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Ethnic Differences in Spiritual Intelligence: a Study in a Multicultural Context

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Ethnic Differences in Spiritual Intelligence: a Study in a Multicultural Context ETHNIC DIFFERENCES IN SPIRITUAL INTELLIGENCE: A STUDY IN A MULTICULTURAL CONTEXT by DIANA SHANTO submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF LITERATURE AND PHILOSOPHY in the subject PSYCHOLOGY at the UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA Supervisor: Prof. Vasi Van Deventer 2016 © University of South Africa 2016 ETHNIC DIFFERENCES IN SPIRITUAL INTELLIGENCE: A STUDY IN A MULTICULTURAL CONTEXT by DIANA SHANTO submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF LITERATURE AND PHILOSOPHY in the subject PSYCHOLOGY at the UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA Supervisor: Prof. Vasi Van Deventer 2016 © University of South Africa 2016 i Contents Page List of Tables Xii List of Figures Xiii List of Abbreviations and Symbols Xiv Abstract Xvii Declaration Xviii Dedication Xix Acknowledgements Xx Chapter 1: Introduction 1 1.1 The multiple nature of intelligence 1 1.1.1 Musical intelligence 4 1.1.2 Bodily-kinaesthetic intelligence 4 1.1.3 Logical-mathematical intelligence 5 1.1.4 Linguistic intelligence 5 1.1.5 Spatial intelligence 5 1.1.6 Interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligences 5 1.1.7 Naturalist intelligence 6 © University of South Africa 2016 ii 1.1.8 Existential intelligence 6 1.1.9 Emotional intelligence (EQ) 7 1.1.10 Spiritual intelligence (SQ) 8 1.2 The Emergence and evidence of spiritual intelligence 8 1.3 Heightened interest in Spirituality/Religion in research 11 1.4 Ethnic identification and ethnic groups in Mauritius 12 1.5 General purpose of the present research 17 1.5.1 Statement of the research problem 18 1.5.2 Research questions 20 1.5.2.1 Study One 20 1.5.2.2 Study Two 20 1.5.3 Research objectives 20 1.5.4 Hypotheses 21 1.5.5 Methodology used in the thesis 22 1.6 Operational definition 22 1.7 Rationale and significance of the study 24 1.8 Definition of key terms 25 1.9 Content overview 26 © University of South Africa 2016 iii Chapter 2: The Spiritual Realm in Psychology 28 2.1 A panoramic view of spirituality 28 2.1.1 Towards a spiritual identity 32 2.2 The history and nature of spirituality 33 2.3 Spirituality and religion: The debate and differences 35 2.4 Approaches to spirituality 42 2.4.1 Vertical-horizontal model 42 2.4.2 Five levels of consciousness 43 2.4.3 The integrated approach and the unifying approach 44 2.4.4 The Self-Other-Context-Spiritual (SOCS) Circle 45 2.4.5 A holistic model of spirituality 47 2.4.6 The whole person: A model 48 2.5 Spirituality: Its development theories 49 2.5.1 James’ experiential theory of R-S development 49 2.5.2 Psychodynamic perspective: Jung’s theory of R-S development 50 2.5.3 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs 51 2.5.4 Fowler’s Constructivist stage theory of faith development 53 2.6 Types of spirituality 58 2.6.1 Theistic spirituality 58 2.6.2 Existential spirituality 58 © University of South Africa 2016 iv 2.6.3 Community spirituality 59 2.7 The plausibility of spiritual intelligence: Concepts and theories 59 2.7.1 Existential theoretical underpinnings of spiritual intelligence 59 2.7.1.1 Emmons’ theories of spiritual intelligence 59 2.7.1.2 Levin and spiritual intelligence 60 2.7.1.3 Wolman and the PsychoMatrix Spirituality Inventory (PSI) 60 2.7.1.4 Nasel and the Spiritual Intelligence Scale (SIS) 61 2.7.1.5 Wigglesworth’s (2006) Simple Model of Four Intelligences 61 2.7.1.6 Vaughan’s (2002) views on SQ 62 2.7.1.7 Zohar and Marshall’s 12 features of SQ 63 2.7.1.8 Amram’s (2007) seven dimensions of spiritual intelligence 63 2.7.1.9 King’s viable model of spiritual intelligence 64 2.7.2 A proposed theory of spiritual intelligence 64 2.7.2.1 Subscales of the MSIS-1 65 2.7.2.1.1 Self-awareness and sensitivity 65 2.7.2.1.2 Transcendental awareness 67 2.7.2.1.3 Quest for meaning 68 2.7.2.1.4 Level of consciousness 69 2.7.2.1.5 Resilience 71 2.8 Conclusion 75 © University of South Africa 2016 v Chapter 3: Spirituality in the Workplace 76 3.1 Definitions of workplace spirituality 79 3.2 A brief history of workplace spirituality 85 3.2.1 Organisational spirituality and traditional religions 85 3.3 Spiritual leadership in organisations 86 3.4 Ethics and workplace spirituality 87 3.5 Measures of workplace spirituality 92 3.6 Conclusion 95 Chapter 4: Spirituality and Religion in Mauritius 96 4.1 Hinduism 96 4.2 Christianity 101 4.2.1 The Roman Catholic Church 102 4.2.2 The development of African-centred spirituality 103 4.3 Islam 105 4.4 Conclusion 108 © University of South Africa 2016 vi Chapter 5: The Upsurge of Interest in Ethnicity in Psychology 109 5.1 A broad view of ethnicity 109 5.1.1 Current definitions of ethnicity 110 5.1.2 Distinctions between ethnicity and race 112 5.2 The foundations of ethnicity and its theoretical development 112 5.2.1 Assimilation theory 113 5.2.2 Primordialism 115 5.2.3 Circumstantialism 116 5.2.4 Instrumentalism 117 5.2.5 Constructionism 118 5.2.6 Integrated approach to ethnicity 121 5.2.7 The cognitive perspective on ethnicity 121 5.2.8 Symbolic ethnicity 122 5.2.9 Constructionism perspective for the present study 124 5.3 Types of ethnicity 124 5.4 Identity development theories 125 5.4.1 Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development 125 5.4.2 Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory 127 5.4.3 Marcia’s four statuses of identity model 128 5.4.4 Optimal distinctiveness theory (ODT) 129 © University of South Africa 2016 vii 5.5 Ethnic identity: Definitions and theories 131 5.5.1 Definitions 132 5.5.2 Theories of ethnic identity and stages of development 132 5.5.2.1 Dual or multiple identities 133 5.5.2.2 Cross’s Nigrescence model of identity 133 5.5.2.3 Helms’ four stages of ethnic minority identity development 134 5.5.2.4 Phinney’s three-stage model of ethnic identity development 134 5.5.2.5 Identity process theory (IPT) 136 5.5.2.5.1 The application of IPT in the Mauritian context (1) 136 5.5.2.5.2 The application of IPT in the Mauritian context (2) 137 5.6 Mauritius: Its history and ethnic groups 137 5.6.1 Ethnic groups 140 5.6.1.1 The Mauritian-Creole identity 141 5.6.1.2 The Hindu identity: The majority 143 5.6.1.3 The Muslim identity 145 5.7 Multiculturalism and interculturalism 146 5.8 Conclusion 147 © University of South Africa 2016 viii Chapter 6: Methodology 149 6.1 Research paradigm 149 6.2 Research design 151 6.3 Data collection 152 6.3.1 Questionnaires 152 6.3.1.1 The MSIS-1 153 6.3.1.2 The MEIM-R 157 6.3.1.3 The MLQ, CD-RISC, PSC, NIRO, and BIDR 157 6.3.2 Distribution and response rates 159 6.3.3 Sampling strategies 161 6.3.3.1 Study One 161 6.3.3.2 Study Two 165 6.4 Data analysis 166 6.5 Ethical considerations 168 6.6 Conclusion 170 © University of South Africa 2016 ix Chapter 7: Results 171 7.1 Study One 171 7.1.1 Skewness and kurtosis 171 7.1.2 Reliability of the MSIS-1 and its subscales 175 7.1.3 Exploratory factor analysis of the Multicultural Spiritual Intelligence Scale 176 (MSIS-1) 7.1.4 Research questions 183 7.1.4.1 Spiritual affiliation 186 7.1.5 Comparison of the MSIS-1 with other similar and dissimilar tests 197 7.2 Study Two 201 7.2.1 Confirmatory factor analysis 203 7.2.2 Measurement and structural invariances of the MSIS-2 across Hindu, Creole 205 and Muslim groups 7.2.3 Modal fit measures for the factor model of the MSIS-2 208 7.3 Conclusion 214 © University of South Africa 2016 x Chapter 8: Discussion of results 215 8.1 The validity and reliability of the Multicultural Spiritual Intelligence Scale (MSIS) 216 8.1.1 The MSIS compared to other measures (the NIRO, PSC, and BIDR) 216 8.1.2 Dimensions of the MSIS 217 8.1.3 The implications of a five-factor model of spiritual intelligence 219 8.2 Ethnic differences in spiritual intelligence 219 8.3 Gender and spiritual intelligence 222 8.4 Ethnic identifications of the major ethnic groups 223 8.5 Limitations of the study 225 8.6 Recommendations 225 8.7 Conclusion 226 References 227 Appendices 268 © University of South Africa 2016 xi List of Tables Page Table 1.1: Dimensions of the MSIS-1 23 Table 1.2: Dimensions of the MEIM-R 24 Table 2.1: Link between components of resilience and spirituality 73 Table 3.1: Different types of ethical climates 90 Table 4.1: Indian philosophy of spirituality 100 Table 5.1: Adapted from Erikson’s theory of human development 127 Table 5.2: The four identity statuses suggested by Marcia (1966) 128 Table 6.1: Frequencies and percentages of responses on demographic items in Sample 163 One (N = 1177) and Sample two (N = 303) Table 7.1: Descriptive statistics for the MSIS-1 106-item pool (N = 1074) 172 Table 7.2: Reliability of the MSIS-1 and its subscales (N = 1177) 175 Table 7.3: KMO measure for each of the 106 items in the MSIS-1 (N = 1177) 177 Table 7.4: Rotated structure matrix for PCA with varimax rotation (major loadings for 180 the MSIS > 0.35) (N = 1177) Table 7.5: Reliability of the MSIS-2 and its subscales (N = 1177) 181 Table 7.6: Correlations among latent variables for study 1 (N = 1111) 182 Table 7.7: Standard guideline for evaluating correlations 185 Table 7.8: Correlation between the MSIS-1 and the MEIM including their subscales 189 Table 7.9: Correlations among related and unrelated measures with MSIS-1 and its 199 subscales Table 7.10: Descriptive statistics for the MSIS-2 29-item pool (N = 303) 202 Table 7.11: Skewness and kurtosis for males and females for each dimension (N = 303) 204 Table 7.12: Correlations among latent variables for study 2 (N = 286) 205 Table 7.13: Comparing the dimensions of MSIS-2 (N = 279) for the three ethnic groups 206 for metric invariance Table 7.14: Goodness-of-fit statistics for measurement invariance among the three 207 ethnic groups (N = 279) Table 7.15: Model comparisons
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