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Conceding Sovereignty: Negotiating Africa's Security Architecture

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Conceding Sovereignty: Negotiating Africa's Security Architecture Conceding Sovereignty: Negotiating Africa’s Security Architecture John J. Hogan, BA, MA PhD Thesis Supervised by Dr. Frank Häge and Prof. Tom Lodge Submitted to the University of Limerick, February 2019 ii Abstract This thesis assesses the ability of prominent international relations theories to explain the ceding of governmental authority to an international institution in a region where state sovereignty had traditionally been considered a sacrosanct principle. Since its establishment in 2002, the African Union (AU) has utilised the African Peace and Security Architecture (APSA) as its framework for responding to regional conflicts and crises. Through APSA, the AU’s remit includes issues such as democracy and human rights promotion that historically had been considered internal matters for African governments. Furthermore, the Architecture provides the Union with a mandate to intervene on a member’s territory under certain circumstances, such as genocide or war crimes. Using the core assumptions of three theoretical approaches – neorealism, liberalism and constructivism – predictions are formulated across two stages of institution creation and design. The first set relates to the process of preference formation within states, while the second addresses the progression and outcome of negotiations between governments. By using the establishment and design of APSA as a case study to test the accuracy of the predictions, the ability of each approach to explain social reality is assessed. The analysis focuses primarily on South Africa and Nigeria, two of the most influential states involved in the process of creating APSA, though the preferences and negotiation strategies of other states are also considered. An extensive selection of primary and secondary documents is drawn upon, as well as interviews with a variety of participants. The interview sample includes several AU officials and some of the most high-ranking foreign policy actors from the governments of South African President Thabo Mbeki and his Nigerian counterpart Olusegun Obasanjo. Ultimately, the research demonstrates that the interests of influential domestic actors in achieving and consolidating political and developmental gains are critical to understanding the organisational design of APSA. The prevailing international normative environment also bore influence over the institution’s form, as increasing democratisation in the 1990s and a series of catastrophic African conflicts prompted policymakers to rethink security cooperation. iii Acknowledgements First and foremost, I would like to thank my supervisors, Dr. Frank Häge and Prof. Tom Lodge, for their support, expertise and guidance throughout the researching and writing of my PhD thesis. I feel incredibly lucky to have had such accomplished yet kind and patient supervisors, from whom I have learned so much. I am also very grateful to the Department of Politics and Public Administration at the Faculty of Arts Humanities and Social Sciences in UL for the financial support that made my research possible, but more importantly for the support I received throughout my PhD work from its members. A special thank you is warranted to Maura Adshead for her fantastic advice and occasional coffee breaks to reassure me that things would actually work out in the end (you were right!). Also in UL, I am so grateful for the support of all my former colleagues in the International Education Division, where I worked part-time throughout my PhD studies. In particular, I want to thank Yvonne Crosse, Alli McNamara, Lyndsey Hall, Laura Moloney and Madeline Molyneaux, whose kindness and friendship during my time in IED I will never forget. My heartfelt appreciation goes out to each one of my interview participants, as well as the people around them who helped put us in the same room. While in Nigeria, I was particularly grateful to President Obasanjo and General Martin Luther Agwai for their generosity with their time. In South Africa, Aziz and Essop Pahad were equally generous and forthcoming, as were Jakkie Cilliers, Chris Landsberg, Peter Vale, Anthoni van Nieuwkerk, Welile Nhlapo and the late Sipho George Nene. UN Special Envoy for the Great Lakes Region Said Djinnit was also very kind in making time for me. A number of interview participants requested to stay anonymous but I am no less grateful to each of them also for their patience and willingness to engage with me. Throughout my field research, I had to rely upon the kindness of strangers, many of whom have since become friends. In Nigeria, this list includes Damian Oyibo, Peter A. Okebukola, Kusimo Adesegun Mayowa, Oluwemimo Temitope Osidipe and Eoghan McSwiney in the Irish embassy. Haruna Poloma deserves a special mention for travelling a long distance to Abeokuta, just to provide the warmest of welcomes to a fellow UL student. In Ethiopia, I was very lucky to benefit from the hospitality and kindness of Joe Feeney and Birnesh Abraham Nagesso, as well as the expertise and patience of Stephen Mayega and Tesfaye Sirak at the African Union Commission. iv In South Africa, I was so fortunate to have met and befriended Douglas and Mary Salmon, Tim and Ron Smith, Luke Quinn (and all of his lovely mates who adopted me), Aoife Lyons at the Irish Embassy, Joan Brickhill at the South Africa Liaison Office, Ciara Aucoin at the Institute for Security Studies, and Tamara Naidoo at the Friedrich Ebert Foundation. At Wits University, I was made feel welcome and part of the community by Chris Williams, Mopeli Moshoeshoe and Prof. Gilbert Khadiagala, for which I am so grateful. Though we never met in person, I am indebted to John Siko for generously sharing with me some of the interview transcripts from his terrific book Inside South Africa’s Foreign Policy. A final word of thanks to Hamilton Wessels, who I was so happy to see again in Joburg, along with his wonderful wife Chandre. The hospitality I was shown by them and their family is something I will always remember. I hope we all get to meet again before too long so that I can repay the favour. Without considerable help from family and friends, I would not have been able to maintain my enthusiasm or keep my sanity over the course of this project. In no particular order, my heartfelt thanks for this to Davy Horan, Lauren Doyle (for her field trip support), Miriam Walsh (for the Bill Burr tickets), Jody O’Sullivan, Joe McKenna, John-Mark Griffin, John Scanlan, Red McDonnell, Cla, Turk, Seán Keyes, Niall O’Brien, Barry Laffan, Freida Breen, Nancy Miller, Mica Hogan, Ger Cunningham, Caitlin Ryan and all of my new colleagues at the University of Groningen, Eilís O’Sullivan (for her advice at the finish line), my teammates and fellow club members in Bruff RFC, my wonderful sister Áine, and Bertie, Genghis and Paddy Hogan. For adding so much laughter and fun to the period that should have tested my patience the most, míle buíochas d’Aedín Ní Thiarnaigh. To Maghnus Collins, thank you for always being there to provide reassurance, inspiration, advice and occasional podcast co-hosting duties. You picked my confidence up off the floor on more than one occasion and for that, and all your years of friendship, I can never thank you enough. I wish to save my final thanks for my amazing parents, Anne and Mike. If it weren’t for their willingness to support me through a number of false career starts, I never would have found one for which I have a real passion. It may not always have shown in my less patient moments over the past few years but my gratitude to them both is immense. As a reflection of my appreciation and love for them, I wish to dedicate this thesis to my Mam and Dad. v Table of Contents Abstract……………………………………………………………………………... iii Acknowledgements…………………………………………………………………. iv List of Acronyms…………………………………………………………………….. x Chapter 1 – Introduction………………………………….…………….…………... 1 Theoretical Contribution…………………………………………………… 4 Original Data Collection………………………………………….…………. 7 Addition to the Historical Record………………………………….……….. 9 Thesis Outline…………………………………...………………….………. 12 Chapter 2 – Security Cooperation in Africa……………………………….……... 16 The OAU as a Security Actor……………………...…………………….... 16 Increasing the OAU’s Security Mandate…...……………………….……. 19 OAU into the AU…………………………………………………………… 23 New Visions of African Security Cooperation……...…………….………. 26 Continued Limitations and Relevance of APSA…..……………….…….. 32 Chapter 3 – Existing Research…………………………………...……….……….. 38 Theoretical Approaches…………………………………...………………. 39 Institutional Design……….………………………………...……….……... 42 Scope of Issues………………………………………...…….……… 43 Flexibility of Institutional Arrangements…………...…….……… 46 Control of Institutions……………………………………………... 48 Enforcement Powers………………………………...…….……….. 51 Inter-State Negotiations…………………………………………………… 54 The African Peace and Security Architecture……………………….…… 56 Conclusion………………………………………………………………….. 61 Chapter 4 – Methodology…..………...…………………………………….……… 64 Research Design……………………………………………………………. 65 The Case Study……………………………………………...…………….... 69 Practical Challenges……………………………………………………….. 79 vi Methodological Limitations……………………………………………….. 83 Chapter 5 – International Relations Approaches.………..……………….……... 86 Preference Formation………….....………………………………….…….. 86 Neorealism………………………………………………………….. 89 Liberalism………………………………………………………….. 92 Constructivism…………………………………............................... 97 Negotiations…………………………..…………………………………… 103 Neorealism…………………………………………………..…….. 104 Liberalism………………………………………………………… 105 Constructivism…………………………………………………….
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