Push- and Pull Forces Within Outbound Destination Choice
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PUSH- AND PULL FORCES WITHIN OUTBOUND DESTINATION CHOICE BY DANIEL PETRUS FERREIRA 2015 PUSH- AND PULL FORCES WITHIN OUTBOUND DESTINATION CHOICE By Daniel Petrus Ferreira Submitted in full fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Masters in Commerce at the Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University April 2015 Supervisor: Prof S Perks Co-supervisor: Mrs N Oosthuizen DECLARATION I, Daniel Petrus Ferreira, hereby declare that: The content of this dissertation entitled “Push- and Pull Forces within Outbound Destination Choice” is my own work; All sources used or quoted, have been acknowledged and documented by means of references; and This dissertation has not been submitted previously for a degree at any other tertiary intuition. ________________________ DANIEL PETRUS FERREIRA i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to express my sincerest gratitude to the following individuals who have contributed to the successful completion of this study: To my supervisors, Prof Sandra Perks and Mrs Nadine Oosthuizen, for the continued support, mentorship and words of encouragement throughout this study; To Prof Noxolo Mazibuko, for her assistance during registration and her continued interest during the progress of my research; To Mr Erenei Louw from Nelson Mandela Bay Tourism; To the respondents, for without their contribution this study would never have been completed; To Kola du Toit for proof-reading my dissertation; and To my friends and family who, with continued efforts, provided me with the necessary support to ensure the successful completion of this study. ii ABSTRACT Push- and pull forces are considered the most important motivational factors in driving tourism demand. Push forces are motivational forces that arise due to the individual‟s need to travel, while pull forces are destination attributes which pull the traveller to the specific destination and in doing so they satisfy the need of the traveller. Understanding why people travel, how they go about selecting their holiday destination and why one country is preferred to the other, is vital to the continued success of the tourism industry. The needs and wants of travellers are constantly changing, therefore, it is imperative that tourism businesses excel at developing new products and services which are better suited to the needs of consumers. The primary objective of this study was to determine the push- and pull forces that influence outbound destination choice in Nelson Mandela Bay Metropole. The study investigated and analysed how the independent variables (push- and pull factors) influence destination choice (dependent variable). From a comprehensive literature review, a hypothetical model was developed to test the relationships between push- and pull forces and destination choice. Twelve hypotheses were formulated to test the relationship between four push forces, eight pull forces and destination choice. The study sought the perceptions of Nelson Mandela Bay Metropole residents and utitised the quantitative research paradigm. A survey was conducted with the aid of a structured self-administered questionnaire, distributed via e-mail and as a hard copy. A combination of convenience- and snowball sampling was utilised. The final sample comprised 302 respondents. The validity of the measuring instrument was ascertained by using exploratory factor analysis. The Cronbach‟s alpha values for reliability were calculated for each of the factors identified during the exploratory factor analysis. The top ten destinations visited and intended to be visited were indicated. United Kingdom was the most visited international destination for both leisure and business purposes, while The United States of America was the most popular international destination to visit next for both leisure and business purposes. Pearson product- moment correlation and multiple regression analysis were used to test the correlation iii and significance of the relationships hypothesised between the various independent and dependent variables. Three statistically significant relationships were found between the push forces (physical and stature motivators and destination accessibility) and destination choice. Four statistically significant relationships were found between the pull forces (events, natural attractions, political issues and general infrastructure) and destination choice. The empirical findings further confirmed that an inter-relationship between push- and pull forces within destination choice does exist. However, pull forces influence push forces to a larger extent. Analysis of variance calculations were used to identify if significant relationships exist between the twelve demographic variables and nine reliable and valid independent variables. Furthermore, post-hoc Scheffè tests identified where the significant differences occurred between the different categories. Cohen‟s d-values were calculated in order to assess the practical significance of the mean scores. A total of sixteen practical significant relationships were identified. Travel companies should compile travel packages and tours that serve the needs of both leisure- and business travellers. They can use social media as a communication- and promotion tool to entice travellers to specific destinations. The business travel packages should be all inclusive and include transportation, accommodation and even entries to events. The visual aids, utilised within the marketing material, should entice travellers to want to visit these destinations, and outline the favourable general infrastructure available. When marketing outbound destinations, travel service providers must pay attention to demographical variables such as gender, age, ethnical affiliation, income and marital status to compile travel packages that satisfy the needs of specific groups. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Page DECLARATION i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ii ABSTRACT iii TABLE OF CONTENTS v LIST OF TABLES xv LIST OF FIGURES xviii CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUNDTO THE STUDY 1.1 INTRODUCTION 1 1.2 HISTORY OF TRAVEL 2 1.2.1 Before Christ 3 1.2.2 Anno Domini 3 1.2.3 Middle Ages 3 1.2.4 Renaissance 4 1.2.5 Industrial revolution 5 1.2.6 Twentieth century 5 1.3 PROBLEM STATEMENT 6 1.4 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES 8 1.5 CLARIFICATION OF CONCEPTS 9 1.5.1 Tourism 9 1.5.2 Destination 9 1.5.3 Outbound tourists 10 1.5.4 Pull forces 10 1.5.5 Push forces 10 1.6 CONCEPTUAL MODELS SUPPORTING THE STUDY 11 1.6.1 Leiper‟s (1990) basic tourism system model 11 1.6.2 Saayman‟s (2000) push- and pull forces model 12 1.6.3 McIntosh and Goeldner‟s (1984) three category motivation model 14 1.6.4 Keyser‟s (2006) visitors‟ profile model 14 1.6.5 Richards and Wilson‟s (2004) backpacker travel model 15 v 1.6.6 Alghamdi‟s (2007) integrated model of explicit motives 16 1.7 PROPOSED HYPOTHETICAL MODEL 17 1.8 RESEARCH HYPOTHESES 19 1.9 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 19 1.9.1 Research paradigm 20 1.9.2 Research approach 20 1.9.3 Sampling 21 1.9.4 Data collection 22 1.9.4.1 Research instrument 22 1.9.5 Data analysis 23 1.10 SCOPE OF RESEARCH 25 1.11 ETHICS 25 1.12 STRUCTURE OF THE RESEARCH 25 CHAPTER 2 OVERVIEW OF THE TOURISM INDUSTRY 2.1 INTRODUCTION 27 2.2 TOURISM INDUSTRY 27 2.2.1 The United Nations World Tourism Organisation (UNWTO) 28 2.3 THE SECTORS WITHIN THE TOURISM INDUSTRY 29 2.3.1 Accommodation 30 2.3.2 Transportation 31 2.3.2.1 Air 32 2.3.2.2 Rail 32 2.3.2.3 Water 33 2.3.2.4 Road 34 2.3.3 Attractions 35 2.3.3.1 Natural attractions 36 2.3.3.2 Man-made structures 37 2.3.3.3 Special events 38 2.3.4 Travel services 39 2.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF TOURISM INDUSTRY PRODUCTS 41 2.4.1 Tangibility and intangibility 41 vi 2.4.2 Inseparability 42 2.4.3 Perishability 43 2.4.4 Heterogeneity 43 2.4.5 Seasonality 44 2.4.6 Parity 44 2.5 FORMS OF TOURISM 45 2.5.1 Urban tourism 46 2.5.2 Business tourism 47 2.5.3 Cultural tourism 48 2.5.4 Marine tourism 49 2.5.4.1 Coastal tourism 49 2.5.4.2 Cruise tourism 50 2.5.5 Nature-based tourism 51 2.5.5.1 Rural tourism 51 2.5.5.2 Ecotourism 52 2.5.5.3 Agritourism 53 2.5.6 Pink tourism 53 2.5.7 Special interest tourism 54 2.5.7.1 Medical tourism 55 2.5.7.2 Sports tourism 57 2.5.7.3 Adventure tourism 57 2.5.7.4 Dark tourism 58 2.5.7.5 Sex tourism 59 2.5.7.6 Paleo-tourism 59 2.5.7.7 Religious tourism 60 2.5.7.8 Gastronomic and wine tourism 61 2.5.7.9 Pop-culture tourism and film tourism 62 2.5.7.10 Disaster tourism 63 2.5.7.11 Ghost tourism 64 2.5.7.12 Backpacker tourism 65 2.5.7.13 Slum tourism 65 2.6 SUMMARY 66 vii CHAPTER 3 FACTORS INFLUENCING TOURISM DEMAND 3.1 INTRODUCTION 68 3.2 CLASSIFICATION OF TOURISM 69 3.3 TRAVELLERS EXCLUDED FROM THE TERM 'TOURIST' 69 3.4 TOURISM DEMAND 70 3.4.1 Types of demand 70 3.4.1.1 No demand 71 3.4.1.2 Suppressed demand 72 3.4.1.3 Actual demand 72 3.5 FORCES DRIVING TOURISM DEMAND 76 3.5.1 Push forces 76 3.5.2 Pull forces 77 3.5.3 Interrelationship between push- and pull forces 78 3.6 NEEDS DRIVEN TRAVEL FORCES 79 3.6.1 Physical and basic (physiological) needs 82 3.6.1.1 Relaxation 82 3.6.1.2 Exercise 83 3.6.1.3 Health 83 3.6.1.4 Sex 83 3.6.1.5 Cuisine 84 3.6.2 Safety needs 85 3.6.3 Emotional needs 85 3.6.3.1 Nostalgia 86 3.6.3.2 Adventure 86 3.6.3.3 Escapism 88 3.6.3.4 Spiritual fulfilment 88 3.6.4 Personal and social needs 89 3.6.4.1 Visiting friends and relatives 89 3.6.4.2 Forging new friendships 90 3.6.4.3 Family getaways 90 3.6.5 Status and ego needs 90 3.6.5.1 Exclusivity and fashionability 91 viii 3.6.5.2 Stature needs 91 3.6.6 Personal development and self-actualisation 92 3.6.6.1 Increasing knowledge and skills 92 3.6.6.2 Enrichment 92 3.6.7 Cultural