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ONYENUCHEYA OZIOMA FAITH

PG/MA/09/51171

THE ROLE OF THE CHURCH TOWARDS AMELIORATION OF PG/M. Sc/09/51723 SOCIO-CULTURAL PRACTICES INIMICAL TO WOMEN

LIBERATION IN IGBOLAND

A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF RELIGION AND CULTURAL STUDIESFACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES, UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA

PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

JANUARY, 2012

Digitally Signed by Webmaster’s Name

Webmaster DN : CN = Webmaster’s name O= University of Nigeria, Nsukka OU = Innovation Centre

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THE ROLE OF THE CHURCH TOWARDS AMELIORATION OF SOCIO-CULTURAL PRACTICES

INIMICAL TO WOMEN LIBERATION IN IGBOLAND

BY

ONYENUCHEYA OZIOMA FAITH

PG/MA/09/51171

DEPARTMENT OF RELIGION AND CULTURAL STUDIES

UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA

JANUARY 2012

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TITLE PAGE

THE ROLE OF THE CHURCH TOWARDS AMELIORATION OF

SOCIO-CULTURAL PRACTICES INIMICAL TO WOMEN

LIBERATION IN IGBOLAND

BY

ONYENUCHEYA OZIOMA FAITH

REG NO: PG/MA/09/51171

DEPARTMENT OF RELIGION AND CULTURAL STUDIES UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA

JANUARY 2012

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REQUIREMENT PAGE

THE ROLE THE CHURCH TOWARDS THE AMELIORATION OF SOCIO- CULTURAL PRACTICE INIMICAL TO WOMEN LIBERATION IN IGBOLAND.

BY

ONYENUCHEYA OZIOMA FAITH REG NO: PG/MA/09/51171

A PROJECT REPORT SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF RELIGION AND CULTURAL STUDIES, FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES, UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF MASTER OF ARTS (M.A) DEGREE IN RELIGION AND CULTURAL STUDIES.

SUPERVISOR: REV.PROF AGHA. U. AGHA

JANUARY 2012.

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APPROVAL PAGE

This project has been approved as meeting the requirement for the award for

Master of Arts (M.A) in Religion and Cultural studies, University of Nigeria,

Nsukka

BY

………………………………. ……………………………..

REV. PROF. AGHA A .U DATE

SUPERVISOR

………………………………. ……………………………….

REV. DR E. A ITUMA DATE

HEAD OF DEPARTMENT

EXTERNAL EXAMINER DATE

………………………………. …………………………….

DEAN FACULTY OF SOCIAL DATE

SCIENCES

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CERTIFICATION

We hereby certify that the candidate ONYENUCHEYA OZIOMA.F with Registration Number PG/09/MA/51171 has duly effected the corrections suggested by the external Examiner.

……………………… ……………………………. Rev.Prof.Agha. U. Agha Rev.Dr .E Ituma (Supervisor) (Head of Dept).

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DECLARATION

ONYENUCHEYA OZIOMA. F, A Postgraduate student of Department of Religion and Cultural Studies University of Nigeria Nsukka with Registration

Number PG/MA/09/51171 has satisfactorily completed all the requirements for the course and research works for the award of Masters of Arts (M.A) Degree in

Religion and Cultural Studies.

The work embodied in this project report is original and has not been submitted in part or full for any other diploma or degree of this or any other

University.

…………………… ……………………….. Rev.Prof.Agha U. Agha. Rev.Dr E.Ituma (Supervisor) (Head of Dept)

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DEDICATION

This project work is dedicated to my parents, Mr. and Mrs. .R.C Onyenucheya

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research work will not be complete without appreciating some people who contributed immensely to its completion. They contributed through advice, prayers moral, financial support or provision of one item or the other.

My greatest gratitude goes to almighty God, my father through His son Jesus

Christ, my saviour, for His special grace, favour, goodness and mercy throughout my stay in this great citadel of learning .Above all, I thank Him, for his hands upon my life. He is mighty in battle.

My profound gratitude goes to my supervisor, Rev.Prof.Agha .U Agha, without whose perseverance and tireless effort at reading every word of this research work and putting across his nice ideas, corrections and suggestions, the completion of this work would have been difficult. Also ,I will not fail to appreciate other lecturers in my department ,among whom are:Prof Ugwu C.O.T

, Rev Dr Ononugbu and Dr Onyeidu they have contributed immensely to my future . x

This thesis is materials that were found in other articles or books. The researcher makes no claim to be comprehensive. A special thanks to the authors mentioned in the references page. Without them, this work would have taken many years before its completion.

I will not forget the immeasurable help and assistance given to me by

Ukandu.I. Maxwell my only classmate in the whole of Odili Hall. Words are not enough to express my gratitude to my classmates: Dick Chinedu, Edeh victor,Udagha Nduka, Agbasianya Nneka,Ogiri Happiness,Bro Rex Ufomadu, my brothers and sisters: Nkemdilim, Obinna ,Eloka and Nonye. They did not allow me to shed tears for one-day .In fact; they are my source of happiness, companions when I am alone and my shelter in bad weather.

Finally, I express my thanks to the computer analyst who typeset this work.

ONYENUCHEYA OZIOMA FAITH DEPT OF REL&CULTURAL STUDIES FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA NSUKKA.

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ABSTRACTS The study is focused on the role of the Church in the amelioration of socio- cultural practices inimical to women liberation in Igboland. The study focused on some of the evil practices against the freedom of women that have continued to persist in Igboland. The method adopted is historical research methodology and utilized both primary and secondary sources of data collection. The primary sources of data collection were gotten through oral interview from knowledgeable individuals from around the state, on the research subject. The secondary sources of data were derived from existing textbooks on the topic of research found in the library and archives. The researcher found out that Christianity has done much in emancipation of women from some of the evil practices in Igboland. It was discovered that some parts of Igboland still subject widows to evil practices. It was discovered during the investigation that female circumcision is still being carried on in some part of Igboland. Women are still denied property ownership in some parts of Igboland. The church played a vital role in amelioration of these cultural practices that are inimical to women. The church is still looked upon to continue to play their roles to help eliminate the persisting evil practices in the contemporary Igbo communities in different states throughout Igboland. The researcher attempts to use this means to call on the church and the public to address the persisting inimical practices against women in the contemporary society.

TABLE OF CONTENTS xii

Title page i

Approval page ii

Certification page iii

Declaration iv

Dedication v

Acknowledgment vi

Abstracts viii

Table of contents ix

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Background to the study 1 1.2 Statement of the problem 4 1.3 Research Methodology 4 1.4 Purpose of the study 5 1.5 Significance of the study 5 1.6 Scope of the study 5 1.7 Definition of terms 6

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW 10

2.1 Social Status of women in Traditional society. 10

2.2 Economic Roles of Women 14

2.3 Political Roles of Women 16

2.4 Factors at work in development of women‟s status 18

2.5 Summary 21 xiii

CHAPTER THREE: SOCIO-CULTURAL PRACTICES

INIMICAL TO WOMEN LIBERATION IN IGBOLAND 23

3.1 WIDOWHOOD PRACTICE 23

3.1.1Causes of Widowhood practice 25

3.1.2 Widowhood Rituals- Igba-Mkpe 27

3.1.3 Effects of Widowhood on Women 34

3.2 FEMALE GENITAL MUTILATION 37

3.2.1 Classifications of female genital mutilation 39

3.2.2 The range of procedure involved in female genital mutilation 41

3.2.3 Reasons for performing female genital mutilation 43

3.2.4 The effect of female genital mutilation on the health of women 47

3.3 POLYGAMY 50

3.3.1 Reasons for polygamy 52

3.3.2 Effect of polygamy on women 56

3.4 MASQUERADE SOCIETY 58

3.4.1 Nature/origin of masquerade 59

3.4.2 Types of masquerade 60

3.4.3 Functions of Masquerade 65

CHAPTER FOUR: CHRISTIANITY AS A CATALYST OF WOMEN’S LIBERATION FROM SOCIO-CULTURAL PRACTICES INIMICAL TO THEIR DEVELOPMENT 72 xiv

4.1 The impact of Christianity on Igbo Culture 72

4.4.1 Western education 74 4.4.2 Religious and social freedom 76 4.4.3 Marriage System 78

4.4.4 Widowhood practice 80

CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 83

5.1 Summary of the findings 83

5.2 Contributions to knowledge 84

5.3 Recommendations 84

5.4 Suggestions for further Research 86

Conclusion 86

References 88

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MAP OF IGBOLAND xvi

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CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study:

Igbo people are an ethnic group living chiefly in South –Eastern Nigeria. The area is located in the tropical rain forest environment of West Africa. Igbo land lies between Longitudes 5o and 7˚ north of the equator. Tribes with varying dialects surround them. On the North, the Igbo share a common boundary with Igala, the

Idoma and the Tiv, on the South the Ijaw and Ogoni, East by the Ibibio, Anang, Yako,

Umon and finally on the West, by Edo, Urhobo an Isoko people (Onwuejeogu, 1981) surround them.

The origin of Igbo people cannot be easily traced because of lack of records, which will help to explain the period, place of settlement and origin. According to

Ilogu (1974:11), “where the Igbo came from and when, will remain for a long time a matter of conjecture because of the absence of helpful records of archeological records by which to determine the date of settlement and place of origin”. Shaw (1977:18) maintained, “Through oral traditions recorded by ethnologists, historians and some available archeological records, little has been known about the origin of Igbo people.

Through these sources, it was found that Igbo-Ukwu area had been a center of Igbo civilization, which dates as far as ninth century B.C. or even more.

Onwuejeogu (1981:8) noted on the Igbo that, “a study of their way of life reveals that they were able to adapt effectively to the dense rain forest in Nigeria”. xviii

They are one of the most numerous ethnic groups in black Africa. Covering an area of

40,922 square kilometers (Uchendu, 1965) and their numerical strength is remarkable in the present day Nigeria. The CIA World Fact book puts the Igbo population

(including the various subgroups of the Igbo) at 18% of a total population of 152 million, or approximately 27 million.(World fact book, 2010).

Southeastern Nigeria, which is inhabited primarily by the Igbo, is the most densely populated area in Nigeria, and possibly in all of Africa. They were so densely populated that Flint (1966:63) stated that the Igbo “developed a density per acre only matched in Africa by that of Nile valley”.

The Igbo in Nigeria are found in Abia, Anambra, Ebonyi, Enugu, Imo, Delta and

Rivers State (Uchem,2001:36). The Igbo language is predominant throughout these areas, although English (the national language) is spoken as well. Prominent towns and cities in Igboland include Aba, Owerri, Enugu (considered the 'Igbo capital'),

Williams (2008:196) includes Onitsha, Abakaliki, Afikpo, Agbor, Nsukka, Orlu,

Okigwe, Umuahia, Asaba and Port Harcourt among others (Nwachukwu, 2004:8)

There is a significant number of Igbo people found in other parts of Nigeria by migration, such as in the city of Lagos (Gordon, 2003:87). Other Nigerians and ethnographers who are not well informed about the SouthEast (Udeani, 2008, Taylor

1996) sometimes regard most ethnicities that inhabit southeastern Nigeria, such as the closely related Efik and Ibibio people. xix

In Igbo land like in many other cultures women are viewed and treated as inferior or second-class citizens in the traditional African societies and the Nigerian society in particular (Onah, 2008:45). Patriarchy had always ignored and put to disadvantage the position of women in the matrices of indigenous cultures” (Ugwu, 2007: 34).Women have been subjected to subjugation, discrimination and injustices over the years.

Apparently, these traditions are gradually changing with the introduction of

Christianity and modernity. These changes have naturally affected the traditional roles of men and women and their status in the contemporary society. The current drive for sustainable human development carries with it a great deal of expectation for a better world. The “universalism of life claims” is to many, a remainder that all individuals should exercise their capabilities to the fullest and to put these capabilities to the best use in all fields. (Human development as citied in (Ogbuche, 2009). Nevertheless, to a good majority, the “universalism of life claims” is a new message, unheard before and which is threatened by legal, and inimical traditional practices entrenched in most

African societies, which is also applicable to Igbo people.

1.2 Statement of Problem:

Women encounter many challenges where cultural practices inimical to them exist. Widowhood, Mutilation of female genital organ and other related evil practices xx have caused great havoc among women. They are generally unfavourable to the health, psychological and social well-being of women whose fundamental human rights are also violated by the application of these practices. The practices are usually considered normal part of life. However, attempts to improve the status of the women have brought them to limelight as part of the problems of development designed to sustain patriarchy, gender inequality in our society. These problems are not well dealt with instead; people regard them as the right way of doing it. The above problems informed the choice of this topic. The researcher wants to proffer solutions to the above problem facing women in Igboland.

1.3 Research Methodology:

This research work will make use of historical and analytical research method, which attempts to explore available literature and sifting relevant information associated with the topic under discussion. The methods of data collection are from primary and secondary sources of information. The information from the primary source will be mainly from interviews as they relate to the issues in the study, and the interview is conducted among the women who are involved in the study area. During the interview, the researcher conducted oral interview on those who cannot read or write in their native dialect. The data from secondary source were gathered from existing texts found in the libraries, archives, periodicals, thesis and internet.

1.4 Purpose of the Study: xxi

The main aim of this research is to look into the cultural practices that are against women‟s right before and after the advent of Christianity in Igboland.

Furthermore, to show the contributions of Christianity towards the amelioration of these socio-cultural practices that impede women‟s right. Finally, this research work will suggest some practical solution that will help to stop these inimical socio-cultural practices against women.

1.5 Significance of the Study:

This research will provide a base for further research on a similar topic and a source of information to the public who would want to carry out more extensive research on the topic. It is hoped that it will be an addition to the numerous literature on the topic in the library. It will also be of use to posterity as it is hoped to be an important study to Igbo people especially the women in Igboland.

1.6 Scope of the Study:

The scope of this study is Southeastern Nigeria people. They are made up of five states, which include Abia, Anambra, Ebonyi, Enugu and Imo state. These people made up one cultural zone. The scope is so chosen because of the interrelatedness in their culture.

Given the above, references will also be made to other Igbo speaking states in Nigeria,

Nigeria as a whole, West Africa and Africa for the sake of comparison.

1.7 Definition of Terms: xxii

For the purpose of clarity, the researcher would like to expound on some key terms according to its usage in this work .Our conception of them may coincide with the general meanings which are for our own good as well. The terms include the following:

Christianity: According to Oxford Advance learner‟s Dictionary, Christianity is the

Religion based on the teachings of Jesus Christ and the belief that he was the Son of

God. Christianity is one of the major religions in Nigeria. This religion was based on the teachings of Christ brought along with it European way of life and culture.

Nigosian (1975:146) explained, “The story of Christianity is the story of a religion that took root within the framework of Judaism in Palestine but very quickly spread to other parts of the world …. The word Christianity refers “to the original form of worship and access to God taught by Jesus Christ .The church today which is the visible body of Christ continues with the teaching of Jesus (Madu, 1996: 40). In this work, Christianity and Church will be used interchangeably to mean the same thing.

Socio-Cultural: The new Webster‟s comprehensive Dictionary of English language defines “social” as that pertaining to society, or its organization relating to person as living in society or to the public as an aggregate body. Agha (1996) defines culture as:

The totality of what we practice, our language, religion and dressing, eating,our tools and implements used, the way we work and play ,the various changes in our vegetation, soil land forms ,bedrock, culture is the synopsis of people‟s way of life, a set of patterned activities, their world-view , and all directed towards the achievement of high quality of life (p.6). xxiii

Church: The Oxford Advanced Learner‟s Dictionary (1995:197) defined the term church as (1) a building used for public Christian worship; (2) Public worship- a service in a church ;( 3) all Christians regarded as a group;(4) a particular group of

Christians‟ regarded as a group of Christians;(5) the ministers of the Christian religion.

According to Iwe (1979:33) the term church is referred to the “religious community, as an organized body of the people of Christ-God living under their legitimate religious leader”. This religious body, the term church has to do with a group of people who believed in God and worship Him in a particular way. Hence, there are different churches in different places.

Society: Agha (2010) defined society as “People with common goal getting along with one another. It comprises people doing things with, to, and for each other to the interest of each to accepted. In connection to this, Eliot (1969:300) stated that society as “a group of human beings co-operating in the pursuit of several of their major interest”. However Okwueze (2004:4) notes that society is “no longer limited to a group of people who are related or who belong to the same profession but now extents to those who live together within a geographical location”, the society which this work refers to is the Igbo society unless the context states otherwise.

Widowhood: Oxford Advanced Learner‟s Dictionary defines widowhood as the state or period of being a widow or a widower. Hence, Edokobi (1986:44) as cited in

Edokobi (2000)described widowhood as the condition that follows the death of one of xxiv the partners in a marriage. Demographically speaking, there are more widows than widowers in the society.

Female Genital Mutilation: According to World Health Organization as cited in

UNICEF (2001:195) female genital mutilation is defined as “all procedures which

involve partial or total removal of the external female genitalia and/or injury to the

female genital organs whether for cultural or any other non-therapeutic reasons”.

Polygamy: The Advanced Learners Dictionary of current English defines Polygamy

as the custom of having more than one wife at the same time.

Polygyny: Agha, (2004:102) defines polygny “as a system of marriage in which a

man has more than one wife who were married at different time and dates. These

wives may not live together, the man has to visit each of them from time to time”.

Hence, Koktvedgaard (2008:3) noted that, “it is a marriage, which includes more

than two partners”. He further stated, “when a man is married to more than one wife

at a time, the relationship is called polygyny”.

Human Right: Carston (1967:52) defines human right as “something of which no

one may be deprived without a great affront to justice”. For Dorwick(1979:8) human

rights are “those claims made by men, for themselves or on behalf of other men,

supported by theory which concentrates on the humanity of man, on man as a human

being, a member of human kind…”.Hence, human rights are entitled merely by

reason of being human”(Wikipedia, The free Encyclopedia,2009). xxv

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

In order to know what to be done and the direction, the researcher will focus in a serious study of this kind, knowledge of what has been done in the chosen area of interest is crucial. In addition, it is important for the researcher to review the literary works of some scholars who have made contributions in the area of study to enable her to have an in depth understanding of the subject matter. Thus, this chapter deals with xxvi the status of women over the years in Igbo traditional society and the development of the society. This will be discussed under the following sub-headings:

2.1 Social status of women in Igbo Traditional Society

2.2 Economic Roles of Women

2.3Political roles of Women

2.4 Factors at work, in the development of women‟s status

2.5 Summary

2.1 Social Status of Women in Traditional society

Status of women refers to the conditions and right of women. Azikiwe

(1997:155) asserts that status of women means the conditions under which women live in the society as well as the chances they have to do certain things in the society.

Traditionally the place of a woman in Igboland is in the home as a wife and a mother, who stays to bear children, rear them up and take care of the home. They are regarded as inferior and people who cannot do any other thing except production of children. They were believed to have no organization. Spencer as citied in Diara

(2004: 34) opined that in primitive societies, women were seen as property to be bought and sold, and are treated as slave or even animals, enjoying neither sympathy nor respect. In corroborating with the above statement, Pitchard (1965) noted that;

Women in European societies can choose to marry or not to marry and if they choose not to marry they may devote their lives xxvii

in teaching, research, administration, charity etc or they combine married life with a profession or job and with all sorts of interest outside the home .The primitive woman has no choice…. (p. 41). In African society, the issue of procreation is the essence of corporate living. The presence of procreation means propagation of individual and the society. Then its absence naturally signifies the extinction of a lineage, a race. In describing the situation Uzoho (1997:9) asserts that “in primal societies especially in Africa, there are hardly unmarried adult women. The African woman is generally a married woman, a house wife and a member of a polygamous family”. The ultimate goal of traditional marriage relationship assumes a highly esteemed and honored status in society.

Women‟s status was considered in her marriage. Overall, one would tend to agree with

UNESCO (1986) as citied in Azikiwe (1997) apt observation that the Traditional principles regarding the status of women include:

a) Women were strictly dependent on the men because tradition obliged a woman to respect, obey and submit to her husband. b) The woman is classified as a minor and thus cannot take any action pertaining to law on her own. She could be deprived of the goods acquired during the marriage even though she had contributed to the prosperity of the household. The payment of dowry or bride wealth restricted a woman‟s choice of a partner and prevented her from recovering her autonomy at the death of her husband. c) Only a woman‟s adulterous was punished. A woman was obliged to accept in the conjugal home the children born of her husband‟s adulterous union and could be repudiated unilaterally by her husband if she is the one guilty (p.33). In the same vein, Hirsh (1981:1) observed that “the view that men are superior is a trait which actively encourages stereotyping, prejudice and discrimination”. Thus xxviii the oppression of women was built into the fabric of the society. While Diara (2004) agrees with the above, he opines that:

Professionalism was local. There are men‟s work and women‟s work and neither the men nor the women were expected to interfere with the duties of the other. The duties of men included farming, wine tapping, carrying out religious rites and judicial procedures, attending village meetings..etc. While the duties of women included keeping the home clean, cooking food, making of local crafts, taking care of children and other such responsibilities that always subjected them to the confines of the home. In the early part of 20th century, there was a little percentage of educated women, so civil service and other social professions were seen as bonafide right of men.

Women seen in such professions were regarded as intruders in masculine profession.

Palmer (1983:88) writing on this, asserts that, “the impression conveyed then is of an ordered society with women playing a secondary but cheerful accepted and important role.” Thus women in traditional societies were exposed to institutional obstacles.

Though there were women who were accorded special recognition and respect such women as priestesses, queens, wives of traditional title holders etc. In most cases, such respect and recognition were given on the basis of religious and traditional considerations. Also, the traditional women have a clear vision of the “sacred duty”

(Umeasiegbu, 1964) of Motherhood and carries it with appropriate diligence and commitment. Hence, Rosaldo(1973) observed that:

Women take care of their children because the Igbo family is such that a man has his own house, whereas the wife and children have theirs showing that the first level of socialization of children begins with their mother who directs them on issues as they grow. Hence women‟s role xxix

as mothers and primarily socializes of children in turn set up the possibility of a distinction between a domestic and public spheres, the former the province of women, the later of men(p.163). Emphasizing the same point George (1979:864) states it that“as mother she sustains a relationship to children which involves their care and their nature as a wife which is made for her husband for his pleasure and reproductive purposes”. For the society, parenthood is a mission, which can only be rightfully fulfilled through marriage.

Given the women limited self-perception or self-consciousness they hardly dream of claiming equality with the men.

2.2 Economic Roles of Women

Women play an indispensible role in the economic life of the Igbo society.

According to Boserup (1970)

In the community where women work hard, it is characterized that they are valued both as workers and as mothers of the next generation and therefore, that men keenly desire to have more than one wife. On the other hand, in a rural community where women take little part in field work, they are valued as mothers only and status of barren women is very low in comparison with that of the mother with numerous male children (p. 51). He further stated that, “Economic progress benefits men as wage earners in the modern sector, while the position of women is left unchanged, and even deteriorates xxx when competition from the growing modern sectors eliminates the traditional enterprises carried on by women” (p.139).

Onwurah (1982) had this to say on this issue

In Igboland, the wife‟s contribution to the family‟s subsistence is normally direct and indespensible.Where this is so, a husband is much dependent upon his wife contribution as she is on him and so an Igbo woman is respected by her husband (p.144). Women play important roles in economic life of the society. Farming is the main occupation of the Igbo people. Crops grown by the woman provide staple food.

Husbands and wives both have crops, the men chiefly Yam and women having cocoyam and cassava. In connection with the above assertion, Harris (1994) opined that,

…The women were expected to assume full responsibility in the feeding the family for the rest of the farming year. This division was only theoretical, and diverged from actual practice. The fact is that women contributed more than their fair share to family feeding (p. 302-305). Women see to the feeding of the family. They are often responsible for the daily feeding of their children though occasionally men bring out some yam tubers. Okigbo

(1980) observes that,

During the yam season, when men were expected to feed the family, the responsibility was not left to them alone. The women still contributed in this regard in a very substantial way. To begin with, yam was hardly eating alone. The women supplied such other accompanying condiments as palm oil, vegetable, leaves, mush-room, okra, pepper and salt, among other items. xxxi

To confirm the above, Agbasiere (2000) stated that “There is a relatively high economic status of women” (p.37). She argues that on economic level, the woman, not the man is the main provider (p.6).

Agriculturally, women provide cheap labour and do the most part of weeding in the farm. They have brought about change in economy since they produce surplus food supply. This they do through the value of the commodities they produce. These surpluses are sold to those who were not able to produce much. On market days, practically the female population moves to the market place either to buy or to sell.

Basden (1930) affirms that, “Ibo women cannot keep away from the market anymore than English women from regent streets. Similar situations occur elsewhere in Africa.

It was in consonance with this view that Leith (1978) observed that

Women are entitled to sell the surplus palm produce. They might also sell, prepare foods or the products of special skills for instance processed salt, pots and baskets. They pocketed the entire profit levels kept them disadvantages relative to men to acquiring titles and prestige. In support of this, Ifesieh (1976:318) said “….a woman has her own garden plants

and her own yams. Cocoyams, Cassava, beans pepper, grown vegetables and to trade

so that if her husband is not there, the children will not grow hungry”. Supportive of

the fact that women are bread winners in Igbo society Ahmed (1985) asserts that

“Women continue to perform their traditional hand operations unless their families‟

income is sufficient to allow them to pass all or some of their agricultural work to

women or men from less well-off families”. xxxii

Finally, having gone through all the roles of women economically, it can be seen that women are not weakling. They are capable and ever willing to help both in their families and in the society, which they live.

2.3 POLITICAL ROLES OF WOMEN

In Igboland, people never accepted leadership of a king or Queen, as they would not subject themselves to single individual, however kind and powerful the person may be, this accorded the women their deserved political status. Pointing to the degree of recognition given to women in Igboland, Van Allen (1972) asserted that

They participated in village meetings with men. However, their real political power was based on the solidarity of women as expressed in their political institution their meetings, their market networks, their kingship groups Umuada, Umuokpu and their use of strikes, boycotts and force to their decisions (p.165). They do take part in various political affairs of the society. Igbo women play political roles effectively at various levels of the community. The umuada, like age grade is a type of government. Hence, Ogbalu (1974) observed that:

Umuada… play an important role through their leaders in recommendation of abolition and modification of customs, taboos, nature and performance of rituals and observance of rituals and observance pertaining to women to governing authorities example how a women mourns the death of her husband. To some extent, Umuada acting through their leaders help to settle family disputes either father‟s town or in another in which they are married (p.28). This goes on to support the Egbo‟s view (1973) that,

Ibo women had the right to express their views to men through the women organization on any issue that affected the women‟s xxxiii

welfare, if in the village authorities that was inimical to women‟s interest or that of the village at large. They may impose sanctions, which may include heavy fines, sittings or other measures (p12). Uchendu (1995:58) goes on to say that “Igbo women when compared with women from other Nigerian ethnic groups, were more vocal in political matters. This was illustrated by their reaction to the colonial government when their rights and freedom were threatened”. In contrast to this, Agbasiere (2000) is of the view that,

Traditionally, women do not have an active voice in purely political affairs of common interest…However; women possess a consultative voice, which can exert significant political influence, especially in matters that concern women directly. In matters of communal interest, a woman like a man is expected to speak her mind ….But usually, final decisions rest with the male elders (p38-39). According to Ugwu (1991:35), “The dependence of Igbo women on the decision of

their male counterparts cannot be overstressed. This is because of their awareness of

existing in a male dominated society where everything they do is shaped by men”.

Van Allen (1976) gives analysis of how Igbo women demonstrated in 1929 against

colonial imposition of a native administration, which destroyed the traditional dual-

sex system in which women had played an important political role.

2.4 Factors at Work in Development of Women’s Status

There is no doubt that in history, the dignity of women has suffered exploitation, humiliation, degradation and inhibition because of the domineering ignorance and prejudice. In connection with the above, Iwe (1979) stated that, xxxiv

In ancient and Republican Rome, the family head-paterfamilias- had what was called “ius Vitae necisque”-that is the right of life and death over his family members including his wife. The dark Ages and feudalism placed women in a very low state. The harsh early stages of the industrial Revolution and as asperities and violence of the slave trade further degraded the status of womanhood (p.77). However, Iwe further stated that forces that help to uphold, foster and promote the dignity of womanhood includes, Christianity, the industrial Revolution, the

American and French Revolutionary ideas and the united nations organs and specialized Agencies (I.L.O International Labour Organization especially. Looking into the impact of Christianity on women, The New Dictionary of thought (1966) opined that;

Christianity has always recognized the personality of the woman and the human values they represent. In somewhat exaggerated but true manner, the American divine, Herrick John (1832-1913) has instructively pointed out that: “Christianity has lifted women to a new place in human life (p.734). In connection with the above assertion, Onyeidu (2004:48) stated that “The emancipation of women… “is one of the most important contributions of Christianity to our society”. The coming of Christianity in Igbo land brought in or introduced different kinds of transformations in our society especially in the places of education, the church and social organization. Ozioko (2010:13) who claims that Christianity brought about the emancipation of women in the following ways supports the above view:

1. Christian education of women xxxv

2. Restoration of fundamental Rights

3. Religious and social emancipation

4. The struggle against early marriage, and other forms of marriage

5. Introduction of Christian marriage

6. Reformation of widowhood practices

7. Emancipation of women through humanism

The influence of Christianity on marriage as an institution and other cultural

practices that relegate women to background is a permanent evidence of the

benevolent impact of Christianity on the status of women.

Then the industrial revolution, Ashton (1964) asserted that,

It serves as a catalyst, which shattered the shackles by which the fixity and rigidity of Feudal age and its primitive economy fettered the dignity and potentials of women .This socio- economic revolution in the means and factors of production and distribution created and widened the avenues of human labour and employment. Society began to appreciate the value of female labour and its employment in the factories outside the home (P.135-141). Another factor of women development is the revolutionary ideas of the 18th century which according to Iwe (1979:78) emphasized the concepts of the dignity, liberty and equality of all human beings, without any distinctions as to sex or race or religion etc. The status of women eventually benefited from this benevolent ferment of liberal and egalitarian ideas. xxxvi

Finally United Nations organization which Iwe further noted that, through its appropriate organs and specialized agencies has in various commissions and declarations sought to protect the political, civic, social and economic rights of women as deriving from the principles of “the dignity and worth of the human person and of equal rights of men and women”.

In view of the above, Njoku (2003) opined that,

… United Nations human rights Declaration of 1948-Articles 1- 11,16&18 were dedicated to eradication of illiteracy (especially among women),diseases, hunger , arbitrary, arrest, inhuman, torture and homelessness. The declaration established equality of all people (men and women alike) before the law. In addition to the above, Ekerfre (1990) declared that, As a result of western education, Nigerian women have excelled in positions of authority and influence especially since the United Nations international world conference of the international women‟s year held in Mexico1975 and the world conference of the united Nations decade for women held in Copenhagen (p.87). Thus, the Nigerian women have distinguished themselves in all areas of human endeavour.

2.5 Summary

A close look at the related literature reveals that a lot has been done concerning women‟s status and roles from different viewpoints. However, their entire views hinge on the fact that in traditional society the place of the woman is in the home as a mother, to bear children and to rear them up. Women are also playing a very important role in helping God in the process of procreation. The status of womanhood xxxvii has suffered subjugation in the history of African cultures. However, the coming of

Christianity Vis-Visa, Western modernization has played a very vital role in changing the status of women.

Today, there is a positive interplay between the productive and reproductive roles of women. This interplay exists in connection with regard to the community and the nation at large and her responsibilities towards her family as a mother. This varies in different socio-cultural context.

xxxviii

xxxix

CHAPTER THREE

SOCIO-CULTURAL PRACTICES INIMICAL TO WOMEN LIBERATION IN IGBOLAND

3.1 Widowhood Practice:

According to Okoli (2008: 49) widowhood practices “have been long established religious and sociological practices observed in different societies by women who lost their husband”. She further stated that, “widowhood practices in most parts of the world especially in Africa are characterized by rituals and some of those rituals reveal some social injustices” (p.47). Widowhood is widely recognized as a distressing experience and is strikingly a common stressful phenomenon. In Igboland, widowhood is a period of great mourning and lamentation particularly by the widows.

Who then is a widow? A widow is a female married person who has lost her husband. There is no age limit to being a widow, as even a teenager who is married and loses her husband also becomes a widow. All over Africa, women are treated as unequal to men and are not accorded same respect and status as men.

(http://www.brighthub.com) Widowhood is even worse for a widow when she has no male to speak for her or defend her. For Ifeagwazi (2002) widows in Nigeria especially in Igboland are under considerable pressure and stress.

Movie Picture of a Nigerian Widow xl

http://aboutnigerianfilms.blogspot.com/2009/02/god-knows-why-he-made-me-widow- stella.html

The widow has the obligation to express her grief by crying and waling loudly at the loss of her husband. Kalu (1989) observed that, this wailing ritual as demanded by Igbo culture, otherwise the widow might be accused of being responsible for the death of her spouse. It is important part of the culture that the widow must appear glooming or lugubrious at all time laughter is unbecoming of a widow. Ekwunife

(1995) noted that, the Nigeria widow is in dilemma and she is a victim of so many xli forces. She is often denied of her husbands' property. Nwanyiabia (Oral Interview,

2011) recounts her experience, when she lost her husband in 1976, she said that

I was ordered home from Sapele to explain the cause of his death. After I had narrated everything to them (in-laws), they asked for his passbook (bank savings book and other valuable items which I handed over to them). Chinwendu (Oral Interview, 2011) a young widow noted that,

Our entire property was confiscated. A lorry was sent from home to came and pack all the merchandise in his supermarket including his electronics. For the past years, the house has been like a battleground between them and I. While analyzing the condition of widows Nzewi (1989) noted that,

The widow‟s ordeal begins immediately the death of her husband is announced. The in-laws demand a list of the man‟s property, holding investments, bank accounts etc. She further required taking an oath as a proof that she has not concealed any relevant information on her husband‟s wealth.

The position of widows therefore could be very difficult. In Igboland, a woman as soon as her husband dies is subjected to series of cultural practices and ritual.

3.1.1 Causes of Widowhood in Igboland

According to Fasoranti and Aruna (2007) “Widowhood is caused by death and

death on its part is because of some factors such as diseases accidents, old age,

afflictions or attacks, all of which finally result in death” korieh (1996) noted

that “there is a high rate of widowhood among the Igbos". He further stated that

there are two main reasons for this high rate of widowhood in Igboland. The first

reason is the large age differences between husbands and wives especially in xlii

traditional society. It was discovered that the acquisition of all that is required for

marriage rites takes some time and, as such, many would be husbands were

about an average of age of 40 years while the wives were often 15 or 20 years

younger. Furthermore in “polygynous families, the age disparity for second and

subsequent wives is even greater”. Then secondly, the large number of widows

in Igboland can be traced to the civil war between Nigeria and the Biafra (1967-

1970) in which, it was estimated that more than one million Igbo, mostly, man,

lost their lives (Korieh, 1996). This, coupled with the low incidence of widow re-

marriage among the Igbo, It must be pointed out however, that age disparity

between spouses is not the only demographic variable that is important in the

issue of widowhood. Schildkrout (1989) as citied in Korieh (1996) pointed out

that divorce and remarriage are important in clustering widowhood at two

different periods of lifecycle based on the initial marital history. It follows

therefore that those who divorce and remarry may not be widowed until late in

life since the new husbands tend to be closer in age to their wives. Furthermore,

the time of life at which a woman becomes a widow determines whether she

could remarry or remain a permanent widow.

3.1.2 Widowhood Rituals-Igba-Mkpe xliii

In Igboland, the ritual rite for the widow is called “Igba Mkpe”. According

to Korieh (1996) a woman becomes a widow (nwanyi isi mkpe) when her

husband dies. It is from this point of death of the husband that a woman begins to

go through the rituals associated with widowhood. However, there are many

similarities in the rituals undergone by widows in the different parts of Igbo

society. These practices, the researcher defines as sets of expectations as to

actions and behaviour of the widow, actions by others towards the widow and

rituals performed by, or on behalf of the widow from the time of death of her

husband. Later phase of these practices include issues of inheritance, the status

of the widow, the marriage of the widow and the levirate relationships. Among

the Jukun of Western Sudan for example, formal lamentation for the dead man,

Meek (1931) states that:

Is kept up by the female relatives for a period from three to six days. It is the Jukun practice for the female mourners to sleep in the hut of the deceased. Relatives send each morning large quantities of beer (local beer) to them and friends come to salute them.

Among some of the Jukun, a gravedigger would periodically strike at the roof of the hut in which the women are sleeping. This was taken as signifying a knocking by the soul of the departed. In each of these knockings the women led by the wife or wives of the dead man would break out into loud lamentations. Basden (1966) asserted that:

It is when the moment of death arrives, that the tumult begins. There is an outburst of wailing, the women particularly giving xliv

full vent to their grief. Sometimes a wife or a mother will rush from the house needless of direction, waving arms, and beating her breast as she moans her loss at the top of her voice. Such as one will wander aimlessly for hours crying the same word, until she becomes automation. Eventually after possibly being out all night, she struggles back to her hut physically and mentally exhausted.

The practice related to the death of a man differs depending on the status of the dead person. The wife or wives of an ordinary man are expected to go into traumatic wailing immediately, to beat her chest, fling around her arms and go into falling on the ground. Other women surrounded her immediately, restrained her, and forced her to sit down on the ground where they sat around her. This is widespread among all Igbo groups, and in fact, in many other African societies. The wife or wives of a titled person is not allowed to go into any loud crying till appropriate arrangements have been made to inform other titled persons, in-laws and relatives who should know and confirm the death before any weeping takes place. In either case, death is taken with stoicism and resignation hence intense wailing, weeping and hysteria are expected to be generated. Nwakego (Oral Interview, 2011) asserts that,

This kind of bitter wailing is expected to go on until the remains of the man have been buried. After that, the wife or wives are expected to enact a wail, two every morning between the hours of 5.00am to 6.00pm for up to four days or more. Thereafter, they have to wail every morning of a feast day and recount to the hearing of their neighbors‟ all that their husband used to do for them on such occasions. xlv

This is pan Igbo custom that has been practiced from time immemorial. The widow is expected to scream in tears on the death of her husband, otherwise she is fined or punished.

Although one may question how genuine sorrow can be which is programmed? Each of the informants noted that it was natural to cry at particular periods of the day during the initial mourning period. This question is even more pertinent with immediate following days before the actual burial when the wives are enclosed in a room besides the body of their dead husband or in the same room with the corpse. They are suppose to wave away flies from perching on the corpse. As they are expected to sit on the ground and rise a wailing very early in the morning of everyday, the Umuokpu (Patrilineal daughters) judges the quality of the crying. In Igbo tradition, generally they retain intense influence over what happens in the family in which they were born. In some cases, this means near tyrannical power over the women married by their brothers, particularly at the death of any of these „brothers‟.

The analysis of the power of Umuokpu here is contrary to what Njaka (1975) has described them to be in relation to their authority. They usually insist on establishing that the wife has not come from another family to kill some members of their family in order to carry the wealth from their family over to her own. It is the Umuokpu who gives what they consider proper treatment to the wife of their brother along the line with what they have decided she merited from her relationship with their brother.

Eziaku reflecting on the above in an (Oral Interview, 2011) opined that; xlvi

Initially, I was accused of causing the death of my husband because the Umuokpu and my in-law said I was looking too healthy to have lost my husband. According to them, it did not show on me that I felt my husband is death.

Another widow Ezinne (Oral Interview, 2011) stated that,

In fact, several kinds of dehumanizing treatments were meted out to me. Before my husband was buried, I was locked up with his corpse for three hours with the belief that if I killed him, I would die there. I was then forced to sleep in the graveyard for two days after his burial to convince them that I did not kill my husband.

Whatever the situation, however these Umuokpu administer the igba mkpe rules and regulations with vengeance, either out of spite for the widow, or to generate fines on which to feed fat or because they genuinely believe that it is the only way to maintain the necessary ritual balance for the good of the deceased and the living.

Before the burial and immediately after the burial, from seven to fourteen days while funeral visits still take place, the widow is supposed to be secluded in a most restricted manner. Ubesie (1979) describes this as Ino na Nso (period of seclusion).

While some of these practices show genuine reaction to the loss of the husband, others help to clear the widow of any suspicion of killing her husband.

Ritual seclusion and general isolation of the widows for a certain period from the community or village is a wide spread practice in Africa. In the Islamized communities of West Africa, this period was known as Iddat or Idda (the period of continence between being allowed to remarry if a widow were so minded and still marriageable) (Afigbo 1989:10). On this Trimmingham (1959) noted that, xlvii

According to Islamic law the widow should observe Idda for three periods of legal purity, or four months, ten days during which she may not remarry. A slave wife observes half the period. If the widow is pregnant the period is extended till her delivery. Customs varies slightly. In some places, it is four months in Hausa land some five months, others 130 days and other 122 days. Nupe said 115 days. In the Timbuktu region it lasts five months and fifteen day. For the non-Islamic societies of Africa, the period of mourning is much longer, generally lasting twelve calendar months or thirteen lunar months. Meek (1931) reports that, among the Jukun in the 1930s the moral period of mourning was twelve months.

In most parts of the Igbo society, the early parts of the period are usually rigorous. During the first twenty-eight days, the widow is not allowed to go to stream or the market or enter farmland. Certain rituals must be performed at the expiration of twenty-eight days before the widow can perform normal activities. The first few days before the man is buried she refrains from washing; Ekwunife (1995) says that, “she sits on the floor or ground. Obinwa (1992) noted that, any information required of her must be given in a whisper. Washing or bathing during this period calls for punishment of the widow because she is assumed to be beautifying herself. (icho mma) while Okoye (1992) and Obinwa (1989) agree with the above and noted, that, she must not wear necklace, earring or make up as she is culturally forbidden from using cosmetics during the mourning period. Her food is prepared separately and another widow feeds her from either a broken or an old plate. These pots and plates are used because they are thrown away after the period of seclusion. The widow always xlviii hold a kitchen knife or broom stick, she is not allowed to touch any part of her body with her hands but must use this knife or stick at this time she is regarded as unclean.

According to Afigbo cited in Obinwa (1992) the wide spread cultural practice is that of treating a widow as in a state of ritual contamination or impurity following the death of her husband. The knife or stick is also used to protect her from the spirit, which may attack her during this period. In corroboration with the above statement,

Okoye (1985) opines that, it is believed that with the small knife, the widow will be able to keep out the spirit of the dead husband from harming her.

Specifically four days after the death of her husband Basden (1968) recorded that the widow,

Moves from her husband house to a small hut in another part of the compound while dwelling in the hut she wears no clothes unless perhaps a rag, she must sit on a block or wood and no leaf must suffice------she is prohibited from washing her body or combing her hair.

One of the beliefs connected with this phase is that the husband is still hovering around and still seeks contact with his wife. If the widow has for any reason to go out of the house or compound, in order to avoid contact with the husband, never leaves and enters through the same gate or door through which the man‟s spirit may be moving.

Although, there were variations at length and procedure of the ritual, there is basic agreement on the reason for the rituals. The intensity and procedure may have changed over time but the practices are still observed today. The major factors xlix influencing this tradition include Christianity and Western Education. In most cases in the past, the widow would have only one set of mourning dress (akwa mkpe). This is usually a black cloth, which she must wear whenever she is in the public.

Nevertheless, it was discovered that people use white instead of the traditional black recently because of the impact of Christianity. Some Igbo Christian associate black with evil tradition and customs and would rather wear a white mourning cloth.

The widow is considered as filthy, impure, defiled and untouchable, people avoid coming into contact with the widow, until her hair is shaved for the fear of contamination. Obinwa (1992) asserts that, the ritual of cleanliness of the widow is brought to an end by the ritual of hair cutting which involves shaving the widow‟s hair. The widow‟s hair must be shaved clean, and the barber in most cases must be another widow.

It is after this period that the second installment of her mourning begins and runs until a one-year period and six months also. During this whole period and as part of the seclusion, the widow must not have sex and should she become pregnant during this period, this was a serious breach of taboo calling for its own purification. At the end of one-year mourning period, the mourning cloths are burnt. All the dirt‟s collected in the place where she had been secluded are now thrown into the bad bush as was done in the past. After that, the widow is at this time free to re-enter normal life.

3.3.3 Effects of Widowhood on Women l

Widowhood presents a myriad of negative effects on women particularly in the first year or after the death of their spouse. These effects of widowhood on women would be discussed under the following sub- headings.

Economic Effect

Lopata (1977) has done extensive research with more than 1000 widows….

The major problem is economic hardship. When the husband who was the principal breadwinner dies, his widow is now deprived of his income and the nucleus of the family is destroyed. The freedom and independence of the nucleus of the family is suddenly lost because of the death of the husband. The widow has to buy now many of the services her husband had previously provided.

Moreover, in some communities, a wife is seen as a stranger among her husband‟s family. They are therefore ready to throw her away like a useless appendage the moment her husband is dead. This often makes the widow to wallow in poverty.

Social Effect

Some women had to undergo ugly experiences as a result of the demise of their husband for instance some women had given account of the bad experiences they had to undergo; some women had also been accused of killing their husband in order to inherit his property. After the accusation, they could be asked to swear with either the Holy Quran or the Holy Bible to prove their innocence; even the water used for washing the corpse could be given to the li widow to drink in order to prove her innocence the more. The process and duration of mourning wearing dull brown to black clothes without having bath could last from seven days to two weeks while the duration for wearing dark cloths ranges from three months to a year (Fasoranti and Aruna 2007).

In some cases, a widow could be asked to marry the junior brother of the late husband and in case a widow refuses such an offer, she was disowned by the late husband‟s family and banned from inheriting any of the dead man‟s property while all the household property would be carted away by the family members especially where the widow does not come from the same town as the deceased husband. Such women have had to rely on the help and assistance from friends and social organizations to which they belonged in order to cater for themselves and children or be taken care of by their family of origin (Fasoranti and Aruna,

2007) .

Psychological Effect

Another of the problem that is associated with widowhood is loneliness as most widows nearly eight out of ten live by themselves and so they suffer the fear of being alone and loss of self-esteem as women in addition to the many practical problems related to living alone. They feel the loss of personal contact and human association therefore they tend to withdraws and become unresponsive (Fasoranti and Aruna 2007). Most are reluctant to move in with lii

their children and only those who are poor and frail live with some relatives, few

express any interest in remarrying and so they lack potential remarriage partners.

Even in a bad marriage, the survivor feels the loss. The role of spouse has been

lost, social life has changed from couple-oriented to associations with other

single people and the widowed no longer have the day-in, day-out

companionship of the other spouse that had become a basic part of their lives.

Health Effect

Grief over the loss of a loved one especially one who had played a central

role in one‟s life for so many years, may affect the widow‟s health making them

to have illness that is more physical and are frequently admitted to hospitals,

which may result to death. Blackwell(1981) in Fasoranti and Aruna (2007) also

found that higher rate of mental illness was found among the widowed than their

married counterparts. Widowhood has led to illness and death of the griever

through grief. “Widows on the other hand are more apt to suffer from disabling

chronic conditions (Verbrugge, 1979 in Fasoranti and Aruna,2007).

3.2 Female Genital Mutilation

Female genital cutting (FGC), also known as female circumcision or female genital mutilation (FGM) is practiced in many societies in Nigeria and is present throughout the country. In many cultures, Female genital cutting is recognised and is an accepted practice that is considered important for the socialisation of women, by curbing their sexual appetites, and preparing them for marriage. Despite its cultural importance, it has attracted considerable criticism because of the potential danger for liii both short-and long-term medical complications, as well as harm to reproductive health and infringement on women‟s rights (Toubia, 1995; FMOH, 2008).

The platform of action, adopted by the Beijna conference in 1995, called for the eradication FGM, through the enactment and enforcement of legislation against its perpetrators.

As stated by World Health Organization (1997) it is not known when or where the tradition of female genital mutilation originated. Some believe that the practice started during the slave trade when black slave women entered ancient Arab societies. Others believe that the practice developed independently among certain ethnic group in sub

Sahara Africa as part of the puberty rites.

However, female genital mutilation (FGM) as a cultural practice started in

Africa approximately 2000 years ago (http://www .members. tripod .com/ wolvesdreams/FGM.html). It is primarily a cultural practice not a religious practice.

Nevertheless, some religions do include FGM as part of their practices. These practice is so well ingrained into these cultures, it defines members of these cultures. In order to eliminate the practice one must eliminate the cultural belief that a girl will not become a woman without this procedure. Toubia (1995) noted that

Traditional practitioner /traditional birth attendants often-older women, who came from a family in which generations of women have been practitioners generally perform female genital mutilation. However, more recently in some countries it is performed by trained personnel including physicians, nurses and mid wives. liv

NDHS (2008) background characteristics shows that “traditional birth attendant

perform a higher proportion of circumcision in South East (21%) than in other

zones”. NDHS (2008) further noted that

Female genital mutilation occurs mostly during infancy in Nigeria. According to records 85% of women who have been circumcised had their circumcision before their first birthday, 2%of circumcised underwent the procedure between the ages of one and four years while 13%were circumcised at age of five or older. The age at which FGM is performed varies depending on the ethnic group or

geographical location. In some communities, according to Obi-keguna(2010)

It is performed when the girl is a few days old. In others, it may be done when she starts having her menstrual cycle, and in some, it may be done at the time of marriage. In some, when the woman is in labour or giving birth to her first child, some during the first pregnancy as a mark of initiation into motherhood which is usually accompanied by ceremonial activities. The issue of female genital mutilation is therefore increasingly being discussed. It is addressed in the overall context of women‟s right, rather than strictly as health or medical issue. Hence, the Federal ministry of health (1998) noted that

Female genital mutilation is a violation of human rights of women as well as the major cause of psychological and social problems it is an obstacle to the attainment of the goal of the health development, not only for women but also for all members of every society where it is practiced. It also symbolizes the subjugation of women and the control of female sexuality. In

this sense, it is a fundamental violation of human rights.

3.2.1 Classification of Female Genital Mutilation lv

This classification has to do with the severity of the operation and as such, it exists in various degrees, which depend largely on the ethnic group or geographical region of the practitioners. Hence, the world health organization (WHO) (1995) recognizes four categories of female genital mutilation FGM these classifications are as follows: “TYPE 1: Circumcision Proper or Sunna Circumcision, TYPE 11:

Clitoridectomy, TYPE 111: Infibulations and TYPE IV: Unclassified Types.”

TYPE 1: Circumcision Proper or Sunna Circumcision is the least server form of

the practice and involves Excision (removal) of prepuce (skin) covering the clitoral

or the hood of the clitoral with or without excision of the part or the entire clitoris.

TYPE 11: Clitoridectomy is more severe practice involving the excision of the clitoris with partial or total excision of the labial minora (inner tip of the vulva)

TYPE 111: Infibulations also known as pharaonic circumcision, is the most severe form of FGM involving the excision of part or all of the external genitalia (clitoris, labia minora and labia major) and stitching or narrowing of the vaginal opening.

Leaving a very small opening about the size of matchstick to allow for the flow of urine and menstrual blood. The girl or woman‟s leg are generally bound together from the hip to the ankle so she remains immobile for approximately 40 days to allow for the formation of the scar tissue.

TYPE IV: Unclassified Types They include pricking piercing or incision of the clitoris and or labia cauterization by burning of the clitoris as surrounding tissue, lvi scraping of vaginal orifice (anguryacuts) or cutting of the vagina (gishiris cuts) introduction of corrosive substance of herbs into the vagina to cause bleeding or for the purpose of tightening and narrowing it.

The most common type of this female circumcision according to Hodges

(2001:195) is the excision of the clitoris and labia minora which account for 80% of all the types. The most extreme and terrible form is infibulations, which constitutes about 15% of all procedures. The NDHS (2008) noted that the most common type of

FGC practiced in Nigeria involves the cutting and removal of flesh 45% of women who have undergone FGC reported that flesh was removed during their circumcision.

This type of FGC is the most common in both urban and rural areas, across all zones and among all ethnic groups. Five percent of the circumcised women said that they experienced infibulations while 3%of circumcised women reported that they were cut with no removal of flesh during their circumcision.

3.2.2 The Range of Procedure Involved in Female Genital Mutilation

FGM is carried out using special knives (okishi) scissors, razors or piece of glass on rare occasions , sharp stones have been reported to be used (e.g. in Eastern

Sudan) and Cauterization (burning) is practiced in some part of Ethiopia. Fingernails have been used to pluck out the clitoris of babies in some areas in Zambia. lvii

The instruments may be re-used without being cleaned and this may be dangerous to the individual involved. The operation is usually performed by an elderly woman of the village specially designated for this task, who may also be a traditional birth attendant (TBA) Anesthesia is rarely used and girls are usually held down by a number of women, including her own relatives.

Some Instruments for female Genital Mutilation

The process of the Operation lviii

The operation may take 15 to 20 minutes depending on the skill of the operator, the extent of the excision and the level of resistant put up by the girl. The wound is dabbed with anything from alcohol (local gum) lemon juice to ash, herb concoction or cow dung and the girls leg may be bound together until healing is completed. In

Igboland, the girl sits on a special seat and she must close her legs for a period of time for fast healing to take place. The traditionalist comes every morning to dab the area with hot water.

In Nigeria however, the procedures toward fast healing largely depends on the ethnic group. The type1 and 11 are generally more common and found mainly in

South among Yoruba‟s in the West and Ibibio‟s in the East. The type 111 known as infibulations is commonly found in the North among Hausa (Moslems) as well as the type IV which is unclassified. Increasingly, those who are wealthy now pay to have the act performed by midwives and physicians using surgical methods and lix

antibiotics. This is relatively safer for their children. However, the World Health

Organization strongly condemns the participation of the medical profession in FGM

growing up (1997).

3.2.3 Reasons for Performing Female Genital Mutilation

FGM is a cultural identity practice. The fact that the procedure helps to define who is the group, is obvious in cultures that carry out this procedure as an initiation into womanhood. Most FGM society feel that unless a girl has this procedure done she is not a woman as well as removal of these practice would lead to the demise of their culture.

According to World Health Organization (1997), the reasons given by practicing communities are grouped as follows:

1) Socio-cultural reasons

2) Hygienic and aesthetic reasons

3) Spiritual and Religious reasons

4) Psycho-sexual reasons

Socio-Cultural Reasons:

o Some communities believe that unless a girl‟s clitoris is removed, she will not

become a mature woman, or even a full member of the human race. She will

have no right to associate with others of her age group, or her ancestors (WHO,

1997). lx

o Some communities believe that a woman‟s external genitalia has the power to

blindfold anyone attending to her in childbirth, or else physical deformity or

madness, or to cause the death of her husband (WHO, 1997). For example

Toubia(1995:367) stated that: “The Igbo‟s of Nigeria believe that babies die if

the head touches the clitoris of the mother during delivery. Removal of the

clitoris decreases the risk of promiscuity, since it helps reduce sexual urge of the

female.

o Female genital mutilation is believed to ensure a girl‟s virginity which is a pre-

requisite for marriage, and to maintain the family‟s honour and to ensure the

family line.

o The societies practicing FGM are partrilineal. Women‟s access to land and

security is through marriage,and only excised women are considered suitable for

marriage

o In some communities, FGM is the rite of passage into womanhood and is

accompanied by ceremonies to mark the occasion when a girl becomes a mature

woman.

o In FGM practicing communities, it is believed that a woman‟s external

genitalia is ugly and dirty, and will continue to grow even bigger if they are not

removed. So removing these structures makes a girl hygienically clean.

Spiritual and Religious Reasons:

o Some communities believe that removing the external genitalia is necessary to

make a girl spiritually clean and thus seen as a religious requirement lxi

o In Muslim societies, which practice FGM, people believe that it is prescribed

by the sunnah and hadith, even though FGM is not mentioned in the Koran. It is

important to state that neither the Bible nor the Koran subscribe to the practice

of FGM, although it is frequently carried out by communities especially Muslim

communities –in the genuine belief that it is part of their religion.

Psychosexual Reason:

o The uncircumcised girls are believed to have an over-active and uncontrollable

sex drive. For that, they are likely to lose their virginity prematurely, and thus

disgrace their family and damage their chances of marriage and become a

menace to all men and to their community, as a whole. The belief is that the

uncut clitoris will grow big and external physical pressure exerted on this organ

will arouse intense desire.

o It is also believed that the tight vaginal orifice of an infibulated woman, or a

woman who has chemical placed in the vaginal in order to narrow it, will

enhance male sexual pleasure, in turn preventing divorce or unfaithfulness.

o In some communities, FGM is seen as a cure for infertility.

Hygienic and Aesthetic Reasons:

Koso (1987) stated that the hygienic and aesthetic reasons for the practice of

FGM are “1) To promote cleanliness and 2) For aesthetics”.

To promote cleanliness: It is argued that secretions produced by the glands in the clitoris are unhygienic and can even cause contamination of food. lxii

For aesthetics: Some people feel that through FGM, the female genitalia are made more pleasing to the sight and touch. Clitoris has to be removed to promote hygiene and provide aesthetic appearance.

From the above reasons, one would see that these are all fabricated arguments to justify a barbaric custom that probably started as a mystic ritual and initiation ceremony for female into womanhood in the olden days. Traditions alone, however, are responsible for its survival today in spite of the efforts made to eradicate it. A long-term policy for eradication of the practice should be based on education and persuasion rather than legal deterrents.

3.2.4 Effects of Female Genital Mutilation on the Health of Women

In almost every country in Africa, there is evidence of the practice of female genital mutilation (FGM). According to Toubia (1996)

The percentage of the adult female population affected by this practice ranges from 98% in most of the horn of Africa to only a few groups in some of the other countries. Each year an estimated 2 million girls are mutilated. The consequences of the practice include the following

A. Psychological Complications of FGM

 For some girls, mutilation is an occasion marked by fear, submission,

inhibition and the suppression of feelings. The experience is so vivid in their

mental development that the memory never live them. lxiii

 Some women have sometimes reported that they suffer pain during sexual

intercourse and painful menstruation that is almost as bad as the initial

experience of Genital mutilation.

 Some girls and women are ready to express the humiliation, inhibition and fear

that have become part of their lives because of enduring effects of genital

mutilation. Others find it difficult to talk about their personal experience, but

their fearfulness reflects the depth of their emotional pain.

B. Physical Complications of FGM, the Immediate.

 Severe pain due to the use of crude instruments and without anesthetics.

 Injury to the adjacent tissue of Urethra, Vagina, perineums and rectum. This

may occur because of the Ignorance of the operator or the struggle from the

girl due to pain and fear.

 Hemorrhage (excessive bleeding). Hemorrhage is most common and is life-

threatening. It can lead to anemia and in some cases death.

 Shock: This is caused due to sudden loss of blood or severe pain that may be

fatal. lxiv

 Acute Urine retention: This condition often leads to Urinary tract

infection, which may be caused by the use of unsterilized equipment and

the application of local dressings of cow dung and ashes. The infecting

organisms may ascend through the short urethra into the bladder, and then

the kidneys.

 Infection: This may result from unhygienic conditions, use of

unspecialized instruments, the substance applied to the wound and the

bindings used on the legs or even the cut. Infections may include –Pelvic

infection, which can lead to infertility, tetanus and Septicemia (blood

poisoning). There is also the risk of transmission of blood borne diseases

such as Hiv and hepatitis B which can be associated with group

mutilations, in which the same unclean instrument are used on each girl.

 Heomatocopos: This is the inability to pass menstrual blood (because the

remaining opening is too small) moreover, this can lead to infection of

other organs and infertility.

C. Sexual Complications of FGM

 Exercised women may suffer painful sexual intercourse (dyspareunia).

 Vagina penetration for women with a tight introitus may be difficult or

even impossible without tearing or re-cutting the scar. This may lead to

divorce (World health Organization, 2000).

D. Complications Associated with FGM during Pregnancy. lxv

 Prolonged and obstructed labour due to tough, unyielding scar.

 A tight introitus may cause difficulty in performing a good vaginal

examination, e.g. screening for cervical cancer, management incomplete

abortion etc. It also may not be possible to insert an IUD for

contraception (Koso, 1987).

 Keloids (formation of painful scar) may cause discomfort and perhaps

obstruction during delivery.

3.3 Polygamy:

Agha, (2004:101) asserts, that : “Polygamy is the antonym of monogamy”. It is a more complex system of marriage than monogamy commonly found or practiced in Africa. However, Agha (1987:48) noted that, “there are various forms of polygamy, which includes Polygyny, polyandry and communal marriage”. However, the crux of the matter under discussion here is polygyny. Polygamy is a very ancient practice found in many human societies. This type of marriage exists in Africa; it seems to be the special privilege of chiefs, the powerful and the wealthy. This type of marriage is commonly found among people who obtain women by capture or outside its community. In some communities, the practice is limited to chiefs. Agha, (1987:48) opined that “Wealth also plays an important part in the sense that where dowry is in vogue, it becomes evident that only the wealthy man can marry as many wives as he desired”. It must be noted that certain characteristics extolled as a virtue in traditional lxvi society by our ancestors may today be viewed differently. This is particularly the case with social conformity especially in the area of polygyny. One man having many wives is common arrangement in the traditional Igbo society although the phenomenon still exists in modern set up.

However, Polygyny is one of the very old social institutions upheld by human beings from time immemorial. Egbuchulam (1983:17) stated that “Due to gross historical ignorance some non- Africans associated polygyny with Africans only, refusing to rank it among the antecedents of European marriage”. The practice of polygyny is common among all cultures even though there could be slight differences.

Polygyny being a system of marriage should be seen as a near universal human experience; all societies recognized it in some form, though not all eligible members of society enter into it. To Africans generally our marriage practices are not necessarily distinctive.

The family in human society is characterized by cultural forms and practices, which tend to keep the sexes in permanent union and to regulate their behaviours therein. These patterns have been acquired by man in the course of his social life and transmitted by him from one generation to the next. The ambition of every African man is to become a polygamist and adds to the number of his wives as circumstances permit. Cligent (1970:4) posits that “Africans maintain that polygamy is a ubiquitous practice which when suppressed, becomes clandestine and therefore more dangerous.”Therefore, polygyny is highly valued and practiced in many societies. In lxvii some African tribes, for example, it is absolutely improper for a small chief to take not fewer than ten to fifteen wives and a poor man should take any number fewer than three or four wives. Though Polygyny as a traditional form of marriage in Igboland is gradually fading out due to the pressure of Christianity, urbanization and general modernization. Nevertheless, Hillman (1970:19) claims that polygyny should be accepted as a continuing aspect of African culture and that its incidence is actually increasing in many areas of Africa. In support of this, Paulme (1963:12) noted that in traditional society “the wealth and status of a man is measured by the number of children he has.”This means that polygyny upgrades the status of a man in the society.

3.3.1 Reasons for Polygamy

Several factors account for a polygamous practice in many part of the world in which it is in vogue. The Africans have adduced many justifications in support of polygamy which they claim is good for the society. The reasons are as follows;

SOCIAL REASON: Polygamy is seen as a source of prestige to those who can afford it. Traditionally, a man who has only one wife is not accorded with respect and honour like a man who has many wives. Lewis (1969:55) affirms that, a man with many wives can present a richer and better –equipped household to the world. A man who has many wives has great prestige”. The man who sticks to his only wife is neither respected nor looked upon as an exemplary figure. It is only when he takes the necessary titles and gets himself many wives that his kinsmen, and in fact, the entire society begin to see him as a man of dignity. Otite and Ogionwo (1979) said that, lxviii

The practice of polygamy may have other explanations which may have to do with a people‟s culture and values, for example , the value attached to a large number of wives and children in Africa in terms of prestige, reputation, labour force, defense and leadership (p.82). So, polygyny satisfied the ego of the ancestral Igbo. Meghan (1982:57) noted that it is believed that “the more the number of wives a man had the more respect and influence he wielded in society or that more food was produced for consumption and for sale by polygamist. More so, the barrenness of a wife is a very common reason for the choice of another partner in addition to the former one. When the first wife is found to be barren, taking another wife could be a saving grace. Therefore, a man whose wife is unable to bear children does not hesitate to get another one into his household. If he does not do so, his kinsmen will not allow him a moment‟s rest until he marries another woman who may bear him children. Ibeji (1982:18) noted that

“sterility of a wife often leads to the acquisition of an additional wife. This affects the distribution of children born in polygynous household”. This concern is not without reason because the rearing of children is the most important objective for marriage in the traditional society. In fact, a marriage is thought to be unfulfilled if it is childless.

While the man in a childless home strives to get children by marrying another wife. A barren woman is always with a heart full of grief because she is regarded as a failure in the Igbo traditional society. Paulme (1962:12) observes, that “it is only by becoming a mother that she feels truly fulfilled .Therefore, a barren woman has no place in her husband‟s home. She is more worried than her husband and would go any length just to have a child. Nwaozuzu (1985) noted that, a barren woman in Igbo lxix culture is never integrated fully into the kin group of her husband... The only thing that can integrate her with members of the extended family is the possession of a child.”

Therefore, for the Igbo woman the birth of a child makes her to become fulfilled as a woman. A woman would leave her place of residence and travel far on the instruction of a diviner in order to bear children .She can subject herself to any act however humiliating, to get a child. Furthermore, the other reason which pushes a man into marrying many wives is for male children in the home. The sex of the children matters a lot to parents. In traditional Igbo society, for instance, male children are preferred to female children. This is because inheritance is usually through the male .So for one to perpetuate one‟s name; one must have a male child. In a family with only female children, the marriage is no time often drifts towards disintegration.

ECONOMIC REASONS: The ancestral Igbo believed that marrying many wives and having corresponding number of children is a sign of wealth. Uchendu(1966:86) opined that “ Igbo women support and often even finance polygyny because it enhances their status and lightens their domestic chores , thus giving them the much needed leisure to do their private trading”. Economically, a woman is indispensable to a man; she sells whatever she produces from farm and bails him out in financial stress.

Boserup (1970) explains that “polygyny occurs in long fallow agricultural societies with communal land tenure and land available for expansion, where an additional wife is an additional economic asset which helps the family to expand in production”.

POLYGAMOUS TENDENCIES: One other reason for marrying more than one wife is man‟s inordinate quest for variety .A man readily falls prey to the attraction which lxx female youth and beauty exercises upon him. He marries another wife and, in her, seeks new sexual comfort in addition to the one he is used to. Basden (1966:232) in support of the fact says that men are naturally polygamous. Polygyny poses a remedy to the man who wants to be independent of the tantrums of a disgruntled wife. When one fails, another will minister to his needs. In order words when one wife becomes sulky, ill or dies, there will still be others to carry on. Also, another argument is that a man with only one wife has no one to cook for him when she is visiting her family. In order to avoid doing the cooking by himself, he will choose to marry another wife who will minister to him when the other wife is not around. Basden (1982) said that,

.....To avoid these little domestic difficulties a man argues, that it is diplomatic, if only for his stomach‟s sake, to have a second string to his bow. He can then have more certain hope of getting his meals from at least one .If one be suffering from a fit of the sulks he can play off the other against her (p.100). A second justification to the above view about Polygyny offered by Africans concerns the complexity of female roles in the society. The obligations of a woman to her husband and family do not cancel her duties to the members of her own family.

Cligent (1970) points out that,

In many African cultures a married woman is required to visit her kin group at regular intervals and on special occasions, such as funerals. These prescribed absences lead to the often complaint of African husbands that to have one wife is to have none ,intimating that wives spend more time in their households of origin than in their own. The situation might impose on husbands the performance of domestic chores ,such as cooking and fetching water and fire wood, which are considered female tasks and therefore incompatible with male dignity. lxxi

POLITICAL REASONS: The practice of polygyny may have other explanations, which have to do with a people‟s political orientation. .Otite and Ogionwo (1979:82) claim that,

The practice of polygamy may have other explanations which may have to do with a people‟s culture and values, for example, the value attached to a large number of wives and children in Africa in terms of prestige ,reputation, labour force defence and leadership. This means that the value attached to a large number of wives and children in Africa in terms of labour force, defence and leadership may induce a man to marry more than one wife. The man who marrys to only one wife is neither respected nor looked upon as an exemplary figure in the traditional society.It is only when he takes the necessary titles that his kinsmen, and in fact, the entire society will begin to see him as a man of dignity. This reason would make a man to have many women under his lordship.

3.3.2 Effects of Polygamy on Women

It could be seen from foregoing discussions that people have different opinions for the practice of polygyny in society. However, the society that practice polygamy has reasons for doing so but at times problems arise from it. Both the man, wives and children suffer the inherent problems in polygamous households.

Nevertheless, the concern of the researcher here is the impact of polygamy on women.

Polygamy has many adverse effects on the women. Women in polygamous setting suffer psychological torture. According to Grossbard, as cited in James (2011) “In the cultures and societies worldwide that have embraced polygamy, it is associated with undesirable economic, societal, physical, psychological and emotional factors related lxxii especially to women‟s well-being”. The author further noted that polygamy is

“associated with teenage brides, arranged and forced marriages, payments to brides‟ fathers, little emphasis on “romantic” love and poor access to education or the work force – all designed to restrict the ability of women to choose whom they marry”.

Other unintended consequences of polygamy include.

Jealousy Among The plural Wives: At times having many wives breeds such vices

as rivalry, jealousy, and avarice thereby disturbing the peace of the entire household.

In the society if a family is known for always having feud, no matter how rich the

family is, the prestige is thrown to the dust.

Psychological Problem: In the study, it was indicated that a majority of first wives

suffered negative social impact after their husbands‟ second marriages, although

there were others who were satisfied with the situation. Of the first wives

interviewed, Masjaliza et el (2010) noted that

45.6% were dissatisfied with their polygamous marriages, compared with 39.3% who were satisfied. This was in sharp contrast with second wives, 68% of whom were satisfied with their marriages. Only 18.8% said they were dissatisfied. Additionally, when a man took a second wife, his first marriage was often put under strain. Over 40% of first wives in the study said, they argued more with their husbands after finding out about their husbands‟ intentions to marry again. A majority of them also indicated that their love, respect and trust for their husbands deteriorated after discovering their intentions.

In connection with the above Al-Hamed in James (2010) believes that men who marry second wives are often unfair to their first wives and it is this that causes women to become mentally disturbed. He added that in spite of the practice being lxxiii quite common in traditional families, women of today do not accept it the way their mothers did. According to Nnenna (Oral interview, 2011)

I find it very difficult to accept this. Jealousy is not the only thing; there are many other feelings that make it difficult for me to accept such a marriage. If my husband is looking for a second wife, then that means there is something wrong with me. This is something I cannot get out of my mind. This is painful. I cannot imagine my husband being fed up with me and thinking of getting married again.

In fact, women living under polygamist arrangements are far more likely to have physical and psychological problems (such as paranoia) compared to women in monogamous relationships.

3.4 Masquerade Society

Masquerades are generally called “mmanwu” or “mmuo” in Igbo meaning spirits in the visible form. Mmegha (1982:54) noted that Muo or Mmanwu is the major secret society in Northwestern Igboland.It impersonates the dead. It features during funeral ceremonies, new yam festival or during feasts like Christmas, New Year or

Easter. A masquerade is greeted as „Nna anyi’ (our father) or „Onye nwe obodo’ (the owner of the town). The masquerades are actors or performers whose personal identity is physically concealed, and to whom another identity is attributed in the world of spirit in the direction analogously indicated by its shape or by form of the physical performance. In addition, a masquerade involves some act of masking and through it, is the presentation of a strange identity taken to be a spirit, and particular spirit of dead lxxiv members of the community who are thus understood as making, a fresh and temporary appearance among the living.

3.4.1 Nature/Origin of Masquerade (Mmanwu)

Mmanwu is a traditional masquerade of the Igbo people of Southeastern

Nigeria. Their culture revolves around work and entertainment, and to the Igbo people, masquerade is a major form of entertainment .The masquerade revolves around their community and masquerades can differ from village to village. Masquerading generally last for a few weeks, however some may span over a few months .These events are frequently performed during the end of harvesting season and the start of the planting season. Some Igbo perform masquerades throughout the entire year.

Masquerade are used to honour the dead and pray for a successful planting season

.Since the Igbo only know their history through oral interpretation, the origins of masquerades have been lost(http://en.wikipedia.org.wiki/Mmanwu).

The Igbo masquerades (mmanwu) are traditional performances acted out by exclusive secret societies within a community. Rouek as citied in Agha (2004) described secret society as,

The pattern of some common characteristics which woven together from a colourful combination of the following features is usually found a regular meeting, ceremony, and symbolism; some combination of the following features is usually found a regular meeting and initiation ceremony, an oath of pledge of secrecy, elaborate ceremonies appropriate, special occasion such as the anniversary of its founding of burial of a members, the wearing of special regalia, pass-word (p.11-12) It is a hidden society of a group of people with common interest; each Member must be initiated into the society. Only the members know their identity. The main function lxxv of these societies is to celebrate the harvest and to entertain the village people. Some functions include enforcing village curfews, protection and as village security guards.

The members, also known as masqueraders, wear masks to hide their identity from the rest of the village. The mask is also worn to resemble the spirit of a dead community member. By wearing the mask, a masquerader is thought to have spiritual powers that are conducted through the mask.

The living–dead are what these masquerade/spirits embody. Igbo people believe that the dead never actually die; rather they remain in a “personal immortal state”. They reside somewhere between the earthly world and spiritual world. These living –dead are believed to be closely related to those of the village. Since men are masqueraders, they are buried within their homes so their spirit may be close to their families (Chiene, 1990:10). The living dead then return to the earthly world from time to time to offer spiritual advice. The masquerade portrays the living, dead.

3.4.2 Types of Masquerade

There are two basic types of masquerades; visible and invisible. The visible masquerade is meant for the public. They often are more entertaining. Masks used to offer a visually appeal for their shapes and forms. (Onyeneke, 1987: 25). In these visual masquerades, performances of harassment, music, dance and parodies are acted out.

A contemporary Igbo masquerade, Umuahia

lxxvi

Enugu State Masquerade lxxvii

Ijele Masquerade

(The Ijele masquerade originated in Anambra state and is known as

The the invisible “King of masquerades all masquerades”) take place. at night. Sound is the main tool for them.

The masquerader uses his voice to scream so that it may be heard through the village. lxxviii

The mask used is usually fierce looking and the interpretation is only fully understood by the society‟s members. This invisible masquerade calls upon a silent village to strike fear in the hearts of those not initiated into their society

(http://en.wikipedia.org.wiki/Mmanwu).

The Invisible Night Masquerade

Agu Mmuo - Night Masquerade lxxix

The invisible masquerades can be broken down into three groups According to

Onyeneke (1987: 22) “They are achikwu ocha/ojii, agu mmuo, and ogbagu. The achikwu ocha (white) masquerade acts as village surveillance. The “entertainment” activities include “singing, joking, and dancing”. He further noted that Achikwu ojii

(black) is another side of Achikwu ocha masquerade. This is performed not only to protect the village, but also for punishment or execution of a criminal. Ohaeto

(1996:8) declares that “it is cultural tradition in his part of the world that where abominations become unbearable when truth must be told with great courage the masquerade appears”. The second group of invisible masquerade is agu mmuo (tiger spirit).In these masquerades horrible screaming sounds are produced to create fear.

The third group is ogba agu .It is “strictly used for dance and “entertainment lxxx

3.4.3 Functions of Masquerade

The functions of masquerade in Igboland are enormous. Usually, traditional masquerades have spiritual or religious and social functions. There are several classes of such masquerades, ranging from those for mere entertainment, to the more powerful and sacred ones "which formerly, executed witches and workers of bad magic." Such functions of the masquerade include the following

I. Social Control – Punishing Criminals , Evil Practices:

The first function of the masquerade is therefore; to be visible embodiment of

the community will for implementing its social order. The authority of masquerades

affects the community as a whole with no respect of male or female, the initiated or

non-initiated. It is the law custom and it applied equally to everyone under it.

Masquerades often perform a social function and are an important part of life in

several African societies. Egungun masquerades (from a religious cult) found among

the Yoruba of southwest Nigeria were responsible for maintaining social order and

administering justice. (http://www.tutu-com/thesis.htm). Ottenberg (1975) observed,

that :

Players are allowed using artificial secrecy provided by masks to reveal secrets about persons in the village. The essence of the play is the direct ridicule and satirizing of real persons, and topical events, clothed in ritualized and superficially religious terms (p.129). lxxxi

Masquerades are used to prohibit and impose sanctions on certain actions and expressions that are immoral, Untrue and offensive to individuals and the town in general. The masquerade simply goes round the town with flute blown along. It announces the prohibition, sanctions and the penalty defaulting of such prohibition.

II. Rites Of Passage - Initiations, Weddings or Funerals

There are also emotional and psychological benefits derived from masquerade- performing rituals. The masquerade may be considered as a means of providing communal therapy and acknowledging the "shadow" and "child" archetypes, through rituals and rites of passage. Jung (1964) expressed this relationship as follows:

Religious observances, i.e. the retelling and ritual repetition of the mythical event, consequently serve the purpose of bringing the image of the child, and everything connected with it, again and again before the eyes of the conscious mind so that the link with the original condition may not be broken. Rites of passage and initiation rituals are some of the means employed in marking stages in the life of members of a community. There are three stations - birth, puberty, and death. Marriage sometimes coincides with puberty and even though it is important, some people do not get married while others do so more than once. Considering the profound psychological effect each stage has on a person it is important that adequate preparation is made to guide him/her through with minimal risk, pain or loss. (An exception is some circumcision rituals in which young men or boys are expected to endure pain in order to develop self-control and to show signs of manhood). For instance, among lxxxii

the Chokwe in the Congo "young men enter a bush school (makanda) where the

masked spirit Cikunza is one of the important tutelary spirits responsible for the

success of this rite of passage". Also during initiation ceremonies into Dan secret

societies, miniature masks are put along the road leading to the society's meeting

place. Prospective candidates must make payment to have them taken out of the way.

Apparently, the masks, though harmless, still need to be appeased and

acknowledged.

The masquerade performs at funerals and community celebrations, always

bringing liveliness into the occasion as it tries to scare away the audience. As a

dramatic performance, it is an important means of transmitting, cultural ideals about

masculinity, bravery and social redemption (Oha, 2001).

III. Sacred Rituals - Fertility Rites, Warding off Evil Spirits

Archetypes are manifest in the form of images that are found in myths and rituals around the world. There are an infinite number of archetypal images; however, some occur with greater frequency than others do. For example, the "Great Mother" archetype, which “is often associated with things and places standing for fertility and fruitfulness”, is acknowledged among the Yoruba with the Gelede masks that honor ancestral mothers. Another common archetype, the shadow, represents the dark side of human nature and is sometimes referred to as an evil or malevolent spirit. Several types of masquerades fall into this category. lxxxiii

Most fertility rites can be considered as manifestations of the Great Mother archetype. In the Ivory Coast and Burkina Faso (former Upper Volta), rituals for the god, Do, using several zoomorphic masks, are believed to bring rainfall. At the start of the rainy season, it is performed by young men in the village square and is regarded as being responsible for a good harvest. Malevolent or evil spirits are also visualized in some masquerade rituals. The dark side of human nature is attributed to the shadow archetype, which implies that every ego casts a shadow. Harmful spirits may also be because of an angered 'good spirit.' In other words, even the Great Mother archetype can cause havoc if proper sacrifices and respect are not given. That is why such rituals and observances are taken seriously and faithfully performed. Jung (1964) associates certain negative attributes to the Great Mother - 'anything dark, hidden; the abyss… anything that devours, seduces, and poisons,… This is the other side of the coin, so to speak”. These 'evil' masquerades also help the community in overcoming its fears. Be it the fear of war, drought, disease or any other misfortune. The result is a sort of

'communal catharsis' or group therapy, which enhances the emotional health, and well being of everyone involved. Inversely, when there is trouble or turmoil, the oracle is consulted to find out the cause so that necessary steps can be taken to restore order and balance. They provide the community with a sense of being secure and safe from harm by keeping away 'evil spirits' that may cause a drought, when the rains usually start and farmers sow their crop. There are certain masks, which serve as eternal homes for spirits of the dead therefore stopping them from roaming around and hurting those who are still alive. lxxxiv

IV. Entertainment - Retelling Folklore, Comedy

Generally, the aesthetic value and the frenzy generated by masquerades cannot be overestimated. According to Onah (2004:68) “Different masquerade provide various types of entertainment”. The peak periods of each of these deities/spirits

„return‟ or session are characterized by mass return of young men who either to participate or to watch the event going on .The „return day‟, the market day devoted to watching the masquerades and concluding courtesies, draw the attention of people both within and without.

Firstly, every presentation of the masquerade dance includes creative activity in many ways. For visible masks, the costume, whether in the form of face or head masks, the patterns of the enveloping costume are veritable forms of arts are entertaining. Various mask shapes from “agbogho mmonwu” (maiden). “Ijele”

(Anambra area) are all forms of Igbo art and attract attention on that count. The masquerade chants both of the visible and invisible masks are veritable forms of Igbo poetry and have been collected on that count in other studies (Ugonna, 1985). The dance and movement pattern of masquerade and the music that goes with them are other forms of art and artistic pleasure. From all these aspects, every appearance or presentation of a masquerade always spectators automatically in spontaneous recognition of the art displayed whether in the costume, the chant or dance or all at once. lxxxv

V. Gender differentiation

However, in Igbo society masquerade plays very vital social functions, it also serves the special function of the differentiating the male and female in Igbo society. Oha (2001) stated that,

Igbo tradition of masquerading also reflects the politics of gender. Women are normally not initiated into the Mmanwu cult mainly because they are regarded as being incapable of keeping secrets. Further more, the Mmanwu, as a sacred institution, is seen as something that womanhood defiles, especially when the woman menstruates.

Only women who have reached menopause may be initiated into the cult. This can be done especially if such women live in environment where the cult house Ekwuru is located. In this case, it is feared that if they are not initiated, their presence may endanger the secrecy and the sacredness of the cult. (Uwatse, in Ikwuemesi 2000).

This not withstanding everywhere masquerading is the exclusive function of the male; females are always excluded even where a female character is portrayed in the masking. Men who are not initiated into the society are not regarded as men yet but are still women.

A few cases exist where special concession is made closely connected with the masquerade display such as the nne ijele (mother of ijele) and umu erere (the shimmering offspring). In these case women are permitted to be close enough to join in and support the song chorus needed for the dance of the masquerades.

In the few cases where some women are directly initiated into the secret lxxxvi

Society, they have to be women whose probity is assured on the word of many trustworthy masquerade members. Even so, they have no right to salute masquerade in the public. They are expected to run away at the sight of a masquerade or keep out of the way in all deference. These exceptions are so strictly controlled as to confirm the general rule barring women strictly from the cult. For a woman to dare to stand in the way and therefore to run away at the appearance of the mask is to claim knowledge of what is behind the mask and that is to commit a crime against the mask. It is very heavily punished. Cases of this occur occasionally in many communities and towns where women are punished for daring a masquerade.

lxxxvii

CHAPTER FOUR

CHRISTIANITY AS A CATALYST OF WOMEN’S LIBERATION FROM SOCIO-CULTURAL PRACTICES INIMICAL TO THEIR DEVELOPMENT

4.1 The Impact of Christianity on the Culture

Achunike (1995:53) noted that “Christianity came to Igboland in the mid-19th century. Several „converts‟ were made. The Igbos, consequently, became Christians”

But before the coming of Christianity, Igbo women had their cultural worldview.

However, the introduction of Christianity is an important aspect of change in our society that liberated women from different bondages. The activities of the early missionaries in the East of the Niger brought about so many changes in the lives of the

Igbo people especially among the women.

Missionaries often accompanied the colonial adventures not only to

Christianize but to bring civilization to the primitive people of Africa. Consequently,

Cohen and Middleton (1970) assert that

The establishment of various Cristiana denominations saw a steady erosion of the various African cultural values especially those that govern marriage ...burial ceremony ...membership in secret society and festivals...In most cases, the acceptance of Christian faith meant the rejection of indigenous practices. The churches also established formal education institution (p. 6). This, in turn, has affected patterns of socialization and the level of occupational differentiation. Hence, Loyola (1952) states that

It is one of the most important events in the history of church, because it was responsible for “a great transformation of human society and lxxxviii

altered the entire course of history it was responsible for the outbreak of a general political and economic revolution. Christianity in its various institutional and social manifestations is a human and moral, spiritual and cultural, national and international force to reckon with. As a religion, its claims are both human and divine. Its incarnate nature and foundation give it an inescapable and essential human dimension. Iwe (1979) noted that

In view of its human character, Christianity has, in various nations demonstrated itself a custodian and promoter of human values. Though one may not rightly assert that Christianity has always played this role flawlessly, there is however, sufficient historical evidence to justify its claim to it (p. 29). The religious teachings, sermons and practices are significant tools for change. One of the important objectives of every religious sermon is to make the worshippers change their views, beliefs and attitudes. Once the way of life of a group of people has been influenced by such teachings, changes will occur in their life. As the population of such group increases, the wider society will begin to notice the infiltration of the group‟s beliefs and practices in some aspects of life of the society.

As more and more members of the society embrace the new faith more and more aspects of the social-life would be influenced and consequently change. The changes brought about by Christianity in African society are so many that one may not be able to discuss all of them.

However, for women, the introduction of Christianity was beneficial to the lxxxix elevation of women status in particular. The contribution of Christianity to the uplifting of women cannot be over emphasized. The modernization and enlightenment that was brought about by Christianity has led to a change in societal values vis-a-vis the status of women in the traditional society. These can be seen in various areas as stated below:

4.4.1 Western Education

In fact, the (Nigeria‟s) National Policy on Education (1988:6) indicates that education is the greatest investment that the nation can make for the quick development of its economy and politics. Having recognized education as “an instrument per-excellence for effective national development” as well as “a dynamic instrument of change,” it is also the basis for the full promotion and improvement of the status of women. Education empowers women by improving their living standard.

It is the starting point for women‟s advancement in different fields of human endeavor.

The basic tool should be given to women in order to fulfill their role as full members of the society (Nairobi Forward Looking Strategies, 1985). In this sense, women education means the process by which women acquire the knowledge, skills, norms and values that are necessary for their development and that of the society.

Education has really empowered women so that they can now compete favourably with men in all works of life. In fact, the educational empowerment of Igbo women is the spring board to every other form of empowerment (political, social, economic etc). xc

Christianity introduced among other things formal education. The missionaries that brought Christianity to Igboland built schools as one of their strategies, to make converts. Nnadi, 2004 as citied in Ugweze, (2008:92) stated that “before the coming of

Christianity, Nigeria had no formal education. The missionaries came with their own system of education and this revolutionized the entire education of Nigeria, especially the southern and Eastern parts of Nigeria…..” Christianity brought a great transformation in the lives of women as regards the traditional attitude towards them.

The Christian missions in Nigeria were convinced that “no mission will completely work out until the equal evangelization of the sexes is possible.”The education of women was encouraged like that of their male counterparts. Women education in

Nigeria was a joint venture between the Christian missions and the colonial administrators.

With the influence of Christianity, many women received formal education, which improved their status and role in the society. There are women like Ngozi

Okonjo-Iwuala,Deziani Alison Madueke, Margaret Ekpo, , Oby Ezekwesili, Grace

Williams, Dora Akunyili, Florence Ita Giwa to mention but a few who have wield a lot of political influence in Nigeria. The importance of giving women equal education with men is now being realized. Also with the introduction of Christianity and her western education people have realized the harmful effect of some cultural practices to women. For instance female genital mutilation, modern medical sciences have shown that in some cases it led to the damage of the vulva and other gynecological xci complications. It is a violation of rights of women. It is an act of violence against women. According to the United Nations declaration on the elimination of violence against women, the term violence against women refers to:

Any act of gender based violence that results in, or is likely to result in physical, sexual or mental harm or suffering to women, including threats of such acts,coercion or arbitrary deprivationof liberty, whether occuring in public or in private life. This violence includes among other things, „physical, sexual and psychological violence occuring in the family and in the general community, including battering, sexual abuse of female children, dowry- related violence, marital rape, female genital mutilation and other traditional practices harmful to women (Watch Tower, 2001:4). Christianity together with western education have done well in liberating and upgrading the status of women in African society.

4.4.2 Religious and Social Freedom

The Christian doctrine of human equality is one of the Christian doctrines that caused overwhelming changes in the status of women in the whole Christian world.

Women in the traditional Society occupied a lower status than their male counterpart.

In traditional Igbo society women were more or less – pre occupied with child – rearing and other domestic affairs. Many of them were to be seen and not to be heard

.They played little role in the political affairs of the society. But with the advent of

Christianity women were given a better status. They sit together with men during the worship periods.

However, in both the orthodox churches and in the modern Pentecostal xcii

Churches, the number of women are more than that of their male counterparts: Uzoho

(2000:52) referred to this situation as “preponderance of women” in the church.

According to Onyeidu (2004:53) in the Pentecostal movements, many women are church founders and leaders. A good illustration is Bishop (Mrs.) Margaret Idahosa, of

Church of God mission International, who took over the leadership of the church after the death of her husband, Archbishop Benson Idahosa. While granting an interview on her leadership position, Idahosa averred that:

When I was consecrated a bishop, everybody knew it was the power of the Holy Spirit that did it And the power of God does not know gender .What a man can do in God ,a woman can do it in God because the spirit of God is one. According to Ani (2007:63), some Christian religious bodies under different groups and organizations perform these duties: Women are ordained as deaconesses, lay- leaders and even pastors in some Churches. Example is the Presbyterian church of

Nigeria; The associations in the church that they are now recognized as one of the useful arms of the church in fund raising and church building etc.

In Ani (2007:50), the Nigerian women have been fighting for political freedom and in some cases have assumed leadership positions. The Nigerian women delegated to the fourth United Nations world Conference on women in Beijing China,

September 4-15 1995, led by the then first lady, Marian Abacha were armed with a broad -six point agenda aimed at seeking empowerment of women, equality between men and women and the protection of women against discrimination and violence”.

Presently, some Igbo women are teachers, doctors, Engineers, politicians and so on. xciii

These women have liberated themselves from socio-economic endeavours without prohibition.

4.4.3 Marriage System

The marriage system in Igboland is another area that portrays the changes

Christianity has caused in the Igbo culture. Through marriage, the family is inaugurated for the increase of humanity.

Before the advent of Christianity polygamy was in vogue, a man could marry as many wives as he could. In addition, this has been a degrading situation for women.

It has led to unhealthy competition among the co- wives, which often had led to conflict among the children in the family. Nevertheless, Christianity has influenced polygamy in Igbo society greatly. It is now more of one man, one wife (monogamy).

This definitely affected the population of Igboland. All things being equal, more wives mean more children and less number of wives would mean reduction in the number of children. However, Christianity came and condemned polygamy and advocates monogamy. Among the Christian convert, it was emphasized that “persons living in polygamy be not admitted for baptism but that they are accepted as candidates and kept under Christian instruction until such a time as they are accepted as candidates and kept under Christian instruction until such a time as they should be in position to accept the law of Christ. Moreover, what the law of Christ meant is putting away their many wives. For many converts, this was a difficult task. xciv

The church also frowned at the traditional system of contracting marriage and mixed marriages between “Christians and heathens or Mohammedans” (Onyeidu,

2004). According to Onyeidu (2004:51), it was stipulated that: “marriage according to the custom of the country is not recognized by the Church as a true Marriage when the parties contracting the marriage are not Christian members of the church”. Those who violate the regulations were excluded from the privileges of the Church such as confirmation and Holy Communion. That is why the idea of Christian marriage was a strong attraction for the female converts.

Christianity teaches that marriage is a sacred institution ordained by God for procreation. According to Kirwen (1979) the manualist model of Christian marriage presupposes a social structure where two people, legally independent of their families, enter into a marital alliance that functions as a new social unit in the society. For a valid Christian marriage all that is demanded is;

(1) They be baptized; (2) they be free of all Invalidating (3) impediments; and (4) they freely consent to cohabit as husband and wife exclusively and permanently, primarily to procreate and educate children and secondarily to aid each other and ease concupiscence (p.188). It also teaches that God in Gen.2:24 instituted marriage so that a man should have one female helpmate so that any deviating from it means a departure from God‟s purpose for man. “Therefore a man will leave his father and mother and cleaves to his wife and they become one flesh (Gen.2:24)”. Essential statements concerning God‟s teaching on marriage is summarized on this verse. This was also re-emphasized in (Matt 19:4- xcv

6) where it was stated that God made them male and female from the beginning. “For this reason, a man shall leave his father and mother and be joined to his wife, and the two shall become one flesh”. This Christian‟s stand on marriage has given protection to women (Onah, 2008). The Christian doctrine of one- man one wife has really given women relief from competing with rivals in their homes. There are cases of men who have been restored for having concubines, but in Christianity, this is also condemned as adultery.

4.4.4 Widowhood Practice

Widowhood is painful and traumatic experience. At the death of one‟s husband the woman becomes the number one suspect and she has to undergo series of widowhood rituals unlike men when they loose their wives. She is also being deprived of the husbands‟ properties especially when she has no male issue. Lisa (1999:20) asserted that, “by tradition a woman has no right to inheritance and none to land ownership” Consequently, like the mere appendages to men, women most of cultural necessity is, the widow only hope and claim to the fruit of the couple‟s joint labour is through her male offspring. When a woman does not have a male child, it leaves the women emotionally devastated. However, the coming of the early missionaries in

Igboland ushered in a new era; this has been affected by western education, modern technology and urbanization. This great influence of western civilization has weakened the power of existing customs in the traditional setting. The practice of holding symbols‟ such as broomstick or kitchen knife in the hand by a widow has xcvi changed to use of Bible, crucifix, chaplets etc, for Christian widow in this area, Okoye

(1995:45) says she is allowed to hold a small prayer book, bible or crucifix. In

Igboland generally, Christianity has influenced the mourning period. The mourning period has changed to six months for Christians instead of one year. The church has also relaxed some practices like: Restriction of a widow‟s movement, which could last up to one year before but to a few days now, restriction of widow from taking her bath and combing their hair and wailing at a particular time.

Christianity has cut down those rituals or sacrifices of the widow and replaced it with Christian ways. For example the inheritance of a widow (Nkuchi Nwanyi), which involves the widow being remarried by the deceased husband brother, has stopped. Christianity has introduced adoption of a child for couples without any issue or looking for a particular issue like a male child, so this has helped to stop the depriving of a widow the husband‟s inheritance.

To illustrate this influence of Christianity on modern Igbo society, a Catholic Bishop

Rt.Rev.Simon Okafor of Awka Diocese (1994) as in Okoli (2008) instructs that:

The widow/widower is entitled to the property of his partner with or without children. Shaving can be done by anybody on any day of the week. The mourner under a hygienic condition with purity of the soul should do mourning ritual without impositions. He/she well fed from clean and decent utensils as usual and should be treated with Christian love. The mourner may communicate his/her feelings by talking, nodding, handshake or smile without hindrance. All forms of ritual and sacrifice other than that of the church is prohibited. When in sound health, the mourner should be physically present to participate at the burial and funeral rites of the partner. xcvii

These suggestions of the Bishop according to Okoli (2008) appeared to spread across other denominations amongst Igbo Christians because there are many Christians in

Igboland. However, this has made the Christian churches to introduce welfare packages to the widows to help in improving their condition.

CHAPTER FIVE SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 5.1 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS

In the past especially before the advent of Christianity and western education, women were relegated to the background as inferior class of people. Even after the introduction of Christianity, women still occupy a very low stratum in the society.

What compounded the problem in the past was the acceptance by women themselves of derogatory position assigned to them by their male counterparts through customs, traditions and institutions.

However, with time, following the coming of Christianity and wind of change brought about by western civilization, women have taken to the challenge of reversing xcviii their fate in the Igbo society. Presently, the situation has drastically changed, as the fate of women in relation to the norms that governs the society has taken a new dimension. Especially as Some old traditions that are harmful to women liberation in the past, such as widowhood practice, Female genital mutilation, and the like have greatly reduced through the coming of Christianity to the Igboland in 19th century.

5.2 CONTRIBUTIONS TO KNOWLEDGE

This work has contributed to knowledge in the following ways:

1. The concept of Christianity and socio-cultural practices inimical to women liberation attempts to raise awareness of the society in general about impediments to women advancement in Igbo society.

2. It provides an overview of the issues, the ways in which they are harmful, some of the reason for their existence and a discussion of some of the ways negative aspect of such practices can be eliminated.

3. It has also helped to shed light on the roles of Christianity towards ameliorating the cultural practices that are harmful to women. xcix

4. Finally, this research work will help to improve the knowledge of students of

Religion and society (i.e Sociology of Religion), African Traditional Religion and

Culture and Women Studies in Religion on their further research on this subject.

5.3 RECOMMENDATIONS

Fundamental changes in cultural, social, political and economic norms and a

completely new way of thinking are essential to bringing about all forms of

equality in gender. Expanding opportunities, choices, and alleviation of poverty

will provide an enabling environment for the advancement of women in Igboland.

However, this will not happen automatically. National plans and action including

timetables, quantitative targets, strategies for accelerating the pace of change and

measuring impact are needed. A number of things must be done to change the

status of women in Igbo society, these are as follows;

a. The government especially the Ministry of Women Affairs should undertake

research on the situation of women. Information and data should be

disaggregated by gender and age to provide a basis for action.

b. Non-governmental organizations, schools and churches should create

awareness on the disadvantaged situation of women among policy makers,

implementers and communities. Hence, Lectures, workshops, seminars and

documentaries on television and radio stations would be very useful.

c. Government should review policies and legislation to ensure the promotion of

women in matters pertaining to education and health. c

d. Individuals and churches should support NGOs and community –based

organizations in their efforts to promote positive changes in practices and

attitudes towards women.

e. Churches should preach against women subjugation and should reflect on the

fact that the teachings of Jesus Christ embraced every human both male and

female.

f. Government should review school‟s curriculum and invariably their

textbooks so as to include gender equality, which will be guided by the

1999 Nigerian constitution especially on the vital sections that touches on

women. For example, attention should be drawn to the 1999 Nigerian

constitution Section 42(1) which stated that: “A citizen of Nigeria of a

particular community, ethnic group, place of origin, sex, religion or

political opinion shall not, by reason only that he is such a person be

subjected to any form of discrimination”. This further confirms that you

can go to court to seek redress if as a woman your franchise is violated

and that the constitution as a whole prohibits discrimination on the basis of

sex.

g. NGOs and government should mobilize men to promote women‟s status and

work towards equal partnership between women and men even in the political

spheres.

5.4 SUGGESTION FOR FURTHER RESEARCH ci

A research on the role of the church towards the amelioration of socio-cultural practices inimical to women‟s liberation in Igboland is generally a wide topic that has many potentials of being further researched into, from different perspective.

CONCLUSION

It is obvious that Christianity has done a lot to women in Igboland. It has really helped to empower and liberate them from socio- cultural practices that oppress them. However, there still need for improvement though major world conferences held in recent years looked at it as an area needing special attention. Various approaches to looking at development and its impact on women have evolved over the past 30 years or so. The focus of development has moved to some extent from being seen as a matter of transferring capital, technology, and assuming that both men and women benefit equally, to special projects focusing on women as beneficiaries, to mainstreaming gender in development. There are many non-governmental and intergovernmental organizations as well as ministries working on raising people‟s awareness of harmful effects of some traditional practices, although changes may appear to be occurring at a slow pace.

Male dominance has generally been accepted as the norm and the underlying

cause of power differentials between both gender and this account for the relative

neglect on women. However, women tend to socialize their children to cultural

norms of the society in which they live; however, they can become change agents

they can be sensitized to what is at stake. Attitude and behaviour change is always a cii

very slow process. Modifying people‟s worldview and unquestioning value of

traditions are key areas for action, but require a great deal of sensitivity.

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ORAL INTERVIEW LIST OF INFORMANTS

NAME AGE TOWN OCCUPATION DATE OF MODE OF REMARKS INTERVIEW INTERVIEW

CHINWENDU 40 Umuahia- Teacher 20/5/2011 Direct Reliable KALU Abia State

EZINNE 55 Izzi- Petty trader 18/6/2011 Direct Reliable MGBADA Ebonyi State

NNENNA 38 Nsukka Teacher 30/7/2011 Direct Reliable OKWOR Enugu State

NWAKEGO 53 Mbaise- Nurse 2/8/2011 Direct Reliable NWOSU Imo State

NWANYIABIA 60 Awka- House wife 8/9/2011 Direct Reliable UZODIKE Etiti Anambra State