon is partially polarized, its maximum polarization is actually only sixteen percent. The light which appears at dawn and at twilight greatly exceeds this degree of polari­ zation. Another important argwnent cited by Kelley is fotmd in a study 54

by Wright, that detemines that the maximum polarization of moonlight occurs at the lunar phase angles of 100° to 110° and 280° to 290°' while at full moon (0°) and new moon (180°) the polarization is zero (Kelley,

1942, p. 418).

In the Annals of Medical History, Stahl discusses Max's work with light as it affects dreaming. Thirty out of thirty-three patients in this study reported dreaming when a light stimulus was applied, whereas only nine out of sixty-two reported dreams when this stimulus was not present. Max is quoted as presenting the following interesting theory:

"Perhaps the primitive savage, sleeping exposed to moonlight, noticed that when he was awakened by dreams and nightmares the ful1 moon was frequently shining in his face. We know that to the savage, dreaming and insanity are closely associated, for the madman dreams in a state of wakefulness. In this manner madness may have been attributed to the moon's influence.'' (Stahl, 1937) In support of this theory, Stahl also reminds us that among the Ogallala Sioux, dreaming of the moon is con­ sidered a grave calamity.

In his investigation of sleep walking and moon walking, Sadger feels that the moon exerts a special power of attraction to certain in­ dividuals, forcing them out of bed. While he does not pretend to under­ stand the full dynamics of the relationship here, he believes that in some cases the moon's light may awaken the sleeper in reminiscence of a light in the hand of a beloved parent (Kelley, 1942).

The biographer M. G. Sarfatti writes of one of the most well-known proponents of the moonlight theory, an Italian who rose to great power in his time. As a youth, this man was greatly influenced by an elderly woman, known as "la vecchia Giovanna", who considered herself a witch. 55

As she mixed her potions and charms, she filled the young Benito Musso­ lini with colorful lunar lore. As a result of this relationship, the Duce carried with him his entire life a deathly fear of allowing the light of the moon to fall on him as he slept. According to Walton Brooks McDaniel, there are those who wonder if he might have, for one critical moment, allowed the moon's rays to work on him some of their magical powers of mutation. In later photographs of Mussolini, some have perceived a transformation of facial features, which appear in- creasingly more lupine as his personality was overtaken by his increas- ing lust for power (McDaniel, 1950).

THE GEOPHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT

"O ever alack! my master dear, I fear a deadly storm. I waw the new moon late yestreen, Wi' the auld moon in her arm ... '' -Old Scottish ballad (author unknown) ''I see a bad moon 'arising, I see trouble on the way, I see earthquakes and lightning I see bad times today ... '' -Credence Clearwater Revival

Dr. Frank Brown has been one of the active investigators of the effect of geophysical rhythms on the biological functioning of various forms of terrestrial life. He is considered one of the chief proponents of the ''extrinsic timing'' theory of biological cycles, suggesting that an independent internal timing system is not necessary since the exter- nal environment is always generating rhythmic cues. These signals include variations in terrestrial magnetism, electric fields, radiation, 56

and gravitational pull. Using a variety of life forms in which he has ascertained specific rhythmic changes, Dr. Brown has sought geophysical periodicities which might account for them.

Brown's studies have shown evidence of the existence of both solar and ltmar rhythms in many earth life forms. The fiddler crab, for in- stance, shows a twenty-four hour solar rhythm of color change, which occurs even in isolation. On the other hand, its activity cycle appears to coincide with the length of the lunar day.

In his investigations of geomagnetic influences, Brown performed experiments with planeria (worms) and mud snails. By simply rotating a magnet beneath the platforms on which these creatures were placed, he was able to change the direction in which they were veered. When tested with weak gamma fields, they also responded both to the intensity of the field and to the direction (Luce, 1971, p. 13).

' Based on his ovnl studies, and those of other physicists in the mid-

1950 1 s, Brown believes that all living organisms gain information about time and space orientation from weak electromagnetic fields in the en- vironment. In his view, these fields are used by the central nervous system and provide a kind of medium enabling the bioelectric activity of the brain.

Brown also discusses correlations between weather changes, geornag- netic influences, and behavior. He suggests that full use of the atrno- spheric media could give man unusual sensory information, including the ability to sense weather changes. Animal lore abounds with stories of this type of sensitivity. Fiddler crabs have been reported to disappear into inland burrows two days before the occurrence of a hurricane. For- esters in the Pacific Northwest are said to predict snow by the behavior 57

of elk, which begin to gather in the shelter of trees two or three days before a blizzard (Luce, 1971).

The study of Geller and Shannon (1976) mentioned earlier, was de­ signed to discuss the possible link between human behavior, the moon, and weather. These researchers found that the full moon is associated with a rise in air temperature and humidity, as well as with an in­ crease in psyFhotic behavior.

According to a computer analysis by the National Center for Atmos­ pheric Research of North American Weather over a period of sixty years, hurricanes were shown to form most frequently at new and full moons

(Osborn, 1968). Magnetic disturbances, such as those causing radio sta­ tic, have also been found to increase during these moon phases (Ibid. ) .

In a 1966 study, Edson Andrews reports findings of cyclic variations of electrical potential in human beings, with the greatest increase occur­ ring during the full moon (Osborn, 1968) .

During recent years there has been strong evidence that human beings may be sensitive to geomagnetic fields. A Gennan research team led by Drs. Jurgen Aschoff and Rutger Wever performed several studies in the mid-1960's which isolated human volunteers in underground bunk­ ers, which were heavily shielded against natural electromagnetic fields.

The experimenters were able to shorten circadian rhythm cycles in these volunteers, with the introduction of artificial electric fields (Luce,

1971). A 1962 study was performed at the Universite De Paris by Dr. Y.

Rocard, investigating the alleged ability of certain individuals to de­ tect underground water with a "divining rod". In accompanying these individuals with a magnetometer, Rocard found that they were responding to tiny (3 to 5 milligauss) changes in the earth's field magnetism. He theorized that, as they held their anns out taut with a certain degree " ' of muscle tension, the small magnetic changes affected bioelectric transmission in their anns. In pursuing this supposition, he then planted underground electric coils to create changes in magnetic strength similar to those occurring in nature. By reinforcing these individuals as they went over the test grotmd, he was able to refine their ability to the point of being able to detect .3 to 1.0 milligauss changes in the magnetic field. A study of eight New York hospitals fotmd a significant correla­ tion between 29,000 psychiatric admissions and fluctuations in the earth's magnetic field, over a period of 4~1/3 years. In their discus­ sion, the authors of this study comment upon two prior investigations which showed similar findings. The first of these studies psychiatric admissions at two Syracuse hospitals. The second found a significant correlation between geomagnetic changes with suicide and other emotion­ al disturbances , among 40,000 patients in Gennany (Friedman, Becker and Bachman, 1963). These three New York researchers later refined their study using the amotmt of cosmic rays reaching the earth, as a more precise measurement for changes in the geomagnetic field. Again they found a significant relationship between these fluctuations and clinically detailed abnormal behavior (Friedman, Becker and Backman, 1965). A Czechoslovakian study showed that fewer women menstruate during periods of geomagnetic disturbance than would normally do so at this time, and that more women than usual begin menstruation during calm periods in the earth's magnetic field (Katzeff, 1981, p. 260). A Soviet study showed a significant correlation between geomagnetic 59

fluctuations and an increase in irritability, headaches, memory loss, fatigue, and emotional instability in human test subjects (Ibid.). Numerous studies have indicated the moon's ability to influence electrical potential on our planet. A Yale study by H. S. Burr used photoelectric recorders of several different types to continuously mon­ itor the changing electrical potential in maple trees. Results show that the potentials of these trees peak precisely at the time of the new and full moon. Burr also finds this pattern to be completely unaf­ fected by the variables of temperature, barometric pressure, humidity, and weather (Burr, 1943). Leonard Ravitz, of the medical schools at Yale and Duke Universi­ ties, reports several studies which he has performed showing lunar swings of electrical potential in humans. In 1949 and 1950, he closely monitored seventeen men and women, recording daily such measurements as as temperature, pulse, and blood pressure. Each subject was classified at the beginning of the investigation into one of three categories: "severely maladjusted","moderately maladjusted", or "reasonably well adjusted''. A psychiatric profile was recorded each day at the time of physical examination. In measuring electrical potential between sever­ al points on the body, Ravitz found that all his subjects showed two peaks in potential difference, at full and new moon. At the time these peaks occurred, the more emotionally disturbed a test subject was, the higher the voltage measurement of his potential difference. A year later, Ravitz replicated this experiment with 100 subjects (Kazeff, 1981, p. 264). One of the pioneers in researching the relationship of human bio­ rhythms with the lunar and solar cycles is William F. Peterson, 60

professor of pathology at the University of Illinois School of Medicine. During the 30-year period, between 1920 and 1950, Peterson performed a

number of studies Which indicate significant relationships be~1een the occurrence of human disease and psychological disturbances, and chang-

ing meteorological conditions. Much of his work involves correlating individual biorhythms and population rhythms with the sunspot cycle. Another chief interest was in the detection of lunar periodicities,

particularly as they relate to human bodily processes. In the course of his studies, Peterson was able to identify lunar rhythms in the following data samples: birth and death records in New York and Chica- go, occurrences of scarlet fever and epilepsy, cardiovascular deaths,

deaths due to tuberculosis, and suicides (Peterson 1947). Dr. Peterson is one of the founders of the now recognized field of biometeorology. Peterson refers to this field as ''cosmobiology''. While he considered many of his theories to be rediscoveries of older ideas, he was one of the first modern researchers to present the idea of man as ''cosmic resonator'', a being dependent on and integrated with his total environ- ment.

THE BIOLCX;ICAL TIDES THEORY

''There is a tide in the affairs of men II -William Shakespeare Julius Caesar, IV, iii

One of the disciplines Which has developed from the field of cosmo­ biology is known as "heliobiology". Developed chiefly by the Russians, this science studies the effects of the sun on terrestrial life. Stud- ies throughout the world have shown correlations between the 11-year 61

sunspot cycle and events such as crop yields, epidemics of plague, acci­

dents, viral illnesses, and heart disease (Lieber, 1978).

In 1972, one of the leading Soviet heliobiologists, Alexander

Dubrov, developed an interesting theory to explain the connection be­

tween the earth's magnetic field and cardiovascular disease. According

to Dubrov, this relationship lies in the ability of this field to cause

significant changes in the permeability of blood vessels. These changes

occur by way of the water molecules in the membranes.

The susceptibility of water to various influences was also intrig­ uing to another researcher, Professor Giorgio Piccardi, who was director

of the Institute for Physical Chemistry in Florence, Italy. In a series of experiments, he found that water has the ability to assume different physical states, and that its properties appear to vary with solar act­

ivity, phases of the moon, and movements of the planets in relation to the earth, all of which produce changes in the geomagnetic field.

Piccardi also found a difference in the physical properties of water and colloidal solutions at different geographical latitudes, which he attributed to the varying intensity of the earth's magnetic field at various latitudes (Lieber, 1978).

The findings of Piccardi, Dubrov, William Peterson and Frank A.

Brown set the stage for the development of the ''biological tides" theory of hmar influence. One of the basic postulates of this theory is that the human body is composed of the same proportion of elements as is the earth: that is, approximately 20% solids, consisting of or­ ganic and inorganic minerals, and 80% water. It is therefore suggested that the gravitational forces of the moon may exert a similar effect on the water mass of the human body as on the tides of the earth. 62

Water in the lruman body is contained in three main compartments.

"Intracellular" water is located within the individual cells. Water which floats free among the tissues, bathing the cells of the body, is known as ''extracellular''. The water in the blood, which has a composi­ tion similar to sea water, is referred to as "intravascular". The tidal flows in the human body are comprised of cyclic changes in water flow

Among these fluid compartments of the body. Any nurriber of shifts in body processes can cause changes in these fluid balances. Changes in the physical properties of body water, as seen in the "Piccardi effect", may lead to effects such as variations in the speed with which fluids pass through membranes, the ability of cells to take up water, and vari­ ations in electrical conduction among body tissues. These changes may result in neural triggering or altered levels of neuromuscular irrita­ bility. Buildups or deficiencies of v1ater in different parts of the body created by cyclic "tides" may dramatically change the equilibrium of the internal environment, and create added stresses on the body. One obvious example of this effect is the premenstrual syndrome, in which monthly changes in water retention and distribution may account for headaches, blurred vision, depression, and irritability.

Individuals who are healthy and emotionally well balanced may tol­ erate the additional stresses vihich come from cyclic changes in body fluids with a minimum of physical or emotional discomfort. In others, discomfort may be mild and fleeting, and manifest itself in slight vari­ ations of emotional tone. Tidal shifts in the body may commonly pro­ duce mild insorm:lia, irritability, or headaches. However, the healthy body will quickly adjust to this type of change, and a new equilibrium is rapidly achieved. Individuals with a tendency toward emotional 63

disorders or those Who are already under considerable physical or emo­ tional stress may respond to a much greater degree to variations in body tides.

In discussing the case of Mr. L. , Dr. Stone suggests that one group Which may be especially predisposed to lunar-related disturbances are those individuals diagnosed as manic-depressive. Here, cyclical, including seasonal, patterns of affect have been recorded for some time. Stone states his opinion that the moon may act as a catalyst in pushing such susceptible persons "over the edge'' by disrupting their body fluid, hormonal and electrolyte balances (Stone, 1976). Other clinical studies support this view, showing that manic-depressives suffer from disrup­ tions in their reserves of body fluids. One medication found effective

in treating this disorder also happens to stabilize levels of body wat­ er and the firing of nerve synapses (Katzeff, 1981). In a medical study presented by Kerry and Owen (1970), it is found that the extreme emotional variability found in manic-depressive disorders is strongly associated with a variability of body water. This report suggests that continued treatment with lithium carbonate is effective in preventing both extreme mood change and TBC (total body water) changes in at least some manic-depressive subjects.

One of the chief proponents of the biological tides theory is Dr. Arnold Lieber, Who performed the breakthrough study connecting lunar phases with homicide patterns in Dade County, Florida. In the course

of his studies with clinical psychologist Dr. Carolyn Sherin, Lieber made several observations which contributed to this particular theory of lunar influence. In addition to the new and full moon rhythms, Lieber pointed out another cycle, one following the lunar day. He 64

found that statistically significant clusters of murders in Greater

Miami occur at lunar noon and midnight; that is, when the moon is high­ est and lowest in its daily circuit. These two daily peaks represent

the times of maximum daily gravitational attraction. In support of this observation, he found that the fewest homicides in the daily cycle oc­

curred at moonrise and moonset, the times of least lunar gravitational pull. In discussing the studies he performed with Sharin, Lieber also observes that violent crimes committed during a coincidence of cosmic cycles -- for example, a full moon coinciding with lunar perigree with a lunar eclipse -- are often of a particularly bizarre or ruthless nature (Lieber, 1978).

Another major contribution made by Lieber to the biological tides approach is the use of latitude variance in his analyzation of data.

His recognition of the importance of this phenomenon came about from his investigation of the interesting resemblance between the homicide curve in Cayahoga County and the hamster metabolic curves of Frank A.

Brown. Results of the Dade County study had shown striking peaks of occurrence at new and full moon. In attempting to replicate this study in Cuyahoga County, these researchers found tmexpected results. When plotted on a graph, the pattern of homicides in the Cleveland area were distinctly similar to those in Miami; however, the peaks were displaced to the right. Rather than coinciding with the full and new moon, these shifted peaks occurred about three days after these phases. Brown' s experiments with hamsters had been performed in Evanston, Illinois, on nearly the same geographical latitude as Cleveland. Plotting the graphs of hamster activities against the lunar synodic cycle showed the same three-day lag after new and full moon as did that of the second 65

Lieber and Sherin study.

We know that the moon's effect on the earth' s tides varies from

place to place. Not only does the timing of the tides differ geograph­

ically, but the amplitude of the tides differ according to latitude.

The difference in the tides around the equator is usually a matter of

inches; whereas the amplitude of tides near the earth's poles can be measured to the extent of fifty-feet or more (Lieber, 1978, p. 48). The

farther north of the equator an event occurs, the longer the lag. Lags

in the rhythmic timing of events have been observed in many studies of

periodic phenomenon. One researcher, Leonard W. Wing, discusses this

tendency for locational timing variance using the term ''latitudinal passage".

In view of the Lieber and Sherin findings, it appears likely that

future studies may reflect a geographical variance in lunar effects on man. It is the opinion of Lieber that the results of numerous studies of lunar influence are meaningless, because researchers have failed to consider the significance of geographical location.

Individual aspects of the biological tides theory have been in­ vestigated in recent years. One researcher in Israel, Dr. Felix Gad

Sulman, has shown that periods of hot, dry wind known as sharav or sir­ occo, are associated with a marked increase in physical and mental ill­ ness in both human beings and animals. According to this research and that of Dr. Albert P. Krueger of the University of California at Berke­ ley, the arrival of these winds is accompanied by an increase of posi­ tive ions, which are trapped at earth-level. This excess causes an increase of the production of serotonin, one of the body's neurotrans­ mitted substances. Excessive serotonin in the central nervous system 66

can result in irritability, nervousness, and depression. An increase in serotonin is associated also with a rise in blood pressure due to the constriction of smaller blood vessels, thus influencing the exchange of water among the fluid compartments of the body (Lieber, 1978). In examining other investigations on the effect of ions on human behavior, one begins to perceive a sort of connectedness among studies involving man 1 s relationship to his environment. It is interesting to note that in parts of Germany, the presence of the aforementioned hot, dry wind is reportedly admissable in court as a mitigating circumstance in crimes of passion (Katzeff, 1981). Hospitals in Southern Germany have been known to cancel surgery on the arrival of these winds. The rate of traffic accidents has been said to increase 50% and suicides and attempted suicides reach epidemic proportions (Ibid.). It has been said that the Israelis blame everything from murder to suicide to asthma attacks on the sharav (Ibid.) . Thus, we see a similarity in hu- man behaviors which are associated in the popular mind with certain phases of the moon, and those associated with changes in atmospheric ions. According to the biological tides theorists, this connection lies in the effect that these various environmental forces have on the tides of the human body.

OTHER THEORIES OF MAN AND THE MOON

1 'i took with me to bed last night the moon thigh touching thigh his luminous cheek on mine " -Nina Winter, "Moon"

In a 1919 article entitled "The Moon and Insanity" , E. H. P. \vard 67

presents an interesting theory to explain the connection between the

moon and insanity. According to Ward, there is a direct relationship

between disturbances in the sexual sphere and nervous disorders. He

then proceeds to correlate sexual periodic activity in "blonde and bru­

nette races" with phases of the moon, postulating that if nervous dis­

orders are due to disordered sexual activity, they would be manifested

most strongly at certain phases of the moon When sexual drive is in­

creased. Ward sees these peaks as occurring at full moon in blond races

and at new moon in brunette races (Kelley, 1942).

While the geological and anthropological facts supporting Ward's

theory are largely unsupported, there is some support among psycho­

analysts for his concept of the moon as a libido symbol. A study by J.

W. Slaughter (1902 - 1903) provides considerable data from childhood

beliefs to support the idea that there is a sexual component to lunar

influence, the roots of which can be seen in early development (Ibid.).

Another study emphasizing this approach was presented by Y.J. A. White in

1913 - 1914 under the title "Moon Myth in Medicine; The Moon as Libido

Symbol". White discusses conceptual pattems which result from the sym­

bolic utilization of the moon in the human mind. Major among these sym­

bolizations is the concept of the "arnbivalency of the thought process",

as manifested in man's dualistic thinking about the attributes and pow­

ers of the moon. The moon, as libido symbol, represents "concentrated

energy", which can be seen as either good or bad, constructive or de­

structive. In the history of moonlore, some cultures have seen the moon

as representing concepts such as good fortune, intellect, and under­

standing. However, more often, the moon has been viewed as having a mallefic influence on man, exacerbating disease and illness, and pro- 68

clueing increased agitation and violence in the insane.

In this particular psychoanalytically-oriented view, White pre­ sents a number of illustrations from the history of man's thinking about hmar influence, to show a fundamental sexual basis for the ener­ gy of this belief system. For instance, in Iceland it is believed that if a pregnant woman sits with her face toward the full moon, the child will be born a lunatic. In Greenland, it is said that staring at the moon can make a woman pregnant. Belief in the sexual powers of the moon is reflected almost tmiversally in myth and legend. A corrnnon theme among primitive cultures is that the moon has carnal knowledge of woman. In some places it is thought that the moon actually fathers children, while the lrusband is merely the instrument by which the moon plants its seed (See Chapter 2). White also discusses incest concepts as related to the moon (White, 1914). One of the more nniversal myths is that the snn and the moon are brother and sister, and that the moon lost its light as ptmishment for committing sexual transgression against its sibling (Ibid.). A variation of this myth is that the violated sis­ ter, the stm, smeared soot on the face of her persecuting brother so that she might always recognize him in the day1 ight. This soot on the face of the moon can still be seen in the form of moonspots (Harley,

1970).

White believes that the creative sexual energy represented by the moon can be seen as male or female. In the history of religion, it has been represented by deities of both sexes. There is, however, a tend­ ency in folklore to associate the moon with the feminine principle. In many cultures we find the belief that the moon, itself, actually men­ struates. In Chapter 2, we discussed the belief among the Babylonians 69

that monthly bleeding takes place at the time of the full moon, which was known as "shabathu" or "evil day". It is interesting to note that

in present-day western culture, we still refer to a woman's monthly men­

stnm.l period as ''The Curse''. The Tarot card number 18 is the card de­ voted to the (full) moon, depicting two vicious dogs howling at the full moon, below which are pictured drops of falling dew or blood. As noted

earlier, the words for blood and moon are the same in India, the Congo and many other cultures.

In a book entitled ''Moon, Noon", by Anne Kent Rush, the moon is described as the Nother Goddess, symbol of fertility and origin of life.

The light of the moon and her magnetic force are seen as producing fer­ tility, movement, and growth. "She brings creativity and visions: she also brings sleep, darkness, and death. She is the spirit of the under­ world, the ruler of madness ... She is the home of the souls of the un­ born and of the dead waiting for rebirth . . . She is the Goddess of Love, the fertility Queen, the spark of life in the darkness, the giver of fantasies, visions, delirium, and passion" (Rush, 1976). According to

Rush, the current tendency of the scientific world to deemphasize the powers of lunar influence over man, while accepting the effects of the sun, represents a one-sided view of the world which promotes the mascu­ line principle as dominant over the feminine. Rush sees this current lack of balance as promoting the fear of emotion, irrationality, dark­ ness, instinct, whimsy, and love, which have lead to the feelings of alienation so common in the modern world.

Another colorful theory regarding lunar influence on man's emo­ tions lies in H. S. Bellamy's discussion of Hoerbinger' s "cosmic ice theory". Bellamy suggests that there was once a moonless age during 70

which time the legendary civilizations of Atlantis, Lemuria, and the

Mediterranean basin flourished. Approximately 13,000 to 15,000 years ago the planet Ll.ma, once part of the Martian System, approached too close to Earth in its nonnal orbit, and was captured to become our pre­ sent moon. The results of this capture produced cataclysmic changes on our planet, with the moon's sudden gravitational pull producing tremen­ dous seizrnic activities. This terrifying event caused the civilizations of Atlantis, Lemuria, the Mediterranean basin, and other parts of the earth to sink into the sea; in turn, new land masses were pushed up from the water which formed the present configurations. According to Bella­ my's interpretation of this theory, the survivors of this overwhelming catastrophic event forever regarded the glowing moon with awe and fear.

This association of the moon as the cause of all destruction has been passed on through generations of the human race, driving men to insanity . I when its light is brightest.

Bellamy cites certain Greek myths which indicate the presence of a moonless age. A myth of the Chibcha Indians speaks of a prelunar age, and describes a great flood which was accompanied by the first appear­ ance of the moon in the sky. Bellamy also describes myths of the Baby­ lonians, the Jews, the Kalits of the Pellew, the Ami of Formosa, and the

Choctaws of Oklahoma, all of which mention the full moon in connection with the appearance of a great flood. While the Hoerbinger/Bellarny theory is not supported by current astronomical and geological views, there are some interesting ideas presented in this study, which can be of great use in examining the fear and dread of the moon which is so universal in man's history. Chapter 5

APPLICATION AND SUMMARY

"In my experience there is no stable daily-maintenance dose of lithium. Treatment must be altered from time to time to counteract sudden imbalances in the geomag­ netic environment to which manic depressives are exquisitely sensitive."

-Arnold L. Lieber

APPLICATION TO RESEARCH AND CLINICAL PSYCHOLCX;Y

Although invisible rhythms underlie most of the behavioral and physiological activities of human beings and the world around us, it is easy for the clinician to overlook the subtle cyclic patterns which man- ifest themselves in so many disorders. The periodic fluctuations which continuously affect us each day may seem, at times; to be insignificant; yet they structure the entire fabric of man 1 s internal and external en- vironment, and form one of the primary links between ourselves and the world.

Each day, as the earth turns on its axis, we are deeply affected in our behavior by the alternation of light and darkness. Seasonal changes structure our activity cycles, just as they affect the metabolic rhythms of animals and plants. The moon 1 s revolution too, exerts rhythmic influences on the earth, which appear to affect all of earth life. While the individual may present an outside appearance of con- stancy, his functioning in the world is the result of an integration of hormonal tides, cycles of blood flow and excretion, production of blood cells, and a multitude of other cyclic bodily functions, each with its own pattern of rhythms.

71 72 0 '

Awareness of biological cycles may be very pertinent both to the psychological researcher and to the clinician. In research, great care is taken to insure the fact that experimental conditions are held con­ stant, yet biological cycles are rarely considered to any meaningful

degree. Measurements may be taken at the same time every day, but liD­ less many aspects of the subject's environment are controlled, results may be meaningless. Environmental subtleties may sometimes accormt for the failure to replicate an earlier study. Even if replication is con­ ducted at precisely the same clock hours, this does not mean that the subjects have been perfectly synchronized to the same daily schedule and are at the same biological time of day. For instance, there may be a tremendous variation in the sleeping and waking cycles of a group of volrmteers. An experimental measurement gathered at 11:30 a.m. may quantify a biological process which is occurring in one subject at a midpoint in the day, whereas the late-riser may be in a beginning state of awakening. Individual variations in metabolic rhythms are even less obvious when they occur in monthly, quarterly, or yearly cycles. A woman may differ greatly at various points of her menstrual cycle in regard to physiological functioning, emotional response, and performance. There is considerable evidence that men are also affected by monthly cycle fluctuations in hormones. It is apparent that tremendous individual variation exists in response to environmental forces such as those of lrmar gravitational fluctuations. Performing meaningful research with a group of human subjects rmder these conditions may seem an impossible task. However, lack of consideration of such factors affecting experi­ mental conditions renders the concept of "replication" meaningless. 73

.:> A prime example of the failure of researchers to consider environ­ I mental variables in their results can be seen in several of the studies of synodic hmar influence in behavior. Studies by Purpura (1979) and Michelson, Wilson and Michelson (1979) both specifically report their failure to replicate the work of Lieber and Sherin. Yet primary vari- ables were entirely ignored in these later studies. First, in gathering their data Lieber and Sherin felt that it was critical to search out re- cords in which the precise time of injury was available. The 1979 re­ plication attempts did not follow this procedure. Second, one of the most important findings of the two Lieber and Sherin studies, a finding which is well verified by other scientific research, is the affect of latitudinal variance on lunar influence. This crucial variable is neither mentioned in the discussion of the 1979 studies, nor was it taken into consideration in the projects. A comment by one research team, quoted in Tasso and Miller (1976), even goes so far as to question the necessity of the ''elegant but complicated procedure'' employed by Lieber and Sherin in their attempt to achieve the highest possible de- gree of scientific accuracy and objectivity. Ironically, several stud- ies which do claim to replicate Lieber and Sherin also ignore these :i.m- portant variables.

~ It is important for the clinician to be aware that environmental factors such as those of the lunar effect may exert varying degrees of influence on the results of individual psychological testing. Individ- ual biological periodicities may strongly affect responses on perform- ance tests and personality inventories. These tests are commonly used in ways which deeply affect the quality of life for the individual; for instance, in employment decisions, special education, psychiatric treat- 74 ment, hospitalization, and court cases such as those determining child custody. Yet, emotions and behavior reflected by these test scores may differ radically according to individual geophysical fluctuations and variations in natural biological rhythms. A person Who is reasonably well-adjusted under normal circumstances may appear highly anxious or depressed, if testing during a full moon period or Santa Ana wind con­ dition. It may seem impractical to avoid psychological testing during periods of time such as these. However, there are a number of reputable hospitals, such as that at the University of Chicago, Who avoid surgery

Whenever possible during the full moon (Neuhaus, 1982). As mentioned earlier, some German hospitals have also been known to cancel surgery on the sudden arrival of the "foehn" winds. It cannot be assumed, based on the present evidence, that all emotional disorders are periodic in nature. However, it has been well established in the medical and psychological literature that many ill­ nesses do appear in regularly occurring cycles. As discussed by Stone, should a number of patients exist with emotional disturbances that co­ incide with the phases of the moon, it is possible that they may exist as a subgroup, concentrated in the bipolar manic-depressive category. However, this type of disorder may constitute the extreme end of the continuum for those individuals Who appear sensitive to lunar synodic fluctuations. Based on our growing knowledge of human biorhythmic cycles, it may be possible to observe some of the more subtle slow rhythms of emotional transition, some of Which may coincide with the moon cycle and some of Which may be influenced by other factors. Following the lead of the Institute of Living in Hartford, Connec­ ticut, a number of psychiatric hospitals are beginning to analyze daily 75

staff notes by computer, which has been of tremendous value in detect- ing periodic mood patterns which have not previously been detected

(Luce, 1971). For the private clinician, client journals may be of great value. A simple calendar, showing both lunar and solar time, can be one of the most important clinical tools in both diagnosis and treatment. The es- tablishment of biological patterns would allow us to have some idea when to expect periods of anxiety and irritability, possible suicidal behavior, violence in certain predisposed individuals, and even an in- creased possibility of accidents.

The practical uses of such information are many. Individuals who

are shown to be particularly susceptible to environmental influences may be reassured that their symptoms are transient and will subside. This information may be used to restrict hospitalization for psychiatric in-patients the way we restrict it to the acute phases of certain phys- ical illnesses. Chronic patients may be able to live relatively normal lives if a regular pattern of remission can be discovered, returning to a hospital setting as their symptoms progress to the acute stage. There appears to be a wide variety of reasons why a particular in- dividual may be predisposed to emotional imbalances; among them, trau- matic childhood events or hereditary biochemical disorders. \..Jhether 'or not a particular predisposition may develop into a serious behavioral disorder often depends upon the types of stresses he encounters in his life. Cosmic stresses such as those produced by lunar periodicities may provide an advantage over other life stresses in treatment, because they are predictable. For those predisposed individuals who experience severe behavioral 76

disorders under added environmental stresses, we now have various medi- cations Which can help adjust such physiological factors as excess buildup of body fluids. Lithium carbonate has been proven remarkably effective in many cases of bipolar personality disorders; and has been notably successful in cases Which mood swings appear to be lunar re- lated. With increased knowledge of factors such as the lunar effect, we may be able to avoid constant medication of many individuals with substances, such as tranquilizers. Instead, we may be able to substi- tute medications such as those restoring fluid balances, Which make the person less susceptible to triggering forces both in his social life and in the natural geophysical envirornnent.

CONCEPTUAL APPLICATION

1 'Everyone is a moon, and has a dark side Which he never shows to anybody. 1 1 -Mark Twain

"At that point the dream ended and I awoke -- awoke to feel that a door had opened to an unexplored part of my life. I do not know Where this will lead. I both hope and dread meeting that wolf again, that wolf Who is my own savage soul, the terror in my heart, my secret shadow. And yet I must learn, God help me, to give up my warrior pose, to surrender that sense of mastery that goes with being able to overcome my terror. Instead I must learn to yield to it, to own it, to make friends with it, to come to love the rest of myself when next I encounter that wolf Who is my own dark brother. 11

-Sheldon Kopp, ''My Own Dark Brother''

The tendency to consider time in relation only to the sun, while ignoring the importance of lunar influence, reflects a biased view which is particularly predominant in Western culture. The solar bias reflects a one-sided way of thinking Which promotes a lack of balance 77

both in the way we view the l.IDiverse and in the way man view his own nature.

In ancient society, acknowledgement of the forces of both the sun and the moon was a concept central to the l.IDderstanding of the workings of the cosmos, civilization and the individual man. An important trans­ . I ition from this way of thinking can be seen in the ancient Greeks, to whom the Western world owes many of its traditional ideas.

Throughout civilization man has perceived the world as consisting of two opposing elements; one wild and potentially destructive, one re­ strained and rational. The embodiment of the first of these forces can be seen among pre-Platonic Greeks, as Dionysus, the god of wine and in­ toxication; the second, as Apollo, the god of light, who drove the cha­ riot of the sliD.

In the ancient Dionysian festivals, the barriers between man and nature and between individual men were forgotten, and man was absorbed into the primordal l.IDity of life. However, in the intoxicated abandon of these festivals, not only the joy, but the dark side of man and na­ ture was released; the natural forces which man in his Apollinian state

11 saw as "evil • In his state of self-abandon, man's natural savagery as well as his capacity for suffering was exposed, creating a mixture of sensuality and cruelty.

The amoral Dionysian festivals were shunned by the "civilized"

Apollinian Greek during the era of Plato. Indeed, the dark spirit of

Dionysus was the direct antithesis to the culture of Apollo, the deity of light.

Apollinian culture in Greece was based on the spirit of logic and optimism. The world was seen as rational and potentially knowable. 78

Art in this period came to its peak in the Doric style: logical, prim, and austere. The maxim, "know thyself'' also derived from this era. Yet this strict emphasis on the rational encouraged man to acknowledge only one side of himself, the Apollinian; and to deny the dark elements of his own nature -- the chaotic, the unrestrained, the irrational -- that is, the Dionysian .

.And so Apollo, with his emphasis on rationality and the individual man, became strongly dominant over the drunken Dionysus, with his em­ phasis on the unity of man and nature. Yet this victory was a rather hollow one. As the goddess of the springs and streams, the forest ani­ mals and the hunt, Apollo's twin sister Artemis (Diana) became strongly associated with Dionysus. As caretaker of the moon, her nature appear­ ed very serene in the heavens. However, on earth she loved to frolic with the wood nymphs, and was a regular participant of the Dionysian celebrations.

As Artemis, the moon goddess was associated not only with the play­ ful aspects of nature, but specifically with the '\volf, that most violent and savage of creatures. She was often known to don a wolf's pelt and hunt with the men. One story in Greek mythology which is particularly revealing of her merciless, wolf-life nature is that of Artemis and

Actaeon. One day the moon/wolf goddess discovered the voyeuristic

Actaeon watching her as she bathed, nude; that is, without her wolf's pelt. In her fury, she transformed him into a stag, and ordered him torn apart by her dogs. (Variations of this story throughout history; for instance, in Longus' novel Daphnis and Chloe, in which the wicked and voyeuristic shepherd Dorkon dons a wolf's pelt before he tries to rape Chloe). 79 9 '

To her brother's even greater disapproval, the moon goddess asso­ ciated with witches and wizards and the souls of the dead, in the in­ carnation guise of Hecate. And so the full moon was particularly abhor­ rant to the Apollinian Greek, as this was the time Hecate was most like­ ly to appear among men, accompanied by her hell-hounds.

The civilized Greeks believed that artistic inspiration came to them in the form of dreams. Through dreams man could come in contact with the Dionysian world of nature and irrationality, yet was shielded from its wilder elements by the veil of beautiful illusion. In dreams and in artistic creation the .Apollian and the Dionysian, were brought together, as man's deep consciousness of the forces of nature were fil­ tered through his rational faculty, and allowed expression.

Until the time of Nietzsche, and the European existentialists, all views of man's relationship with the world have been largely based on the ideas of Plato, Who represents the essence of classical Apollinian thinking. Plato saw the world as existing on an hierarchical scale, at the top of Which were the pure forms of all things, including pure

Reason; and the bottom of Which were man and the material world. Ac­ cording to this system, Plato was able to deduce absolute values: the closer a thought to its pure essence, the closer to being good; the fur­ ther away from its pure form, the less good. The good lay, therefore, only in the direction of rationality and abstraction, toward the spiritual. Since the body and the material world were despised, man became divided in two, into body and spirit, and he was forced to deny one half of his being for the sake of affirming the other.

Christian thought followed the philosophical tradition set by

Plato with few modifications. Plato' s Absolute Reason became known to 80

the Christians as God, the pure fom which was all that men strive to be, but must always fall short of. According to this view, man can only be seen in view of what he can never obtain. While man is said in this context to have the ability to choose between good and evil, these val­ ues must be discovered and not created by the individual.

The existential movement which began in the late 1800's was an attempt to integrate the dualistic split within man; and reclaim the individual man as subject, rather than an object in relation to God (or

Absolute Reason) . In this view man is seen as a holistic tmit,, who can­ not be viewed independent of his environment and his own past. The ex­ istential man becomes free to create his own values and seek his true self. However, with this new freedom comes a tremendous burden of re­ sponsibility.

In order for man to affim himself and take responsibility for his own values and actions, it is necessary for him to examine all aspects of his nature. The duality in man's nature which is symbolized in the

Apollinian and the Dionysian, the stm and the moon, must be accepted and transcended in order for man to achieve the integration of self nec­ essary to grow toward his higher potential.

In describing the struggle within the human soul to reconcile qualities which have been seen as positive and negative aspects of man,

Nietzsche uses the symbolization of the tree. The tree grows at once in two opposite directions; it strives simultaneously further into the earth and further toward the heavens. But it can only grow as tall as its roots are deep. The tree represents the natural integration of the

Apollian and the Dionysian, light and dark. In its growth toward the heights it can never lose sight of its awn roots in nature. 81

As we have seen, belief in lunar influence over man has been kept

alive in folklore throughout history, into modern times. Yet, while

affirming the affects of the sun on man's life, the post-Platonic Wes­

tern world has continued to vehemently deny the effects of the moon and

to relegate it to the category of superstition, despite growing scien­

tific evidence which supports the lunar hypothesis. In recent years we

have seen the beginnings of a new current in the evolution of man's con­

sciousness. The sudden interest in studying the moon' s effects on the

emotions and behavior of man is no accident. It is part of our reclaim­

ing of that part of ourselves which is one with nature, a return to the

roots of our being which must preclude our further growth.

The emergence of the field of psychology at this time is also no

accident. Psychotherapy is one of the tools in our attempt to integrate

the individual soul which has become fragmented. In the therapeutic

relationship we learn to look at aspects of the self which have been

formerly hidden out of fear or guilt or shame. In therapy, we learn

about our power to control what happens in our lives, to make choices

which affect our own well-being. We learn that our personalities and

patterns of behavior are not fixed, and that we have the power to change

what we wish to change.

The evolution in consciousness in Western society can be seen in

our sudden willingness to examine issues which have formerly been

shunned and denied. In our new willingness to discuss old age and

death, we reclaim an essential part of our own lives, as we look at the

process of living in its entirety. In our recognition of the prevalence

of homosexuality we are reminded of Jung's ideas of the need to recog­ nize the qualities of both sexes which are in each individual. In the 82

feminine movement we begin to reclaim the value of emotional expression, of the intuitive, of passion, of caring, and of loving.

Our new willingness to deal with child abuse and domestic violence lays bare the potential beast in every individual. This particular is­ sue has been a most painful drawing aside of the curtain of illusion which has surrormded modern man. Heretofore, we have looked upon the beast in man as a freak of civilization, the sociopath, the deviate, the murderer, the rationality of nature gone awry. It is necessary now to reevaluate our thinking about violence in nature in a desperate attempt to rmderstand the urge toward destruction which appears so powerful as to override the bond between a parent and child.

In nature, violence is neither intrinsically good nor bad. There is no doubt that it is part of the natural cycle. The survival of most animals is dependent on the killing of others. Violence is simply a part of the cycle of nature. It is the human ego which is able to ob­ serve an act of violence and judge the act. And it is this ability of man which has the ability to transcend the forces of opposition iriher­ ant in our own nature. Man, like nature, is not one thing, he is all things. He is beast and man. Like nature itself, man is capable of violence; yet he sits in judgment over his own actions.

Power is a central issue in violence. According to Eisler (1978), violence is an expression of power which is either impulsive or not rm­ der the control of ego consciousness, or else is rationalized by the ego as justified and appropriate. The child or spouse abuser justifies his own violence by convincing himself that the victim of his abuse deserved this punishment, and so created the situation in which violence became necessary. Thus, the aggressor gives away his own power in order to 83 relieve himself of the responsibility for his own actions. In order to escape feelings of powerlessness, the unintegrated per- sonality may strive for total control. We attempt to control nature. We attempt to control our emotions and thoughts. Through modern tech- nology we attempt to control the earth itself, superimposing our will over nature. Eisler sees the key to mental health not in defiance of nature but in acceptance. We must integrate all the parts of ourselves, and accept total responsibility for their expression. In accepting the beast, we accept the judge who holds him in check.

Our studies of the effects of environmental influences on man' s behavior is in its infancy. As modern consciousness seeks to regain its balance, we are able to open our minds increasingly to discover what exists in nature, rather than what we choose to recognize as existing. As we seek to understand all aspects of ourselves, we seek also to un- derstand all aspects of our interaction with the surrounding environment. Yet, it is not the moon that causes madness and violence. The moon may, indeed, be proven to have its effects on our physiological balan- ces, as do the sun and other cosmic forces. It is the denial of the moon's influence and the existence of all that the moon symbolizes that unbalances the psychic process and predisposes us to disaster. In at- tempting to understand the natural forces by which we are bound, we gain the ability to maximize our freedom and to regain responsibility and control over our interactions with nature and other men.

SUMMARY "There is no bar to knowledge greater than contempt to examination." -H. Spencer 84

The belief in the power of the moon to influence the human mind dates from ancient times, and continues to survive with full vigor into the present time. In this paper, we have seen that luniolatry is as old as the human race, possibly even preceding solar worship.

In tracing the historical development of moon lore, it is apparent that the moon has been seen as extending its influence into every aspect of human affairs. As the moon regulates the tides, it has been thought also to bring moisture to the earth and even into the brain of man. It is said to be a primary factor in controlling natural rhythms affecting agricultural crops, animals, and man. According to folklore, the moon affects fertility, the menstrual cycle, birth, death, disease, and hu­ man emotion. Afflictions commonly associated with various cycles of the moon are epilepsy, migraine headaches, abnonnal bleeding, somnambulism, and periodic violence and insanity.

The relationship of lunar rhythms with the tides of Earth' s oceans and seas has been recognized for some time. Studies in recent years have attempted to verify or disprove various aspects of lunal influence on organic life. Experiments with marine life appear conclusive in their demonstration of metabolic regulation by lunar rhythms. Convin­ cing studies to this effect have been performed with oysters, fiddler crabs, eels, and palolo worms. Studies showing regulation by lunar rhythms have also been performed with lower non-marine animals, such as hamsters.

Heightened interest in the entire range of biological rhythms has led the way for the recent increase of studies involving lunar influence on hurnan behavior. Behaviors most often examined in relation to phases of the moon are suicide, homicide, arson, and assault. In addition, 85

" ' researchers have examined records of police reports, psychiatric hospi­ tal admissions, and crises calls for patterns Which might be attribut­ able to ltmar periodicity. While results have been mixed, there are several which appear impressive both in their faultless methodology and in their results. Chief among these is that of Lieber and Sherin, show­ ing a statistically significant correlation between cycles of the moon and the pattern of homicides in Dade County, Florida, over a fifteen­ year period.

Among those Who have become convinced that the moon does have an affect on htmlail behavior, a number of theories have been advanced to explain this relationship. A commonly held belief in folklore and in a small sector of the scientific community is that the light of the moon itself is a crucial variable, Which directly or indirectly produces be­ havior changes. Among the superstitious, it has been thought that the rays of the moon have the ability to exert a magical influence, which can transform a man into a violent beast or, at the very least, rob him of his sanity. Those less inclined toward the metaphysical see the effects of moonlight as a simple result of being awakened from sleep, or of the tendency of increased light to produce dreams. One view among scientists is that the light of the moon has a triggering effect which stimulates the brain to activity. Another suggestion is that this effect may cause a release of hormones and enzymes, a view which appears consistent with studies of the effect of light on the menstrual cycle.

Experiments have been performed investigating possible relation­ ships between the moon, behavior, and the geophysical environment. Re­ presenting the "extrinsic timing" theory of biological cycles, the stud­ ies of Frank A. Brown have shown evidence of solar and lunar rhythms, 86

" '

and also in geomagnetic rhythms in living organisms. A study by Geller and Shannon (1976) finds the full moon to be associated with a rise in humidity and temperature, as well as an increase in psychotic behavior.

Several studies in recent years present strong evidence that human beings may be sensitive to changes in the geomagnetic field. Research by the Soviets and by William Peterson in the United States has shown considerable evidence that response to changing meteorological condi­ tions and geomagnetic fluctuations may produce irritability and emotion­ al instability in human beings. Based on such studies, it is proposed by some theorists that man may be affected indirectly by the moon, as a result of lunar influences on such factors as terrestrial magnetism, electric fields, radiation, and gravitational pull. Directly related to the geophysical environment theories is the biological tides theory. The groundwork for this theory was laid by the work of Brawn, Peterson, Giorgio Piccardi, and the Soviet Heliobiologist

Alexander Dubrov. Dr. Arnold Lieber, who performed the study of homi­ cides in Dade County, is one of its chief proponents and contributors. The biological tides theory holds that man is affected by the moon's

gravitational forces just as the earth is, because the human body is composed of the same ratio of elements as is the earth; that is, 80% water and 20% solids. The changing gravitational pull of the moon shifts water among the fluid compartments of the body, creating cyclic "tides", and altering the functioning of the nervous system. Phases of the moon associated with the strongest gravitational pull (i.e. full and new moons) create the most stress on the internal environment, and may produce symptoms varying from irritability to violent or suicidal behavior. 87

The biological tides theory is based on, and appears consistent with, the most recent studies exploring environmental influences on man.

It appears, therefore, to be one of the more credible of the biological theories explaining lunar influence on l:rurnan behavior. However, as the field is still in its infancy, as is the field of psychology itself, a

tremendous ammmt of research will be required to refine the theory and explore all its various aspects. Some theorists see the relationship of man and the moon as the re­ sult of primal fears Which are awakened by the physical or symbolic presence of the lunar sphere. In his discussion of lycanthropy, Eisler

sees the moon as awakening the memory in our collective unconscious of man's transition from diurnal vegetarian to nocturnal hunter and killer.

Bellamy traces man's fears of the moon to our planet's catastrophic cap­ ture of the lunar sphere, Which resulted in tremendous geological up­ heaval on Earth, and sank Whole civilizations such as Atlantis and Lemuria. Theorists such as Eisler and Rush view man's fear of the moon as symbolizing the lack of integration Which comes from man's denial of certain qualities of nature, both within himself and in the external environment. In this context, the moon is seen as representing dark­ ness, irrationality, the feminine principle, intuition, violence, un­ restrained creativity, sleep, and death. Awareness of biological cycles, including those influenced by the moon, are important to research in attempting to control experimental conditions. Individual biorhythmic variations should also be consider­ ed Whenever possible in psychological testing. Knowledge of periodic cycles of illness can aid the clinician in diagnosis and treatment, 88

including adjustment of levels of medication.

The tendency to ignore the effects of the moon on man, while ac­ cepting those of the sun, reflects a bias which exists particularly in modern Western culture. This bias reflects an imbalance of thinking which can be seen in the denial of other natural principles tradition­ ally associated with the moon. The healing of the dualistic split in man's psyche is the task of the psychotherapist, who helps the individ­ ual to examine all aspects of his nature. In acknowledging that he is a part of nature, rather than defying it, man is able to integrate with his environment, and to maximize his freedom to control his destiny. 89

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Fitzhugh, Loren C.; Mulvaney, Dallas E.; & Hughes, Lawson H. Phase of the Moon and Seizure Activity, Psychological Reports, 1980, 46, 1261-1262.

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APPENDIX A

DEFINITION OF TERMS

Apollo--Greek god of the sun; twin brother of the moon goddess, Artenrus

Apogee (Lrmar) --farthest point from earth in moon's orbit.

Artemis (Selene)--Greek goddess of the moon.

Athensic--Huron Indian god of the moon; name is derived from the Huron

word for water.

Biological Tides--cyclic changes in the distribution of body water,

affected by the moon's gravitational pull.

Circadian--pertaining to rhythmic biological cycles recurring at ap­

proximately 24-hour intervals, such as sleeping or waking, which

repeat themselves over a period of one day (literally, "around the

day").

Citatli--Aztec moon god; liriked with Atl, god of water.

Cosmobiology--study of man's physiological processes as they relate to

his total physical environment; known also as biometeorology.

Diana (Lrma)--Roman goddess of the moon; sister of the srm god Apollo.

Dionysus--Greek god of wine and intoxication.

Full Moon--halfway point in the lrmar cycle, in which the entire disc

appears illuminated; period in which moon and srm line up on op­

posite sides of the earth.

Gibbous Moon--period in vJhich moon is seen as lopsided, with more than

half, but not all of the disc illuminated.

Hecate--Greek moon goddess associated with witches, wizards and the

dead.

Heliobiology--the study of the srm's effects on terrestrial life. 94

Isis--Egyptian moon goddess; (literally, "moisture"). Khons (Khonsu)--ancient Egyptian lunar god. Latitudinal passage (Leonard Wing)--tendency for geographical variance of events, such as the timing of ocean tides, in reference to dis­ tance from the earth' s equator. Line of Apsides--major axis between hmar perigee and apogee. Luna--Latin term for both moon and month. Lunacy--a form of periodic insanity characterized by lucid intervals

(thought to be dependent on various phases of the moon). Lunatic fringe--the frantic or irrational members of society. Lunaticus--(Latin) ancient Roman term used for victims of madness or epilepsy (literally, ''moonstruck'') , both of which were thought in ancient times to be inflicted on those who have sinned against the moon. Lupa--(Latin) she-wolf; Lupanar (Latin) - term derived from "lupa", signifying a house of ill-fame. Lupinam Insanium--(Greek) lycanthropy; (literally "wolf madness"). Lupo Mannaro--(Italian) werewolf. Lycanthrope--from the Greek "lycanthropus"; the transformation of man into wolf; werewolf, (in psychology - one who suffers under the delusion of being changed into a wolf, considered by some to be a type of melancholia with delirium, sometimes drug induced) used originally in Greek mythology when Lycaon was transformed by Zeus into a wolf, as punishment for his wrong doings. In medical sci­ ence - a disease considered a passive form of porphyria. Mal Di Luna--(Italian) one of various ailments considered a moon disease. Menses--(Latin) a period measured by the moon's course. 95

Monday--(German) day of the moon. Mondsucht--(German) somnambulence; sometimes, lunacy. Moonblink--temporary blindness or vision impairment, popularly attribu- ted to sleeping under the direct rays of the moon. Mooncalf--one Who is born deformed or retarded. Mooner--(Charles Dickens) one Who wanders or gazes idly or moodily about as if moonstruck. Moon-eyed--condition of a person suffering from moonblink. Moonish--variable; changeable; fickle. Moon-madness--lunacy; used frequently in modern times in reference to the activities of pyromaniacs (Trapp, 1937). Moonrise--the rising of the moon above the earth's horizon; the time of the moon's rising. Moonset--the descent of the moon below the earth's horizon; the time of this descent. Moonshine--nonsense; intoxicating liquor. Moonstruck--crazed; deranged. Moon Walking--type of periodic sleepwalking, similar to hypnotic somnam­ bulism, Which occurs during certain lunar phases, and especially on the full moon. Moony--a dreamy or absent minded quality. New Moon--beginning of lunar phase cycle, in Which the moon is invisible because it passes between the earth and sun with its dark side facing the earth. Perigee (Lunar) --nearest point from earth in moon's orbit. Piccardi effect--changes in physical properties of water and coloidal solutions, sometimes attributed to fluctuations in geomagnetism. 96

"Satyricon"--famous tale by the classic Italian novelist Petronius of a man's transformation into a werewolf. Sidereal month--true period of the moon's orbit around the earth with reference to a fixed star; completed in approximately 27 days, 7 hours and 43.2 minutes. Sin (Hur)--moon god of the Chaldeans, Babylonians and Assyrians; applied to the moon in many Semitic languages; thought to be the origin of the word ''Sinai'' . Shabathu--(from the Babylonian "Sabattu") literally, "evil day", time of the full moon; also considered by the Babylonians to be the time of menstruation; thought by some scholars to be the root of the Heb­ rew ''sabbath''. Sharav--(Israel) hot dry winds accompanied by an increase of positive ions and associated with a marked increase of physical and mental illness in human beings and animals; known also as "sirocco" (Italy), "mistral" (France), "foehn" (Germany), "hamsin" (Middle East), "chinook" (Canada and Pacific Northwest), and "Santa Ana" (Southern California). Synodic month--lunar-phase month; completed in approximately 29 days, 12 hours and 44.1 minutes. Tet (Thoth)--ancient Egyptian moon god; also god of wisdom and keeper of time. Verispellis--(Latin) werewolf or turnskin; used by Petronius in refer­ ring to the god Jupiter, because of his disguises as a lover (McDaniel, 1950). Wane--dwindle, decrease; period from full phase of the moon to new moon.

Wax--increase, grow in phase or intensity; period from new to full moon. 97

APPENDIX B

A PERSONAL l'KITE

I first became interested in the subject of lunar influence on man as a result of my own personal experience.

Having been greatly influenced in my younger years by a brilliant but rather Platonic English step-father, my tendency has always been toward extreme rationality and a belief in strict control over my own destiny. Even in the years I spent in Berkeley during the late 1960's, the question ''What's your sign?" simply never became absorbed into my repertoire.

At the age of 27, I began having grand mal seizures, a condition which continued for five years, until controlled by medication. At this turning point in my life, and unbeknownst to me for several years,

I had slipped quite suddenly into another dimension, referred to by the initiated as the ''Lunatic Fringe.'' My discovery of this fact occurred very much by accident. In perusing my medical records one day, I not­ iced that there appeared to be a pattern in the occurrence of my epi­ leptic episodes. In the course of nearly 30 seizures during these years, approximately 75% had occurred within two days of the full moon.

The remainder had occurred at new moon. In reporting this exciting dis­ covery to my doctor, I was told quite matter-of-factly that this pattern seemed to occur in a m.nnber of his other patients as well. Coincident­ ally, that day he happened to have a copy on his desk of The Lunar

Effect by Dr. Arnold Lieber, which he recorrnnended I read.

A corollary to this personal experience with the lunar effect is that directly following the majority of my seizures I became aware of 98

the fact that I was experiencing a series of What some might refer to as psychic perceptions. Oh, nothing earth-shattering. Just the strange experience of knowing exactly who was calling me every time the tele- phone rang, or precisely how many cars were approaching around the next bend. This ability occurred regularly and quite predictably following every seizure, and would disappear gradually after about a week. Since these episodes have been controlled, these perceptions have not recur- red. And yes, my doctor has received reports from other epileptic patients of this very phenomenon.

I consider my life to be pretty normal now. I retain in my think­ ing What I still see as an edge of "healthy skepticism". I still avoid reading the National Enquirer. I've never seen a UFD. In the course of this project I read a couple of studies showing absolutely no rela- tionship between seizures and the full moon, and I am reminded of a quote from Shakespeare's Hamlet,

"There are more things in heaven and earth, Horatio, Than are dreamt of in your philosophy.''

Janis Cash Graham April, 1984