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The Atom, the Environment and Sustainable Development

The Atom, the Environment and Sustainable Development

The , the Environment and Sustainable Development

International Atomic Energy Agency Vienna International Centre, PO Box 100 1400 Vienna, Austria 14-32961 (c) IAEA, 2014 Printed by the IAEA in Austria Printed on FSC certified paper. September 2014 www.iaea.org/Publications/Booklets The Atom, the Environment and Sustainable Development

Table of Contents

Foreword 3 The IAEA and the Environment 5 Understanding the Environment 6 Water and 6 Groundwater and Surface Water Interactions 6 Water Quality and Pollutants 7 Acidification 7 Oceanic Cycle 8 Marine Organisms: Bioaccumulation of Contaminants 9 Soil-Water-Plant Systems 9 Soil Erosion 10 Agriculture and Climate Change 10 Sources in Agriculture 11 Animal Digestion 11 Livestock Genomes 12 Behaviour of in the Environment 13 Protecting People and the Environment 15 Setting the Standard 15 Clean Technology 15 Biogas Technology 16 Sustainable Base-Load Power Generation 16 Managing Discharges from Radiological Sources 16 Harmful Algal Blooms and Seafood Safety 17 Pesticides and Biological Control Agents 18 Invasive Pests and Food Waste 19 Mutation Breeding 19 Monitoring the Environment and Contaminants 21 Improving Capacity to Monitor Environmental Contaminants 21 Environmental Monitoring Networks 23 Food Safety 23 Monitoring Radionuclides from Nuclear Facilities and Applications 24 Radioactive Waste and Spent Fuel Management 24 Waste Management from Nuclear Accidents 25 Environmental Remediation 27 Setting the Baseline 27 Building Capacity for Remediation 28 Remediation Technology 28 Conclusion 29

Foreword

The IAEA has a broad mandate to facilitate areas mentioned above, nuclear science and nuclear applications in a number of areas and technology can make a particularly valuable scientific disciplines. A fundamental component contribution to assisting with efforts to better of the Agency’s mandate is to enhance the understand and protect the . peaceful contribution of nuclear science and technology to the specific development needs Through The Atom, the Environment and of its Member States in areas such as industry, Sustainable Development, the IAEA aims to raise human health, agriculture and nutrition. and widen awareness of the unique contributions Nuclear techniques play an important role in nuclear science and technology can make to addressing these development challenges. By the environmental dimension of sustainable facilitating their use, the IAEA is contributing to development. Through this publication and sustainable development. Well known examples other reports, I expect our readers to acquire include helping to advance treatment methods a better and more precise understanding of for fighting diseases, improving access to the significant role of science and technology, electricity, and increasing food security. including nuclear-related technology, in the global development agenda. This publication A major underlying challenge in development also highlights the IAEA’s role in supporting for many Member States is environmental developing countries to realize their sustainable degradation. Environmental issues affect local, development aspirations through technology national, regional and global communities transfer and capacity-building. and threaten to undermine human well- being. Addressing these issues in a timely and Yukiya Amano efficient manner is essential. As with the other IAEA Director General

3

The IAEA and the Environment

Protecting the natural environment is one of the three fundamental pillars of sustainable development.1 Yet in the 21st century, development is increasingly threatened by widespread environmental and planetary-scale changes that affect the climate, the , the , and the ocean. Unprecedented levels of fossil fuel consumption are driving climate change, extreme weather events, water scarcity and . At the same time, unsustainable extraction of natural resources combined with wide-scale destruction of natural habitats due to urban development and agricultural expansion are reducing biodiversity and impacting the balance and stability of services2 on which humans depend for their livelihood and economic progress.

Municipal and industrial effluents, as well as runoff from agricultural land, transfer large comprehensive monitoring programmes. This quantities of nutrients, heavy metals, pesticides, action will enable Member States to make chemicals and petroleum hydrocarbons that can informed decisions, implement targeted harm inland water resources and coastal and measures to protect the environment and assure marine . These coastal ecosystems the sustainable delivery of ecosystem services. and marine also face the continuous risk of oil spills from ships and oil platforms. Nuclear, isotopic and related analytical techniques and technology are valuable The negative effects of development on the tools for gaining an understanding of the natural environment and the bioaccumulation of environment and for addressing a broad range radionuclides, metals and organic contaminants of environmental issues. The IAEA supports its in food products may pose a significant problem Member States in enhancing their capacities for economies that are highly dependent on to use these advanced scientific techniques environmentally based sectors such as fisheries, and tools to tackle environmental threats. The agriculture and tourism, or sectors requiring IAEA also makes a number of contributions reliable and clean water supplies. to furthering work on the environmental dimension of sustainable development in areas Effectively and efficiently responding to the ranging from water issues to agriculture and challenge of environmental degradation animals to nutrition and human health. These urgently requires improving the understanding various contributions will be highlighted in this of environmental processes and implementing publication.

1 Governments attending the Rio+20 Summit, in articulating “The Future We Want”, committed to work together to comprehen- sively address the three dimensions or pillars of sustainable development, namely sustained and inclusive economic growth, social development, and environmental protection.

2 An ecosystem is a dynamic complex of plant, animal, and microorganism communities and the non-living environment, interact- ing as a functional unit. Ecosystem services are the benefits people obtain from ecosystems. These include provisioning services such as food and water; regulating services such as flood and disease control; cultural services such as spiritual, recreational, and cultural benefits; and supporting services, such as nutrient cycling, that maintain the conditions for life on Earth.

5 Understanding the Environment

One of the fi rst and most important steps addressed to ensure that management actions in protecting and managing the natural are eff ectively and effi ciently operationalized. environment is to unravel its complexity and determine as precisely as possible how the Th e IAEA assists its Member States in the environment functions as a system. Questions application of nuclear techniques and technology such as ‘How do pollutants move through the to develop an incisive understanding of these environment?’ and ‘How are individual species complexities and facilitate the protection and or various ecosystems impacted by individual management of the natural environment. pollutants or multiple pressures?’ must be Water and Climate Change

Water serves as the fundamental link between Th e IAEA is enabling Member States to use the climate system, human society and the isotopic techniques to precisely understand the environment. It is therefore critical to understand impact of climate change on water resources changes in the water cycle at diff erent spatial and to manage those resources sustainably. For and temporal scales. Th e increased frequency example, isotopes of and hydrogen in and intensity of droughts, fl oods, storm surges, precipitation are used to understand climate and landslides related to climate change will impacts on the present water cycle and put additional strain on water resources and throughout the Earth’s history. Th ese isotope data increase uncertainty about the quantity and sets are provided by the IAEA’s global network quality of water supplies. of isotopes in precipitation (GNIP), which was established in 1961. For more information access: www.iaea.org/water Groundwater and Surface Water Interactions

Isotopic techniques also help to determine better and more sustainable management approaches for groundwater and surface water interactions. Groundwater is the largest freshwater source available and is currently used to meet domestic, industrial and agricultural demands. Th e current groundwater supply may have last been replenished thousands to millions of years ago, and using isotopic techniques to track and date it provides estimates on the rate of water replenishment, depletion and volume of aquifers.

Furthermore, groundwater recharge can come from rivers and , while river fl ows and wetlands can be reduced by depleted subterranean aquifers. Using isotopic techniques can be eff ective for monitoring and managing the river-groundwater interactions. Th e IAEA global network of isotopes in rivers (GNIR) provides scientifi c data to support further water research and management studies. 6 Water Quality and Pollutants

In addition to better understanding quantities isotopic composition are used to study the and fl uctuations in water sources, nuclear and origin and dynamics of organic matter in the isotopic techniques can also reveal scientifi c environment, as well as to fi ngerprint sources of information about water quality and pollutants. petroleum contamination. Th e IAEA facilitates the use of the isotopic techniques to identify sources of water pollutants, Nuclear science also provides tools to further their transport pathways and their impacts on examine and understand coastal circulation/ rivers, groundwater, marine environments and residence times, the transit times of coastal ecosystems. For example, analytical contaminants in drainage basins, the transfer methods have been developed and applied to of contaminants from atmosphere to ocean measure the isotopic signatures of lead in marine and between sediment and water, and in dating samples. Th ese methods help to identify sources the deposition of contaminants in coastal of lead and investigate pollution processes. sediments. For more information access: www. Similarly, isotopes of carbon and nitrogen are iaea.org/water used as indicators of in aquatic ecosystems, while lipid biomarkers and their Ocean Acidifi cation

Th e IAEA assists Member States in using nuclear bioaccumulation of trace elements - are being and isotopic techniques to examine decreasing studied by the IAEA using nuclear and isotopic pH levels in the world’s seas and (ocean techniques. Information gathered from this acidifi cation) and to investigate the responses study can help to estimate the impacts of ocean of marine organisms to changes in seawater acidifi cation on key commercial species and to . evaluate risks to the environment and to society. Changes resulting from ocean acidifi cation Several important biological processes can have signifi cant implications on industries aff ected by ocean acidifi cation - including involving shellfi sh production and, ultimately, calcifi cation, biomineralization, metabolism, threaten seafood security. primary production, nitrogen fi xation and

7 also use nuclear and isotopic Th e Ocean Acidifi cation International techniques to study ‘environmental archives’, Coordination Centre (OA-ICC) at the IAEA such as fossilized marine organisms buried in laboratories in Monaco was launched in sediment on the ocean fl oor or the skeleton 2012 to serve those concerned with ocean of long-lived corals, which reveal past trends acidifi cation, such as the scientifi c community, in ocean acidifi cation over millennia. Th ese policymakers, media and the general public. organisms form calcareous shells or skeletons Activities of the OA-ICC include supporting that contain a relative amount of certain the development of an international observing isotopes that change in quantity based on network; collaboration between natural, social the pH levels of the seawater at the time of and economic sciences; encouraging the use formation. Identifying the isotopic ratios in the of best practices; maintenance of online ocean shells can provide indirect measurements of pH acidifi cation databases; capacity building; and levels in the ocean, which is not only useful for knowledge exchange. For more information uncovering past ocean acidifi cation events, but access: http://www.iaea.org/ocean-acidifi cation is also crucial for testing and building models to project future acidifi cation scenarios. Oceanic

Understanding the mechanisms that infl uence production and are sequestered to deep water the fl ux of material from the ocean surface to via particle sinking. By analyzing suspended the seafl oor or depth remains an outstanding particulate matter from various ocean depths, issue in marine biogeochemistry. Improving our the IAEA is able to assess various factors understanding of these processes is, among other controlling the transfer of carbon from the things, fundamental to enhancing the accuracy surface to the deep ocean. of climate change models. ‘Sinking particles’ are ultimately responsible for the removal of many As particles fall to the ocean fl oor, the organic biologically and particle reactive elements from carbon remineralizes into inorganic forms, which the ocean. Th ese particles include atmospheric is much more easily released and redistributed carbon, which is converted from carbon dioxide into ocean waters at various depths. Th e extent

(CO2) to particulate phases during biological of this redistribution determines how much

8 CO2 the ocean can absorb from the atmosphere. produced in seawater by radioactive decay of Th e natural thorium-234 (234Th) its dissolved conservative parent uranium-238 has increasingly been used to quantify particle (238U). Th e disequilibrium between 238U and the fl uxes and carbon export from the upper ocean measured total 234Th activity refl ects the net rate in both open-ocean and coastal environments. of particle export from the surface ocean on 234Th is a particle-reactive isotope that is time scales of days to weeks. Marine Organisms: Bioaccumulation of Contaminants

Th e IAEA conducts research on the accumulation Th e nutritional needs of selected marine biota of contaminants in marine organisms using are also investigated by the IAEA. For example, radio-isotopic tools in order to have a precise the trophic transfer of essential elements such understanding of how contaminants are aff ecting as cobalt (Co), manganese (Mn) and zinc (Zn) organisms and subsequently the trophic food (using radio-isotopic equivalents) is studied to chain. Diff erent exposure pathways are studied improve knowledge in the fi eld of aquaculture. including seawater, food and sediments. Soil-Water-Plant Systems

An increased demand for food (>60%) and ratios) in plant tissues is diff erent and can be agricultural production is anticipated over used as a surrogate marker for crop water stress, the next half century. As supplies of water and crop water use effi ciency and crop tolerance to fertilizer are stretched in many regions across drought and salinity. Th e use of the oxygen-18 the world, and as soil fertility and quality (18O) in water vapour can help deteriorate, global food security is becoming a to determine how much water is lost through signifi cant challenge.

Th e IAEA in partnership with the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) uses nuclear and isotopic techniques to clearly understand the complex interactions occurring in soil-water-plant systems. Th ese techniques can assess the relative value of select soil-water-crop management technologies and practices that are tailored to specifi c agro- ecosystems. For example, soil moisture neutron probes are used for monitoring changes in soil water content, which is useful information for scheduling irrigation. Gamma density probes are used to measure changes in soil bulk density. Th e Nitrogen-15 15( N) technique can be used to quantify biological nitrogen fi xation (BNF) by legume crops, crop nitrogen use effi ciency, and to identify sources of pollution in ground and surface waters. Th e heavy isotope of carbon-13 (13C) is preferentially discriminated compared to the lighter isotope carbon-12 (12C) during photosynthesis depending on water availability and soil salinity. As a result, the relative abundance of the two carbon isotopes (13C/12C

9 soil evaporation and transpiration from plants more information access: http://www-naweb. under different management practices. For iaea.org/nafa/index.html Soil Erosion

Good catchment / watershed-scale management occurring and man-made isotopes (fall-out requires the ability to identify sources of radionuclides) to determine soil erosion, as mobilized sediment for the purposes of well as deposition rates and patterns, and to remediation, rehabilitation and source control evaluate the efficiency of soil conservation and measures. The compound-specific stablemanagement measures. These radionuclides isotopic (CSSI) technique offers one of the can be used to assess the impacts of climate best tools to identify sources of soil erosion change on land degradation and soil erosion and sedimentation. CSSI techniques are based so that appropriate management practices can on the measurement of 13C natural abundance be effectively targeted to preserve both soil and signatures of specific organic compounds in water resources. soil or sediment. The IAEA uses both naturally Agriculture and Climate Change

Agriculture continues to contribute The IAEA, in partnership with the FAO, approximately 6.6 billion tonnes of provides Member States with technologies and

CO2-equivalent per year of global greenhouse practices using isotopic and nuclear techniques gas (GHG) emissions to the atmosphere in to better understand and manage land and the form of carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide and water resources in agricultural catchments and . Agriculture must undergo a significant to reduce GHG emissions from agricultural transformation to reduce GHG emissions, activities. The stable isotopes of13 C and 15N are address land degradation and improve land and useful for identifying sources of GHG emissions water quality. from soils and help to develop land management

10 practices aimed at reducing emissions. The use of sequestration in agriculture. For 13C also helping to identify stable pools of carbon more information access: http://www.fao.org/ in soil and supports the development of land climatechange/climatesmart/en/ and crop management strategies to maximize Nitrogen Sources in Agriculture

The increase in agricultural productivity it is clear that N and P losses from croplands achieved over the past five decades was occur, understanding how land management accompanied by a significant increase in the practices affect these losses and their potential use of inorganic nitrogen (N) and phosphorous impact on water resources is important for good (P) fertilizers. Between 1961 and 2008, global environmental management. The IAEA, in fertilizer consumption increased from 30 to partnership with the FAO, assists Member States over 160 million tonnes, with an annual average to use both naturally abundant and enriched increase of 2.5 million tonnes. However, the 15N isotopes to identify losses of nitrogen from efficiency of fertilizer N and P ranges from 10 agricultural landscapes and the sources of N in to 30 percent in the year that it is applied. While water resources. Animal Digestion

The IAEA, in partnership with the FAO, supports of product. isotope-aided research in an effort to foster and facilitate a further understanding of the internal Improving food digestibility in hoofed digestive process in hoofed farm animals and farm animals can increase production and the effects of diet. These studies provide a base decrease GHG emissions. Diet balancing can for improving digestibility in livestock, which in improve digestibility and lead to an improved turn increases feed conversion rates and energy fermentation process by the microorganisms utilization with reduced GHG emission per unit inside the animals’ digestive systems. These

11 microorganisms produce volatile fatty acids are synthesized by tracking certain purine that provide nutrients to the host animals. Th is derivatives detectable in the animal’s urine. process also leads to the growth of microbial Similarly, certain and elements can masses, which satisfi es a portion of the protein be labelled and tracked to investigate needs of the host animals. imbalances, determine passage rates and to estimate carbon dioxide production. Isotopic techniques enable scientists to measure the rate that microbial protein masses Livestock Genomes

Identifying targeted genes and characterizing and adaptability. Th ese rely on techniques such indigenous and adapted livestock genomes can as isotope-labelled DNA probes and dot-blot facilitate the identifi cation of advantageous hybridization techniques that utilize 32P, and gene traits, such as the ability to thrive under radiation hybrid mapping that employs 60Co climate or nutritional stress, or the resistance and other isotopic markers. Th ese methods are to diseases like gastrointestinal parasites and oft en used in combination with nuclear-related trypanosomosis. Th e IAEA uses a range of biotechnologies, such as polymerase chain nuclear and isotopic methods for genetic reaction (PCR), microsatellite analysis, single characterization to support marker-assisted nucleotide polymorphism, and next generation breeding of livestock for better productivity sequencing.

12 Behaviour of Radionuclides in the Environment

Understanding the complex behaviour of and uranium. For more information access: naturally occurring radioactive isotopes in http://www-pub.iaea.org/books/IAEABooks/10478/ the environment can help scientists better Th e-Environmental-Behaviour-of-Radium- understand environmental processes and Revised-Edition improve public safety. Th e IAEA is preparing a http://www-pub.iaea.org/books/IAEABooks/10369/ series of documents covering the behaviour of Measurement-and-Calculation-of-Radon-Releases- elements such as radium, polonium, thorium from-NORM-Residues

13 14 Protecting People and the Environment

Protecting the environment is far more nations across the globe move to a greener model cost effective than cleaning or repairing the of development. Undoubtedly this model will environment. With a forecasted population need to embrace the many benefits to be derived increase from seven billion in 2014 to nine to ten from nuclear science and technology. billion in 2050, it is of paramount importance that Setting the Standard

Since 1957, the IAEA has been one of the main facilities, including general topics relevant to all of international organizations leading the efforts these areas. The information in this series builds to develop principles, policies and standards to on the expertise of Member States’ representatives protect the public and the environment from the participating in technical working groups. harmful effects of ionizing radiation. Publications in the IAEA Nuclear Energy Series Publications in the IAEA Safety Standards Series also assist Member States with research and reflect international consensus on what constitutes development as well as practical applications a high level of safety for protecting people and the of nuclear energy for peaceful purposes. This environment from harmful effects of ionizing includes practical examples and lessons learned radiation. The procedure for developing the that can be used by utilities, owners and operators IAEA safety standards is a well-defined and of facilities, technical support organizations, transparent process. It includes gathering and researchers and government officials, among integrating the knowledge and experience gained others. in Member States. The Safety Standards Series are continuously reviewed and improved based These two IAEA series are elements of an on contemporary scientific knowledge and broad international framework of legal instruments, practical experience gained from the application international standards and guidance, national of the standards. Regular improvements integrate requirements and industry standards which, emerging trends and issues. as a whole, provide a comprehensive system for effectively managing nuclear energy and Publications in the IAEA Nuclear Energy Series managing radioactive waste so as to protect provide guidance and information related to people and the environment from harmful effects nuclear power, the nuclear fuel cycle, radioactive of ionizing radiation. waste management and decommissioning of Clean Technology

Nuclear and isotopic technologies have a The development of the process of radiation successful history of being used to create crosslinking of polymers has led to the growth of innovative products and processes that are an entirely new industry to produce polymeric increasingly environmentally friendly. For products which are free from chemical additives example, radiation sterilization of medical and possess unparalleled physical and chemical devices alleviates the use of toxic ethylene oxide characteristics. Another novel application of gas. Similarly, surface curing using radiation radiation technologies has been in the area of processing is energy efficient and enables users developing products based on natural polymers to comply with restrictions on the emissions of to produce value-added environment-friendly volatile organic compounds (VOCs) which can products. Radiation technologies have also form greenhouse gases. been successfully deployed to treat industrial

15 pollutants such as NOx and SOx (nitrogen and environmental issues. Recent IAEA studies have sulphur oxides present in fl ue gases) and effl uents focused on radiation-initiated degradation of from the textile dye industry, as well as to sanitize organics to transform various pollutants into sewage sludge for agricultural applications and less harmful substances or reduce them to the to treat toxic PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls) levels below permissible concentrations. For present in transformer oil. more information access: http://www-naweb.iaea.org/napc/iachem/ Th e IAEA has been at the forefront of recognizing working_materials/RC-1188-2-report.pdf the need to develop appropriate technologies to http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/ meet the challenging task of addressing evolving pii/S0969806X11004324 Biogas Technology

Th e IAEA contributes to global eff orts to such as deep lagoons or holding tanks. Labelling improve the use of biogas. Biogas is generated stable nitrogen-15 in this organic matter can by the decay of organic matter, such as manure. help to monitor the nitrogen excreted into the During storage and processing, microbial environment in order to generate data regarding activity transforms organic matter into methane GHG emissions. According to the FAO, and nitrogen, which leads to nitrous oxide converting all cattle manure into biogas instead emissions. Th ese emissions increase when the of letting it decompose could reduce global GHG organic matter is managed in bodies of liquid, emissions by 4 percent or 99 million tonnes. Sustainable Base-Load Power Generation

Th e IAEA is closely involved in energy- options across a range of power generation economy-environment (3E) analyses and technologies: coal, oil, gas, nuclear, hydro, wind techno-economic assessments related to and solar. Results show that climate change will sustainable development and, in particular, particularly aff ect nuclear and other thermal sustainable energy development. Th e IAEA power plants with long economic lifespans of conducts extensive research in these areas and 50+ years. To reduce the vulnerability of existing has found that GHG emissions from nuclear energy facilities and infrastructure to extreme power plants are negligible and nuclear power, weather events, investments are required together with hydropower and wind based globally. New long-lasting energy investments

electricity, is among the lowest CO2 emitters should be designed as ‘climate-proof’ with when considering emissions over the entire life a view to withstanding the projected future cycle. climate and weather characteristics, including rising sea levels and extreme storm events. For Additionally, the IAEA engages in the analyses more information access: http://www.iaea.org/ of the vulnerability, impact and adaptation OurWork/ST/NE/Pess/climate.html Managing Discharges from Radiological Sources

Both natural and artifi cial radioactive materials waste to the environment are strictly controlled are widely used in medicine, industry, agriculture through authorizations granted by regulatory and research, and in the energy sector. Th ese authorities and are subject to a number of activities generate a variety of radioactive requirements including limits on potential residues (solid, liquid and gaseous) that need doses to the public. In accordance with radiation to be managed in a safe and secure manner. protection principles, safety fundamentals Discharges of small amounts of radioactive and objectives, and the safety requirements

16 established in the IAEA Safety Standards, these issues have been negotiated. In Europe, routine discharges to the environment are one such instrument is the Convention on strictly controlled and managed to ensure the Environmental Impact Assessment in a public and the environment are protected from Transboundary Context, otherwise known as harmful eff ects of these ionizing radiation the Espoo (EIA) Convention3. Th e contracting sources. Parties of these legal instruments are committed, either individually or jointly, to Furthermore, radionuclide releases may take all appropriate and eff ective measures to potentially aff ect people and the environment prevent, reduce and control signifi cant adverse outside the country in which the discharging transboundary environmental impact from facility is located. For this reason a number of activities that may lead to such discharges. legally binding international treaties addressing Harmful Algal Blooms and Seafood Safety

Toxins derived from harmful algal blooms (SIDS). To assist multilateral eff orts to reduce (HABs) can enter the marine food chain and the risks posed by HABs, the IAEA uses applied may, in some circumstances, accumulate in research and develops new methods involving seafood products to levels that aff ect human isotopic and radio-isotopic approaches to health. Consequently, they can adversely aff ect assist Member States in managing marine international trade, socio-economic systems resources and ensuring seafood safety. For and the of coastal fi sheries, more information access: http://www.iaea.org/ especially in developing countries, including the monaco/page.php?page=2222 and http://hab. highly vulnerable, small island developing states ioc-unesco.org/

3 http://www.unece.org/env/eia/eia.html which states that “Th e Espoo (EIA) Convention sets out the obligations of Parties to assess the environmental impact of certain activities at an early stage of planning. It also lays down the general obligation of States to notify and consult each other on all major projects under consideration that are likely to have a signifi cant adverse environmental impact across boundaries”.

17 Pesticides and Biological Control Agents

Conventional pesticides for insect control play a In response, the Joint FAO/IAEA Programme crucial role in current agricultural production. is involved in efforts to develop integrated However, their widespread application insect control strategies, including the Sterile represents a serious concern for environmental Insect Technique (SIT) to reduce the use of pollution of agricultural and other ecosystems. chemical insecticides. SIT relies on rearing Pesticides affect wildlife including beneficial, the target insect in mass-rearing facilities, non-target insects, such as honeybees and sterilizing one or both of the sexes, and then other pollinators, as well as natural enemies of releasing the sterile insects over a target area insect pests. The unintended effects on other in numbers large enough to outnumber their wildlife can lead to consequential outbreaks of native, fertile kin. The use of conventional secondary pests. Pesticide use can also result techniques in combination with SIT as part of in major pest resistance problems, and lead to an integrated area-wide intervention campaign residues in food and concern over human health can maintain a pest at a low prevalence level, or effects. even lead to zones that are free of the targeted pests and require minimal control measures to Many alternative strategies are being developed sustain the pest-free territory. This provides the and implemented as part of integrated opportunity for more productive livestock and approaches to dealing with major insect pests, agricultural systems to be introduced without infestations, microbes and moulds. However, the need to expand the agricultural system the production and use of chemical and other into environmentally protected areas, while insecticides is still high. These increases are also reducing the amount of pesticides in the happening especially in developing countries, environment. where food consumption is growing at approximately five percent annually. 18 Invasive Pests and Food Waste

With globalization, insect pests are moving to control methods rely on chemicals, which are new areas of habitat. As a result of changing being phased out because of their environmental climate, they are also increasingly surviving in impacts. One of the main chemical treatments previously inhospitable areas. This is a major is methyl bromide, a greenhouse gas, which is threat to food production for which strict restricted under the Montreal Protocol because quarantine laws are necessary to prevent insects its presence in the atmosphere depletes the ozone from spreading from their native habitats to layer. The use of irradiation is rapidly increasing other countries and devastating agricultural because it is one of the few viable treatments production. The FAO/IAEA Programme is also that can render insects incapable of reproducing developing irradiation quarantine treatments to but with minimal impact on the quality of fresh ensure phytosanitary security and to mitigate produce (e.g. fruits and vegetables). the effects of invasive insect pests on food and agricultural production. To date, 14 treatments Nuclear techniques can also be used to reduce have been certified as global standards by the food waste as well as ensure the safety and International Plant Protection Convention quality of strategic food reserves. The FAO/IAEA (annex to standard International Standard Programme assists Member States to use food for Phytosanitary Measures (ISPM)28). These irradiation as an effective and safe treatment treatments were developed through activities for reducing postharvest storage losses of staple through the Joint FAO/IAEA Programme. and non-staple foods, ensuring food quality and reducing the risk of food illness. Coordinated research activities are focusing on developing irradiation treatments that are Food irradiation can also be used as part of applicable to both a wide range of different insect an integrated packaging and storage system to species (generic treatments) and those that lessen the reliance on pesticides to protect crops. are tailored for specific insect species. Current Mutation Breeding

The mutation of plants and animals is a natural process that drives . It allows some species to thrive while others are pushed to extinction. As successful species evolve they tend to become specialists, adapted to very specific environments and interaction that are necessary for reproduction. This specialization, however, can also make them vulnerable to change, such as reduced precipitation or new diseases.

The FAO/IAEA Programme uses nuclear techniques and procedures to replicate the natural mutation process and identify new genetic variations that can thrive in a changing world. According to the Joint FAO/IAEA database, there are more than 3000 officially released mutant varieties in more than 200 plant species developed worldwide and grown on millions of hectares. The FAO/IAEA Plant

19 Breeding and Genetics Laboratory (PBGL) has Th e IAEA is actively supporting Member States been involved for over 50 years in mutation with adaptation strategies based on mutation induction through nuclear techniques. Th e induction, mutant trait selection and effi ciency number of plant species subject to mutation enhancing biotechnologies that accelerate inductions using Gamma-ray or X-ray mutant line advances. Major activities are mutagenesis continues to grow. targeted towards fostering crop improvement (such as yield, quality, nutritional factors, Th e mutants are either developed directly into market-preferred traits) as well as biodiversity varieties, or the benefi ts of induced mutant protection. Climate-resilient mutant varieties alleles in improving crop varieties are spread can revitalise food production and rural further through cross breeding. Once a major development, particularly in developing trait has been improved, the original mutant countries, in an economically, socially and variety becomes a foundation variety and the environmentally sustainable manner. trait is perpetuated in subsequent varieties.

20 Monitoring the Environment and Contaminants

To mitigate effectively any adverse impacts frequently provided by local and national of development on the environment, IAEA analytical laboratories. However, the IAEA also Member States require timely and accurate operates laboratories analyzing environmental data on the presence and behaviour of various contaminants in both terrestrial and marine substances, such as radionuclides, heavy environments, and builds the capacity of metals, hydrocarbons and certain nutrients, national laboratories when requested. such as nitrogen. This information is most Improving Capacity to Monitor Environmental Contaminants

When addressing pollution, whether radioactive http://nucleus.iaea.org/rpst/ReferenceProducts/ or not, decision makers in Member States ReferenceMaterials/index.htm must have confidence that the information provided by their respective analytical Over the years, the IAEA has distributed laboratories is accurate. In this regard the thousands of samples of reference materials IAEA provides Certified Reference Materials to laboratories around the world. In 2011, the for various contaminants, both radioactive IAEA saw a 30 percent increase in demand for and non-radioactive. These have assigned these materials. This was in part related to the values and uncertainties so laboratories in Fukushima accident in the same year, but was Member States can calibrate their equipment also due to the fact that as trade increases in a and check their analytical methods. For more globalizing world, consumers demand certified information access: http://nucleus.iaea.org/ proof that the food and products they purchase rpst/ReferenceProducts/About/index.htm are safe for themselves and for their environment.

21 In order to meet this new demand, the IAEA is a week after the deadline. For more information expanding its storage and dispatch facilities for access: http://nucleus.iaea.org/rpst/index.htm Certified Reference Materials. Furthermore, the IAEA has to continually identify needs for In addition to working with individual Member future Certified Reference Materials, and to States, the IAEA also collaborates with the address the growing demands arising from new United Nations Environment Programme

and emerging analytical techniques. This task is (UNEP) in assisting a number of Regional Sea complicated by the fact that many laboratories Conventions to build capacity in the analysis do not use standardized methods, giving of radionuclides, trace elements, chlorinated different values for the same material. Where pesticides, industrial chemicals and petroleum possible, the IAEA produces Certified Reference hydrocarbons in the marine environment, Materials after optimizing and standardizing and to strengthen data quality assurance of analytical methods. national analytical laboratories involved in the respective marine pollution monitoring The IAEA also oversees regular proficiency tests programmes. Examples include the Barcelona for the analytical laboratories of Member States. Convention (Mediterranean Action Plan), the Interested participating laboratories receive Black Sea Commission (Black Sea Environment samples to analyze, using their own equipment. Programme) and the Kuwait Convention The samples are prepared according to the (Regional Organisation for the Protection of request of the laboratories and the matrices are the Marine Environment of the Gulf). For usually water, biota and soil type materials. The more information access: http://www.iaea.org/ participating laboratories are requested to enter monaco/page.php the results directly into a dedicated IAEA website, designed for the proficiency test schemes. They can check their laboratory performance within

22 Environmental Monitoring Networks

The IAEA coordinates the international network have become local centres of excellence, of Analytical Laboratories for the Measurement disseminating radio-analytical knowledge and of Environmental Radioactivity (ALMERA). As skills, and currently this network plays a key role a collaboration of existing institutions, ALMERA in constantly monitoring the environment. This is a global network of analytical laboratories collaboration expands the global coverage of capable of providing reliable and timely analysis areas that could be affected by contamination in of environmental and food samples (i.e. soil, case of radioactivity release in the environment. grass, vegetation, fresh water, drinking water, For more information access: http://nucleus. fish, milk) that could be contaminated in case of iaea.org/rpst/ReferenceProducts/ALMERA/ accidental or intentional release of radioactivity index.htm in the environment. Established in 1995, the network membership and activities have Since 1992, the IAEA has compiled increased considerably. At the end of 2013 more measurements of marine radioactivity and than 140 laboratories from 81 countries were in 2005 this database was made publically officially designated members of the ALMERA accessible through the Marine information network. Due to regular participation in System (MARiS) website. MARiS seeks to proficiency tests and trainings, the performance make marine radioactivity data more accessible of the laboratories has been enhanced. and usable for research, education and policy makers. For more information access: http:// Several laboratories in the ALMERA network maris.iaea.org/ Food Safety

Nuclear related techniques are part of a wide through its networks of expert institutes, the range of analytical methods employed to IAEA and FAO have successfully developed monitor trace levels of pesticide residues and transferred these technology packages, and veterinary medicines in food and the integrating bioassays/bio-monitoring screening environment. By leveraging its expertise and tests and physico‑chemical and isotopic

23 analytical methods for food and environmental treatments, and many countries are now trading contamination. Th e methodology is designed irradiated fresh fruit and vegetables in order to provide feedback to food chain stakeholders to meet certifi ed quarantine requirements for in order to optimize the use of agrochemicals, international trade. Th e IAEA’s partnership avoiding unnecessary expenditure and with the FAO has taken a strategic approach to improving both environmental sustainability ensure that both the science and appropriate and food safety. international standards are in place to support the commercial utilization of irradiation in Countries require alternative post-harvest this area. Th e quantity of irradiated exports is pest control methods that avoid the use of increasing because irradiation is proving to be a potentially harmful chemical pre-shipment technically and economically viable option. Monitoring Radionuclides from Nuclear Facilities and Applications

All nuclear facilities and activities that undergo protection of the public and the environment. a licensing process must be carried out in accordance with all conditions specifi ed in Importantly, monitoring of radionuclides in the authorization provided by a competent the environment provides essential input for an authority or regulatory agency. Compliance assessment of radiation doses. Th e IAEA assists with the basic principle of radiation protection Member States to determine whether discharges is mainly attained through the proper design to the environment remain below authorized of the nuclear facility, including the provision limits and whether the resulting exposures to of reliable and effi cient retention systems for people, fl ora and fauna comply with radiological radioactive materials and careful adherence to criteria. In addition to monitoring of discharges good operational procedures. Where controlled from current nuclear activities, the radiological discharges are required and authorized, or when characterization of inactive facilities and legacy an accidental release occurs, an important and sites is the basis for decisions on taking specifi c essential element is regular monitoring — both remediation measures necessary to ensure the at the source of the discharge or release and safety of people living in those areas. in the receiving environment — to ensure the Radioactive Waste and Spent Fuel Management

Waste that contains or is contaminated with Safety Reports and IAEA Technical Documents, radionuclides arises from a number of activities provide requirements and practical waste involving the use of radioactive material. management guidance for wastes arising from Th e importance of the safe management of the nuclear fuel cycle including transportation, radioactive waste for the protection of human storage and disposal. health and the environment has long been recognized, and considerable experience has Th e IAEA is the Secretariat to the Joint been gained in this fi eld. Convention on the Safety of Spent Fuel Management and on the Safety of Radioactive Th e IAEA programme on Radioactive Waste Waste Management. Th e Convention applies to and Spent Fuel Management provides support spent fuel and radioactive waste resulting from to Member States in establishing a proper safety civilian nuclear reactors and applications, and to and technology framework for the monitoring spent fuel and radioactive waste from military and management of radioactive waste and spent or defence programmes. Th is Convention fuel. Th e IAEA Safety Standards, along with also covers if and when such materials are

24 transferred permanently to and managed regulated nuclear facilities. Th e Convention within exclusively civilian programmes, or calls for review meetings of Contracting Parties. when declared as spent fuel or radioactive Each Contracting Party is required to submit waste for the purpose of the Convention by a national report to each review meeting that the Contracting Party. Th e Convention also addresses measures taken to implement each of applies to planned and controlled releases into the obligations of the Convention. the environment of radioactive materials from Managing Waste from Nuclear Accidents

Nuclear accidents, such as the accident at the Considering the importance of this topic, and in Fukushima Daiichi NPP in 2011, bring into focus line with activities defi ned under the IAEA Action signifi cant challenges related to the management Plan on Nuclear Safety that was promulgated of large volumes of radioactive waste, in the following the accident at Fukushima, the plant as well as in off -site contaminated areas. IAEA has initiated work on compiling Th ese challenges relate to short-term measures updated information on waste management that were required to be taken at the NPP site for dissemination to the Member States. aft er the accident and long-term measures for Th e relevant areas include characterization, life-cycle management of all waste, on- and off - treatment, conditioning, storage and disposal of site. radioactive waste generated as a result of nuclear accidents. Th is information will be helpful to the Experiences and lessons learned in managing Member States in their understanding, planning radioactive waste from past accidents (e.g. and implementation of necessary measures Chernobyl, Goiania) are documented in a for eff ectively dealing with potentially large number of IAEA publications. For more volumes of complex waste streams that could information access: http://www.iaea.org/ arise in such situations. OurWork/ST/NE/NEFW/Technical-Areas/ WTS/decommisioning-Post-accident- documents.html

25 26 Environmental Remediation

Many non-nuclear industrial activities produce uranium and of other metalliferous and non- concentrated residues containing radioactive metallic ores. Similarly, nuclear accidents or elements and other hazardous substances. Such legacy nuclear facilities or sites may call for activities include the extraction of coal, oil and environment remediation. For more information gas; the extraction and purification of water; access: http://www.iaea.org/OurWork/ST/NE/ and the production of industrial minerals such NEFW/_nefw-documents/Environmental_ as ; and the mining and milling of Remediation.pdf Setting the Baseline

Before starting remediation works, it is important to acquire baseline data on the level of radioactivity that exists naturally in the environment. With this information, researchers can quantify the effect of contamination and identify trends that could be occurring naturally in the environment. Baseline data also provides information for use in environmental impact assessments. In this context, the Quantification of Radionuclide Transfer in Terrestrial and Freshwater Environments for Radiological Assessments, commissioned by the IAEA, is a 600-page technical document representing input from 26 Member States over a six-year period. It has set a new standard for studying the environmental impact of industry and mining activities as well as of nuclear power plants and nuclear accidents. http://www-pub.iaea.org/books/ IAEABooks/8103/Quantification-of- Radionuclide-Transfer-in-Terrestrial-and- Freshwater-Environments-for-Radiological- In response to the needs of its Member States, Assessments the IAEA has published many reports covering various aspects of remediation of contaminated Similarly, the Handbook of Parameter Values environments from safety requirements to for the Prediction of Radionuclide Transfer remedial technologies that can be accessed at: in Terrestrial and Freshwater Environments http://www-pub.iaea.org/books/ was published to assist Member States in IAEABooks/8874/Guidelines-for-Remediation- environmental impact assessments relating Strategies-to-Reduce-the-Radiological- to routine discharges of radionuclides to the Consequences-of-Environmental- environment. Contamination http://www-pub.iaea.org/books/ http://www.iaea.org/OurWork/ST/NE/ IAEABooks/8201/Handbook-of-Parameter- NEFW/Technical-Areas/WTS/remediation- Values-for-the-Prediction-of-Radionuclide- publications.html Transfer-in-Terrestrial-and-Freshwater- http://www-ns.iaea.org/tech-areas/waste- Environments safety/dischargeable.asp?s=3&l=18

27 Building Capacity for Remediation

Since 2009, the IAEA has coordinated the sharing and exchanging of knowledge and Network on Environmental Management and experience among organizations with advanced Remediation (ENVIRONET, http://www.iaea. environmental management and remediation org/OurWork/ST/NE/NEFW/WTS-Networks/ programmes. ENVIRONET/overview.html). This network supports organizations in IAEA Member States Dedicated e-learning materials are also to avail themselves of relevant skills, knowledge, available and a Wiki database has been created managerial approaches and expertise related to covering the different aspects of environmental environmental management and remediation. It remediation. These activities are supported offers a broad and diversified range of training by technical documents that cover policy and and demonstration activities with a regional strategies, stakeholder communication and or thematic focus. It provides hands-on, user- engagement, cost estimates, the assessment oriented experiences as well as disseminates of the long-term performance, and life-cycle proven technologies, and facilitates the approaches.

Remediation Technology

The IAEA has developed a Mobile Unit for software, interpretation of results and provision Site Characterization that now is offered as a of recommendations. For more information service to the IAEA Member States to support access: http://www.iaea.org/OurWork/ST/NE/ their activities in radiological characterization NEFW/Technical-Areas/WTS/remediation- of sites in environmental remediation-related assistance.html works. The service includes the detection of radioactive material in soils, interpolation and plotting of results with the aid of statistical and Geographic Information System (GIS)

28 Conclusion

The IAEA is the world’s centre of cooperation environmental pollution, both radioactive in the nuclear field. It was set up as the “ and non-radioactive; for Peace” organization in 1957 within the • Investigate and understand both past and United Nations family. The IAEA works with its present environmental change; Member States and multiple partners worldwide • Limit humanity’s impact and prevent to promote safe, secure and peaceful nuclear environmental harm; technologies. Its key activities contribute to • Trace the source of vulnerable natural international peace and security, and to global resources; and efforts focussed on social, economic and • Observe and understand chemical and environmental development. biological processes, as well as ecosystem structure. In this context, the IAEA is authorized to foster the exchange of scientific and technical As demonstrated in this publication, the range of information, as well as to encourage the applications available to the nuclear science and exchange of training of scientists and experts technology sector to support the environmental in the nuclear field. The nuclear science and pillar of sustainable development is significant. technology sector includes, among other things, The IAEA actively seeks to strengthen the the use of stable isotopes and radionuclides of environmental pillar though its technical natural origin, or from the nuclear fuel cycle, cooperation programme, the Peaceful Uses to study processes in and to protect the Initiative, cooperative research projects, and environment. The information derived from strategic investment from the IAEA’s Regular this scientific field of expertise can be used to Budget. inform decision makers of the environmental consequences of alternative management The IAEA looks forward to building on the scenarios. strong history of collaboration with its Member States to protect the natural environment and The IAEA advances and promotes the use of facilitate green growth. nuclear science and technology in order to: • Investigate and understand the nature, sources, extent and movement of 29

(c) IAEA, 2014 Printed by the IAEA in Austria Printed on FSC certified paper. September 2014 www.iaea.org/Publications/Booklets The Atom, the Environment and Sustainable Development

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