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CONTENTS .

PREFACE...... 3 RELIGIONSOF ANCIENTEGYPT...... 5 RELIGIONSOF INDIA-vedism...... 20 Brahmanism...... 22 Sectarian Brahmanism...... 26 Buddhism...... 43 Jainism...... 49 RELIGIONSOF CHINA...... 52 COMMITTEE The State Religion...... 53 . Confucianism...... 56 Worship of Ancestors...... 59 THOMASHOCKLEY Taoism...... 67 Buddhism...... 93 MRS. JOHN HARRISON Thibetan Buddhism...... , . ....101 STEWARTCULIN RELIGIOUSCEREMONIES OF THE CHINESEIIì THE UNITEDSTATES...... 102 RELIGIONSOF JAPAN-Shintoism...... 116 Buddhism...... 119 Mohammedanism...... 137 NATIVEAMERICAN RELIGIONS...... 152 Northwest Coast...... 153 United States...... 155 Mexico...... 156 Yucatan...... 158 ...... San Domingo. W . I., ...... ‘59 Peru...... 159 RELIGIONSOF POLYNESIA...... 160 RELIGIONOF THE BANTUTRIBES (AFRICA). . . : . 164 CHARMSAND AMULETS...... 169 ADDENDA...... 173 1 i. i

PREFACE.

HE basis of this exhibition is a collection of idols and T other objects lentto the Museum by the Board of Foreign Missions of the Presbyterian Church in the United States. These are indicated in the catalogue by the initials, B. F. M. P. C. The other specimens are the property of the Museum, or are lent by individuals whosenames are given. The Egyptian portion of this catalogue was contributed by Mrs. Cornelius Stevenson, Curator of theEgyptian Section of the Museum; that on Mohammedismby Dr. Morris Jastrow, Jr., Professor of Arabic in the University of Pennsylvania ; that on native American religions by Dr. Daniel G. Brinton,LL. D., Professorof American Linguistics in the same institution, and the notes on the religion of the Bantu tribes of Africa by the Rev. Robert Hamill Nassau, LL. D., for many years a missionary among the Fans. The part relating to the religions of India and the Far East was compiled by the writer of this preface, in part from the catalogue of the Musée Guimet of Paris, the arrangement of which has been substantially followed. The invaluable work of Dr. J. J. M. De Groot, repub- lished in a French translation by the MusCe Guimet (An- nales, Tomes I 1-1 z), under the title Les Fêtes AnnueZZe- 3 4 PREFACE. ment ctlebrés ci Emoui (Amoy), astudy concerning the popular religion of the Chinese, has also been freely drawn upon, as well as The Chirtese Reader's ManunZ, by Mr. I William Frederick Mayers. RELIGION OF ANCIENT EGYPT. The,Committee on the Exhibition desire to express their thanks to all who have aided in their work, especially HE gods of Egypt, like those of other branches of the tothe Board of Foreign Missions of the Presbyterian T human family, owed their origin to anaïve observation Church, and to the Musee Guimet of Paris, whose publi- of natural phenomena. The Egyptians believed that every cations have been the incentive of and a most important part of nature was ruled by a governing life manifested in its activities. Not only heaven and earth, the sun, the aid in the formation of the collection. STEWARTCULIN. planets, and the Nile, but every locality and everything subject to the lawsof birth, growth, and decay, down to Universi0 of PennsyZvania. manufactured objects were considered by them as endowed February 22d, 1892. with a life which was deified and worshiped. Even the mummy bandages had apresiding divinity, Taït,and amulets were supposed to emanate from a god-hIata. Atthe opening of thehistorical period the abstract functions of nature, such as the Creative Power, Truth, Intelligence, etc., had already been deified,, and there is every reason tu believe that the oneness of the divine life- giving power had been recognized by the thinking Egyp- tians. But thatrecognition never reached the form of a national religion, and whilst the monotheistic worshipers at Memphis prayed to the only God, Creator of Heaven and Earth, under the name of Ptah, the monotheistic worshipers at Thebes implored him under that of Amon, and at Heliopolis he was worshiped under that of Ra. More: over this tendency to monotheism in no way excluded the worship of other gods. In thetendency to an amalgamation of the principal local divinitiesinto, a national pantheon, which is ob- servable with theconsolidation of the Empire of Egypt by Mena, cosmic cycles of gods, known as Enneads, including the great gods of Heliopolis and Abydbs,came into existence. These are found in all the great religious 5 RELIGION OF ANCIENTEGYPT. 6 RELIGION OF ANCIENT EGYPT. 7 centres of the land,and meant, as they probablyorigi- sacred to Uati, the tutelary goddess of the North, was the symbol of NorthernEgypt. Thecat or lioness-headed nally were, to include the plurality of the divine powers \’ in a mystic number, in each locality the Ennead is headed goddesses, such as Bast, goddess of Bubastis, Sekhet, by the chief deity of the place. who with Ptah and Imhotep or Nofertum was worshiped With the prevalence of solar worship nearly all the great at Memphis, Tefnut,the daughter of Rä, one of the Egyptian gods assumed a rôle in the solar myth which in divine cycle of Heliopolis, represented heat and light. time more or less confused and overshadowed their original The following objects are selected from theEgyptian character. Thus Osiris, the Lord of the Under-world, be- Section of the Museum of the University : came thedead sun. Horus, Lord of the Upper Space, i OSIRIS,seated. Bronze. , Height, 7.625 inches. whose eye was the sun,”became’the sun itself. Amon, I. the Lord of the Harvest, became Amon Rä. Sebek, the TheHades of theEgyptians. Originally 1,ord ofAbydos was Lord of the Swamp, became Sebek Rä, etc., etc. More- almost universally worshiped throughout the land, as typifying Life in Death.With the development of solarworship, the dead Sun be- over, with the development of symbolism, compound dei- came Osiris whothen assumed a solar character. He is the type of ties were gradually formed, in which several divine attri- divineand human goodness. In mythology he strugglesagainst the butes or functihns became blended into one by a religious destructivepowers of theearth personified by Set,who for a time metaphor, No. 16 of this catalogue is an interesting overpowers him. But his sister-wife Isis, the Nature Goddess, gathers example of the process, as it represents Ptah-Sokar-Osiris; his remains and of his essence after death produces Horus the Child. Horus the Avenger continues the struggle, and in turn overpowers the Kheper-Knum, and typifies in a most complex symbol the adversary of his father. The myth is also a solar myth, and the eternal creative power which preserves the germ of life in death struggle of life and death, of light and darkness is dealt with in many and brings it forth renewed through eternal transformation. varying forms. Indeed, the gieat historical gods of Egypt &re not merely Man atdeath appeared before the tribunal of Osiris and,in later attributes of the divine life-giving power, they each are times, was judged according to his merits after vindicating himself of forty-two mortal sins. Thenhaving been declared just, he became that power itself in one of its manifestations and under Osiris himself and was free to heginhis transformations at will, and one of its names. reached apotheosis. The goddesses generally represent the activity of the god with whom they are connected, and intheir relation to him 2. OSIRIS,standing on pedestal. Bronze. Height, 6.5 play a double rôle as mother and as daughter. They are inches. the space in which the divine life engenders itself and the 3. OSIRIS,standing. Bronze. Height, 5.625 inches. cow is their symbol. They are also the light and the heat 4. OSIRIS,standing. Bronze. Height, 3 inches. by which the life and light-giving god manifests himself. 5. ISIS, seated, holdingHorus on her lap. Bronze. As such they are called the ‘6 Eye of Ra.” Some of them are endowed with wings with which they are said to pro- Height, 6.5 inches. duce light. The vulture, the symbol of Nekheb, thetu- See No. I, Osiris. telary deity of El Kab, on thesouthern limit of Upper Egypt, was the symbol of motherhood, and as such was the 6. ISIS,seated, holding Horus as above. Limestone. head-dress worn by many of the goddesses, whilst the asp, Height, 8.25 inches. 8 RELIGION OF ANCIENTEGYPT. RELIGION OF ANCIENT EGYPT. 9 7. ISIS, as above. Bronze. Height, 6 inches. Thè good example of the t‘endency to amalgamation which is particularly evident in the Egyptian pantheon in later times. The combi- 8. ISIS,as above. Bronze. Height, 3.125 inches. nation of Ptah-Sokar-Osiris dates, however, from very early times, and is foundin the early Necropolis. Ptah,the great god of Memphis, g. ISIS,as above. Bronze. Height, 4 inches. was‘ originallylike Osiris andSokar, ‘6 God of the Dead.” He was IO. ISIS,standing erect with her arms extended down- represented under this deformed shape probably with the notion that it ward. Wood. Height, 13.625 inches. approached that of the embryo. In this form he typified life in death, the germwhich is transformed, anggradually symbols accumulate II. HARPEKHRUTI.Horus the Child, seated, with around him. He often,as in thiscase, wears the scarab Kheper on finger at mouth. Bronze. Height, 5.25 inches. his head as a symbol of transformation, of the ‘‘ becoming,” which identifies him in solar worship with the ‘‘ new-born sun.” He is also asso- The Harpocrate5 of theGreeks, who misunderstood the Egyptian ciatedwith the ram-headed god Knum, the demi-urgos, who creates conventional rendering of the idea of infancy-i. e., the carrying of the men on the potter’s wheel. Many other combinations of the same idea finger tothe mouth, as a symbol of silence. For placein the pan- are found. theon, See No. I, Osiris. 17. RA.The Sun God. Green glazed pottery. 12. HARPEKHRUTI,standing, with finger at mouth. Height, 1.875 inches. Bronze. Height, 3.375 inches. Chiefgod of Heliopolis. When the solar worship acquiredthe 13. ANußIs. The Jackal-headed God. Green glazed leading place in Egypt he became gradually associated with other gods pottery. Height, 1.625 inches. of originally totallydifferent character, such as Amen-ra, Sebek-ra, etc., who thus assumed solar attributes. Anubis was the son of Osiris and Nepthys. He was the guardian of Ra typified the sun in its might. The hawk was one of his symbols. the Necropolis andthe conductor of soulsto the under world. In a The obelisk also was his emblem, while the Phœnix was his soul, as dual form he presided over the North and the South and guided the well as that of Osiris. As Atum-ra he was a primordial god. A pyra- soul on its way through Heaven. In mythology he had assisted Osiris mid text says that Atnm existed “ When thkre was yet no sky, when against Set. He had a great temple at Siút, where he was worshiped there was yet no earth, when there were yet no men, when the gods under the title of Ap Uat, the ‘‘ Opener of the way.” werenot yet born, when there was yet no death.” Then it was be- 14. PTAH,standing. Bronze. Height, 4.5 inches. iieved that Atum had issued from the lotus in the shape of the solar .orb, and had become Ra. Greatgod of Memphisand chief of Ennead. Associated. with Sekhetand Nofertum or Imhotep,he formed the Memphite Triad. 18. SKU.The God of Air andLight. Green glazed He was originally, like Osiris, the god of the dead. He not only was pottery.Height, .625 inches. the great cosmic God, the “father of beginnings,” the “father of the Shu was son of Ra and of Hathor, and thetwin brother of the light- age,” ‘6 self-begotten-uncreated,” but, like Osiris, he typified truth, law, goddess Tefnut, who was depicted with the head of a lioness. A text and divine wisdom. Likehim as the “great hidden one,” he was calls them “ One Son1 in its Twins ;” they are often represented as two represented as amummy, and withhim, as Ptah-Sokar-Osiris, he lions. formed the earliest of those compound divinities afterward so common At the time of the creation he lifted the heavens, represented by a in Egypt, and became the type of life beyond the grave. cow whose legs represent the four cardinal points. Another myth makes 15. PTAH-SOKAR-OSIRIS.Green glazed pottery. Height, him lift upthe Goddess Nutpe, who also typifies theheavenly vault raised up by Shn over the earth-god Set, her consort. I.87 5 inches. 16. PTAH-SOKAR-OSIRIS-KHEPER-KNUM.Pottery, with 19. SHU, lifting up the heavens. Green glazed pottery. traces of green glaze. Height, 1.875 inches. Height, .875 inches. .e.-*=% .<~.+-~_

IO RELIGION OF ANCIENT EGYPT. RELIGION OF ANCIENT EGYPT. II I t 20. THOTH. Green glazed pottery. Height, 2.125 and was primitively adored at Elephantine, where he formed a triad inches. withtwo goddesses, Sat¡ andAnuke. Under the New Empire he became confused with the ram-headed form of Amon, and in Persian Thoth was the divine scribe, the culture God of the Egyptian pan- ‘1 times he becamea highly metaphysical god, who atMendes typified . theon.As the ‘‘ GreatMeasurer” he was also alunar god, but at the Universal Soul. Hermopolis,where he wasespecially worshiped, he wasthe primor- i dialgod, and his worship developedinto a metaphysical system, in 26. KNUM. Green plazed pottery. Height, 1.375 which speculationsas to the nature of theuniversal principle of life inches. rose to the highest point reached by the Egyptians. 27. Kxuhf. Glazed pottery, fragment. Height, 2.25 The ibis was sacred to him and also the cynocephalus. Q. K i ’. inches. 2 I. MAAT.Goddess of Truthand Justice. Black 28. BAST, the Cat-headed Goddess of Bubastis. Green glazed pottery. Height, inches. .g375 glazed pottery. Height, 2.625 inches. The Egyptians had but one word to express truth in word and truth Hast is often confused with the lioness-headed Sekhet, mate of Ptah in action and represented this by the hieroglyph of the rule. Ptah and at Memphis, which she closely resembles in her attributes. She typi- Osiris were particularlyreferred to as Lords of Truth,although the fied the Heat and Light of the Sun, and as such was called the Daugh- epithet is applied to other Gods and to the King. Truth was personi- ter of Ra, or the Eye of Ra, while Sekhet had fiercer attributes. Cats fied and worshiped under the form of the Goddess Maat, who in the were sacred to her, and were sent from all parts of the country to be under world received the dead in the “ Hall of the two Truths,” where buried at Bubastis, where annual pilgrima es drew great multitudes to the awful tribunal of Osiris was held. the Festival of th; Goddess. She was asslmllated. by the Greeks to Truth is thefundamental virtue upon whichthe Egyptian code of Q Artemis. ethics was erected. The justified dead were declared “ True,” and in the funeral lamentations, the claims of the defunct to absolute “truth ’Y 29. BAST. Green glazed pottery. Height, 2.25 inches. and his utter abhorrence of falsehood are over and over referred to. The ostrich feather is the symbol of this Goddess. 30. BAST. Green glazed pottery. Height, 1.625 inches. 22. AMONRA, standing. Wood. Height, 4.5 inches. 31. SE.KHET.Green glazed pottery, fragment. Height, Originally local God of Karnak, probably was God of the Harvest. 2.5 inches. His name means (1 Hidden.” The political ascendency of Thebes during thenew Empire, not only overEgypt, but over its neighbors, . 32. BAST. Stone bust. Height, 16.5 inches. added greatly to the lustre of his worship, and the Egyptian religion never approached Monotheism more closely than it did at this time. 33. MAHES.Lion-headed God. Green glazed pot- His cultus was the ruling one in all the Theban Colonies-Ethiopia, tery. Height, .5 inches. Nubia, and the Oases. Mahes was the son of Bast. One could hunt the lion at all times save on the day of the Festival of Bubastis. His statuette is extiemely rare, 23. AnloN RA,standing. Bronze. Height, 4.5 inches. 24. AMONRA, standing. Bronze. Height, 4.75 inches. 34. APETor TUERTAPET, the Greek Thoueris. Green glazed pottery. Height, 2.25 inches. 25. KNUM.The Ram-headed God. Green glazed The Hippopotamus Goddess, like the Lucina of the Greeks, presided pottery. Height, 2 inches. overbirths. Probably a form of Isis. Plutarch makes her the consort “The Modeler,” who is also represented forming the Mundane Egg of Set. In the myth she had protected the birth of Horus the child of on the potter’s wheel. He belongs to the ancient Egyptian Pantheon, Isis. L .~~ . ~

14 RELIGION OF ANCIENTEGYPT. AhIULETS. '5

48. Cynocephalus. Green glazed pottery. Height, .5 deposits of the temple of Philip Aridaeus, Tukh-el-Karmus. inches. Green glazed pottery. Diameter, I. 7 5 inches. Sacred to Thoth, who represented the primordial god at Hermopo- 54. Table of offerings, intended for libations. From lis,where the eight apes, in later times, symbolized infour couples Kahun, XIIth dynasty (about 2600 B. C.). Dimensions, the elementary principles : time, matter, repose, and darkness. IO. 5 x I 2 inches. 49. Heron. Green glazed pottery. Height, .75 inches. It contains artificial food-offerings-a headaud haunch of beef, a Called Bennu, the original of the Greek Phcenix, was consecrated to bunch of vegetables, four loaves, and four cakes. Also a wine jar. These Osiris, whose soul he was supposed to represent. He typified resurrec- were supplies for the '' Ka " of the deceased-;. e., his spiritualdouble- tion. In the fusion of the myths of Abydos and Heliopolis which took who must be cared for to preserve the soul from dissolution. place after the union of the empire, it also became the Soul of Ra. 55. Funeral Cone. Terra-cotta. Fragment. 50. Sow. Green glazed pottery. Height, .375 inches. A simulacrum of bread-offering. Found in great numbers in the ne^ Was thesymbol of fecundity and of motherhood,and seems con- cropolls of Thebes, although abseut from other localities. nected with Thoueris, of which it may be a form. It represented a cake of flour and salt. At Memphis, during the Old Empire, stone geese and stone loaveswere offered, and this is a Theban variation of the same idea. The oldest cones recovered are of the XIth, FUNERALOFFERINGS. the latest of the XXVIth Dynasty.

In the earliest interments there are no amulets, only a 56. Set of food-offerings: the leg of an ox, the head of head-rest and half a dozen or more small alabaster cup- an ox, the hind-quarters, and a pair of geese tied together. shaped vessels, simulating offerings. Found with them was acartouch of Rameses Hek-an, The Egyptians believed that it was indispensable to the Rameses III. Memphis (about 1150 B. C.). welfare of the spirit that food and other material necessi- Mr. Petrie considers these food-offerings put into some foundation de- ties should be provided for the dead who were supposed to posit for the sustenance of the " Kas " of the workmen. inhabit the grave and there lead an existence which was conceived as the phantom of their former earthly life. 57. Food-offerings. A fore andhind leg. Wood. The poor, whowere unable to supply theirdead with Length, about 3.5 inches. oxen, geese, andother offerings,used these economical $3. Food-offering. Cow tied for sacrifice. From devices to insure their dead against posthumous starvation. Memphis (about 600 B. C.). Brown glazed pottery. Such simulacra are also found in foundation deposits, where it has been suggested that they were placed for the use of AMULETS. the workmen's spirits or Kas.'' Amulets were intended to protect the spirit against the 51. Head-rest. Basalt. Height, I inch. perils of the under world. Each had its assigned place on the mummy, and was supposed to protect a certain organ. 52. Vessels for food-offerings. Three small plates and As the survival of the spirit was absolutely dependent upon jug. Coarse pottery. ,the preservation of the remains, and, in a mystic sense, 53. Small dish for food-offerings from the foundation upon the restoration of all the organs and faculties of the 16 RELIGION OF ANCIENT EGYPT, AMULETS. I7

‘7. . individual as he entered upon his new life, sacred formulae 59. Set of funeral amulets. (Gift of Mrs. JohnHarri- in early times and later, amulets, were devised to insure the son .) desired end. 60. Five sacred eyes, Utja.(Gift of Mrs. JohnHarri- son.] The order given below is that in use in Saïtic times : The “ eye of Horus ” was in itself a divinity. tlttaclced Iry the de- By the neck : Stone scarab. stroying powers of the earth, it wa, alwayi victorious. There were two Upper part of chest : Square placque of beryl ; hearts of sacred eye.;; theright eye, which was the Sun, adthe left, which stone and double-feather, emblems of truth and righteous- was the Moon, but the right is the most frequent. ness. TheGoddeises representing Light or Heat, i. e., represeutingthe ! activity of the Sun-God, were called “ the Eye of the Sun-God.” Chest : Triadof Neb-hat, Horus, andIsis; Large l As amulets the sacred eye protected the living againstevil in general , “ tat,” symbol of stability and another triad as the first. i and the evil-eye in particular, and it guarded the dead from rlestruc- The Tat -was an emblem of stability. It has been variously identified it tion. with a nilameter, with a column, with an altar, and with a sculptor’s As an object it was marle in the form of a cow’s eye. support. The last is, perhaps, the most likely, as it is more particularly 61. Six scarabs. (Gift of Mrs. John Harrison.) sacred to the Creator, Ptah. Its form suggested to the Egyptians that of the vertebra, and Chapter CLV of the Book of the Dead brings the 62. Seventeen amulets. (Gift ofMrs. JohnHarrison.) formula which was to restore the vertebra to the dead into connection 63. Thirteen sacred eyes. with the Tat. Once provided with this amulet, the dead can ‘‘ cross the 64. Nine scarabs with cartouche of King Thotmes III. portals of Heaven. He receives the cakes, libations, and the meats de- ii ‘6 Rä-Men-Kheper.” (cjft of Mrs. Edward W.Lehman.} posited on the altarof Osiris, and his voice prevails against the enemies 65. Three scarabs with name ofAmen-Ra. (Gift of Mrs. of truth and forever.” Edward W. Lehman.) Lower Chest : Isis and Horus, Rä, Neb-hat. I 66. Fifteen scarabs with various symbols, designs, and On Stomach : Seven Tats. names. (Gift ofMrs. Edward W. Lehman.) Inside, in place of heart : Large basalt scarab. 67. Twolarge scarabs, one with ram’s head andcar- Left side of body, sometimes outside the mummy : Slip touche of Ramses II. Probably late period. Length, of hard stone, representing two fingers. 2.625 inches. (Gift of Mrs. Edward W. Lehman.) Bound between the fingers : Seal. 68. Funeralring. Green glazed pottery. 69. Necklace of beads with pendant figure of Sekhet. The following amulets were also disposed about the Green glazed pottery. mummy : 60. Horus onthe crocodiles. Stone amulet. From Square, expressing the squareness or righteousness of the Naukratis. Length, 2 inches. soul, and, The god holds two serpents in his hands and stands on two croco- Plummet, expressing its equilibrium or perfection. diles. These amulets were generally inscribed with formula to guard Papyrus, “ Uat,” emblem of “ greenness ” in the sense the owner against serpents, etc. These portable stones date from very of flourishing. late times. The Sam,” symbol of theunion of the soul andthe ?I. Commemorative tablet of Cleopatra VII,the last body. queen of Egypt, inscribed : Kluptres, princess, mistress c

18 RELIGION OE’ ANCIENT EGYPT. USHABTIS OK “ KESPONL);\Sl‘S.” ‘9 ofthe two countries.”From Bubastis. Height, 4-25 400 in the tomb of the priest, Haruta, whencecame the inches. two largest ones in this collection. 72. Mummy bandageinscribed with passageof the 77. Forty-fiveushabtis of various sizes and materials,

Book of Dead.”the Linen. Length, 26 inches. F green glazed pottery, wood, and stone. 73. Libaion Vase, with handle. Bronze. Height, 78. Mouldforushabtis. Terra-cotta.Height, 4.5 8 inches.(Gift of Dr.Thomas Biddle.) inches. 74. Sepulchral vase. Alabaster. Height, 15 inches. (Gift of Mrs. Bloomfield Moore.) l’ Alabaster vases, called “ canopi,” were used in. sets of four to contain the viscera of the mummy (as it was necessary that, in the “ day of arising in the under world,” all parts of the individual should be in- tact).They were guarded by four Genii, whose headswere usually represented on the li,da. Amset, human-headed, guarded the large intestines ; Hapi, with the head of a cynocephalus ape, guarded the small intestines ; Duau-Mutf, jackal-headed, guarded the heart and luogs ; Kebsenef,hawk-headed, guarded the liver and gall bladder. There were respectively underthe protection of the goddesses, Isis, Nepthys, i t Neit, and Serk. Cauopi date from the Old Empire.

75. Sepulchral vase.Alabaste?. Height, 16.5 inches. (Gift of Mrs. Bloomfield Moore.) i 76. Sepulchral vase. Alabaster. Height, 14 inches. (Gift of Mrs. Bloomfield Moore.)

USHABTIS OR CC RESPONDANTS.” These began to appear during the Middle Empire. They were intended to take the place of the dead in the cultivation of the fields of Aahlu,a duty imposed upon all in 4 primitive times. The inscription generally bears the name of the deceased whose proxies they were. They were armed with pick and hoe and basket, and in the text they

‘1 respond ” to the call made upon the dead, and express their readiness to perform the task set apart for the Osiris so and so. In Saïtic times they become very numerous, as many as 500 having been foundin one tomb. Mr. Petrie found f:RAiihliPilSR:. 11

into two parts,the white kjur andthe black lkju).,in which the formulas are biought together ; the Siruuz- T:,.!

VARUNA(Greek Uranus), the heaven, thecelestial ingtaken a sense notonly absolute,but myst:cal; their vault.” He is’sometimes a beneficent deity, as when he words acting with all the force of amagical formula by symbolized the god of day, and sometimes a fearful god, which thegod was compelled to submit. The efficacy of as when he personifies Night andsurveys the actions ofmen the prayersthus dependedupon the strict observance of with his thousand eyes. the formulas, and the sacrificer was obliged to make a pro- Then follows SURYA,the sun, who bears thenames of foundstudy of the sacred texts applicable to each case. Savitar andAditya. He traverses the world drawnby The priest was thus created. Besides, the minute precepts seven red horses, and produces light and heat. of the sacerdotal scienc-e were transmitted by tradition and RUDRA, god of the storm and winds, is both beneficent perpetuated in certain families; in exchange for their ser- anddevastating, accordingly as he assembles theclouds vices, the tribe assured them an existence protected from filled with rain or commands the cyclone that destroys the want and danger. Strong in their importance, the priests works of man and uproots the forest. constituted themselves into a caste and found texts to prove Finally, there are the less important divinities or those that they were of a superior nature to other men, in fact, of more recent creation, as ADITI, space, PRAJAPATI,the anemanation from the gods. Theytook the name of creator, VIÇVAKARMAN, the IndianPrometheus, YAMA, the Brahmans. god of hell, etc. The soldier is quite naturally the support of the clergy. The Vedic Aryans did not build temples. No idols or He defends them by his arms against the enemy without,

divine images of their epoch are known. z and at the same time against internal dissensions ; on the other hand, the priests call down for him the protection of the gods. The noble art of arms was the exclusive appan- BRAHMANISM. age of the most valiant families, andthey formed the It is impossible to tell the precise epoch of the appear- second caste, that of the Kshatrias, and participated with ance of Brahmanism in India. A modification of Vedism, the Brahmansin the sovereign power. The rest of the it developed progressively, separating itself more and more people were charged with nournishing and aiding the two from theprimitive reIigion, tothe point of havinglittle in superior castes, but even among them we also find inequali- common with it, except the Vedas, that it retained as the ties. The opulent merchant would not consent to be the basis of its beliefs. Two important things characterize it : equal of the humble artisan. He separated himself in his the institutionof a clergy and thedivision of the people into . turn,and composed thethird caste, underthe name of castes. The first steps toward the constitution of a clergy Vaiçyas. Thefourth caste, that of the Çudras, was was taken in Vedism, but in that religion the priests, ‘the recraited among the artisans and all the trades. Only the Vipaas, were as yetonly improvisitors of hymns, bards three superior castes had the right to be instructed in the who varied their chants according to circumstances or the religiousdogmas, and forthem alone was reserved the play of theirimagination. In Brahmanism, onthe con- initiation whichsecured for their members thetitle of

trary,the growth of thedogmas was arrested,the rites (1 Twice born.” were fixed, and it was not permitted to depart from them. Whilethis transformation was operating in Hindu The hymns became prayers, each of their expressions hav- social life, a considerable modification also occurred in the .~

24 KE1,IGIONS OF INDIA. BRAHMANISM. 25

field of their religion. The great gods of Vedism, personi- of beauty, andto Prithivî, personification of earth.The fications of naturalphenomena, which were obscured latter soon becomes a goddessunder the name of Kali,

through the myths having lost their real significance, van- “ the black,” or simply Devi, ‘6 the goddess.” From their ished to give place to new divinities more in correspond- union was born Ganeça, god of wisdom, the protector of ence with the new state of things.They becamemore science and the destroyer of obstacles to learning. and more anthropomorphic ; the popular imagination gave Çiva, the destroyer, is opposed by a conserving adver- them companions, the goddesses, and new gods mere be- sary,Vishnu, whose name is only just mentionedin the gotten. 17idm, where his part is limited to that of a manifestation Indra is to be foundonly among the poets. A new of the force of the sun. He becomes above all others the notion of creation develops in the myth of Prajapati who conserving god, but he destroysalso thatwhich is bad, and tookat that time the name of Purusha, themale,” and symbolizes the same as Çiva, the universal soul or Brahmâ. of his incest with Sarasvâti, at the same time his daughter He forms also a triad. They give him Lakshmi or Çri, the and his wife. Dyaus or Dyaus-Pitar dethrones the antlque goddess of beauty,fortune, and love, and the mother of Varuna.Surya remainsthe god of the sun, but some- Kâma, the god of love, for a wife. timesthey make him. the son of Dyaus, “sky,” and some- During this period philosophical ideas were developed. times that of Aditi,“space.” Following the needs of the . The notion of the immortality of the soul, if doubtful in myths, he takesnumerous companions,among others the Vedas was affirmed, the same as that of future rewards Sanjnâ, daughter of Viçvakarman the Hindu Prometheus, and punishments, which took the form of metempsychosis by whom he has three children : Manu Vaïvaçvata, procre- ortransmigration. The human soul is a part of theuni- ator of human kind ; Yama, god of hell, and the goddess versal soul which exists in all that has life. Pure at first, Yamî. it is soiled bycontact with materialthings. It animates Soma is no longer a god, but remains simply the per- successively plants, animals, and men, rising or falling in sonification of sacrifice. Agnihas lost nearlyall his that scale according to its vices or its virtues, until by its importance, but is divided into two, and under the name efforts to attain its original purity, it deserves to return to of Trashtar,the divine blacksmith, he takes thecharacter . the breast of the universal soul. Thisconception of the of Hephaïstos of the Greeks. impurity of the soul united to matter, thisfeeling of the al- On the other hand, the gods formerly regarded as sec- most insurmountable difficulty the soul met with in escap- ondary assume a considerableimportance. ThusRudra, ing from transmigration, gave rise to aceticism. There god of storms, is transformed into Çiva, at the same time’ were pious men who left everythingand retired to the thecreating and the destroying god. He symbolizes the depths of the woods, where, living on roots and wild fruits, action of nature which destroys in order to produce anew. they imposed upon themselves the most severe privations It is by this attribute he becomes the god of generation, and austerities in order to merit their return to the breast and is given the Linga as a symbol. He by himself forms of Brahmâ, the final andeternal repose. These were the a triad, or trinity, which reunites in one being the destructive and the creative forces, and the ilniversal soul Brahmâ During this epoch of curiosityand controversy, the who animates the world. He is united to Pâravatî, goddess schisms were produced, the doctrines of the various phil- 26 RELIGIONS OF INDIA. SECTAUIAN BUAHMANISIM. 27

osophicalschools were originated, and Jainism and Bud- deities and principal features of the Hindu religion, as it dhism developed. exists to-day, are as follows : The principal sacred books of this period were the Bvcih- Brahma, who is the creator-god, the universal soul which manas, the Upanishads, and the Mana71a-Dharma Çasfru, existed before anything was made. Accordingto the le- or the Laws of Manu. gends,both Çívaite and Vishnuite, he was born of a golden egg laid upon the breast of the waters of chaos by SECTARIAN BRAHMANISM. the Being who existed of himself ;” or, he emerged from a lotus which spr;ng from the navel of Vishnu, or floated The two great schisms, Buddhism and Jainism, appear to upon the ocean of creation,lying upon thefive-headed play animportant part in the development of thisthird serpent Cesha. Once born, he created the gods and after form of theHindu religion. Therapid extension of that, the earth, the sun, the heavens, etc.

Buddhism which threatened for a time to substitute itself He begat in himself a daughter, Sarasvatï, G‘ the Word,” for Brahmanism, not only among the people, ‘but among and bv his incest with her gave birth to human kind. His the scholars as well, and the aid lent to itby certain sover- rôle of creator accomplished, he became a being altogether eigns, who were happy to find an occasion to shake the secondary,and no longer mixed with the affairs of the power of the Brahmans, imposed upon them the necessity world, which he abandoned to the direction of the other of a reform, or at least a renovation of their belief. They gods.Nevertheless, thecomposition, or at least thein- felt the need of enforcing their claims by exaggerating the spiration of the Vedas is attributed to him. His name is power and the intervention of their gods in human affairs, invokedin the prayers, buthe has noparticular wor- and in order to make their personalposition moresure, ship, nor temples, unless it may be that of Puskara, near they posed more than ever as demi-gods, by right of birth Ajmir. In certain passages of theRâmâyana, he appears superior to all other men. They also, in order to conciliate to be confounded with Vishnu, and three of the avatars the masses, made many concessions to popular superstitions. of that god are attributed to him : the transformation into Thisevolution was executed,it is thought, between the the fish, the tortoise, and the boar. fifth and the third centuries before our era, and particu- Vishnu, who played a secondary part down to this time, larly toward the end of the third century. now acquired a capitalimportance. It has been seen The principal characteristic of Sectarian Brahmanism is how at first, reclining upon the serpcnt (;esha and floating the fusion of the tworival trinities of Çiva and Vishnu upon the ocean of chaos, he assisted at the birth of Brahmä into a unique trinity, the Trimurti, and in joining to them and presided over the world.After thathe commenced as the principal person, Brahmä, who was already a .part of his rôle of conservator. He protectedthe growing earth each system. Brahmä, Vishn,u, andÇiva now became and its feeble inhabitants, and mdtiplied his incarnations the expression, thesymbol, of the newfaith. Thetwo in order to restore the latter to the right way and rid them sects each preserve.their independence and their originality, , oftheir enemies. Theseincarnations, to the number of each giving the principal place to their own god, and con- ten, are called avatars, and are as follows : . tenting themselves to make room in their temples for their Ist. Matsyâ, the fish, under which form he saved Manu adversary, who has now become their ally. Thechief . . Vaivaçvata, the father of the human race, from the deluge. -

28 RELIGIONS OF INDIA. SECT.ZRI.I\N k;RAH1\IANIS.\I. 29

Pd. Kurma, the tortoise. Under this form he became He has for his wife Prithivï or Pârvati, goddess of the the baseof Mount Meru, when the gods churnedthe earth and often also of beauty, mho becomes a destructive ocean to recover the fourteen precious objects lost during divinity under the name of Kâli, Mahâ-Kili, Dur& and the deluge. Bhavanî. They haveas their sons Ganeça, the god of gd. Varah, the boar. He assumed this form in order to wisdom, recognized by his elephant’s head, and Subra- recover the land from the depths of the waters and to kill mahya. the demon Hiranyâksha. Other less important gods were joined in time to these 4th. Nara-Simha, the “ man-lion. ” ne took this form principal divinities, as those conserved from Vedism, like in orderto destroy Hiranya-Kaçipu, king of thegiants, Surya or Savitar, the sun,” Chandra, ‘‘ themoon,”

who made the world groan under his tyranny, and threat- Agni, 6‘ fire,” or those of more recent creation, as Kuvera, ened to dethrone the gods. god of riches, Yama, god of hell, and a crowd of genies 5th. Vamana, the dwarf. Under this form he presented good and bad,but chiefly bad,the hshuras, the.Rak- himself to Bali, the other king of the giants, to rescue shasas, the Apsaras, the divine danseuses, the Gandharvas, from him the dominion of the world. the, celestial musicians, etc. 6th. Pâraçu-Râmâ. He fought and destroyed the Of all the deities, the most popular and the one that caste of Kshatryas under this form. assures to Vishnu the highest place in the Hindupan- 7th. Râmâ-Chandra. He destroyed the Rakshas (ogres) theon, is the god Krishna, the eighth incarnationof Vishnu. of Ceylon under this form. After qiva and Vishnu, he receives the most homage. 8th. Krishna. The son of Vasudeva and Dévakï. He The god Çiva is equally well taken care of. He not delivered men from the tyranny of Kamsa. only has numerous temples, but in his position as the god 9th. Buddha. He again reappeared under this form to who dissipates all ill, physical and mental, and also causes hasten the confusion and destruction of the impious in ex- all, he is invoked at the commencement of all enterprises citing them to curse the fidns, to destroy castes, and to and always at the beginning of religious and philosophical deny the gods. books. A most active part is attributed to him in the com- 10th.Kalkinâ, the “ white horse.” It is believed he . position of the Ma/z&B/zârata. will return for the last time under this form, when evil will Brahmanism, as has already been stated, recognizes the reign as king, to destroy the world and reconstitute it anew. immortality of the soul, and according to it, the rewards There is always joined to Vishnu as a wife, the goddess and punishments for crimes and virtues are effective under Çri or Lakshmï, the goddess of beauty, of love, andof the form of transmigration or metempsychosis-that is, the fortune. Their son Kama, “love,” also takes agreater successive passage of the soul through the bodies of beings importance, and, according to certain legends, was the fromthe lowest to the highest, from beast to man, and first god created. from man to genie and to god. It is purified in these exist- Civa is most particularly the god of destruction, but he ences until it attains a degree of perfection which , destroys in order to create anew, and by this attribute he permits it toblend itself at last in the greatUniversal is the god of generation. In this rôle he is given the Linga Spirit which animates the world. But, althoughthe soul (phah) as his symbol. is elevated by thepractice of virtue, it is lowered by RELIGIONS OF INDIA. SECTARIAPIT KKAHI\IANISI\I. 3‘

abandonmentto passions and vices, and may be con- most severe austerities, while there are others who exhibit demned to take the lowest degree in the scale of beings in theirmacerations and tortures, and especially their jug- punishment for its bad actions. gleries. Thelatter do this for pecuniary profit. The 7The Brahmans were the most perfect of men and also first bear the nameof Sanyasis, and the others that of Yogis. *the nearest to the final deliverance, but as for those who Thedoctrines of SectarianBrahmanism arecontained did not have the fortune to belong to this privileged class, and commented upon in numerous rituals and philosophical their surestmeans of escapingprolonged metempsychosis works, both pure and mystical. Theprincipal are the was to embrace the career of an anchorite. This, however, Pur-anas, the Tantras, andthe Çtastms. ‘They agree also was permitted only to the three upper castes. to add to them several epic poems of which the most cele- The system of castes became more and more rigorous in brated are the lidmgyann and the Mahd-BJ&ata. Sectarian Brahmanism. Theytrace its origin back tothe creation to finda divinesanction for iK. The Brahmans, The idols,such as are actually used in worship, are of they say, were born from the mouth or thehead of Brahmâ, brass and marble. The latter, according to Swamee Bhas- the Kshatriafrom his shoulders, the Vaiçyafrom his kara Nand Saraswatee, of Jodpur, who kindlyaided in thighs, andthe Çudra from his feet. The last arenot identifying the Indian objects in this collection, are used permitted the right of religious instruction and can take no in the temples, while the brass idols constitute the house- active part in sacrifices. The initiation is reserved for the holdgods of the people. The marbleidols are made in three superior castes who wear, as an external sign of their the cities of Jeyporeand Jodpur, from whencethey are divinity, the sacred cord, a kind of tress of cotton which distributedthroughout India. Their manufacture consti- is given tothe neophite on his initiationand which he tutesan important industry, there being 632 factories in wears all his life. Each castehas its duties, more minute Jodpuralone. and more severe according to its elevation. Each caste also The brass idols are madein Benares. These household has its privileges which are lost through defilement, if they gods are treated with the greatest care and attention. Of- ally themselves with aninferior caste. Each caste, and ferings of food aremade to them thrice daily; they are especially thelast two, aresubdivided again into many bathed in water and the water used in the bath is drunk sub-castes,also closed and also as exclusive among each bythe worshiper. Atnight they are put to rest upon other as the castes themselves. Everything, even toali- pillows made expressly for the purpose. They form, in- mentation, is anticipated and regulated by the rites. deed, important and highly respectedmembers of every The care of the worship, the maintenance of the tem- family. ples and the idols, thecelebration of the sacrifices, and the teaching of the dogmas of the religion are exclusively 79. VISHNUseated with LAKSHMIon his left. Marble, reserved for the Brâhmans. When they perform the duties paintedand gilded. Height, 6 inches. (Lentby R. F. of teachers,whether religious or secular, theytake the M. P. C.) nameof Gurus. There is also a largenumber of her- 80. MATSYA,the “fish.” The first avatar of Vishnu. mits, recluses, andanchorites among them who liveby Marble, painted and gilded. Height, 6.375 inches. (Lent themselves in thedepths of the forests and practise the by B. F. M. P. C.) SECTARIAN BRAHMANISM. 33 32 RELIGIONS OF INDIA. 93. KRISHNA. Brass. Height, 5 inches. (Lent by 81. KURJIA,the (L tortoise.” The second avàtar of VISHNU. Marble, painted and gilded. Height, 6.5 B. F. M. P. C.) inches. (Lent by B. F. M. P. C.) 94. M¿kanchziv. Butter thief.” The infantKrish- na is worshiped under this form, creeping and holding a 82. VAKAH,the boar.” Thethird avatar of Vishnu. Marble, painted and gilded. Height, 6.5 inches. (Lent piece of butter which he has stolen from his mother. by B. F. M. P. C.) Brass. Height, 6.5 inches. (Lent by Mr. John T. Morris.) 95. MiRnnchrir. . Brass. Height, 2.5 inches. (LJent ‘83. NARA-SIAIHA,the (( man lion.”The fourth avatar of Vishnu. Marble, painted and gilded. Height, 7.375 by B. F. M. I’. C.) inches. (Lent by B. F. M. P. C.) 96. MíkanchÍr. Brass. Height, 1.5 inches. (Lent by Mr. Thomas Hockley.) 84. RAMAor RAhfA-CHANDRA, the seventh avàtar Of Vishnu, standing erect, with bow inone hand. Marble, 97. KRISHXA,with the milk-maid. Plaster, bas-relief, with traces of paintand gilding. Height, 34 inches. painted. Height, 19 inches. (Lent byB. F. M. P. C.) (Lent by R. F. M. P. C.) An episode in the R(7vzdym70.

One arm of this figure is broken. It is said to have been recovered 98. VASUI)EVAholding KKISHNA. Brass. Height, 2.5 from the Ganges, where it was thrown, after having been broken, in inches. (Lent byB. E’. M. P. C.) order that it might not be profaned. The Chinese say they burn their 99. VASUDEVAholding RlmFJxA.Rrass. Height, z wooden idols whenthey become old, worm-eaten, and worn out, in inches. (Lent by B. F. M. P. C.) order they may not be trodden under-foot and defiled. IOO. \T~~~~~~~~holding KRISIIXA.Brass. Height, 85. SITA,wife of Rama, standing. Marble, painted and 1.875 inches. (Lent by B. F. M. P. C.) 101. Miracle ‘Toy. (( Rescue of Krishna.” Krishna gilded.Height, 15.625 inches. (Lent by B. F. M. P. C.) 86. SITA, standing. Marble, painted and gilded. is seated upon the lap of his father, Vasudeva, the two Height, 8.25 inches. (Lent by B. F. M. P. C.) images being inclosed within a cup. When water is poured 87. SITA. Brass. Height, 3.375 inches. (Lent by B. into the cup, it retreats when it tonches the feet of the F. M. P. C.) god, being carried awayby a concealed syphon. The toy 88. SITA. Brass. Height, 3 inches. (Lent by B. F. is intended to illustrate one of the legends. Brass. Height, M. P. C.) 5 inches. (1,ent by Stewart Culin.) 102. VISHNU,with four arms. An elephant on either 89. SITA. Brass. Height, 2.625 inches. (Lent by B. side. Brass. Height, 3.5 inches. (Lent by Mr. John T. F. M. P. C.) Morris.) go. KRISHNA,the black.” The eighthavatar of Vish- 103. VISHNU,with four arms. Brass. Height, 2.25 nu. Marble, painted black, decorated in colors, and gilded. inches. (Lent by B. F. M. P. C.) Height, 11.5 inches. (Lent by B. F. M. P. C.) 104. VISHNU. Brass. Height, 1.375 inches. (Lent 91. KRISHNA. White marble, painted andgilded. Height, 8.5 inches. (Lent by B. F. M. P. C.) by B. F. M. P. C.) 105. VISHNU. Krass. Height, 1.75 inches. (Lent by 92. KRISHNA. Brass. Height, 5.875 inches. (Lent by R. F. M. P. C.) B. F. M. P. C.) 34 KELIGIONS OF INDIA. .~ i. SEC'rAKIAN BKAHMANIShI. 35 106. BUDDHA, seated on lotus. Marble, painted and b I 16. HANUMANT,standing. Steatite. Height, 6.125 gilded. Height, 30 inches. (Lent by Stewart Culin.) Buddha is worshiped in India as theninth avatar of Vishnu. This c' HANUMANT,standing. Brass. Height, 5 inches. idol is said by Swamee Nand Rhaskara to have been made in Jeypoor. (Lent by Mr. John T. Morris.) It bears the marks of bullets, which it is said to have received during 118. GANGESRIVER. Seated goddess, with two attend- the Indian Mutiny. It was brou;ht from theEast many years ago by p: Dr.Charles Huffnagle. 'The place from whence it came is unknown. Er. ants. Marble, pahtedand gilded. Height, 5.25 inches. 107. BUDDHA,seated on lotus flower. Marble, gilded. Height, 14 inches. (Lent by B. F. M. P. C.) p~ Thisidol was made in Jodhpur, and all of theother marble idols in 108. SARASVATIriding on bird.a Marble, painted c Jeypur.Worshiped at Benares. and gilded. Height, 5.875 inches. (Lent byB. F. M. 119. Gods and demonschurning the sea. Marble, P. C.) painted and gilded. Height, 5.875 inches. (Lent by 109. SAKASvATr, seated, playing onthe Brass. vim. 3. F. M. P. C.) Height, 2.5 inches. (Lent by B. F. M. P. C.) ThiS illustrates the legend referred ta in the text, page 28, when the 110. SARASVATI.Same as above. (Lent by B. F. M. godschurned the ocean to recover the fourteen precious things lost P. C.) , in theDeluge. Vishnu is representedseated at the top of thechurn. I II. VINDYACALI DEVI,riding on atiger. Goddess of a mountain between Central India and Bengal. Marble, 120. Cow with calf. Brass. Height, 1.625 inches. painted and gilded. Height, 4.75 inches. (Lent byStew- (Lent by B. F. M. P. C.) art Culin.) An object of worship. 112. VINDYACALI DEVI. Brass. Height, 2 inches. 12I. BUDDHA, with four arms. Brass. Height, I. 75 (Lent by B. F. M. P. C.) inches. I 13. HANUMANT,standing erect, with his hands clasped before him. His face paintedred. Marble, painted and Said to be worshiped by Jains. gilded. Height, 14.25 inches. (Lent by Mr. John T. 122. SURYA,seated upon achariot drawn by eight Morris.) horses. Marble, painted and gilded. Height, 15 inches. Hanumant, king of monkeys, was the son of. Pavana, " the wind." (Lent by B. F. M. P. C.) His principal exploit was in aiding Rama when he made his conquest ' 123. LAKSHMANA,brother of Râma, standing. Marble, of the island of Sankâ (Ceylon) to destroy the Rakshasas, and root out Sità, and their king, Ravana, who was carried away. He is ordinarily painted and gilded. Height, 15.75 inches. (Lentby represented with the head of monkey and the body of a man.' L B. F. M. P. C.) 124. Bengali Brahmin at hisdevotions, worshiping 114. HANUMANT,standing. Marble, painted and Çiva. The object of worship, a black stone, is in a vessel gilded. Height, 6 inches. (Lent by Mr. Cornelius supportedon a tripod before him. Clay model. Height, Stevenson.) .. . 4.875 inches. 15. HANUMANT,standing. Marble, painted and 125. Vairï@, standing erect. A mendicant of a sect gilded. Height, 7.25 inches. (Lent by B. F. M. P. C.) of Vishnu of that name. Clay model. Height, 15 inches. RELIGIONS OF INDIA. 36 SECTARI.SN CRAW.\IANISlI. 37 126. Mohammedanmendicant, seated, wearing neck- 134. Arg/qü, spoons used for pouring offerings of water laceand holding a rosary. Black stone.Height, 2.625 to Civa, especially from the Ist to the 15th of the Seventh inches.(Lent by Mr. Benj. SmithLyman.) month.Copper. Lengths, 10.75 and 4.575 inches re- 127. PlqifiSt~tm. Small circulartray, containing im- spectively.(Lent by R. F. M. I’. C.) plements for daily worship-a vase which is filled with water 135. Tripod to support shell forwater used in washing every morning and poured‘as a libation to the god ; a cup idols. Brass. Height, 2.375 inches.(Lent by 1;. F. M. and spoon used for the water which is drunken by the wor- P. C.) shiper ; a dish for sandal-wood paste, and abox with a slid- 136. Small spoon used todrink holy-water in daily ing cover, containingfive compartments for incense, butter, worship. Brass. Length, 5.625 inches. (1,ent by B. F. rice,and a red powder, and, in the middle, cotton for hl. P. C.) lamp wick. This is intended for children,and is smaller 137. I,amp,with five divisions, used indaily worship. thanthose used byadults. Brass. Diameter of tray, Erass. Width, 3.575 inches.(Lent by B. F. P. C.) 5.375 inches.(Lent by hIr. John T. Morris.) M. 138, Pillows used tosupport idols. Five, from 2 to 4 128. Miniaturepavilion used atmarriage ceremony. inches in length, covered with silk cloth. (Lent by R. F. Paintedterra-cotta. Height, 6.5 inches. (Lentby R. F. M. P. C.) M. P. C.) 139. Sacredcord worn byBrahmans and men of the 129. Temple bell, surmounted with figure of Garuda. secondand third castes. (Lent by B. F. M. P. C.) Brass. Benares. Height, 11.875 inches.(Lent by Mr. \Vorn by Naud Ridlor, a Uengali youth, mho presented himself as John T. Morris.) an ‘‘ Enquirer ” September, 1841. IIe resigned his caste at the same Such bells are rung three timeh daily in thc temples whcn offerings time he gave up histhread, September Ioth, 1841. (MS. Cufnlope are made to the god. offhe Collection ofthe B. F. M. P. C. j 130. Gong,suspended from a chain,composed of an 140. Stampfor forehead, a lotusinclosing the word elephant, Garuda, and a peacock in alternate links. Brass. “Rima.” I3rass. Diameter, 1.125 inches.(Lent by Length of chain, 65.5 inches;gong, 6x10 inches. (1,ent Mr. John T. Morris.) by Mr. Thomas Hockley.) 141. Necklaces, two. Made of woolen thread,with Formerly used in Ilindu templts. Now used in large private houses, pendant glass ornaments set withcolored glass; One has and struck to announce a death. two suspendedcharms. (Lent by B. F. M. P. C.) Tawiz, acharm used to contain a versefrom a 131. Lamp,with handle, supported by human figure. 142. sacredbook. Hindus wear onthe arm and Moham- Brass. Height, 4.375 inches.(Lent by B. F. M. P. C.) medansaround theneck. Copper. Length, .S75 inches. This and the following are used in daily worship. (Lent by B. F. M. P. C.) 132. Lamp, with handle,supported by human figure. 143. B@ (two). Amulets worn onthe arm by men- Brass. Height, 5.5 inches.(Lent by Mr. John T. hlor- dicants.They say when a man looks uponthe &$ it ris.) will charmhim, and cause himto give them money. 133. Lamp,supported by human figure. Brass. Height, Brass. Width, 2.5 and 2.25 inches.(Lent by B. F. M. 6 inches.(Lent by B. F. M. P. C.) P. C.) 38 RELIGIONSOF INDIA. . SECTARIAN RKAHhlANIShI. 39

144. Amulet,with image of Hanumant.Worn on the 151. Tdsi Nz(iZ2. Rosaries(three) used in Vishnu and armto keepaway evil spirits. Brass. Width, 2 inches. Krishna worship, one hundred and eight beads. (Lent by (Lent by B. F. M. P. C.) B. F. M. P. C.) 145. HANUMANT,with Râmaand his brotherLaksh- 152. Rosary used in Vishnu andKrishna worship. mâna.Medallion. Clay cast. Width, 3 inches. (1.ent lo (Lent by B. F. M. P. C.) by B. F. M. P. C.) 153. Rua?%Rsha mild. Rosaries (two) used in Giva wor- Used as a sample in dealer’s shop. ship,one hundred and eight beads. (Lentby H. F. M. 146. Knife, fork, andspoon of European design. ‘The P. C.) knife and fork have handles, each representing Râma and The wor.Aiper cries, h‘ Civa, Viva,” moving a heat1 ench time he rc- Hanumant,and the spoon Krishna. Brass. (Lentby pents the name. Mrs. William Frishmuth.) . 154. Rosary of the seeds of the Bi1 tree, used in Çiva These are said to be made to annoy the natives by degrading their worship. (Lent by B. I’. M. P. C.) gods. 155. Prayer ribbon of redsilk, with inwoven Sanskrit 147. RntnnZaparn. Dice used intelling fortunes. Two legend, .40m nnmr.s Çl’7~qa; Aum ! obeisance to Çiva. sets each of four cubical ivory dice, marked on four sides I,ength, 56 inches.(1,ent by Mr.John T. Morris.) with two, three, four, and three dots. A rod uponwhich 156. History of Sivajî. Tamil MS., withinvocation to they revolve, passing through the centre of the unmarked Viva atbeginning and end, on palm leaves. Length, 19 sides, binds them together.Made in Lucknow. (Lent inches. (Lent by 13. F. M. P. C.) by Stewart Culin.) I 157. Dt~tlojtzntlrj. Hindustani MS. Composed about The custom of telling fortunes with dice is current throughout India, 150 years ago. (Lentby B. F. M. P. C.) where it is regarded as a science, under the name of Ramala, and has 158. I~~sfstlra~sartz-~~~t~.Essence song of Vasïstha.” an extensiveliterature. The dice used in it differ from the para, or Sanskrit MS. Dated dice used in games, and vary in shape and marks in accordance with 1800. the system in which they are employed. 159. Indian picture. Two Sanyasis followed by an attendant, and a palaquin with bearers ascending a moun- 148. RavaZa$ãsa. Model of die used intelling for- tain.Dimensions, 6.5x8.5 inches.(Lent by Mr. John tunes. Original of redsandal-wood, and marked on its T. Morris.) four longersides with I, 2, 3,4, inSanskrit numerals. 160. Indian picture. Krishna showing his mistress Length, 3 inches. (Lentby Stewart Culin.) Rhadathe new moon.Dimensions, 7x9 inches.(Lent 149. RamaZaYäsa. Models of dice used in telling for- by Mr. John T. Morris,) tunes. Originals of red sandal-wood, and marked on their 161. Indian picture.Matsya, the ‘‘ fish avatar, ” res- longer sideswith three, four, five, and sixdots. Set.of cuing Vaivaçvata.Dimensions, 9x11 inches. (Lentby three.Length, 3 inches. (Lentby Stewart Culin.) Mr. John T. Morris.) 150. TuZsi má&. Rosary used in Vishnu andKrishna 162. Sanskrit almanac. MS. written in Jodhpur for the worship, consisting of one hundred and eight black and year corresponding with 1840 A. D.(Lent by B. F. M. fourred beads. (Lent by B. F. M. P. C.) P. C.) 40 RELIGIONS OF INDIA. SECTARIAN BRAHMANISM. 41

163. Prayer to Kali in Bengali.Native imprint. Pages, 171. GANEÇA, with headof an elephant, seated. Brass. 48. (Lentby B. F. M. P. C.) Height, 1.5 inches. (Lent by R. F. M. P. C.) 164. standing.Painted clay figure. Height, CIVA, 18 172. GANEÇA.Fragment of largea idol. Civa is inches. (Giftof the Church of theEpiphany, Philadel- seen on the left. Sulpturedstone, apparently very old. phia. Height, 6 inches. (Lentby B. F. M. P. C.) This figure and the following one are not worshiped, but are kept 173. GANEÇA.Form of small shrine.Child’s toy, in. as ornaments in houses. plaster. Height, 5.25 inches. (Lent by B. F. M. P. C.) 165. ÇNA as DADATAR,with four heads and four arms. 174. Elephant. Marble, paintedand gilded. Height, Paintedclay figure. Height, 18 inches. (Gift of the 1.75 inches. (Lentby B. F. RI. P. C. j Church of the Epiphany, Philadelphia.) 175. Lingaand the Bull, Sandi. Brass. Height, 166. CIVAas DADATAR.Hrass. Height, I.5 inches. 1,375 inches.(Lent by U. F. M. P. C.) (Lent by II. 1:. hl. P. C.) 176. Ju,hz/.V[?j~. ‘(Water worship.” EuIl Nandion pedestal. A snake rises from a tiger’s skinon the bull’s ~Vorsl~ipedin the Southcrn part of India. back. Copper. Height, S.5 inches. (Lentby 13. I;. M. 167. DUKGA,with eight arms holding a trident, a ser- P. C.) pent,a sword, and variousobjects. With onehand she grasps the giant- MahîshBjura. Ather feet is a lion,the ’Ihe bull fol-merly su[y>orted2711 umbrella on which \KI- n small tripod. ‘The latterheld n I)m/enurn x-hich ~v>xsfilleil with water that body of which has been severed. Whitemarble, painted

a sword, and various objects. With her righthand she . ’The linga is a symbolic tigure of thegod Çivn, considered as the grasps thegiant Mahîshâsura. At herfeet is ananimal, creator. In its material form, according to M. L. de Millaué, it repre- thebody of which hasbeen severed. The entire figure, sents simply the stone mortar in which the Soma was pounded, with its includingthe attributes, is painted black, anddecorated pestlestanding in themiddle. In its symbolic form, itrepresents ingold and colors. Marble. Height, 19 inches. (Lent Mahâdeva (Çiva) in the Voni. by B. F. M. P. C.) 178. Linga. Copper. Height, 1.5 inches. [Lentby B. 1;. M. P. C.) Another form of Prithivi, also personifying the destructive principle. 179. Pärthic. Objectrepresenting five eyes of Civa 169. GANEÇA,with head of anelephant, seated.Mar- upona kind of altar,terminating on one sidewith the ble, paintedand gilded. Height, 9.875 inches. (Lent open mouth of a birdor animal. Brass. Height, 1.5 by Mr. John T. Morris.) inches. (Lentby B. F. M. P. C.) 170. GANEÇA,with head of an elephant, seated. Brass. \Vater poured over this object is said to pass through the mouth in Height, 1.875 inches. (Lent by B. F. M. P. C.) rhc solid metal and beconle veritable Ganges River water. 42 RELIGIONS OF INDIA.

180. JaZar$z@. L‘ Water worship.” Bull on pedestaì supporting a lotus flower with movablepetals, which, being released by a screw, reveal a black stone called nar- BUDDHISM. modäsänkara, theLinga. A snakesupports a vase with a ‘The name of Buddhism is given to a great schism which minute hole at the bottom, over the Linga. This recepta- arose amongthe Brahmans toward the close ofthe sev- cle, when filled with water, permits it to fall drop by drop enthcentury before our era,under the ilnpulsion of an onthe stone. Height, 10.5 inches. (Lentby Mr. Johl) ascetic of the tribe of Çâkyas, named Gautama, or as he T. Morris.) is usually called,Huddha Çâkya-Muni, or “the ascetic ,- l his is used only during the four hot months of summer. sage ofthe Giik) as ” (Buddhameaning sage, perfect,

181. Mahâa‘evapju. Çivaworship. Shrine of qiva, awakened,illuminated). Thanks to the purity and Per- consisting of a small car supported by chains from a sup- fection of itsmorality, and, above all,to the great and port which terminates on either side in the back of an ele- entirely new ideas of charity and love for one’s neighbor, phant.The car contains in the centre the Linga, repre- which constituted the basis of its moral teachings, strongly senting Çiva; behind it, Ganeça; on the right, Prithivi ; aided besides bythe powerful eloquence of itsfounder on the left, theserpent, Sosanaga, and in front, the bull and the zeal of its first disciples, this schisnl was rapidly Nandi.The sun and moon andother emblems arealso- transformedinto averitable religion, and extendcd SO prodigiously that at one time it threatened to entirely SUP- containedin the car. Brass. Height, I I inches. (Ident by Stewart Culin.) plant Brahmanism. Thedogmas of Buddhism when considered bythem- 182. Shrine of Civa. Brass. Height, 1.5 inches. (Lent by B. F. M. P. C.) selves, and deprived of the subtleties which surround the 183. Dhzz!ad(ïnz. Incenseburner used intemples and metaphysics of theEast, arevery simple. There is no private houses. Copper.Height, 8 inches. (Lentby creatorand no act of creation.The world is eternal. It B. F. M. P. C.) has existed always and will exist always ; but it passes, by 184. Daman, drum, used inthe worship ofMaha- force of the laws of nature, through four successive periods : deva.Diameter, 7 inches. period of formation,period of development,period of decline, and period of destruction, when, after a time of This drum has two heads coveredwith skin and small objects which rattle within. When in use a cloth is wrapped around it, by whkh it repose in chaos, the eternal succession recommences. Each is held with the hand, with two clappers that strike on either side. of these periods lasts 84,000 years and is called a Kalpa. Thisprinciple Câkya-Muni never discusses. He takes it as an axiom and bases upon it his entire system, even thoughit be absolutely contrary to the theogony and casmogony of the Brahmans. The Buddhistic religion is eternal like the world.AC- cordingly, its empyrean is peopled with thousands of Bud- dhas anterior to Çâkya-Muni, of which we find the names in the sacred books of Northern Buddhism. The writings l ..,.

RUUDHIS31. 45 44 RELIGIONS OF INDIA. 3‘. r; 28. of Ceylon donot mention more than EachKalpa I 2. Pro[z‘uctioian : has its Buddha. Gautama is the third of the actual world, Existence is the product of the passions, the evil desires, we being thusin theKalpa of decline.” and the attachment to material objects, which, acting by Buddhism doesnot explain thenature of the soul. It the intervention of the senses, give birth. to beings. admits, as proved, that its is immortaland distinct from thematerial withwhich it is momentarily associated ; 3. Cfssntion : drawn into the whirlwind of life, it submits to a series of The extinction of the passions, of evil desires, and the

existences under conditions more or less elevated, more or attachmentto material objects destroys the power of the , less happy, determined by the acts of the preceding exist- senses, and they no longer give birth to new beings. Even ence.This is what is called Karma,or consequences of the existence of the sage is ended when Nirvana is opened actions. If the life has been virtuous, the soul is elevated to him. in the scale of beings until it attains the supreme rank of 4. Tlr Road: Buddha; if it has beenguilty, the soul is bornagain in the body of demons, animals, etc., and, in punishment for Revelation of the way or means to arrive at cessation or great crimes, is throwninto the eight hells. Buthell is Nirvana. noteternal. Once having undergone its punishment, the The Buddhas who live in the world are called Up%çakas soul may ascend theranks of beings again, and become -mastersof the house, givers ofalms-for it is bythe re-incamateafter a certain number of animal lives or gifts they make to ascetics as much as by their faith, they others in the body of a man, as a genii, a Bodhisattva, and, gaintheir salvation. The asceticsreceive thename of at last, after its last existence under a human form, enter Crkmânas or Bhikchus. When they are elevated tothe into Nirvana, the external repose and end of all transmi- highest rank in the brotherhood they take that of Arhats. grations. ‘I’he Bodhisattvas are the men who have reached the high- Nirvana is the paradise of the Buddhists. It is nota est degree of sanctity. ‘They arethe aspirant Buddhas. particular place, but rather a state of absolute annihilation A single birth is imposed upon them before their arrival at of the conditions and evils of existence.Those who ob- Nirvana. At thatmoment two ways open before the tainNirvana cannot live again. But notwithstanding,it . faithful. If they will, urged by charityand love of their is not a state of annihilation, for it is pretended by certain neighbor, they not only save themselves, but also aid their authorsand certain sects thatthe Buddhas retain their brothersto arrive at finalsafety, they become perfect personalityin Nirvana,and continue to watchover the Buddhas. welfare of men and the propagation of the faith. If they are content to gain their safety without disturb- The fundamental dogma of Buddhism is comprised in ing themselves aboutother men, theybecome PratySka the fouraphorisms which Çâkya-Muni developed under l l Buddhas. Theyattain Nirvana, but not the power of the the name of TheFour Excellent Truths.” perfect Buddha.Buddhas are thus men become gods, in I. Pain: theacceptance which we attachto that word. Theyare Pain is inseparable from existence, therefore existence is immortals, who plungedinto the meditative ecstasy of an evil. .. Nirvana, and, freedfrom all human miseries and weak- # HU1)DHISM. 47 46 RELIGIONS OF INDIA.

nesses, aid men by the good resolutions and the force of to preserve in all its purity, the teaching of Buddha Câkya- will which theyinspire to free theniselves from all the Muni. The other, the ‘(Mahâyâna School,” the ‘‘ Great bonds of the Samsâra or materialworld. They exercise Vehicle,”or Great Development,” appears tohave been their power throughoutnature ; theyare able by their bornabout the third century beforeour era in Nepaul, good will to modify or suspend its laws, but they are not whence it has been diffused through the north. It is per- always creators. meatedwith metaphysical transcendentalism, mysticism, Abovethe ManushiBuddhas, orthe human Buddhas, ecstasy, and magic. certainBuddhistic sects, notably those of theMahâyâna The Buddhist honks and priests are vowed to chastity, school, place five Dhyâni-Buddhas,or Buddhas of con- poverty,and obedience to their superiors. ’I’hey arefor- templation, imaginary beings, supposed to be eternal, ex- biddento eat Resh ordrink wine or fermentedliquors. isting by themselves before the formation ofthe earth, ‘I’hey are subjected to frequent and severe fasts. Their notwithstanding they are not its creators. They are those occupations consistin chantingthe psalms, readingthe thatinspire the human Buddhas. Amitâbha is the most sacred books, meditating,turning the prayer-wheels, and important of them because of the rôle he plays in the be- accomplishing the daily services of their religion, as well as liefs of Thibet and of China and Japan as the funereal those which accompanybirths, marriages, and funerals. divinity and president of the inferiorparadise of Sukhavâti. ‘I’hey are also astrologers,geomancers, alchemists, and Sometimes they take as theirhead another personality much sometimes they predict the future. grander again, Adi-Buddha, the inspirator of all, but he According to Buddha’s instructions, his disciples propa- is not generally accepted. gated his doctrines over all India, and their success was so Under these divinities is foundathe five Dhyâni-Bodhis- rapid that one hundred and fifty years after the death of attvas, the spiritual sons of the Dhyâni-Buddhas, created Yiikya-Muni, under thereign of King Aqoka, Buddhism by them of their own peculiar essence, to aid them in the reigned master in the peninsula. But with thedeath of difficulttask of directing and protecting the world. The its protector it l~erished from theland. The Jkthmans, bestknown is Avalokiteçvara, thespiritual son of Ami- for a moment reduced to silence, regained the upper hand abha. and organized a series of bloody persecutions, which ended While denying creation, Buddhism does not absolutely in the destruction of Buddhism in India and the disper- suppress the gods. Nearly all the gods and genii of Brah- sion of the faithful over Eastern Asia. At the end of the manism figure in its pantheon, but they regard them as in- sixthcentury A. D. there was not a singleBuddhist in ferior to the Buddhas and Bodhisattvas. theIndian peninsula. It maybe dueto this, as much as Buddhism is dividedinto two great schools,which to its spirit of universitality,that Buddhism owes the are themselves subdivided into a great manysects and sub- immenseextension which it has takenin China, Japan, sects. The first, the ‘‘ Hînayâna School,” or the “Little Thibet, and even in certain islands of the ocean. Vehicle,’ ’ orthe Little Development,” so named from Çâkya-Muni wrote nothing.His instruction was de- the simplicityof its dogmas, prevails in the south of India, livered orally, under the form of teaching or conversation, that is to say, in Ceylon, Burma, and Siam,as there are accordingto the requirements of themoment. His dis- nolonger any Buddhists inIndia proper. They pretend ciples at first followed the same system, and limited them- , ..”. . 48 RELIGIONS OF INDIA. JAINlSM. 49 selves to reporting and commenting upon the instructions 194. Fowls used by Buddhisfpriests. 1,acquered. Siam. of their master, orrecounting certain acts of hislife. (Lent by B. F. hl. P. C.) After that, divergences occurring dailybetween them, they 195. Buddhist scriptures.Ceylon. Written witha felt the necessity of fixing their dogmas in an irrevocable stylus onpalm leaves. Length,about 23 inches. form and assembled in council (Councils of Râja-Grihâ 196. Razors (two) used byBuddhist priests. Hrass, and of Vâiçâlî), they settled upon the definite redaction withwooden handle.I.ength, 6.5 inches. Siam.(Lent of the Buddhist Canon under the three titles: by B. F. M.P. C.) Stitra, or doctrine. The self.denying rules of the priesthood c10 not allow the cxtmva- Endya, or discipline. gancr of srrel. Abkia'kamma, or metaphysics. Thecombination of thesethree parts constitutesthe J.4INIS?tl. Tygitaaka, " the three baskets," the general name given to While a probable date may be assigned to the founda- the sacred books of Buddhism, and which came from their tion of Buddhism, it is not the case with Jainism, concern- having arranged in baskets the leaves of the palms which ing which there are several absolutely contradictory asser- were in time replaced by written paper. tions. Without stopping to speak of the Jains who make 185. ÇAKE'A-MUNI,seated. Wood, carved andgilded. their first prophet live inthe mythological period, there Height, 12 inches.Burma. (Lent by Mrs. William Frish- are four opinions from which to choose : the first attributes muth.) the foundation of the religion to Pârcvanktha, who lived 186. ÇAKYA-MUNI,seated. Marble. Height, 8 inches. inthe ninth century B. C. ; another gives theglory to Burma.(Lent by Mrs. William Frishmuth.) Vardhamâna Mahâvîra, who was thecontemporary and 187. VISHNU,standing. Bronze. Height, 5.75 inches. even the preceptor of Buddha Çâkya-Muni; the third as- Burma. (Lent by Mrs.William Frishmuth.) signs the date to the time of the decline of Buddhism'in 188. HANUMANT,standing. Bronze. Height, 3.5 India-that is to say, the second century B. C. ; and the inches.Burma. (Lentby Mrs. William Frishmuth.) fourth to the second century, 4. D.-that is, at the mo- 189. Sv~t& Small spoon with handlebent at right ment of the ruin of Buddhism. angles, used for burning incense.Copper. Length,about The dogmas of Jainism are in many respects the same as 5 inches.Burma. (Lent by Mrs. William Frishmuth.) those of Buddhism, but they depart from them at many ÇAKYA-MUNI,seated. Composition, coveredwith 190. points. Theyadmit, among others, thedivision of the sheet silver. Height, inches. (Lentby B. M. 3.625 F. people into the four castes, and employ the Brahmans in P. C.) certain duties of their religion. They deny, like the Bud- ÇAMYA-MUNI,seated. Composition. Height, 191. dhists,the creation of the world andthe existence of a inches. (Lentby B. M. C.) 2.75 F. P. creatorgod. The world, forthem also, is eternal,but 192. Bowl, ornamented with Burmese divinities. Ham- instead of passing through the four Kalpas of formation to meredcopper. Height, 7.25 inches. Madein Bombay destruction, they divide its existence into epochs : the first from Burmese example. (Lentby Mr. John T. Morris.) called the " descendingperiod," and the second called 50 RELIGIONS OF INDIA. JAINIShl. i'

the (6 ascending period," each consisting of a fabulous dead. They divide themselves into two great sects, thc number of years. At the end of each period, one district Digambaras, and the Svetambaras, both having the same of the world or the earth is ravaged by fire and tempest in dogmas, although those of the Digambaras are sonlewhat punishment of the crimes of its inhabitants; but the fer- the more severe. tilizing rains render the ravaged continent newly habitable, The sacred books of the Jains are very numerous. The and the population of the parts that were spared come to principal ones are the eleven Algas, which are opposed to repeople the regenerated division. the l/cdas, the U'jan

THE STATE RELIGION. 53

the Srin Kiáu Or three sects.” They do not interfere with each. other, and a man may worship at a Buddhist shrine or join in a Tauist festival while he accepts all the tenets RELIGIONS OF CHINA. of Confucius and worsJlips him on State occasions. The worship ofancestors is never called a kiiu,for __. everybody observes that at home just as much as he obeys China has had three great religions, all of which COII- his parents-it is a duty, not a sect. tinue to the present day and exist somewhat in harmony In order to illustrate some of these concurrent phases of sideby side. Theyare known to us asConfucianism, belief the compiler has concluded this section of the cata- Tauism or Rationalism, and Buddhism. logue with some notes on the religious ceremonies of the The ancient Chinese adored a creator god whom they Chinese in the United States, based upon personal obser- called Shang Tí, and below him an infinite number of sec- vation. ondary gods, of the winds, the stars, the waters, mountains, Christianity, hlohammedism, and Judaism all penetrated etc. In thesixth century before ourera, Confucius, the into China at a conlparatively early time, but the present most noteworthy personage in all Chinese history, edited number of theiradherents is very smallcompared with a work upon the State religion in which the rites, popular that of the other sects. and imperial, to be performed to the superior powers are described. Theseancient rites of which Confucius was the mere recorder,in part asconserved by him, with a THE STATERELIGIOX;. system of moralphilosophy in which man’sduty to his The State religion of China, according to Dr. Williams, fellows was one of the chief objects insisted upon, consti- has had aremarkable historyand antiquity, and thougil tute the elements of what we regardas the first of these modified somewhat during successive dynasties,has re- three great religions. tained its main features during the past 3,000 years. The Tauismor Kationalism had its origin inLáu Tsz’, a prime ideaof this worship is thatthe Emperor is T’ien philosopher whose birth preceded by some fifty years that Tsz’, or “Soll of Heaven,” the co-ordinate with Heaven of the sage Conf~~cius. Itis organized into a regular hier- and Earth, from whom he directly derives his right to rule archy,and in its existing development appears to be a on earth among mankind, the One Man who is their vice- mixture of the metaphysical doctrines of 1,au Tsz’with gerent and the third of the trinity of Heaven, Earth, and the local superstitions. Man. He cannotproperly devolve onany other mortal Buddhism, thethird of the Chinesereligions, was in- his functions of their high priest to offer the oblations on troduced from India. the Altars of Heaven and Earth at Peking at the two sol- In China, according to Dr. S. Wells Williams, there is stices. He is accountable personally to his two snper- no term forreligion in its usual sense. The word kiáu, ordinate powers. Theobjects of theState worship are which means ‘‘ to teach,” or “ doctrine taught,” is applied chiefly things,although persons areincluded. There are to all sects or associations having a creedor ritual, the three grades of sacrifices-the great, medium, and inferior. three sects above described being known pre-eminently as The objects to which thegreat sacrifices are offered are 52 54 RELIGIONS OF CHINA. THESTATE RELIGION. 55

only four, namely,T’ien, the Heavens ; Tí, the Earth ; and last of these are performed on the southern altar, the T’ii Miáu, or thegreat temple of ancestors,wherein secondat the northern. The wintersolstice is thegreat the tabletsof deceased monarchsof this dynasty areplaced‘; day of thisState worship. TheEmperor then goes from and lastly, the Shit. tsih, or gods of land and grain, the his palace the eveningbefore, drawnby an elephant, in specialpatrons of each dynasty. Themedium sacrifices his state car, and escorted by about two thousand grandees, are offered to nine objects-the Sun, the Moon, the manes princes,musicians, andattendants down to the Temple of emperors and kings of former dynasties, Confucius, the of Heaven.The sacrifices consist of calves, hares, deer, ancient patrons of agriculture and silk, the gods of heaven, sheep, and pigs, and offerings of silk, grain, jade, etc. The earth,and the cyclic year. The first six have separate idea is that of a banquet, and when a sacrifice is performed temples erected for their worship at Peking. The inferior to the supreme spirit of Heaven, the honor paid is believed sacrifices are offered to the ancient patron of the healing by the Chinese to be increased by inviting other guests. art,and the innumerable spirits of deceased philan- The worship at the south altar must be at midnight, but thropists, eminent statesmen, martyrs to virtue, etc., clouds, when the spring sacrifice takes place, near the beginning rain, wind, andthunder, the five celebratedmountains, of the year, the time chosen at present is the first glimmer- four seas, and four rivers, famous hills, great watercourses, ing of dawn. flags, triviae ; gods of cannons, gates, queen goddess of Thecharacter of theChinese imperialworship at the earth, the north pde, and many other things. altar of the Earth is substantially the same as at the altar The chief centre of the religious solemnities embraced of Heaven, except that instead of the worship of star gods inthe imperialworship is thealtar of Heaven.This is and the sun and moon, such as are there performed, we in the outer city of Peking, and is distant two nliles from have here that of the spirits of mountains, rivers, and seas. the palace. Thereare two altars, thesouthern, which is The State religion has been corrupted from its ancient called the (‘round hillock,” and the northern, which has simplicity as given in the Shu Kkg and the LiKi. At the upon it a lofty temple, called “temple forprayers for a establishment of each new line of emperors fresh regula- (fruitful) year.’’ tions in regard to sacrifices are enjoined, but it is usual to The personages who assist the Emperor in his worship of follow old precedents to a very large extent. the four superior powers and perform most of the ceremo- 199. Photographs.The Altar and Temple of Heaven. nies belong to the Imperial Clan, and the Board of Rites. (I .) TheNorthern Altar. (2.) TheSouthern Altar. When the Emperor worships Heaven he wears robes of a blue color, so likewise he wears red for the sun, and pale blue for the moon. The services cannot properly be done cular, and ascended by twenty-seven steps. The uppermost of the by a substitute. No priests or women are admitted. three terraces is paved with eighty-one stones, arranged in circles. The temple is ninety-nine Chinese feet in height,.and has a triple roof, with Besides special occasions, such as the establishment of a blue tiles. The two altars, Northern and Southern, with the park that dynasty, the conclusion of a successful military campaign, surrounds them, date from A. D. 1421. or the accession of an emperor, there are three regular ser- ZOO. Photograph.Elephant. One of thestone animals vice each year. Theyare at the wintersolstice, at the on the road to the tomb of one of the emperors of the beginning of spring, and at the summer solstice. The first Ming Dynasty. 56 RELIGIONS OF CHINA. CONFUCIANISM. 51

‘‘ The mausolea of emperors and grandees occupyvast inclosures, laid above and beyond the comprehension of men, and that the * out asparks and adorned with ornamental buildings, to which lead avenues obligations ofman layrather in doing his duty to hisrelatives of stone guardians. The tomb of Yungloh (A.D. 1403-1415) is reached through a dromos of gigantic statues nearly a luilelong-two pairs each and society than in worshiping spirits unknown. Chu Hi of lions, unicorns, elephants, camels, and horses, one erect, the other resolved the few and obscure references to Sháng Ti in the couchant, and six pairs of civil and military officers. Each figurei-; a shu KilzC

201. Photograph. Camel, as above. into the dual powers, the Yang and Yin.” 202. Photograph.Exterior of one of the hling tombs. ‘6 Heatand cold,light and darkness, fire and water, 203. Photograph. Interior of one of the Ming tombs. mind and matter, every agent, power, and substance known .or supposed are regarded as imbued with these princi1)les CONFUCIANISM. which thus form a simple solution for every question. The infinite changes in the universe, the multifornl actions and The word Confucianism, according to Dr: Williams, is reactions of nature and all the varied consequences seen a foreign term and vaguely denotes the belief .of the lite- .and unseen are alike easily explained by this form of cause ratigenerally includingthe State religion. The Chinese and effect this ingenious theory of evolution.” With name for the first of the Sin Kiáu or ‘‘ three sects ” is JU regard to the existence of gods and spirits, Chu Hi af- Kiáu or Sect of the Learned,” commonly called Confu- firmed that sufficient knowledge was not possessed to say cianists by foreigners, because all its members and priests positively that they existed, and he saw no difficult}.in are learned men who venerate the classical writings. It is omittingthe subject altogether. “ His system is also somewhat inappropriate to designate the Ju Kiiu as a re- .silent respecting the immortality of the soul, as well as fu- ligious sect or regard it otherwise than as a conlprehensive ture rewards and punishments.” term for those who adopt the writings of Confucius and ‘L In thus disposing of the existence of supelior powers, Chu Hí and their disciples. The word Ju denotes one of the philosophers do not shut out all intelligent agencies, the literati and was adopted A. D. 1150as an appellation but have instituted a class of sages or pure-minded men of of those who followed the speculations of Chu Hí regard- exalted intelligence, who have been raised up as instructors ing the Tai Kih, or “ Great Extreme.’’ This author’s com- of mankind. The office of these Shing jin, ‘ perfect ments upon the classics and his metaphysical writings have Men ’ or saints is to expound the will of heaven and earth. had a greater influence on his countrymen than any other They were men intuitively wise without instruction.” person except Confucius and Mencius, whose works, indeed, Of all the saints in the calendar of the JU Kihu, Confu- are received according to his explanations. cius is the chief; with him are reckoned the early kings, The remarks of Confucius upon religious subjects were Irao and Shun, with King Wan and his two sons, King very few; he never taught the duty of man to any higher WU and Duke Chau;but China has produced no one power than the head of the State or family, though he sup- since the (6 most holy teacher of ancient times ” whom posed himself commissioned by heaven to restore the doc- ’ his proud disciples are willing to regard as his equal. trines and usages of the ancient kings. He admitted that Confucius, as we call the Sage, was born H. C. 55 I, and he did not understand much about the gods ; that they were died in 479. His name was K’uns Ii’ik His father was 58 KELIGlONS OF CHINA. CONFUCIANISXI. 59 a military officer of the State of Lu (occupying part of the the S/LUKing, or Book of Records ;” the Shi Ki~zg,or modern Province of Shantung). The memory of the phil- ‘6 Book of Poetry ;” the Li Ki, or Bookof Rites ; and osopher was venerated and his teachings were handed ’ the Chm Tsiu, or Springand Autumn Record.”The down after his death by his disciples,. but it was not until authorship, or compilation,rather, of all these books is nearly three hundred years after his decease that recogni- loosely attributed to Confucius. - The C~IITsicc, accord- tion was accorded his memory by Imperial command. In ing to Dr. Legge, is the only one of the five Kin<\?s which A. D. 739 the EmperorHiuen Tsung canonized him as can, with approximation to correctness, be described as of Wan Siuen Wáng, ‘‘ Prince of Illustrious Learning,” his own L‘ making.” since which date he has been recognized as the chief na- The“Four Rooks ” is an abbreviation for “ The tional object of sacrificial honors. At the same time the Books cfthe Four Philosophers.” The first is the Lm subsidiary title of Sien Shing, “ Sage of Antiquity,” was Y//,or ‘6 Digested Conversatiolls,” being occupied chiefly attributed to him by imperial will. In A. D. 1012 with the sayings of Confucius. He is the philosopher to the Emperor Sung Chen Tseùng substituted for thisChí whom it belongs. The second is the Ta Nioh, or “ Great Shing, or most perfect Sage,” which the mandates of ‘‘ Learning,” now comrnonly attributed to Tsallg San,a succeeding sovereigns have confirmed. The designation disciple of the Sage. ‘The third is the C/zzlng Y~LII<<~,or Tsz’ with which Confucius was honored in his lifetime is 6‘ Doctrine of the hlean,” ascribed to K’ungKih, the considered to have been identical with the fourth rank of grandson of Confucius. He is the philosopher of it. The nobility, which had come in his epoch to be applied not fourth contains the works of Mencius. only to the higher functionaries of State, but also to the teachers or Masters,” whowere resorted to as sources of instruction. Holdingthe position of Tá FÚ or high WORSHIP OF ANCESTORS. officer,” his full honorary designation was Tá Fú-tsz’, ‘The worship of ancestors is an unvarying element in the whence he came to be called Kung Fú-tsz’, and this ap- religion of the Chinese, whatever maybe their social or pellation, Latinized by the Jesuit translators, has taken the intellectual conditionor thedevotion they pay toother form by which his name is known in European literature. objects. It is the oldest of all their religious observances For the most part the Chinese, in worshiping Confucius, and underlies all the religions they have adopted. content themselves in erecting a single tablet in his honor ; It is a conspicuous element of the State Religion, and to carve images for thecult of the sage is uncommon. Dr. de Groot has strongly urged that the divinity that is Official Chinese records enumerate one thousand five hun- spoken of in the Shu King as Sháng Tí, “ Supreme Empe- dred and sixty temples dedicated to Confucius in the ex- ror,” who is generally identified with our Supreme Being, amination halls, where he is invariably worshiped. In- is only the patriarch of theancient dynasties, who has cense is burned before his tablet, with that of the God of been identified by the Chinese with Heaven. Many of their Letters, in all school-houses. gods, in fact, maybe regarded as deified ancestors, and The sacred books of Confucianism comprise the Herbert Spencer’s dictumthat Using the phrase ofan- King or the Five Classics, and the Shzi or Four Books. Sz’ cestor-worship in its broadest sense as comprehending all The former comprise the Eh K&, or I‘ Book of Changes;” worship of the dead, be they of the same blood or not, i-

60 OFRELIGIONS CHINA. we conclude that ancestor-worship is the root of every reli- stitutes the pedestal of such tablets as are generally used gion,” finds in the religionsof China the strongest support. in private dwellings. The two other pieces are inserted by Ancestral worship has been sanctified and recommended tenons into a mortise made in the upper side of this block, by Confucius and his school, and, indeed, while Confucius the mortise and tenons fitting loosely, so as to admit of seldom refers to the gods, he constantly insistsupon the being taken apart at pleasure. The two upright pieces are respect and worship due to ancestors. of unequal length. The longer one is placed at the back Taoism has appropriatedthe worship of ancestors, or and terminates on the top in a knob or head which pro- rather it should be said that that religion is an outgrowth jectsin fro;lt from I to 3 inches.The surface of these of the popular faith. A zealous Taoist writer of the second two pieces,which impingeon each other,are planed century before our era, quoted by Dr. de Groot, comments smooth, the front or shorter one being held in its place by uponthe worship of thedead in the followingterms : a small tenon which enters a corresponding mortise on the The services rendered by men to the living are the root underside of theprojecting knob of theother. The and those which are rendered to the dead are the top ; the knob at the top of the tabletis carved with the head of the root and the top are a single body.” Chinese dragon, and the front of the block that forms the The worship of ancestors, too, was compatible with the pedestal with theimage of a fabulous animal,the Lin, reception of Buddhism. Thatfaith with its doctrines of described as the female of theunicorn, which is said to self-renunciation was not in accord with the spirit of Con- flourish only when sages appear. The right and left-hand fucianism, but it won the heart of the Chinese people by sides of the front of the shorter of the upright pieces are its affirmations and fantastic descriptions of a future life. also often engravedwith dragons. Variations exist in the It has instituted masses for the dead and has madeitself iorm of the family tablets as described by Mr. Doolittle, an important if not an essential part of the ancestral cult. as may be seen from an inspectioll of those in this collec- The ancestral tablets used atFuhchau in families, action. cording to Mr. Doolittle, vary from 8 to g inches to about In the central portion of the front piece, in a straight 18 inches in height, and from z inches to 3.5 or 4 inches linebeginning at the top and extending downward, the in width.The best aremade of fragrantwood, parts of name of the reigning dynasty, the title (if he has any) of which are elaborately carved. They consist of three pieces the deceased whom the tablet is designed to commemorate, of wood, one of which serves as a pedestal and the other his ancestral and his given name are engraved, usually in two asupright pieces. Those used inancestral halls, raised characters.Sometimes, however, theinscription is where the representatives of a family clan meetseveral made with black ink, the strip on which the characters are times a year to worship their ancestors, andthe tablets writtenbeing neatly painted or varnished. The name of commemorating ancient sages and worthies placed in tem- the son who erects the tablet is similarly carved or written, ples, are much larger than those used in private houses and but in smaller characters, and is placed a little to the left- are often made of two pieces of wood-a pedestal and a hand side of the bottom of theother characters. In the perpendicular piece. case of a tablet erected by a son in memory of his mother, A block, varying from about 4 to 7 inches long and I the ancestral name of her father-that is, her maiden sur- to 2% inches thick and from z to 3% inches wide, con- name-as well as that of her husband, is putupon the ~~ ~ ~~ ~

62 RELlGlONS 01’ CHINA. WORSHIP OE’ ANCESTORS. 63

tablet. The engraved and letteredportions of the tablet which is designed to hold all the tablets worshilled by a are generally overlaid with gold-leaf. The other portions family or belonging to it, unless they are very numerous, are often left of the natural color of the wood, although or if unable to procure such a niche the tablets are simply sometimes they are painted. The flat surfaces of the two I’laced on a ledge or table. After the third or fifth gene- upright pieces where they impinge upon each other are al- ration has passed away, the tablets which represent it are ways left unpainted. The date of the birth and death of sometimes buried in or near the graves of the persons they the person and the place of the grave are sometimes re- represent, or they may be burned to ashes. corded in black ink in the inner surface of one of the up- The tablets of both kinds are worshiped on fixed times right pieces. or occasions according tocertain established forms. On This tablet represents only one deceased individual, the 1st and 15th of the month candles and incense are either male or female, as the case maybe. The tablets regularlyburned before them, as wellas on all family for the father and themother are alike in form, though festivals, as the recurrence of a birthday of a living mem- they may vary in size. Only one tablet of the above de- ber of the family, the occasion of preparing cards to be scription is allowed to be erected in honor of a father or used for the negotiating for the engagement in marriage mother, and it belongs to the eldest son, and is usually of any member of the family, and on the evening of the kept in hishouse. All the ancestral tablets which belong 29th ofthe Ist month of the year. On the occasion of to the father and mother of a family descend to the eldest joyous events or on the anniversary of thedeath of an son and become his property on their death. When the ancestor whose tablet is among those worshiped, offerings eldest son dies they fall into the hands of his son, if he of meats are also made. On the4th of the 1st month has any. The eldest son, when of adult age and married, and onthe last evening of the year, boiled rice in ad- almost invariably adopts some child of his younger broth- ditionto meats, candles, and incense is presented, and ers or some other relation, if he has no son, in order to at various fixed times and festivals during the year keep up the family name and retain the tablets in his own offerings are made in accordance with prescribed custom. family line. Daughters are not allowed a tablet of either Wherever there is an offering of anything besides can- parent. After marriagethey worship the tabletsbelong- dles and incense it is customary for theadult male ing to their husband’s family. members of the family present to kneel down once be- As long as the sons of a family live together they wor- forethe tablets and bow their head to theearth. In- shipthe tabletserected by the eldest son.When, how- quiriesin regard tohealth and food are also made by ever, the family breaks up and the younger sops receive surviving descendants, onthe anniversary of the death their share of the patrimony, they may erect a tablet, dif- ofan ancestor, by throwing the diviningblocks before ferent, however, in several respects from the one already the tablet. described. Dr. S. Wells Williams, in commenting upon the ances- The ancestral tablet representing a father or mother is tral worship, says : usually worshiped only for three or five generations. Dur- ‘6 There is nothing revolting or cruel connected with ing this period it is preserved in a portable niche or shrine it, buteverything is orderly, kind,and simple, calcu- made in the shape of a house, but only a @W feet square, lated tostrengthen the family relationship,cement the ... .

64 RELIGIONS (>F CHINA. WORSHIP OF ANCESTORS. 65 affection between brothers and sisters, and uphold habits Ist. On the ‘6 opening of the temple,” generally before of filial reverence and obedience. Though the strongest the 3d or 4th day of the Ist month of the new year. motive for this worship arises out of the belief that suc- Pd. On the 4th or 5th day of the Ist month, when they cess in worldly affairs depends upon thesupport circle. given a worship in - to parentalspirits in hades, whowill resent continued 3d. From the I Ith to15th of the 1st monthin the neglect by withholding the,ir blessings, yet, in course of evening. ages, it has influenced Chinese character in promoting 4th. A sacrifice, called a “ vernal sacrifice,” is made to industry and cultivatinghabits of domestic care and the spirits of ancestors sometime during the 2d month. thrift beyond all estimation. ” 5th. About themiddle of the 7th month, when paper Ancestral halls may be divided into twoclasses-those clothing is burned for the dead. in which all the ancestors of families having the same 6th. At the autumnal sacrifice,” sometime in the 8th ancestral name and claiming relationship are worshiped, month. and those in which the ancestors of. aparticular branch of families having the same ancestral name and claim- 204. Ling l’’ai. Ancestral tablet. Tablet of wood, ing relationship are worshiped. Thelatter are called painted white, 2.375 inches wide and g inches high, mor- branch ” ancestral halls andare usually erected by a tised into a wooden pedestal, with similarly mortised side- wealthy family only when the families having an interest pieces with conventional carvings in relief. -4 piece in the general hall are very numerous. This family and that inclines forward, with a bird in relief, is attached to its descendantsretain their interest in thegeneral hall the top of the tablet. The raised surfaces of the carving still, and at the same time have the exclusive.contro1 of at the sides andtop are silvered, while theground is the interests connected with the branch hall which they painted blue and red. Total height, 13.75 inches. The have erected. Ancestral halls differ in size, plan,style tablet bears the following inscription, written in black ink : of finish, and expense. Rules aremade by theproprie- Sien t’ái sz’ Lí Lin fil chishin wei. ‘‘ Spirit-place (or tor at thetime of theirerection in regard to the quali- shrine) of the deceased worthy, I,í Lin.”(Lent by R. fications of those who may have their tablets placed in F. M. P. C.) it, or the sum of money which must bepaid to the 205. Ling P’ai. Ancestral tablet. Similar in every re- funds of the hall bythe particular families to which spect to the preceding, except that two birds instead of the new tablets belong. A permanent fund is established one adorn the top and the conventional ornaments on the bythe family or families who unitein erectingit, at side-piecestake the form of dragons. Width of tablet the time of its construction the profits of which are de- 2.75 ipches. Height, 10.75 inches. Total height, 17 signed to be used in defraying the expenses of worship inches. This tablet bears the following inscription : Sien and sacrifices. Such property is inalienable except by t’ai sz’ Ts’in Kwei chi shin Wei. “ Spirit-place of the de- general consent. ceased worthy,Ts’in Kwei.” (Lentby B. F. M. P. C.) Mr. Doolittle gives a list of five or six yearly occasions 206. Ling P’ai. Ancestral tablet. The uprights con- when worship of the ancestral tablets in the halls at Fuh- ist of two pieces mortised into a pedestal. The longer chau is commonly performed. They are : piece is at the back and is painted black. The shorter is 66 RELIGIONS OF CHINA. TAOISM. 67

painted white and held by a tenon in front of the longer. 209. Ling p’ái. Ancestral tablet. A singleupright Height of longerupright, 7.75 inches ; shorterupright, 9.875 inches in height, mortised intoa pedestal. TotaI 6.125 inches; total height, including pedestal, 9.5 inches. height, 13.125 inches. The face of the tablet bear:’ the The shorter piece bears on its face the following inscrip- following inscription in gilded characters, carved in relief tion : Sien chingsiing Ts’áu Mang-Teh chi shin Wei. on a green ground : ‘6 Spirit-place of the deceased Prime Minister Ts’áu Mang- Hien Teh.” t Sú This tablet is protected by a wooden box with a carved pí k’áu opening in front, 8.625 inches in height. (Lent by B. F. Kwoh LiÍ1 Fan M. P. C.) shí Yen NOTE.-rrh¡S and Xo. 207 were probably inscribed for the collector Liing Ts’ai P’win and not used in the worship of the persons whose names they bear. S11 í kung j Ir fí1 207. Ling P’ai.Ancestral tablet. Theuprights con- jin kiun sist oftwo pieces, the longer 7.75 inches in height and shin the shorter 5.875 inches. The latter fits into the back of we i the longe? tablet and is held in place by a tenon. Both ‘‘ Spirit place of the illustrious ancestors, father and pieces fit into a mortise inthe pedestal. Total height, mother : Fan yen (given name) P’wán (surname) kung fú 8.25 inches. kiun (titles of respect and rank) (and) Liú, Kwoh, Ts’ai The face of thetablet, which is unpainted, bears an (and) Liáng (surnames of his four wives) jú jin (titles of inscription in black ink referring to Yen Sung. The date wives of the seventh rank of officials.) of his birth and death are inscribed on the back of the (Lent by B. F. M. P. C.) same upright. This tablet is protected by a wooden box 1.875 inches in height and is contained in a shrine of un- NOTE-This tablet is from an ancestralhall, and was erected Lo painted dark wood, with two swinging doors, 14.75 a man named Pwán and his four wives. inches in height. The shrine, however, although intended 210. Ling p’ái. Ancestral tablet. Board 12x16 for the purpose of holding such tablets, may not have inches, with traces of red and green paint, carved in relief originally containedit. (Lent by B. F. M. P. C.) with the following inscription in gilded characters : Chin 208. Ling P’ai. Ancestral tablet.A single upright, Mun T’ang sháng lih t’ái tsú sien chi shin Wei. “Spirit 8 inches in height, mortised into a pedestal. The head place of the exalted deceased ancestors of successive gen- of the tablet is carved with the head of adragon, and erations of the Chin Mun T’ang (Ancestral Hall of the two gildeddragons are carved down the sides. In a Chin family). (Lent by B. F. M. P. C.) sunken space between them is the following inscription TAOISM. in gildedletters on a red ground : Liáng shi sien fú p’ei hoh sien mú. Deceased mother of the deceased Taoismoriginally consisted inthe philosophy of Liu father of the Liáng Family.” (Lent by B. F. M. P. C.). Tsz’, which exhorted the search of purity, of tranquillity ~ ~~

68 RELIGIONS 01; CHIYA. ’1’.401SbC. Y 69 of mind, and of virtue as conducive to absorption in the great principle ofTá,, ‘‘ Nature.” These were to be ob- which gives upmuch free mercury when heated. All tainedby the practice of asceticism. It should lead to theTaoists in these ancient times,however, were not immortalityand incorruptibility, since Táu is immortal adepts in alchemy. Many of them preserved in its purity and incorruptible. The doctrine of Taoism gave birth to the doctrine of Liu Tz’, who knew no other road to im- the recluse, who would by renunciation attain an eternal mortalityin Táu than that of moralpurification. These existence absorbed in the first principle of Nature. true ascetics were destined to the rank of cdcstial genii, According to the legends the founder of Taoism him- while the alchemists couldonly attain to the dignity of self passed his liferemote from theworld. His example fr,/-/-estviaZgenii-that is, the immortal beings inhabiting was followed inantiquity by a greatnumber of imita- the unknown countries, aboveall the Kingdom of the Royal tors.Many of them retiredto live in solitude,above Motherof the Kwanlun Mountains. The formerwent all,it is said,in the gorges andcaverns of themoun- to the stars, the moon, the Palace of Jade, or the Palace tains.This was theorigin of the class knownas Sien, of Hidden Purple. The country surrounding the Pole and which word, written with a character coinpounded of the bounded by about fifteen stars formed the inclosure of the Hidden Purple. It is therethat the SupremeDivinity- characterjin, “ man,’’ and shin, ILmountain,” suggests its meaning in its construction. These anchorites were not the Supreme Monarch, the Jade Emperor-of the Taoist all willing, however, to content themselves with the pantheon is enthroned. methodsindicated by thegreat founder of their sect in The Palace of Jade is also called the Palace of Supreme Purity,probably in allusionto the sky,which tothe their searchfor immortality.They employed themselves Y inendeavoring to find the .Philosopher’s Stoneand the l Taoists is the ideal of purity. Elixir of .Life. The ancient alchemists obstinately tried to make gold This search was made everywhere. Theythought to bymeans of the Philosopher’s Stone,and this also fell findthe precious elixirin distant isles, and even in away fromthe doctrine of Liu Tsz’. In effect, this thethird and second centuries before ourera expedi- philosopher, besides purity,had designated repose and tions were sentout to find it, byImperial command. peace as indispensable toabsorption into Th. Onthe The hills and forests were explored for plants and trees, by other hand, they thought the possession of terrestrial felic- means of which they could prepare it. They imagined it ity, and, above all, riches is that which frees from care and W= contained in the willow, the peach, the flag, and the inquietude. cassia. They even mined preciousmaterials from which It is thus seen that the Taoists have peopled their pan- to extract it : jade, jasper, or nephrite, and, above all, that theon with demi-gods, who have attained immortality by which the Chinese call Tán or Tán shá. The last is a red the exercise of wisdom and virtue or by the discovery of mineral, which the alchemists of the third century before the Philosopher’s Stone. Somesooner, some later, re- our era pretended to contain or hide, not only the power ceived theImperial investiture as gods. In the first rank ofprolonging life, but also gold. It is understoodthat of those upon whom this honor fell is the founder of the they thought to find in it the Philosopher’s Stone, since sect himself, whom the Emperor in A. D. 666 canonized as this Tán was probably vermillion or sulphide of mercury, under the title of Great Supreme Emperor of the Obscure First Principle. to RELIGIONS OF CHINA. TAOISM. 71

Before Buddhism came into China, according to Dr. monest subjects in carving and painting in China. There4 Edkins, the mythology of Taoism was somewhat scanty. is also a well-known triad ofsubordinate divinities called San

In carryingout theirconceptions with reference to the Kiun or ‘6 Three Rulers,” between whom and Yuh-hwing genii, the Taoists obtained great help from the Buddhists. Sháng ’Tí are included several of intermediary rank, as the They imagined various regions of the sky, somewhat re- spirit of theearth, the north polestar, thelord of the sembling the successive heavens of the Hindus, and made stars, and other star gods, the ruler of thunder, Kwán Yin, them the residence of the new divinities they chose to add and the spirits of the sun and moon. to their pantheon. In the plan of acomplete Taoist Taoists priests take charge of the temples of the State temple, provision is made for representing all the chief fea- gods of China, but their worship does not constitute a prin- tures of the modern mythology of that region. The apart- cipal part of the liturgical forms of the Chinese religion. ments devoted to the inferior divinities correspond to the These State gods are very numerous, each town and city respective heavens in which they reside, and a certain having its tutelar deity. Such divinities are appointed by number of the gods are selected for representation as speci- the State from among deceased officers of the goyernment mens of the whole. While the deified personages of the and men distinguished for public and private virtues. primitive Chinese religion form the mass of the inhabitants ChangTáu-ling, who is celebrated as one of the of that heaven, theprincipal divinities are Buddhistic. genii, is regarded as thegreat patron of the Taoists. The highest form a trinity called the Sán Tsing, or He is said to have mastered the writings of Láu Tsz’ at the Three Pure Ones,” the third of whom is Lá, Tsz’, and age of seven. Devoting himself wholly tostudy and all of whommay be regarded as manifestations of that meditation he steadfastly declined offers made to. him by personage. The connection of this trinity with the two Emperors, who wished to attract him into the service world is one of instruction and benevolent interference for of the State. His search for the elixir of life was suc- thegood of mankind. The physical superintendence of cessful. The latter years of the mystic’s earthly life were the world is left to inferior divinities, contemplation in spent at amountain called Lung Hi1 Shan, in Kiangsí, Taoism, as in Buddhism, being placed before action. The and it was here that at the age of 123, after compounding Sán Tsing are instructors, while the Shang Tí and the star and swallowing the grand elixir,he ascended to heaven gods, the medical divinities, the gods of the elements, and I to enjoy the bliss of immortality. Before taking leave of the deified hermits are the rulers of the physical universe. earth he bequeathed his secrets to his son, Chang Hêng, Next to the Sán Tsing, Yuh-hwáng Sháng Tí whom they and the traditions’ of his attainments continued to linger identify with Sháng Tí of the Confucian classics, is the about the place ofhis abode until in A. D. 423, one of highest god in the Taoist pantheon.To connect him his sectaries, named K’ouKien-Che was proclaimed as with the human race they have identified him with an an- ‘- ’ his successor in the headship ofthe Taoist fraternityand cestor of the hereditary hierarch of their religion, bearing invested with thetitle of T’ien Sz’ (the preceptor of the family name of Chang. heaven), which was reported to have been conferred upon Among the star gods subordinate to the supreme deity Chang Táu-ling. In A. D. 748, theEmperor confirmed is a trinity known as the gods of happiness, rank, and old the hereditary privileges of the sage’s descendants with the age. The stargods thus designated are among the com- above title, and in 1016,the existing representatives were 72 REIdIGIONS OF CHINA. ’I’AOIdbI-THE EIGHT GENII. 73

enfeoffed with largetracts of land near Lung HÚ Shan. among the gods, The work entitled Túu-teh-kijg-, or the “ Book of the The Mongol emperors were also liberalpatrons of the Excellence of Nature,” the pateruity of which is generally attributed family which have continued until the present day to claim to him, Ilas been the basis of a philosophical system which has always the headship of the Taoist sect. The succession is perpet- exercised a great influence in China, and has given birth to a systematic religionwhich ha> as4milated the elements of existingcults and de- uated, it is said, by the transmigration of the soul of each veloped and molded them in its own fashion. Lhu ’I’d is frequently represented heated 011 a I)uffalo which ia bear- -1 successor of ChangTáu-ling, on his decease, to thebody of some infant of a youthful member of the family, whose ing him toward the hest.

heirship is supernaturally revealed as soon as the miracle 212. LAU ‘Tsz’ (La Ts;:’). Seated, surrounded by the .-. is affected. 9.5 :. :. .. I Eight Genii.Painted earthenware. Height, inches. Onlythe priests of thissect, called Tá, sz’, arere- {Lent by R. F. M. P. C.> garded as its members. They live in temples and small communities with their families, cultivating theground ’THE EIGH‘I’ GENII. attached to their establishments and thus perpetuate their We have seen that the Chinese distinguish two principal body. Many lead a wandering life and derive a precarious kinds of genii : the tr/-r-estia/genii, who live in the solitude livelihood from the sale of charms and medical nostrums. of the mountains and receive the name of Sien, and the crles- 21 I. LAU Tsz’ (Lo TsB’),the founder of the ’Taoist tialgenii, devas, who live in heaven, in the stars. They also system of philosophy, seated upon a buffalo, holding a believe in intermediary species, like those which they call book in his righthand. Bronze. Japan. Height, 5.875 1wnarz genii, who are released from all that is fleshly and inches. (Lent by Admiral E. Y. Macauley, U. S. N.) enjoy perfect peace of mind, without, however, always ’ ;- Láu ‘TsL’,‘1 Old Boy,” is the name by which this personage is gen- possessing immortality. Besides these are the dizinc genii, 1“ erallyknown. He is saidtohave been surnamed Lí, audnamed Rh’. who have acquired immortality and live in the marvelous 4 His history is almostaltogether legendary, but accordingtoMr. May- islands, and the fantom genii, who are deprived ofall ersthe biography given by Sz’má Ts‘iencontains some particulars ., flesh and yet who live neither among men nor among the which may be regarded as perhaps authentic. According to this account genii of the other four classes. , he was keeper of therecords at 1,011, thecapital of theChow dynasty, about the close of the sixth century B. C., and professed an abstraction Among all these geniithere are eight which enjoy from worldly cares, based upon speculations concerning ‘l‘ka and Teh, special consideration among the Taoists. They are spoken

which excited the curiosity of the sage Confucius himself, and led to an of as the Páh Sien or ‘4 Eight Genii,” and their images, interview between them. After a long period of service Láu Tsz’ re- pictures, and emblems are very common inChina as or- tired from his employ, foreseeing the decadence of the house of Chow and betook himself towardthe West. On reaching the fr6ntierpass naments and decorations. the governor of the gate besought him to indite his thoughts, and the I. Chung-líK’iuen (Ch~mg-liK’iitz), the first andgreatest of the .. philu.jopher accordinglyprepared a work in twosections, treating of Eight Genii, is saidto have lived in the Chow dynasty when he attained Tiu and Teh, after committing which ‘to the care of the governor he to possession of theelixir of immortality.Many marvelous particu- disappeared from mortalken. The later mystics improvedupon the larsare narrated concerning his birth and subsequent career, in the current legend by assigning a fabulous antiquity and a miraculous con- course of which he is said to haveencountered the Patriarch of the ception through the influence of a star to Liu Tsz’s birth, alleging him Genii,who revealed to him rhe mystic formula of longevityand the to be theincarnation of asupreme celestial deity. In 666 A. D., he secretof the powder of transmutation and the magic craft. Hisem- wai canoni;.ed by the Emperor, when, for the first time, he was ranked blem is a fan. 74 RELlGIONS Ob’ CHINA. TAOISM-THE EItiHT GENII. 75

Chang (CI,Pltng Ifiuo), the second of the Eight Genii, is said 2. KO dismissed intospace. Unfortunately when six days had expired the to have flourished toward the close ofthe seventh and the middle of the watcher was called away, and when the disembodied spirit returned on (,ighth century. Leading an erratic life he performed wonderfd feats of the evening of the seventh day it found its earthly habitation no longer nccromancy. His constant companion was a white mule which carried vitalized. It thereupon took the first availablerefuge, which was the him thousands of miles in a day, and which, when he halted he folded body of a lame and crippled beggar, whose spirit had at that moment (11’ and hid away in his wallet. \\’hen he again required its services he been exhaled, and in this shape the philosopher continued his existence, spurted water upon the packet from his mouth and thebeast at OnCe re- supportinghis halting footsteps withan iron staff. Hisemblem is a sumed its propershape. He was repeatedlysnmmoned by theEm- pilgrim’s gourd. pwor to court, but he declined every tempting offer. He is represented 6. Hin Siáng Tsz’ (Hom Séwzg Tsz’), the sixth of the Eight Genii, with a bamboo tube, a kind of musical instrument used by the Taoists, according to the legends was the grand nephew of Hán Yü, and an and two rods to heat it, the latter are sometimes placed in this tube, forming his emblem. ardent votary of transcendental study. Lu Tung-pin himself appeared to him in bodyand made him his pupil. Having been carried to .;. I,ü Tong-pin (Li Tb~tg-pan),the third of theEight Genii, is the supernatural peach-tree of the genii, he fell from its branches, and xaid to have been horn in 755 h. L>. He applied himself tostudy and indescending entered upon a state of immortality. His emblem is a attained the second and third literary degrees, after which he was ap- flute. pointed magistrate of a district in northwest af the present province of 7. Lin Ts’ái Ho (,%nt Wo),the seventh of the Eight Genii, Iíwangsi, where he enconntered, it is said, the immortalized Chullg-lí Ts’oi K’iuen, the principal of the Eight Genii, and wa.; instructed by him in was of uncertain sex, but usually reputed as a female. It is said she the mysteries of alchemy and the magic formula of the elixir of life. wandered abroad clad in a tattered gown, with one foot shoeless and the other shod, wearing in summer an inner garment of wadded stuff He expressed a desire to convert his countrymen to the true belief, but \vas preliminarily exposed to ten temptations, all of which he success. and in winter choosing snow and ice for her sleeping-place. Her em- fully overcame, and hereupon he was invehtetl with theformulas of blem is a flower-basket. magic and a sword of supernatural power, with which he traversed the 8. Ho Sien KÚ (Ho SLn K&),the maiden immortal named Ho, the Impire, slaying dragons and ridding the earth of divers kinds of evils eighth of the Eight Genii, is said to have been the. daughter of a man during a period of npward of four hundred years. In the twelfth Gen- living near Canton. Miraculous marks accompanied her birth, and in turytemples were built in hishonor. He is alsocalled I,u, or the her fourteenth year she dreamed a spirit gave her instructions in the I’atriarck IA, under which designation he is worshiped by the fraternity artof obtaining immortality. Shevowed herself to virginity and of barbers. Signalized by the excellence of his writings upon ‘Taoism, passedher life in solitary wanderings among the hills. She was said among which is a commentarynpon the Táu-teh-kbg, heis honored as to have reappeared in A. D. 750, floating upon a cloud Of many Col- a God of Literature,being the third r~îthe (leities thus rle+nnted. ors,and again some yearslater she was revealed to humansight in Hi.; mmldem is a sword. the city of Canton. Her emblem is a lotus-flower.

4. ’l’s’au Kwoh-k’iil ( YS’d A’?d-k‘~t~),the fourth of the Eight Genii, 213. CHUNG-Li K’IUEN,standing, holding a4 fan. repnted to be the son of ‘l’s’in l’in and Ixother of the Empress Ts’áu Glazed earthenware. Canton. Height, 9.5 inches. ‘bent Han. IIis emblem is a pair of castanets. by Stewart Culin.) 5. 1,i T’iehKw&i (Li Tit Kmli), the tifth of theEight Genii, is 214. CHUNG-Lí K’ruEN, standing,holding fan. Glazed snid to have been a man of commanding stature and dignified mien, earthenware. Canton. Height, 6.75 inches. (Lent by who devotedhimielf wholly tothe study of Taoistlore. In this he Mr. C. Leland Harrison.) was instructed by the zage Liu Tsz’ himself, who at times descended to earth and used to summon his pupil to interviews with him in the celes- 215. CHANC; KO, standing. Glazed earthenware. tial spheres. On one hnch occasion the pupil left a disciple of his own Height, 7.25 inches. (Lent by Mr.C. Leland Harrison.) to watch over his material soul, with the command that if after seven 216. CHANGKO. Duplicate ofabove. (Lent by Mr. c. days had expired his spirit did not retnrn the material essence might IJe Leland Harrison.)

Jc ‘TAOISM. 77 76 KELI(;IOPU’Y OF CHINA. 228. Sien, standing. Glazed earthenware. Height, 217. Lu TUNG-PIN,standing, with sword. Glazed 7.125 inches. (Lent by Mr. C. Leland Harrison.) earthenware. Height, 9.75 inches. (Lent by Stewart 229. ‘Sien, standing, holding a casket. Glazed earthen- Culin.) ware. Height, 9.75 inches. (Lent by Stewart Culin.) 2 TS’AUKWOH-K’IU, standing, holding clappers. 18. 230. Sien, standing,holding a fly brush. Glazed Glazed earthenware. Height, IO inches. (Lentby Stew- earthenware. Height, 9.75 inches. (Lent by Stewart art Culin. Culin.) 219. Lí T’IEHKwÁI, seated, holding fan. Glazed 231. Lui Hái Sien, dressed in a blue robe, and holding earthenware. Height, 6.75 inches. (Lent by Mr. C. aloft a kin ts’ien. A Ngau Yi1 is at his side. Glazed Leland Harrison.) earthenware. Height, 14 inches. (Lent by Stewart Culin.) 220. Lí T’IEH Kwh, seated, holding fan. Glazed earthenware. Height, 4.75 inches. (Lent by Stewart This is the personage mho appears on the stage in the Chinese theatre Culin.) and throws handfuls of “ cash ” for the children. 221. Lí T’IEHKwÁI, seated,holding book. Glazed 232. HIUENT’IEN SHAN(: Tí (Un T’inShémg Tai). The Supreme Ruler of the Profoundest Heaven.’’ Some-

222. Lí TIEH KwÁr, seated, holding peach ; on black times called PEHTí. (Pak Zzi), “ The Northern Ruler,” wood pedestal. Carved wood. Height of image, 7 inches. seated, with one foot upon a snake and the other upon a (Lent by Mr. Francis C. Macauley.) tortoise. Wood carved and gilded. Height, 13.5 inches. 223. HAN SIÁNCTsz’, standing, holding flute. Glazed (Lent by B. F. M. P. C.) earthenware. Height, 7 inches. (Lentby Mr. C. Leland Referred to by Dr. S. Wells \Villiams 3s “ the highest Shángti.” The Harrison.) Chinese in the United States regard him as subsidiary to Yuh-hwáng 224. LÁN TS’AIHo, standing, holding basket offlow- Shang Tí. ers. Glazed earthenware. Height, 6.75 inches. (Lent 233. Fur%LUH SHAU SING Ku~ti. “TheStarry Sages by Mr. C. Leland Harrison.) of Happiness, Rankand Old Age.” ’Three agalmatolite 225. Ho SIENKu, standing, holding lotus-flower. images standing, with two attendants of the same material Glazed earthenware. Height, g. 5 inches. (Lent by Stew- standing below the representation of Shau Sing Kung. On darkstone pedestal. Extreme height, 8 inches. (Lent by n, reclining, holding a kin ts’ien, “gold cash,” Mr. Carl Edelheim.) and a Ngau yil (see No. 279). Glazed earthenware. 234. SHAUSING KUNC;,standing, holding peach. A Height, 3.375 inches. (Lent byMr. C. Leland Har- boy stands on his left. Carved wood. Height, 13.875 rison.) inches. (Lent by Mr. Thomas Hockley.) 227. Sien, standing, holdinga tablet inscribed fuh, 235. SHAUSING KUNG, standing. Carved wood. ‘Lhappiness.” A Ngau yu is at his side. Glazed earthen- Height, 9.25 inches. (Lent by Mr. Francis C. ware. Height, 7.375 inches. (Lent by Mr. C. Leland Macauley.) Harrison. 2.36. SHAU SINGKUNG, seated on a carved wood ped- 78 RELIGIONS OF CHINA. T-4OISRl. 79

estal. Carved from gnarledroot. Height, including above all since the present military dy-nasty have occupied the throne. pedestal, 10.5 inches. (Lent byMrs. C. Grant Perry.) He is alsoworshiped by merchants and men of letters. Kwan ‘Ti is 237. SHAUSING KUNG, standing, holding peach. represented with two attendants-one his adopted son Kwan f’ing,who Height, 3.5 inches. Two lionson pedestals accompany- mas his faithful companion until his death, and who usually carrier a square packet representing his official seal, and the other Chau Ts’ong’, ing this image. Agalmatolite. Height, 2.25 inches. (Lent who bears a halberd. by yr. Thomas Hockley.) 242. KWANTí, mountedon a horse. Wood carved 238. LUHSING KUN(:, standing,holding child. and painted. Height, 6 inches. (Lent by B. F. M. P. C.) Agalmatolite image ondark stone pedestal. Height, 14 243. KWANTí, nlounted on a horse. Wood,carved. inches.(Lent by Mr. Carl Edelheim.) Height, 5.75 inches. SHAU SING KUNG, standing, holdinga staff, with 239. 244. KWANTí, seated. Plaster, painted. Height, 5.25 his large straw hathanging on his back. A goatat his inches. (Lent by B. F. M. P. C.) feet. Glazed earthenware. Height, 17 inches. (Lent 245. KWANTí, seated up011 a rock ; his feet bare. by Mrs. E. A. P. De Guerrero.) Wood, carved, painted andgilded. Height, 5.75 inches. 240. SHAWSING KUNG. Image, carved from theroot (Lent by B. F. M. P. C.) of the bamboo, the fibres of the root forming part of his 246. KWAN Tí. Similar to preceding. Plaster, cloak. Height, 11.75 inches. (Collection formerly the painted. Height, 5 inches. (Lent by B. F. M. P. C.) property of Prof. E. D. Cope.) 247. KWAN Tí. Similar to preceding.Plaster, 241. KWAN Tí(Kzmin Tai), the God Kwan, the God of painted. Height, 2.75 inches.(Lent by B. F. M. P. C.) War, mounted on a horse. Wood, carved andpainted. 248. KWANTí, seated in chair.Wood, carved, gilded Height, 7.375 inches. (Lent by B. F. M. P. C.) andpainted. Height, 5.75 inches. (Lent by B. F. X. P. C.) The popular ideas about this god are drawn from a novel entitled KWAN Tí, seated inchair. Plaster, painted. the Sún-kwh-di-ym-i,written inthe Yuen dynasty (A. D. 1280- 249. r368), although founded upon a nearly contemporaneous history. The Height, 4.5 inches. (Lent by B. F. M. P, C.) romance,which is knownas the Histovy of theThree Kingdoms, 250. KWAN P’ING,adopted son of Kwan Tí, one of his dealswith the events immediately succeeding the decadence of the two attendants, holding his official seal. Wood, carved ; house of Han, embracing the period from 168 to A. D. The tale 265 unpainted. ’ Height, 7.75 inches.(Lent by B. F. M. opens with an account of the insurrection of the “ Yellow Caps,” during which Liu Pi, a descendant of the imperial family, entered into a P. C.) solemn compact with Kwan Yú (now the deified KwanTi) and Chang 251. KWANP’ING. Wood,gilded. Height, 9.125 Fi, to aid each other until death in their efforts to uphold the falling inches. (Lent by B. F. M. P. C.) house. The romance is ranked as the first of the works of what are 252. CHAWTS’ONG, one of the two attendants upon called the ten masters, and is the most popular of all Chinese novels. Kwan Tí. Wood, carved and gilded. Height, It is read by every one, and even the comparatively uneducated Chinese 10.5 laborersin the United States are familiar with its stories. Kwan Yú inches.(Lent by B. F. M. P. C.) was canonized in the early part of the twelfth century, under’the title 253. CHAU TS’ONG. Wood, carved andgilded. of ‘l Lord of Fidelity and Generosity,” but it was not until 1594 that he Height, 9 inches. (Lent by B. F. M. P. C.) was formally elevated to the rank of divinity, and received the title of 254, CHAW TS’ONG. Wood, carved and gilded. ’Ci, “ god.” He has been. more and more venerated as the Godof War, Height, 6 inches. (Lent by B. F. M. P. C.) 80 RELIGIONS OF CHINA. TAOISM. 81

255. WAN CH’ANG‘I‘í-KIuN (Man Ch’tung Tai-Kwan), description. He is reputed to have relieved the great Ts’iu Ts’áu of aGod of Literature, seated ona chair. Wood,carved a cerebral disease by means of acupuncture, in the practice of which and painted. Height, 7.25 inches. 1,ent by B. F. M. he was wondrouslyskilled. His festival is on the 18th of the fourth P. C.) - month. This is one of the gods that belong to the category of the State divini- 258. YO? KWÁNG TÁ TI (Yeuk Wong Tái Tai), God ties-thatis to say, those of which the cult is prescribed by imperial of Medicine.’’ Seated image, with black face and body decree,and whic!l areworshiped by theEmperor himself withhis partly covered with acape and skirt of green leaves. mandarins. He is regarded as the first of the Gods of Literature, and Carved wood. Height, 10.25 inches. (Lent by B. F. M. with his colleagues, has a place in the Taoist pantheon. He is universally worshiped by literary men, and is regarded as the arbiter of suc- P. C.) cess atthe literary examinations. He is saidby a Chinese author to 259.. MÁ-TSU-P’o(Md-Tsd-Po), the patroness of sailors, have lived as a man at the time of the Chau dynasty (1122-249 R. C.), seated in a chair. Wood, carved andgilded. Height, and to have existed from other times under different imperial houses. 12.75 inches. (Lent by B. F. M. P. C.) Although he receives honorific titles under different Emperors, it was only in 1314A. D. that he was given the title of Tí, “ divinity.” He This goddess, according to Chinese accounts was born in 742 A. D., is popularly believed to reside in a constellation composed of six stars, during the Tang dynasty. Miracles accompanied her birth and life and forming part of Ursa Major. death. At the age of five years she recited the sacred books in honor 256. KWEISING (lizii Sing), regarded as thefourth of of KwBn Yin. Her four brothers were merchants who navigated the ocean. One night she became insensible and afterward told her par- the five Gods of Literature, standing on a fish. Wood, ents, who had been unable to awaken her, that she had assisted her carved and painted. Height, 14 inches. (Lent by H. F. M. brothers,who were in danger. Some days afterward they arrived at P. C.) home, and told that three days before they had experienced a terrible storm, and that when their boats were separated and about to be de- As his name indicates (Sing meaning ‘‘ star ”), Kwei Sing is a stellar stroyed, a youngwoman had appeared, who seized the ropes and rescued deity. AIthough he is regarded as the fourth of the gods of literature, them. During the Sung dynasty A. D.) two other travelers he ranks close to Wan Ch’áng, the principal godof letters, to whom he (970-1127 by sea were rescued by a woman, who miraculously appeared to them, is said to ict as adjutant or satellite. The Chinese assign him a home and the Emperor, on being informedof the occurrence, raised Má-Tsú- in the Great Rear, in four stars which outline a square, to which they Poto the rank of a goddess. During the present dynasty her rank has givethe name of theBushel.” He is representedunder the form of - been confirmed, and she has rec ’ved many titles, among others that of a man with ahorrible visage, with excrescences like horns on his head, T’ien Hau, or “ Queen of Heaven.”9 She is universally worshiped by and in his right hand, which he holds above his head, is a pencil for sailors, and her image is to be found in a little shrine on every Chinese writing, an emblem of hisdignity as a god of men of Letters. His vessel. She is alsoinvoked by women duringconfinement, and by &cial canonization took place in the year I314 A. D. women who desire offspring. 257. HWAT’o (Wá T’o), seated in a chair and hold- This goddess, like most of the divinities of the highest rank, is ac- ing a bottle. Wood, carved and painted. Height, I I. 25 companied by two attendants named Ká, Ming and Kiáu Ming, who inches. (Lent by B. F. M. P. C.) are called “ Thousand-Mile Eye ” and ‘‘ Favorable-Wind Ear.” A renowned physician of the third century A. D., the Esculapius of 260. MÁ-TSU-P’o,as above. Wood, carved and gilded. China. All that is known of his career is derived from tradition and Height, 10.5 inches. (Lent by B. F. M. P. C.) romance, in which his marvelous skill and attainmentshre widely cele- 261. MÁ-Tsu-P’o, as above. Wood, carved and painted. brated. He is said to have been versed in all tbe sëcrets of Taoism, Height, g inches. (Lent by B. F. C.) and to have been successful in surgical operations of a very marvelous M. P. 82 RELIGIONS OF CHINA. TAOISM. 83 262. MA-Tsu-P’o, as above. Plaster, painted. Height, 270. TsÁu KIUN (T$&Kavala), the Godof the Fur- 7.5 inches. (Lentby B. F. M. P. C.) nace, orthe Kitchen God, seated in a chair.Wood, 263. MÁ-Tsu-P’o, as above. Wood,painted. Height, carved and painted. Height, 8.5 inches. (Lentby 6.5 inches. (Lent by B. F. M. P. C.) B. F. M. P. C.) 264. MA-TSU-P’o, seated. Wood, carvqd, painted This god is said to be found in every Chinese family, and incense and gilded. Height, 6.125 inches. (Lentby B. F. M. and candles regularly burned before it on theIst and 15th of P. C.) each month. At Fuhchau, according to Mr. Doolittle, a piece of 265. TS’IENLí YEN. (Ts’inLi Ngan). Thousand- paper with an inscription referring to the god as the “ruler of the Mile Eye,” one of the two attendants upon Má-Tsú-P’o. lives of the members of the family,” is pasted upon a board and hung up near the furnace, or a picture of the god and goddess represented Plaster, painted. Height, 4.875 inches. (Lent by a5 an old man and an old woman is pasted up on the wall in the same B. F. M. P. C.) place. No images or inscriptions to this god are used by tbe Chinese 266. SHUNFUNG ‘RH. (Shun Fung I). Favorable- in the Eastern cities of the United States, but they burn incense in his WindEar,” the other of the two attendants upon Má- honor when performing religious ceremonies. Tsú-Po. Wood,painted and gilded. Height, inches. The Chinese believe thekitchen god, with the other domestic 5.5 deities, ascends to heaven on the 24th day of the twelfth month to (Lent by B. F. M. P. C.) report the conduct of the family for the current year. A sacrifice of 267. T’u-Tí-KuNG (T’ò-Ti-Kung), theEarth God, meats is accordingly made on the evening of the 23d of the twelfth seated in achair. Wood, carved and painted. Height, month, or of vegetables and fruits on the evening of tbe 24th, it would seem, to make a favorable impression upon him that he might make a I 2.5 inches. (Lent by B. F’. M. P. C.) good report. He is believed to return on the 4th of the first month. It has been suggested that he was originally the God of Fire, espe- This personage is a kind of penates., who is regarded as a god of cially the fires of sacrifices. wealth and happiness, and is universally worshiped by all classes of the population. The worship of the goddess of theearth existed 27 I. TÁ WANG. (TZ Wong.) Great King ” with among the Chinese as among nearly all nations of antiquity, but in the black face, and beard, seated, holding an ingot of gold. religion of the people it has been swallowed up in the worship of the Wood, carved and painted. Height, inches. (Lent Shie, the gods of the Land, the gods of particular places, of which 11.875 T’ú-Ti-Kungis a representative. The attributes of the goddess of by B. F. M. P. C.) wealth and fertility are naturally attributed to him, and he is accord- 272. TÁ WANG. Same as preceding. æWood, carved ingly worshiped as a god of wealth. He is ordinarily represented as and painted. Height, IO inches. (Lent by B. F. M. an old man of very benevolent aspect, seated in a chair, and holding P. C.) a bar of gold in his hand. An image of his wife is frequently placed CH’É KUNG (KG Kung). Gilded image with beside him. 273. horned cap, seated inchair. Carved wood. Height, 8 268. T’u-Ti-P’o, the wife of the Earth God, seated in a inches. (Lent by B. F,. M. P. C.) chair.Wood, carved and painted. Height, 10.75 inches. Regarded as a giver of happiness. (Lent by-B. F. M. P. C.) 274. T’u CHU (T’òC&). ’ (‘Earth Lord.” Seated 269. T’u-Tí-P’o. Similar to above. Wood, carved image holding ingotan of gold. Facepainted and paintedred. Height, 6.75 inches. (Lent by B. F. black and robes gilded. Wood, carved. Height, 8.375 M. P. C.) inches. (Lent by B. F. M. P. C.) 7-

TAOISM. 84 RELIGIONS OF CHINA. 85 fabled to live in the moon. Glazed earthenware. Canton. 275. Wu Ts’hI SHIN (Mò Ts’oi Shan). A‘god of Height, 5.25 inches. (Lentby Stewart Culin.) wealth. Seated image, with black face and colored and gilded robes. Plaster, painted. Height, g inches. (Lent Such flower pots areused to contain a kind of narcissus, called by B. F. P. C.) Shwui sien hwa, which the Chinese in the United States plsnt, so that M. they will be in flower about the time of their New Year. 276. Pw’AN-KU(P’iin Kk). Amythical being alleged by the later compilers of history to be the first develop- 281. Goat, with two kids. Clouds, with sun shining mentout of chaos. Seated, dressed inshort cloak and throughthem overhead. Carved from root of bamboo. skirt of green leaves, holding tablet bearing the represent- Height, 9 inches. (Lent by Mr. Francis C. Macauley.) atives of the Páh Kwá or“Eight Diagrams” on its 282. Shin lau. Shrine, consisting of asmall pent house back. Wood, carved and painted. Height, 7.75 inches- with an inclosure in front, 8.25 inches deep. The interior (Lent by B. F. M. P. C.) shrine has sliding doors. Wood, painted red and gilded. : It is said that when the greatfirst principal had given birth to thetwa Carved dragons in front. Dimensions 23 inches high, primary forms, and these had produced the four secondary figures, the 17 inches wide, and 16.5 inches deep. (Lent by B. F. latter underwent transformations and evolutions, whence the natural ob- M. P. C.) jects depending upon their respective influences came into being. The Intended for Kwan Ti, or Tá Wang, or one of the other Taoist gods. first who came forth to rule the world was named Pw’in KÚ. A Chi- nesewriter declares that Heaven was hisfather and earth his mother, ’ 283. Stand for offerings placed before idols. Carved and he was,consequently, named the ‘‘ Son of Heaven.” The cos- wood, painted red and gilded. Height, 7 inches. (Lent mogonists have improved upon this representationof the first being with marvelousembellishments. In dying,it is said, he gave birth to the by B. F. M. P. C.) existing universe. His breath was transmuted into the wind and the 284. Stand for offerings placed before idols. Carved clouds, his voice into thunder, his left eye into the sun, and his right wood, painted red and blue, and silvered. Height, 5 into the moon, and his bodily frame into the various elements of the inches. (Lent by B. F. M. P. C.) material universe. 285. Stand, with cover, for offerings placed before

277. Wooden tablets painted red with following inscrip- idols. Wood, lacquered. Height, 6.125 inches. (Lent by B. F. P. C.) tions in gilded letters : Wú fang WÚ t’ú lung shin. Ts’ien . M. hau ti chú ts’ái shin. “The Dragon Gods of theFive 286. Ts’ien t’ung. Vases (pair) to hold bamboo tallies. Directions and‘the Five Places. Posterior andAnterior Placed on the altar of the shrine of the Judgment God, Lord of the Place Wealth God.’’ Size, 12.25~17inches. Pewter. Height, 10.5 inches. (Lentby Dr. W. W. (Lent by B. F. M. P. C.) McClure.) 278. Cow-boy, playinga flute, seated upon a cow.. It is believed that Hell (a Buddhist conception) is presided over by Glazed earthenware. Height, 5.5 inches. (Lent by Mrs. theShih Wong, “ TenKings,” each of whom sitin judgment upon John Harrison.) thedead. They are worshiped in large Chinese temples, ten altars 279. Ngoh yú, a crocodile. Glazed earthenware. Can- being erected, over which their pictures are hung, and upon which are ton. Height, 5.5 inches. (Lent by Mr. Thomas Hockley.} arrangedobjects similar to those used byearthly magistrates : Tsien t’ung, vases containing tallies which are thrown down to indlcate the 280. Flower pot form of Chen ch’u, a striped toad, in number of blows to be inflicted, a rack for pencils, and large red and 86 RELIGIONS OF CHINA. TAOISM. 87 black pencils. The implements here exhibited (Nos. to are 286 290) where the water is pure. Cups like this are made as ornaments, and it such as would be used in a small inferior temple. is said, are also used by the wealthy to test the purity of water. 287. Pih kiá. Pencil rack. Used upon altar of Judg- mentGod. (See above.) Pewter. Height, g inches. 298. Silver paper burned as offering in worship. (Lent (Lent by Dr. W. W. McClure.) by B. F. M. P. C.) 288. Chú pih. Vermillion pencil. Used upon altar 298-31 I. Paper money and paper clothes burned in wor- of Judgment God. Length, 8 inches. (Gift of Mrs. ship. Fuhchau.(Gift of Mr. E. W. Thwing.) Cornelius Stevenson.) 312. Model of coffin. Canton. Wood, carved. (Lent by Stewart Culin.) Used to approve decrees, 313. Páh Kwá, ‘(Eight Diagrams.” Plaque of carved 289. Heh pih. Black pencil. Used upon altar of wood with the diagrams inan outercircle on a green Judgment God.Length, 8 inches. (Gift ofMrs. Cor. ground. Inthe middle,the Tai Kíh inblack and red. nelius Stevenson.) Diameter, 6.375 inches. (Lent by B. F. M. P. C.) ‘290.Hiáng lú. Incenseburner, for three incense sticks. Used upon altar of Judgment God. Pewter. Hung up both within and outside of the house to keep away demons, The Páh Kwd OY “E&&Diagyams,” are condinations of broken and Height, g. 25 inches. (Lent by Dr. W. W. McClure.) . . unbrokeu lines, the arrangemenf of which is attributed to Fuh-hí the 291. Hiáng lú. Incenseburner, with inscriptionon fîp? of the Zegendary sowereips of China (represented as reigning side : ‘6 Tá peh kung.” Pewter. Height, 4.75 inches. 2852 B. C.). It is said that Wan Wang, chief of the przncipaZi@ of (Lent by B. F. M. P. C.) Chau, in rr85 B. C., arranged andmuZt$Zied the trigrams whichcom- pose the Pàh Kwá, into 64 hexagrams. The Zatter forms the basis of 292. Chuh t’ái. “ Candlesticks” (pair). To accom- the Yih King or Book Changes. pany No. 291. Pewter. Height, 5.75 inches. (Lentby of B. F. M. P. C.) 314. Páh Kwá. Duplicate of preceding. (Lent by B. 293. Tang sh6. Lampstand. Pewter. Height, F. M. P. C.) 7.25 inches. (Lent by Dr. W. W. McClure.) 315. Páh Kwh. Charm worn by men and women. Card- 294. Tang shú. Pewter. Height, 12.75 inches. (Lent board covered with silk with tassel and cord for sus- by Dr. W. W. McClure.) pension. Diameter, about 2.5 inches. (Lent by B. F. 295. Hiáng kiP. Incenseholders (pair), in form of M. P. C.) lions, on pedestal. Glazed earthenware. Height, 6.5 316-32 I. Amulets (six) of scented wood, powdered and inches. (Lentby Stewart Culin.) compressed. Pierced with silk cord for suspension. Their 296. Hiáng kiá. In form of a lion, on pedestal. White forms are: gold fish, basket offlowers, Kwán Yin, two porcelain. Height, 12.5 inches. (Lent by Mrs. John with the.Páh Kwá, and arectangular medallion. (Lent Harrison.) by B. ‘F. M. P. C.) 297. Si-koh pel. Rhinoceros horn cup. Carved, on 321-328. Eight bronze medals, pierced in middle with carved teakwood base. Height, 4.25 inches. (Lentby square holes. On one side they bear effigies of the Eight Mr. Francis C. Macauley.) Genii with their appropriate emblems, and on the reverse It is believed by the Chinese that the rhinoceros will not drink except the following inscriptions : RELIGIONS OF CHINA. TAOISM. 89 I. Hon Chung-lí Sin. 331. Amulet. Medal, pierced in themiddle with round 2. Chang KO Láu Sin. hole. On one side,Kiá kwán tsun luh, ‘I Rise in office 3. Lü Tung-pin Sin. and enjoy prosperity,” and representations of a whale 4. Ts’áu Kwoh-k’iú Sin. spouting, a cake of ink, a rhinoceros horn, a monkey and 5. Lí T’ít Kwái Sin. other objects. Reverse like No. 329. Bronze. Size 37. 6. Hán Siáng Tsz’ Sin. (Lent by B. F. M. P. C.) 7. Lán Ts’ái Ho Sin. 332. Amulet. Medal, pierced in the middle with round 8. Ho Sien KÚ Shi. hole. Onone side, thePáh kwá orEight Diagrams,” Size zz*. (Lentby B. F. M. P. C.) with the characters for the names appliedto them as follows: K’ien, túi, kw’an, lí, sieuen, chan,kan, kán. 329. Amulet. Medal, pierced in middle with round hole. Reverse, an invocationto T’ái Láu Kiun (Lá, Tsz’). Onone side, representation of Chang T’ien Sz’ with Brass.Size 31. (Lentby Stewart Culin.) demons that are fleeing before him, and above, his name, 333. Amulet. Same as preceding. Brass. Size, 28. Chang T’ien Sz’, on a tablet. Reverse, in 12 divisions of (Lent by B. F. M. P. C.) an inner circle, the ‘6 Twelve Branches ” (or Duodenery 334. Amulet. Medal, pierced inmiddle with round Cycle of Symbols), and in an outer circle the 12 animals hole. Onone side, inscription, Wan Sing káucháu- of the Duodenery Cycle. Bronze. Size, 47. (Lent by Wan Sing’s lofty assistance,” and three stars, and repre- Stewart Culin.) sentation of Kwei Sing (Wan Sing) the God of Literature Said to have been dug from a grave near Shanghai. (No. 250). Reverse, Chwang yuen kih tì-‘‘Arrivi% at Mr. Dooliitle states that at Fuhchau“ a kind of charm, usually round degree of Chwang yuen.” Wú tsz’ tang ko-(‘ Five sons and about 2 inches in diameter, and made out of brass or iron, usually called ‘6 warding off evil cash,” is of great use among children, being suspended from their necks or from button-holes. Usually both sides have an inscription upon ¿hem of characters, or scrolls, .or images of 335. Amulet. Medal, pierced inmiddle with round persons or things. The characters, of course, are propitious, as “hap- hole. On oneside, representation of a god or sage, a piness,” ‘(wealth and office,”or they refer directly to expelling the spider, and a Ngoh yú (No. z7g), and the inscription : evil spirits, or warding off bad influences. Sometimes the 12 animals which denote the horary characters used in reckoning time among the K’Ü sié kiang fuh-(( Expelling what is noxious, and cause Chinese, occupy one side, or the“eight diagrams,” or the“five the descent of happiness.” Reverse, a Ngoh yú, tiger, poisons.” (See No. 335.) spider, snake, and lizard. Brass.Size, 27. (Lent by B. 330. Amulet. Medal, pierced in the middle with round F. M. P. C.) hole. Onone side, effigyof an old man with an aure- 336. Amulet. Medal, with pierced ornament at top for ole about his head, seated under a tree, with a crane beside suspension. On one side, a representation of Shau Sing him. Another figure stands as if making obeisance tb him. Kung, a deer, a spider, and the character, Fuh, ‘(happi- Reverse like preceding. Bronze. Size, 42. (Lent.by B. ness.” Reverse, inscription : Fuh shau shwáng tsiuen. F. M. P. C.) Wú tsz’ tang ko-“ Happy long life, doubly completed. Five sons becoming graduates.” Brass. Size, 25. (Lent *The size of these and the following medals is indicated according to the American Scale, in 16th~of an inch. by B. F. M. P. C.) TAOISM. 91 90 RELIGIONS OF CHINA. winged dragon in open relief. Bronze. Size, 35. (Lent 337. Amulet. Medal, pierced in the middle with square by B. F. M. P. C.) hole. On oneside a representation of Shau Sing Kung, 345. Amulet. Medal, with square hole in the middle. On standing, and seven stars (the Dipper). Reverse, blank. one side representations of a serpent, a tortoise, a sword, Brass. Size, 25. (Lent by Stewart Culin.) and seven stars. Reverse, an inscription in the seal char- 338. Amulet. Medal, pierced in the middle with round acter. Bronze. Size 20. (Lent byB. F. M. P. C.) hole. On one side, representations of Shau Sing Kung,seven 346. Amulet. Medalsimilar to preceding. Size 20. stars, a tortoise, and several undistinguishable objects. (Lent by B. F. M. P. C.) Reverse, symbols of the 1‘ Twelve Branches,” and, inclosed 347. Amulet. Bell-shaped plaque, with ring at top for in circles, the 12 animals of the Duodenary Cycle. suspension. On one side, at top a cock (?) in a circle, with Bronze. Size, 38. (Lentby B. F. M. P. C.) the effigy of some personage below. Reverse, a magical 339. Amulet. Medal, pierced in the middle with round inscription. Bronze. Length, 2 inches. (Lent by B. F. hole. On one side symbols of the Twelve Branches,” M. P. C.) and, inclosed in circles, the 12 animals of the Duodenary 348. Amulet in form of a small bell. Bronze. Height, Cycle, Reverse, blank. Bronze. Size, 32. (Lentby 2 inches. (Lent by B. F. M. P. C.) B F. M. P. C.) 349. Ts’ien kien,c‘money sword.” Made of ancient 340. Amulet. Medal, pierced in the middle with round ts’ien, brass “cash, ’ strung oniron rods to represent a hole. Onone side, 18 different forms of Shau, l‘ long sword. Length,about 24 inches. life,” in seal character. Reverse, 18 forms of Fuh, “ hap- Regarded as a charm to keep away or tranquilize kwei ‘‘ demons.” piness,” .in seal character. Brass. Size, 26. (Lentby B. F. M. P. C.) 350. Amulet. Heart-shaped plaque of bronze, orna- ’ 341. Amulet. Medal, pierced in the middle with square mented on one side with a conventional form of the char- hole. Onone side is inscribedPeh luh, One hun- acter Shau, (( longevity,” surrounded by five bats in relief. dred prosperities,” and on the other, Fanch’áng, ‘(Abund- Reverse, an inscription in Chinese characters, and a ant riches.” Brass. Size, 32. (Lentby Stewart Culin.) branch with leaves surrounded by birds, also in relief. 342. Amulet. Medal, pierced inthe middle with round Seven strings of Corean cash,” held together by silk tapes hole. On one side, four characters: Changsang páu depend from rings on one face and the edge of the plaque. ming, 6‘ Long life, protected fortune.” Reverse, repre- The plaque, as well as the cash,” is decorated with blue, sentations of two persons, a rabbit standing beside a plant red, and green paint. Greatest diameter of plaque, 3.75 inclosed in acircle, and seven stars. Brass. Size, 39- inches. Corea. (Lent by B. F. M. P. C.) 35 I. Lo kang. Compass used by geomancers. Wood. 343. Amulet. Medal, pierced in the middle.with round Diameter, 6.25 inches. (Lent by B. F. M. P. C.) hole, and ornamented with two dragons in open relief. This consists of a disc of wood in the centre of which is a small Bronze. Size, 40. (Lent by B. F. M. P. C.) circular cavity containing a magnetic needle covered with glass. 344. Amulet. Medal, pierced in theiniddle with round Around the needle are eighteen concentric circles of different sizes. The first contains the eight kwá. In the seventeen other circumferential a hole, and ornamented with a K’í-lin (unicorn) and rings which are divided into unequal segments, are the characters indi-

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CHINESE BUDDHISM. 92 RELIGIONS OF CHINA. 93 Fating the cyclical animals, the planets, the stars, the forces of nature, Yang and Yin, the elements, the dwellings of the good genii, and of demons,~etc. It is by means of this implement the geomancer deter- CHINESE BUDDHISM. mines a favorable place for building a house or constructing a tomb. Buddhism was introduced into China, it is said, in the 352. Lo kang. Wood, lacquered with gilt lettering. middle of the second century before ourera, by the Tonquin, China.Diameter, 8 inches. (Lent by Mr. Hindu Buddhists, whofled from the persecution of the Thomas Hockley.) Brahmans. At first it waswell received, but it soon ex- 353-357. FÚ luh. Charms (five), printed on yellow cited the jealousy of the Confucianists and Taoists, and paper, as follows: disappeared before their persecutions. The missionaries were not discouraged, and renewed theirattempts. The I. Personage with sword with one foot upon a demon. An attendant accounts of the introduction and earlyhistory of Bud- holds an umbrella. On one side above : K’Ü sié sih fuh, “ Expel what dhismin Chinaare somewhat conflicting.According to is noxious and bestow happiness.” On the other: Ngán jin li wuh, Japanese records, related by Mr. Bunyiu Nanjio, in the ‘‘ Tranquilize men and nourish creatures ” as 2. Winged tiger standing upon flaming wheel, and holding the Páh reign of the Emperor Ming of the Latter Han dynasty, in Kwá. Above a seal, and on one side of it Tsih sing, “seven stars,” 67 A. D., two Indian priests, Kâsayapa Mâtanga and with seven stars below; on the other, Peh tau, “ Northern Bushel ” Dharmaraksha (?), bringing with them an image of Bud- (the Dipper), and below a measure of capacity (tau). dha and some sacred books, arrived in the capital of China. 3. Chang T’ien Sz’, seated upon a tiger, and holding a sword. Above the Páh Kwá, on one side of which is Ngán jin lí whh, and on the This was the first time, he says, that Buddhism was known

other, Chin tseh k’ü sié, “ Protect the house and expel what is noxious.” in the Far East. 4. Chang Tien Sz’ holding a kind of sceptre on which are seven Duringthe period of theLatter or Eastern Han Dy- stars, and a sword, inclosed in a circle surrounded by the Páh Kwá, be- nasty (25-220 A. D.), and of the Three Kingdoms (220- tween the eight diagrams of which are the following characters : T’ien, A. D.),it was not yet very flourishing. After the Shwui, Shán, Lui, Fung, Ho, Ti, Lo. Below, Lui Kung, the Thunderer, 265 a beaked and winged personage, holding a mace in one hand and a Western Tsin (265-316 A. D.), or the Eastern Tsin (317- thunderbolt in the other, riding upon a dragon, with lightnings around. 420 A. D.) the scholars of the Tr@itaka came to China Charm against thunder, pasted up on the 5th of the fifth month. . from India, one afteranother, and translated the sacred 5. The name of Hiuen T’ien Sháng Tí, “ The Supreme Ruler of the books into Chinese. Mr. Nanjio gives an account of Profoundest Heaven (No. 232), with petitionsfor protection. A sword, thirteen Buddhist sects in China whichwere founded in with a serpent twisted around it is in the lower middle of .the sheet. China between the fourth and eighth centuries A. D., and Fuhchau. Size, 7.5~13.~inches to 8x14 inches. (Gift existed up to the time of the Sung Dynasty, 1280 A. D. of Mr. E. W. Thwing.) Since then, he says, there has been added one more sect, 358. Physiognomist’s chart. Paper. Size, 6.75~10.75 namely, the doctrines of Lamaism of Thibet. There are inches. (Lent by Stewart Culin.) two great divisions of Buddhism inChina at present, the Blue Robe sect and the Yellow Robe sect. The former Physiognomy, known as siáng fáh, is practiced by fortune tellers in consists of the priests of the old Chinese sects. In conclu- China, has a considerable literature and is regarded as a respectable method of divination. The various parts of the head and face are each sion, he says the Chinese Buddhists seem to unite all differ- supposed to furnish indications for certain periods in life. ent sects to make one harmonious sect. I 8’ CHINESE BUDDHISM. 94 RELIGIONS OF CHINA. 95 sisters beingkept up by purchase and self-consecration. Chinese Buddhism belongs the Mahâyana school, or &e The feet of girl children bought young are not bandaged. 6‘ GreatVehicle,” also popularly known as Northern The Buddhist temples present much uniformity in their Buddhism. It does not differ from Indian Buddhism ex- arrangement. One sees, onentering, four colossal statues cept in certain points of little importance, borrowed from of the Four Great Kings, who are supposed to govern the local customs, and in itsassimilation of some of the popular continents, on each side of Mount Sumeru. Opposite the Vmperstitions and divinities of China. Exclusive of Lama- door is a shrine containing an image of Maitreya Buddha, ism, it is divided into five principal sects, the issue of dif- and images of Kwan Tí, the God of War, and of Wei-to, a ferent Hindu schools, and which do not differ among them- general under the FourKings, areoften seen near theshrine. selves except in theinterpretation of certainpoints of Going behinda screen, the next great hall contains an doctrine, or by the choice of the books which they have image of Çâkya-Muni sitting on a lotus flower, with smaller by preference adopted. statues of Ananda and Kas’yapa Buddha on his sides. In The Buddhist priests, according to Dr. S. Wells Wil- this hall are other images or pictures oi the 18 Arhans, liams, are much more numerous than those of Taoism. deified missionaries, who propagated the faithearly in The worship of ancestors and of good and evil spirits sup- China. Inthe rear of this is represented some form of posed to pervade and rule this world was compatible with Kwán Yin, the popular idol of the sects. In large temples the reception of Buddhism, and its priests have gradually the 500 Arhans, placed on as many seats, each having a become thehigh priests of the popular religion. They distinguishingattribute, fill a large hall. Besides these, propagated their doctrines principally by books and tracts, occur the disciples of Buddha listening to his teachings, rather than by collecting schools or disciples intheir the horrible punishment of hell, and various honored dei- temples. They takea vow of celibacy, and dwell to- ties, sages, and local gods, so that few temples are alike in gether for mutual assistance in attaining perfection. They all respects. In all of them are guest chambers of various shave the entire head, and profess to eat no animal food, sizes, refectories; study-rooms, and cloisters, according to wear no skin or woolen garments, and get their living by the wants and resources of the fraternity.According to begging, by the alms of worshipers, and the cultivation of Dr. Williams, the hold of the Buddhist priesthood upon the grounds of the temple. Much of theirsupport is de- . the mass of Chinese consists far more in the position they rived from the sale of incense sticks, gilt paper, and can- occupy in relation to the rites performed in honor of the dles, and for fees for services at funerals. Their large dead than in their tenets. monasteries contain extensive libraries, and aportion of In Thibet and Eastern Mongolia there has been devel- the fraternityare well acquainted with letters, although opeda peculiar form of Buddhism, called Lamaism. It most of them are ignorant of their own books. Thepriest- was founded in thefourteenth century of our era, by hood is perpetuated mostly by children given by parents, Thsong-Kappa,a Thibetan priest. Its seat is at Lhassa, who have vowed to do so in their distress, and by others the capital of Thibet and the residence of the Dalaï-Lama, purchased for serving in large monasteries. Persons oc- the head of the religion. The Dalaï-Lami is considered casionally enter late in life, weary of the vexations of the as a perpetual incarnation of Çâkya-Muni. He is called world. Nunneries also exist, the succession among the the ‘‘ LivingBuddha.” Lamaism is remarkable for its f CHINESE BUDDHISM. 96 RELIGIONS OF CHINA. 97 361. Buddhist idol(unidentified). Seated image. monastical orgaa‘:zation, otherwise it exactly follows the 0- dogmas of the Mahâyana school, and gives a great place to Wood, gilded. Height, 13.5 inches. (Lent by B. F. magic, mysticism, and divination. M. P. C.) The Chinese employ translations of all the sacred books 362. Pu-T-~I(Pd-toi), with his sack. Wood, gilded. of Indian Buddhism. They also have a greater number of Height, 6.5 inches. (Lent by B. F. M. P. C.) commentaries, written by their philosophers and thepriests “ Generally understood to he a Chinese priest of the 10th century, who founded the religion. The sacred books of Thibet celebrated for his fatness, his love of children, and especially, for always carrying a large cloth bag, from which his name is derived. He has are brought together in two great collections : the KantEjzlr long been worshiped in China, where he is regarded as an incarnation composed of 108 works, and the Tan$ur, which contains ofMAltrêya, the Buddha of the future, the Messiah of the coming 220. age.” 363. PU-TAIwith his sack, holding rosary. Glazed 359. O-Mí-T’O-FUH (O-ni-t’o-Fat). Amida Buddha, pottery,Canton. Height, 6 inches. (Lent by Mrs. seated. Wood, kilded.Height, 10.375 inches. (Lent William Frishmuth.) by B. F. M. P. C.) 364. MUH-LIEN(M2-Zh) seated, holding cupin one Amida was originally regarded as impersonal, as the ideal of bound- hand.Wood, gilded. Height, 8.75 inches. (Lent by less light. According to Dr. Eitel (Handbookfor the Student of Chinese B. F. M. P. C.) Buddhism), it is natural,in the absence of authentic information One of the greatest disciples of @kya-Muni, called “the disciple of as tothe origin of thisdogma to suppose that it may have the left hand.” Especially noted through his magical powers. His ! been originated by Persian or Gnostic ideas, influencing the Bud- Sanskrit name is MahãmáudgalyAna. dhism of Cashmere andNepaul, for it must have been from one of these countries that the dogma of Amida reached China (via 365. Ho Shang, ‘‘ Buddhist priest,” holding rosary, , Thibet). There are some confused traditions as regards to the antece- seated on pedestal. Algalmatolite. Height, 4.25 inches. dents of Amida. According to the teachings of the Mahayana school, (Lent by Mrs. William Frishmuth.) he is lwked upon as being the celestial reflex of ‘ÇAkya-Muni ; and as 366. having by dint of contemplation produced a spiritual son, the Bodhis- KW~NYíN (Klin Yam), seated on lotus, holding a sattva Padma Pani (i. e., Avalôkitêçvara). The Nepaulese doctrine of a child.White ‘porcelain. Height, Ir.5 inches. (Lent primordial Buddha (Adi Buddha), having procreated Amida, has not. by Dr. Francis W. Lewis.) been adopted by Chinese Buddhism. This goddess is generally considered in China as holding the fint ‘6 The doctrine of Amida and his paradise in theWestern Heavens is, rank in the Buddhist pantheon, and of all the foreign divinities, is the strictly speaking, no contradiction to the doctrine of Nirvana, for it one whose worship is most widely extended over the vast empire. Her does not interrupt the circle of transmigration, though it offers to the name Kwán Yin, “ contemplating sounds ”-i. C., hearing prayers, is a devotee of Amida aeons of rest. But the popular mind understands his mistaken translation of theSanskrit AvalGkitêçvara, which literally paradise to lie beyond the circle of metempsychosis, and the common means “ down looking sovereign.” A great number of honorific titles people practically look upon this pure Land in the West in exactly the are given to her, as Bodhisattva ; Káu Wáng, “ August King ;” Peh same light as theChristian looks upon his promised rest in heaven.” I TB Sz’, ‘‘ White-robed Great Mistress.” As the last Kwh Yin is represented with a child on one arm and worshiped by people desiring O-Mi-T’o-FuH, 360. Amida Buddha, seated on pedestal. progeny. She is also called Tá Ts’z’ Tá Pi “ Great Mercy and Benev- Wood,painted. Height, 8 inches. (Lent by B. F. M. olence,” and Ts’ien Shau Ts’ien Yen “ Thousand Arms and Thou- P. C.) sand Eyes.” ~ .. - ~ - - I .- -. F

(l?, CHINESEBUDDHISM. 98 ’ RELIGIONS OF CHINA. 99 The origin of the dogma is doubtful as neither Brahmanism or South- buds, a paroquet on her left, and a vase on her right. ern Buddhismallude to it. No Sutra of the North prior to the Sad-- Wood, painted andgilded. Height, 14.25 inches. (Lent dharma pundarika (A. D. 300,) mentions it. The latter identifies Av- by B. F. M. P. C.) alakiteçvara with Kwán Yin, and the chapter it devotes to the subject is the principal classic with the Chinese devotees of Kwán Tin. In his 373. KWÁNYíN, seated on a lotus. Wood, painted and originalmythology, Avalakiteçvara had exclusivelymale attributes, gilded. Height, 6.75 inches. (Lent by B. F. M. P. C.) but Kwán Yin, among the Chinese is considered almost without excep- 374. KWÁN YIN, seated. Wood, carved and gilded. tionas afemale divinity. The Chinesefurnish alegendary biog- Height, 5 inches. (Lent by Dr. William Pepper.) raphy of the goddess in which Taoist and Buddhist elements are inter- 375. KWÁN YIN, seated on lotus, abird in her left mingled. Theymake her the daughter of aking and queen who lived ’ inthe 26thcentury before our era. Her namewas Miáu Shen. She and a vase in her right.White porcelain. Height, 5.25 refused to marry, and at last retired to amonastery to live in .seclusion. inches. Condemned to death for her contumacy by her father, she was miracu- 376. KWÁN YíN, same as above. (Lent by R. F. M. lously restored to life and bythe intervention of Sakya-Muni, whorame P. C.) to her on a cloud, she was carried on the back of a tiger to the island 37 7. KWÁNYIN, same as above. (Lent by B. F. M. P. C.) of Phi ‘Yo, whereshe lived nine years and was reconciled toher parents. It is urged that Kwán Yin existed as a divinity in China be- 378. KWÁNYíN, same as above. (Lent by Mrs. John fore the introduction of Buddhism in China, and it is probable that she Harrison). was anative goddess around whom Buddhistic legends have been 379. KWÁN YIN, riding onastork. Wood, carved, woven. painted,and gilded. Height, 5.5 inches. (Lent byMrs. 367. KWÁNYíN seated upon a bird and holding a kind William Frishmuth.) of sceptre called ju í. Porcelain,painted in colors. 380. KWÁNYíN, seated on lotus, holding book. Glazed Height, 14.5 inches. (Lent by grs. John Harrison.) pottery. Canton.Height, 6.75 inches. (Lent by Stewart 368. KWÁNYIN, seated upon a lotus, with IO arms hold- Culin.) ing various emblems;the upper ones onthe right and 381. Ex-voto. A block carved to simulate a lotus, with left, discs inscribed respectively Yang and Yin. White a partially legible inscription on the top. Wood, painted porcelain. Height, 10.5 inches. (Lentby Mrs. John red and gilded. Height, 4.75 inches. (Lentby B. F. Harrison.) M. P. C.) 369. KWÁN YíN, seated on lotus, holding achild. 382. Templestandard. Fish, transfixed upon a kind White porcelain. Height, 9.5 inches. (Lent by B. F. M. of spear, with what appears to be the emblem of one of the P. C.) Eight Genii. Used in Buddhist temples in Canton. Brass. Height, 26.5 inches. (Lent by Mr. HenryPettit.) Thereare thosewho see in the infant the image of heryoung 383. Fuh-shwo O-mi-t’o king. “Buddhist Amida disciple, Shen Ts’Bi. Classic.” Dated, 1820. Illustrated with pictures of 370. KWÁN.Yh, seated, holding a child. Wood, Buddhas. (Lent by Stewart Culin.) painted. Height, 6.5 inches. (Lent by B. F. M. P. C.) 384. Shih-pah tsz. The 108 beads.” Rosaries (two) 371. KWÁNYIN, standingon pedestal. White porce- used by Buddhist priests. Wood. (Lent by B. F. M. P. C.) lain. Height, 13 inches. (Lent by B. F. M. P. C.) 385. Amulet. Rectangular tablet, with pierced orna- 372. KWÁNYIN, seated on a rock, supported by lotus ment at top for suspension. On one side, O mí t’o Fuh; ~ .* F l IO0 RELIGIONS OF CHINA. THIEETAN BUDDHISM. IO1 ‘‘ AmidaBuddha.” Reverse, Tsíangkiun tsien. Brass. P Lion with ball,on pedestal. White porcelain. 395. Length, 2.375 inches. (Lentby B. F. M. P. C.) Height, 4.75 inches. (Lent by Mrs. John Harrison.) Worn by children. 396. Lion. Glazed pottery. Canton.Height, 4.75 inches. (Lent byMr. Thomas Hockley.) 386. Photograph. The twin pagodas at Suchau. (Lent 397. Lion.Porcelain, green glaze. Height, 3 inches. by Stewart Culin.) (Lent by Mr. Carl Edelheim.) 387. Photograph. Pagoda. (Lentby Stewart Culin.) 398. Lion with ball. Bronze. Height, 3. I 25 inches. 388. Photograph. Pagoda. (Lentby Stewart Culin.) 399. OD-PAG-MED(Sanskrit Amitabha), seated upon a 389. Photograph.Kin Shan, Golden Mount,’’ an pedestal. Bronze, gilded.Height, IO inches. (Lent island in the Yangtsz’ kiang, near the mouth of the Grand by Dr. Francis W. Lewis.) Canal. (Lentby Stewart Culin.) This consists of a single rock rising out of the water, of about half a THIBETANBUDDHISM. mile in circumference,and is oneof the finest sanctuaries of Buddhism. Here was formerly the summer residence of the emperors, when Nan- 400. Prayer Cylinder. Brass, with bamboo handle. king was thecapital. It is splendidlyadorned with a pagoda, and Length 10.5 inches. Purchased in Darjeeling. (Loaned there are numerous pavilions and halls on its sides and at the base, by Mr. John T. Morris.) many of themshowing their imperial ownership by the yellow or green tiling. It swarms with Kuddhist priests, bat has not a single fe- The cylinder contains prayers printed on strips of paper in Thibetan male occupant. characters. 390. Photograph. Dagoba inthe T’ien-ling-sz’, Celes- 401. Prayercylinder. Brass, with bamboo handle. tial Influence Temple, lying west of Peking. (Lentby Length, IO inches. (Loaned by B. F. M. P. C.) Stewart Culin.) 402. Prayer cylinder. Silver, with bamboo handie. Length, about 9.5 inches. (Lent by Dr.Edward H. This monumentwas erected in the Sui dynasty,about A. D. 600, and has many Hindu figures. Williams.) , 403. Rosary, composed of 108 beads. Bone. Pur- 391. Lion with ball. Glazed earthenware. Height, chased in Darjeeling. (Lent by Mr. John T.Morris.) 11.5 inches. (Lent by Mr. CarlEdelheim.) 404. Gawo. Box for charms, containing an agalmatolite The lion is a common ornament in China. As an emblem it may be image, and blue and green cloths. Height, 3.875 inches. regarded as Buddhistic, Buddha having belonged to the Çakya,‘‘ Lion,” Purchased in Darjeeling. (Lent by Mr. John T. Morris.) family. 405. Gawo. Box for charms. Bronze. Height, 4 inches. 392. Lion. Glazed pottery. Height, 20.75 inches. Purchased in Darjeeling. (Lent by Mr. John T. (Lent by Mrs. John Harrison.) Morris.) 393. Lion with ball. Bronze. Height, 19.25 inches. 406. Gawo. Box for charms. Silver. Height, 3% inches. (Lent by Mrs. John Harrison.) Purchased in Darjeeling. (Lent byMr. John T. Morris.) 394. Lion, with small lionplaying with ball. Carved 407. Dorje. (Sanskrit Vadjra). The thunderbolt of wood. Height, 8.25 inches. (Lentby Mrs. JohnHar- Indra. Brass. Length, 4.75 inches. (Lent by Dr. Ed- rison.) ward H. Williams.) ~~ .~~ _.__ . . c , .F..

IO2 ‘RELIGIOUSCEREMONIES OF THECHINESE IN THEUNITED STATES. JO3

408. Trumpet made of human femur. Height, I I. 25 his having appeared at various times in the New World to inches. Purchased in Darjeeling. (Lentby Mr. John protect his worshipers. Once in Havana, so the tale runs, T. Morris.) when a fire broke out which threatened the dwellings of the Chinese colony, a man of gigantic stature was seen to Used in exorcisms. . emerge from the flames, and they were extinguished, but 409. Photograph.Group of Lamas at Darjeeling, as- not before all had recognized in his majestic features and sembled to welcome Lord Lytton. (Lent by Dr. Edward curious dress the divinity towhom they had built a temple. H. Williams.) The scrolls with the image of the god are suspended on 410. Photograph. Masked Lamas who danced the sacred the wall; below them is usually a ledge, supporting a re- dances before Lord Lytton, Viceroy, Governor General of ceptacle for incense, with a pair of vases, which serve as India,at Darjeeling, March qth, 1880. (Lent by Dr. candlesticks, on either side. Edward H. Williams.) In China, special sacrifices are considered necessary on 411. Photograph.A monument of a Lama inthe the first ánd fifteenth of each Chinese month, the time of enceinte of a temple, called Hwang Sz’, in Peking. the new and full moon. Here few observe the custom, (Lent by Stewart Culin.) but some, on these occasions, set atable as iffor three Erected by theEmperor Kienlung in memory of theTeshu Lama persons, with chop-sticks and wine cups duly arranged, and who died in this temple in 1780. The plynth is carved with scenes in burning incense, place before the invisible guests a cooked the prelate’s life. fowl and maybe a piece of roasted pork. Wine is poured intothe cups and invocationsmade to the gods before RELIGIOUSCEREMONIES OF THECHINESE IN whom entire fowls and large portions of meat are always THEUNITED STATES.* served. Afterward the fowl and roasted pork are removed, * The Chinese in the United States are laborers who have choppedin small pieces in the usual’manner of serving come from several districts of Kwantung Province, adja- such food, and again placed upon the table as an offering cent to the city of Canton. The first immigrants, uncer- to the spirits of the dead. tain whether the gods would still hear theirprayers . Little attention is paid to the festivals of the Chinese and protect them in this remote land, neglected any re- calendar, except thatat the commencement of the New ligious observances, but, as fortune favored them, many in Year. Onthe last night of the old year a kind of altar time erected a figure of their accustomed god and paid it (No. 422) is erected in many laundries and shops. Above the usual honors, attributing to its influence some part of it is suspended a long paper hanging, upon which are rep- their success. At present one finds in many of the Chinese resentations of these personages, whom they call Puk laundries and shops a paper scroll with thepicture of Luk Shau Sinr Kung, the Starry Sages of Happiness, Kwan Tí or Kwán Yin, and sometimes inscriptions on red Honor (official advancement), and Long Life.” Plates of or orange paper to the l’ares and penates. Kwán Taí is oranges and dried fruit, a kind of vermicelli cooked and the deity generally worshiped, and legends are current of colored for the occasion, and sometimes pyramidal cakes (No. 434), with a set of ceremonial flowervases, candle- * The Chinese words in italics are here, as elsewhere, transliterations of the Canton dialect. sticks, incense supports, two of each, and a large censer IO4 RELIGIOUSCEREMONIES OF THECHINESE IN THE UNITED STATES. ‘O5

in the middle, are placed onthe altar before the scroll. The shìng pú;, which are tossed inthe air,are first Sandalwood is burned on that occasion in an earthen or thrown. If both blocks fall with their curved sides upper- bronze censer. The altar isusually draped with a hand- most, the indication is considered a negative one, neither somely embroidered cloth. good nor evil. If both fall with the flat sides uppermost, The figures on the scroll are identified by some Chinese the indication is unfavorable. If one falls with the curved here as historical personages. Above is Kwok Tsz’I,a side uppermost, and the other the reverse, the indication general of the T’ang dynasty, renowned for his services is good. It isusual afterwards to.throw the ts’ivr ii. Their tothe state under four successive emperors, and for the numbers correspond with the pages of a book. The one many blessings he enjoyed of honors, riches, and longev- used here is called the Kwán Tai Zingts’ím or K7ejaz Táì. ity ; on the right Tau (II Shán, whose five sons all attained Divining Lots (No. 419). Each page contains a verseof the highest literary rank,and inthe foreground onthe poetry, which is supposed to furnish a clue to the outcome left, T~ngEicng Sok, a mythical being who is reputed to of the matterunder consideration. Or inthe temples, have attaineda fabulous longevity. Kwok TsfI is the the number of the fs’im ii correspond with printed lots only significant figure on the scroll above the altar (No. which are hung up in the temple. The appropriate lot in 422), but all three personages may be seen upon No. 435. this case is detached and handed by the attendant to the The public worship of the Chinese, as distinguished from worshiper. the household observances, consists in visiting some shrine In nearly all Chinese houses daily sacrifices are made to for the purpose of divination. Public temples for this pur- the ‘6 Lord of the Place.” An inscribed tablet of orange- pose exist in the cities where there are many Chinese, and colored paper is pasted on the wall above the floor in his shrines which serve the same end are found in all Chinese honor, or a shallow wooden pent-house, Ti Chi shan lau, guild halls. A semi-public shrinein a laundry inPhila- is built for him. This box is always painted red or covered delphia contains scrolls with pictures of Chk~ozgT’in Sz’, with orange-colored paper, and is ornamented with tinsel Ük T’án (No. 437), Kwán Tai, and a tablet with an in- flowers kamfú (No. 427). A lamp is usually kept burning scription in honor of Kkn Yam (No. 367). Counterparts within it, with cups for tea and rice, which some replenish of the implements for divination used atthis shrine may daily.The inscriptionon the tablet here exhibited (No. be seen upon the altar of theshrine to Kzoán Tai (No. 42I) is as follows : Above in the centre, Shang Kant, “ pro- 412). They consist oftwo elliptical pieces of wood, ducing wealth.” Below this T’mg Fán Ti Chi2 t~734’nn rounded on one side and flat on the other, called kúiu pzii Ts’oiShan. Chinese and Foreign Lord of the Place, re- (No. 417), and a box containing IOO bamboo splints ceive and introduce the God of Wealth.” On either side numbered from I to IOO called ts’im ii (No. 418). are complimentary titles bestowed upon the spirit ruler :

On festival occasions offerings of food are made, but the Chi22 ts’oif’ungtsz’,‘6 Invite Wealth Boy,” and T-z~npbsin ordinary inquirer into the future usually sacrifices a pair Zong, 6‘ IncreasingTreasure Sage. ” The outside couplets of candles (No. 440)~a package of incense (No. 446), two read as follows : sheets of mock money of the kind called tái kong pò (No. Sik nitz waì Ti Chu 441)~and some strips of k’ai ts’in (No. 444), which are Kam yat shí Ts’oi Shan. sold at the public shrines and temples. In former years (he) became Lord of the place. To-day (he) is a god (or spirit) of wealth.” 106 RELIGIOUSCEREhfONIES OF THE CHINESE IN THE UNlTED STAT . F 107 The ghost of the first person who dies in a house is be- sailors, indicating, it is said, the presence of some of the lieved to become its Ti Chu,“ Lord of the Place,” and as túnká, or boat-people, among the immigrants. such is thought to preside and govern over its other ghostly Yu&-wong Shéung Tai, the JadeEmperor Supreme inmates. Every house is thought to have its ghosts, either Ruler,” the chief god of the Taoist pantheon, is regarded thespirits of those who have died within it, or strange by the Chinese here as the supreme ruler of the universe, ghosts who have selected it for their dwelling; the shan who governs all theother deities, but norites are per- lau is built for their shelter, and when suitable offerings are formedin his honor,nor is hethe object of particular made to them, they are thought seldom to disturb the liv- reverence. Many of the lesser deities arethought to be ing. These ghosts are always kindly spoken of and their directly subject to Chéung T’in.Sz’ (see page 7 I), who has aid invoked, as may be seen from the inscription, to bring under him a multitude of spirits who govern the invisible wealth and prosperity. Foreign, ghosts are much feared world. Among these are the TÒ Shin. Wong, who rule by the more ignorant country people. municipalities, and the T’òti Kun.,or streetgods. No The chief use of the pictures of the divinities enshrined shrines to the latter areerected in the East, but in San in private houses is to tranquilize and drive away refrac- Francisco each street in the Chinese colony has its protect- tory spirits, and charms, such as the Páh Kwá, or Eight ing divinity, the location of whose shrine is indicated by Diagrams (No. SIS), are sometimes placed on the panels the spirit’s own choice, as determined by throwing the of the doorway to prevent the entrance of wandering ghosts. divining-blocks. ‘No tablets to ancestors are erected here, and few of the Yuk-wong Shéung Tai, called here Yuk Tai, orthe many Chinese customs with reference to the dead are ob- “Jade Ruler,’’ is believed to reside continually in served. Inthe spring-time, duringthe Third Chinese heaven. Kwán Tai, Kún Yam, the TÒ Shing Wong, T’Ó month, it is customary to visit the graveyards where the ti Kung, and other deified spirits are thought to alternate dead are temporarily buried, and place offerings of roast between heaven and earth, and are spoken of as p’ò-sát pork and fowls, and burn incense on the graves. About (Sanskrit, Bôdhisattva). Pái p’ò-sát is the expression the middle of the Seventh Chinese month, which falls commonly used for worshiping the gods.’’ during our autumn, paper clothes, i chi (No. 445), are. As to the classification of these people as Taoists, Bud- burned by many in their laundries and shops. Kai fs’in dhists, or Confucianists, Dr. James Legge says, with refer- and a’kind of mock money called táipinpò (No. 442) are ence to a somewhat more extended account printed by the burned at the same time. This rite appears to be performed ’ writer, that, as far as that account goes, 6‘ they are Taoists, for the benefit of the spirit world at large, both Chinese with some admixture of Buddhism. The elements of Con- and foreign ghosts beingpropitiated orhonored. The fucianism is unseen in the hidden but not inactive prin- proprietor of the principal private shrine in Philadelphia ciples of honesty and honor, and a sentiment of reverence burned incense daily before a piece of red cotton cloth for Heaven orGod.’’ It should bementioned thatthe tacked on the wall of his laundry, for the spirit of his foregoing remarks apply chiefly tothe Chinese inthe dead brother. Eastern cities of the United States. More elaborate cere- In addition to the deities mentioned, shrines are occa- monies are found in the large Chinese colonies in theWest. sionally to be seen erected in honor of Shing Mò, ‘‘ The There are no priests, as such, among the Chinese in the HolyMother” (No. zsg), the goddess worshiped by IO8 RELIGIOUSCEREMONIES OF THECHINESE IN ’THE STATES.UNITED I09

East. Images are very infrequently worshiped, colored root of the bamboo. Length, 6.25 inches. (Lent by

6’7. pictures being used to represent the deities. Stewart Culin.) 412. Kwún Tai skan Zau. Shrine of Kwan Tí, the God 418. íTim ii. “Divininglots.” Numbered from I of War. A shallow, wooden box, about I I inches deep, to IOO. Bamboo. Length, about IO inches. (Lent by 32 inches broadi and about 72 inches high.Within the Stewart Culin.) shrine is a paper scroll, with a colored picture of the god Lotsnumbered from I to 80 areused by gamblers when they seated on a kind of throne, with his two attendants (see desire to learn which of the 80 numbers will be drawn in the lottery. Nos. 250-252). This scroll is 22.5 x 38 inches. The in- 419. Kwán Tai Ciug ts’im. Divining lots for theGod scription at the top of the shrine reads, Wai Lizg, Kwh Book of numbered verses and explanations. gust Divinity ;” on the scroll at the right, TsiR skan yan i Cantonimprint. (Lent by Stewart Culin.) hoi Ci Co-i‘ Relying upon Divine favor to open an advan- 420. Pò chuk. ci Money and candles.’’Objects tageous pathway;” on the left, P‘aq shing ta& i kwo7zg offered by individuals in worship. They consist of a ts’oi un, Abiding by sacred virtue in order to enlarge the package of incense (No. 446), two sheets of mock money, source of wealth.” The shrine is supported upon a table Tái Kong pò (No. 441 j ; several sheets of Rai ts’in (No. covered with oil-cloth, to prevent its being soiled by the 444), and a pair of small candles (No. 440). (Lent by food-offerings. The objects used in worship are placed,, as Stewart Culin.) is customary, upon and about thealtar. They comprise A bundle of this kind is sold in temples for 25 or 50 cents. Nos. 413 to 420. 421. Ti Chu shalz Zau. Shrine of theLord of the 413. KavzfLi tun. Supports for artificial flowers (pair). Place.” Wood, with inscriptiononorange colored Silvered glass. Height, 8.125 inches. (Lent by Stewart paper. Culin.) For an account of this object and a translation of the inscriptions see Inexpensiveglass or porcelain vases.- frequentlysubstituted here . page 105. for those regularly made for this purpose. 422. Fui Luk Shau Sing Kwg shajz Znu. Shrine of

414. Ckuk t’ni. ILCandlesticks ” (pair). Glazed pot- the Starry Sagesof Happiness,Rank, and Long Life. tery. Canton.Height, 5.125 inches. (Lent by Stew-‘ Erected at the New Year.,4bove thealtar is ahanging art Culin.) 31.5~96inches, with a colored picture of the personage 415. Siin Zù. Stoneware jar for incense sticks. Height, identified as Kwok Tsz’ I. The objects usedin worship, 6 inc.hes. (Lent by Stewart Culin.) Nos. 423 to 434, are disposed in the usual manner upon 416. Fá c~R. Flowered candles.”Length 3.5 the altar. inches. (Gift of Mrs. Cornelius Stevenson.) 423. Kaln fú tan. Supports for artificial flowers (pair). Candles of various sizes are imported from China for use in worship. Pewter. Height, 16.5 inches. (Lent by Dr. W. W. Mc- They are made of tallow, encased in wax, with a bamboo splint that Clure.) serves as a w-ick. Small candles are now made in California. Gambling . 424. Hkungtan. Supports for incense (pair). Pewter. house-keepers use unpaintedwhite candles in order to avoid the color . Height, 14.75 inches. (Lent by Dr. W. W. McClure.) red, which they consider unlucky. 425. Chuk tan. Supports for candles (pair). Pewter. 417. Iiiu pzii. “ Divining blocks.” Made’ from the Height, 15.75 inches. (Lent by Dr. W. W. McClure.) e II0 RELIGIOUSCEREMONIES OF THE CHINESE IN THE UNITED STATES. III

426. Héung Zù. Incense vase, surmounted with alion 434. Pìng t’a$. (I Cake pagodas.” Height, about 13 holding a ball. Carved black stone. Height, I 1.5 inches. (Lent by Stewart Culin.) inches. (Lent by B. F. M. P. C.) These pyramidal cakes composed of small rectangular cakes made The seven objects, Nos. ,423-426, are collectively called hhng 0%. of rice flour, pink, green, andwhite, were offered in one of the Chinese The central vase is not actually used, another of copper or earthenware restaurants in Philadelphia, atthe Chinese New Year, in February, (No. 430) being employed to burn sandalwood. 1891, on the altar erected to .the “ Starry Sages of Happiness, Honor, and Imng Life,” as here represented. They form part of the customary 427. Kamfa. (6 Golden flowers.” Used as a decoration ceremonial offerings at the New Year. for shrines. Length, about 19 inches. (Gift ofMrs. Cornelius Stevenson.) 435. Eirk LuR Shnu Si~zgKung. Paper hanging with 428. Chéung shau htung. “Long Life Incense.” colored pictures of the three symbolic personages. Dimen- Length, about 25 inches. (Gift of Mrs. Cornelius Steven- sions, 31 x 94.5 inches. (Lent by Stewart Culin.) son.) 436. Kún Yanz. (KWANYIN). Paper hanging with Incense sticks of many kinds are imported from China, varying in picture of the goddess seated upon a lotus, with her two cost and quality, those known as “Long Life Incense” being the attendants Hung-tsezrk Ming FVony and Shi72 Ts’oiLztng .v largest. ..NZ. Painted incolors. Dimensions, 22.5 x36 inches.

429. Lzlng Chuk, (6 dragon candles.” Length, 6.25 (Lent by Stewart Culin.) inches. (Gift ofMrs. Cornelius Stevenson.) . 437. Un T’an. Paper scroll, with picture of the god So called on account of being decorated with dragons. A pair of holding a sword, andriding upon a tiger. Paintedin such candles are usually burned to the Fuk Lak Slau Si?%Kung at colors. Size, 15.5 x 28.5 inches. (Lent by Stewart Culin.) the New Year. Worshiped as a god of wealth. 430. Ngá héung Zù. Burner for sandalwood. Bowl- shaped vessel with two handles, on stand. Glazed pottery. 438, Th’ Mi. Paper hanging, with picture of the Canton. Diameter, about 6.25 inches. (Lent by Stew- goddess seated upon a lion and holding in one hand the art Culin.) Pah Kwá, and in the other a square tablet inscribed TSZ’ Sandalwood is burned by the Chinese in the United States only at. Mi Kung chit¿. “ May Tb’Mi, succor and illuminate. ” the New Year. The fragments ofwood are covered with ashes of A red disc (the sun) is above the goddess and a pillar at her burnt paper, which is sold for the purpose, and allowed to smoulder. side.Painted in colors. Size, 15x23 inches. (Lentby 431. Ngá héung fái tsz’. Rods used to adjust the Stewart Culin.) sandalwood inthe censer. Brass. Length, IO inches. According to Dr. S. W. Williams, a god worshiped for protection

(Lent by Stewart Culin.) l against malaria. Mr. Mayers describes Tsz’ Mi as one of the daughters 432. Ngá héung ch’án. Shovel for ashes, used in con- assigned by Taoist legend to Sí Wang MÚ, a fabulous being of the female sex,dwelling upon Mount Kwanlun. nectionwith No. 430. Brass. Length, 8.5 inches. (Lent by Stewart Culin.) 439. Non chuk, show candles.” Wood, painted red. 433, Ngá héuung tun. Vase for holding brass rods and Length, 8 inches. (Lent by Dr. W. W. McClure.) shovel. Glazed earthenware. Canton. Height, 6.875 These blocks have a small hollow at the top for a lamp, and are used inches. (Lent by Stewart Culin.) as inexpensive substitutes for real candles.

O I12 RELIGIOUS CEREMONIES OF THE CHINESE 1N THE UNITED STATES. 1’3

440. ZupchuR, candles (pair). Length, 3 inches. (Gift 448. Sám iiz héung. Bamboo splints, partly covered of Mrs. Cornelius Stevenson.) with punk, in white paper wrappers. Length, 6.5 inches. 441. lái kongpò. Brown paper, with square of tin foil (Lent by Stewart Culin.) pasted inthe middle. It is distinguished from No. 442, 449. H/k sik hkung. Punk sticks, two conjoined, in in being pasted to assume an oval shape. Size, 17x10 white paper wrapper. Length, 12.5 inches. (Lent by inches. (Lentby Stewart Culin.) Stewart Culin.) This and the following frequently have a piece of red paper cut in the 450. Shéung lutg hemg. Double dragonincense.” form of the character Shnu, ‘‘ long life,” pasted on the tin-foil. TWO Slender punk sticks in paper wrapper. Length, 8.75 sheets of this kind, or five or more of No. 443 are used. inches. (Lent by Stewart Culin.) 442. Táipin pò, large Aat money. Paper covered in 45 I. Ki nn~nheung. Ki nam incense.”Slender, the middle with square of tin-foil. Size, 13x10 inches. black sticks, in paper wrappers. Length,about 12.5 (Lent by Stewart Culin.) inches. (Lent by Stewart Culin.) This particular kind of mock money is used at funerals, and burned This incense is said to be preferred by the literary class, and is the for the dead. ,finest and most expensive imported.

443. Xam ngan chi, c‘ Gold and silver paper.” Size, 4x5 452. Héung t’ap. Incensepagoda.” Canton.(Lent inches. (Lent by Stewart Culin.) by Stewart Culin.) 444. K’ai is’in. Strips of unsized paper, pierced with So called from its spiral form, which assumes a conical shape when holes, regarded as representing fs’irz, or (‘cash.” Size, suspended by one end, as is done when it is burned. from 6 to 7 inches long by I to I. 25 inches wide. (Lent 453. Tan htung. Sandal-wood. (Lent by Stewart by Stewart Culin.) Culin.) Burned at all times when paper money is offered, and thrown from 454. Subscription paper for the Tung Ea Miti-Chinese one of the carriages during the progress of a funeral procession. Temple, No. 35 Waverly Place, San Francisco, California. 445. Ichi, “paper clothes.” Canton. Size from 7.5 (Lent by Stewart Culin.) to 8.5 inches longby 3 to 3.5 inches wide. (Lent by, Subscription-booksfor temples in San Francisco, and even in China, Stewart Culin. circulate freely among the Chinese in the United States. Oblong packages of thin paper, of several colors, representing rolls 455. T’ungshzï. Almanac for theXIIIth year of the of cloth or silk. Small pieces of the same paper rudely cut and pasted presentEmperor, Kwáng Sü (A. D. 1887.) Canton im- in the form of garments are sometimes used. (See page 106.) print.(Lent by Stewart Culin.)

446. K’énam héung. R’énam (6 incense.” Bamboo Several editions of this popular almanac are annually imported and splints, partly covered with punk, in red paper wrappers. sold among the Chinese in the United States. In addition to the calendar, in which, under each day, the cyclic signs are indicated, with Length, 14 inches. (Lent by Stewart Culin.) information as to the day being lucky or unlucky for various enterprises, 447. Pak fa héung, ‘6 white flower incense.” Bamboo it contains a map of China, and of the Celestial heavens, the Twenty- splints partly covered with punk, in white paper wrapper. four Examples of Filial Duty, the punishments of the Buddhist hell, Length, I I. 5 inches. (Lent by Stewart Culin.) views of celebrated places in the vicinity of Canton, popular receipts, the interpretation of dreams, rules and tables for divination, charms, and These are the cheapest incense sticks imported from China. many other things, including a picture of Chpztng T’ln S.’,from whom the magical parts are supposed to emanate. INTHE UNITED STA?‘ES. I14 RELIGIOUSCEREMONIES OF THECHINESE “5

’ 464. Palmistry. Lau dong Shan stung ts’ün #in. Com- 456. Ngd héun,tsun. (See No. 433). Glazed earthen- plete Book of Lau Divine Introspection. Canton ware. Height, 4.25 inches. (Lent by Stewart Culin.) Chong’s imprint. A treatise on physiognomy currentamong the 457. Ch’ün p’áu. Fire-crackers. (Lent by Stewart Chinese in the United States, with plates illustrating palm- Culin.) istry. (Lentby Stewart Culin.) Exploded at the end of the New Year celebration, and on festivals, it is said, to expel evil spirits. Palmistry, called hm shau chtung, ‘‘ examination of the palm,” is a familiar art among the Chinese, and as practiced by them has many 458. L% dk, Glass wristlet, imitation of jade. (Lent points of resemblance with the system known in the West. by Stewart Culin). 465. Muk-Kwai Ying and Yeung Tsung Paper and Jade wristlets are about ;he only charm worn by the Chinese in the Pò. tinsel figures. Height, 10.25 inches. (Lentby B. F. United States. It is said they give strength to the arm, and one that has been recovered from a grave is most highly valued. M. P. C.) 459. Wong t’ong. Brown sugar.” Imported from A hero and heroine of the romance entitled T’in ~nBnchan in i China. (Lent by Stewart Culin. j chiin, a most popular story among the Chinese in the United States, to whom these characters are universally known. Handed with a coin to the attendants at funerals, after the interment by the Chinese in the United States. 466. MuK-Kwai Hng. Painted earthenware. Canton. 460. Chíp’ái. Playing cards.” Placed as charma Height, 17 inches. (Lent by Dr. W. W. McClure.) upon the coffin at funerals. (Lent by Stewart Culin.) 467. Yeung Tsung P’ò. Painted earthenware. Height, 17.25 inches. (Lent by Dr. W. W. McClure.) This usage is due to the supposed magical properties of these cards, one suit of which are ornamented with pictures of.the 108 robbers of 468. T’ò-$á Nii seated on pedestal, holding a fly brush. the popular romance, entitled the Shui B chzïn. Imageclothed in silk, with wax head. In a glass case. Canton.Height of case 7.5 inches. 461. Kwa ts’im. Divining lots. Bamboo. Length about 5 inches. (Lent by Stewart Culin. j P’d-fá Nzï is the heroine of a popular romance of magic, 7’Ò;ta Nii ts’zïn chiin, current among the Chinese in the United States. These splints, numbering 64, are used in a popular method of dirina- tion by the Chinese in the United States and in China. . The system is, 469. Photo-engraving. Shrine in Philadelphia, described said to have been based upon “ The Book of Changes,” and to have on page 104. (Lent by Stewart Culin.) been invented by Wan Wang (Man Wong), whence it is called Man Wmg kWá. 462. Kwatp’ai. Dominoes. Sometimes used in telling fortunes. Wood, with spots painted white and red. (Lent by Stewart Culin.)

463. Ngáp’ái shanshò t’b chü ts’tung kái. (g Illus- trated complete explanation of the divine numbers of dominoes.” A treatise on divination with dominoes. Canton imprint. (Lent by Stewart Culin.) The system underlying this method of divination is the probable origin of the use of playing cards in telling fortunes in the West. SHINTOISM. 117

no-kami,Deity the Male-Who-Invites, and his youngest sister, Izana-mi-no-kami, Deity the Female-Who-Invites. RELIGIONS OF JAWN. At the command of all the Heavenly Deities, who ordered them 11 to make, consolidate, and give birth to the drifting land,” these two Deities, standing upon theFloating Japan possessestwo religions-Shintoism, the official Bridge of Heaven, pushed down a heavenly jewelled spear and nationalreligion, of which theorigin is lost in the the Heavenly Deities had granted them, and stirred the darkness of tradition, and Buddhism, which was introduced brine till it went curdle-curdle,” and when they drew the in the fourth or fifth centuries of our era. spear up, the brine that dripped from the spear was piled up, and became an island. They descended to this island, SHINTOISM. where they gave birthto islands and deities. Among many other deities afterward given birthto was Ama- The ancient religion of the Japanese is called Kami no terasu-oho-mi-kami, Heavenly Shining-Great-August-Deity michi (way or doctrine of the gods). The Chinese form (the sun), to whom it was given to rule the Plain-of-High- of the same is Shintáu. Foreigners call it Shintoism. Heaven ; also, Take-haya-susa-no-wo-no-mikoto,His- Shintoism traces its origin even back to that of the Japan- Brave-Swift-Impetuous-Male-Augustness, whe was ordered ese people, and in fact there is found no trace of any other to rule the Sea-Plain. popular belief at any time in the history of that country. Many generations of deities are enumerated in the Ko- According to the Koyi-ki, or Records of Ancient ji-ki. At last was born Kamu-yamato-ihare-biko, fifth in Matters,” which has been translated into English by Mr. descent from Amaterasu, the Sun Goddess, who was the Basil Hall Chamberlain, the names of the Deities that first mikado and the founder of the present imperial family. were bornon the Plain of Heaven, when Heaven and He is known as Jimnw Tennö, “Spirit of War,’’ a name Earth began were the Deity Master-of-the-August-Centre- which was posthumously appliedto him many centuries of-Heaven ; nextthe High-August-Producing-Wondrous- afterward. According to the Accepted Chronology,” Deity ; next, the Divine-Producing-Wondrous-Deity.. he reigned 660 to 585 B. C. These three Deities were all Deities born alone, and hid The various secondary gods have also taken the name of their person (that is, they came into existence without Kami. They are submissive to thegreat superior gods, being procreated in the manner usual with gods and men, and more especially occupy themselves with thegovern- and afterward disappeared-i. e., died). The names of the ment and theprotection of the world. They have, as Deities that were born next, from a thing that sprouted up assistants afterward, a certain number of heroes, deified in likea reed-shoot when theearth, young, and like unto acknowledgment of services rendered totheir country. floating oil, drifted about Medusa-like, were the Pleasant- Among these are Jimmu, founder of the monarchy, Hachi- Red-Shoot-Prince-Elder-Deity, next, the Heavenly-Eter- man, anancient emperor, andTen-man-gu, an ancient adly-Standing-Divinity. These two Deities were like- minister who has become a god of literature. Shintoism wise born alone, and hid their persons. Seven generations believes in the immortality of the soul and in an eternal of Deities were then born, the last of which were Izana-gi- future life of recompense or punishment. It .ordains 116 I 118 RELIGIONS OF JAPAN. JAPANESE BUDDHISM. 119

purity of life, both physical and moral, obedience to the 470. Maskof Suzume. Wood, painted. Length, 8.75 laws of the country, and respect, almost adoration, it may inches.(Lent byMrs. William Frishmuth.) be said, for the emperor, the direct descendants of the gods, It is related in the Koji-Ki that Amaterasu, the Sun Goddess, terrified andat the same time spiritual and temporal chief, and by the behavior of her brother Take-haya-susa-no-wo-no-mikoto(Susano finally, respect and love for ancestors. The Shinto priests, mikoto) retreated to a cave in the rocks and closed the door behind her. called kannushi, “ master of the god,’,’ are not required to The whole world became darkened and eternal night prevailed. Then submit tothe obligations of celibacy and abstinence, all the gods assembled ‘to discuss what was to be done to appease which are ordinarily imposed upon all clergy ; they marry, the anger of thegreat goddess. They resorted to stratagem and ordered one of the gods to make a mirror, another to make a string of and the officeis usually hereditary.They are, in the curved jewels, others to perform divination with the shoulder-blade of a strictest sense of the word, Government officials. Upon stag and with cherry bark, and pull up a saka-ki (CZeyerujuponica) and certaingreat occasions, as the anniversary, for example, put the string of curved jewels upon its branches with the of the birth of Jimmu, the emperor himself officiates at mirror and other pacificatoryofferings. One of the gods then the temple in the, capital ; the same day in all the prov- heldthe tree with the offerings, another recited liturgies, while another, the Heavenly-Hand-Strength-Male-Deity, stood hidden be- inces, districts,etc., the prefects, sub-prefects, and other hindthe rockdoor. The goddess A4me-no-uzume-no-mikoto (Su- functionaries perform the rites in their residences. zumé), then arrayed herself and danced before the door until the dei- The temples, called miyas, are constructed very simply ties laughed together. Amaterasu was amazed, and, slightly opening of wood, composed of a Naps, which contains nothing but the door of the Heavenly Rock-Dwelling, inquired why it was that a table, upon which is a mirror, symbol of purity and of Suzumé made merry while all the land was dark. Suzumé answered that they were glad because there is a deity more illustrious than Ama- the creation ; a gohei, a sort of whip, composed of thongs terasu. While she was speaking two of the gods pushed forward the of white paper, symbolic of purity and of divinity, and a mirror and showed it to Amaterasu, who, more and more astonished, sword. In certain of these temples, among others that of gradually came forth from the door, whereupon the Heavenly-Hand- Isé, the sanctuary is closed by a vail, which no one, not Strength-Male-Deity, whowas hidden, drew her out. And when she even the high-priest, has a right to pass beyond. had come forth the earth again became light. According toMr. Griffis, “a mask of Suzumé, representing the Shintoism has no idols. It considers thedivinity too laughing face of a fat girl, with narrow forehead, having the imperial great and too majestic to degrade by giving him material . spots of sable, and with black hair in rifts on her forehead, cheeks form. puffed out, and dimpled chin, adorns the walls of many a modern Under the influence, no doubt, of Chinese ideas, it Japanese house, and notably on certain festival days, and on their many renders to ancestors a worship absolutely resembling that occasions of mirth.” which is practiced in China. According to the holy law, 471. Photograph. Shinto temple. (Lent by Stewart they may not place before the tablets anything but a little Culin.) pure water, and rice three times washed and boiled in water without seasoning. But among the people this cus- JAPANESEBUDDHISM. tom has degenerated into fetishism, unconscious, it may It is said that Buddhism was introduced into Japan by be, and they serve before thetablets a veritable repast, Corean priests a little after the conquest of Corea by the composed of the dishes the deceased preferred, andac- Empress Jingu, that is, toward the end of the fourth or the companied by the inevitable sake,’’ brewed from rice. commencement of the fifth century of our era. Mr. Buniu I20 RELIGIONS OF JAPAN. JAPANESE BUDDHISM. I21

Nanjio, in his Short History of the Twelve Jajanese Bud- or I 175 A. D., Gen-ku founded the JO-do-shü. In I 191 dhist Sects, gives an account of theprincipal Japanese A. D., Ei-sai established the Zen-shli. In 1224 A. D., Buddhist sects, the number of different schools of which, Shin-ranfounded the Shin-shli. InI253 A. D., Nichi- he says, might be increased, if we were to count minutely ren founded the Nichi-ren-she. the principal and secondary divisions. He divides the According to M. I,. de Milloue two-thirds of the poilu- sects into three periods, as follows : lation of Japan are disciples of Kuddha. Theprincipal I. The earliest period includes the first six sects. In existing sects, as given by him, are as follows : the 13th year of the Emperor Kimmei (552 A. D.), the 1st. Zen-shfi. This sect is of all the one which is king of Kudura, one of the three ancient divisions of the nearest to Chinese Buddhism. Shaka-Muni (the Japanese Corea, presented to the Japanese court an image of Buddha form of the Sanskrit Çâkya-Muni), and Kwannon (Sans- and some sacred books. In 625 A. D., E-kwancame to krit, Avalôkitêçevara), play the principal rbles, while .\mida Japan from Koma, another division of Corea, and became {Sanskrit, Amitibha), occupies a secondary rank. the founder of the Jö-jitsu and San-ron sects. In 653 A. D. 2d. Shin-gon, founded in 806 A. D., by Kii-kai, better Dõ-shö went toChina, and studied under Gen-ja,and known by his posthumous title of Kfi-ba Dai-Shi, whois transmitted the doctrines of the Hoss~sect to Japan. In said to have constructedthe temple of To-ji, atKiöto, 658 A. D. Chi-tsü and Chi-tatsu went to China, and also and there installed the Mandala, or representation of Hok- became disciples of Gen-jõ, and transmitted the doctrines kai,the Buddhistic heaven. Whilst adoringShaka-Muni, of the Hossö and Ku-sha sects. In 703 A. D., Chi-h6 and this sect gives the first place to Dai-nichi-niorai, and to Chi-ran went to China, and so did Genbõin, 716 A. D. Roshana, two forms almost equivalent to the Adi-Buddha ,They alltransmitted the doctrine of the Hossa sect. In of the Mahâyana school. As in nearly a11 the ,other sects,' 736 A. D.,a Chinese priest, named Dõ-sen, came to KWannon plays an important rôle as saviour and intercessor. Japan and established the Ke-gonsect. In 754 A. D., 3d. Ten&ï. This school affirms the possibility for ail another Chinese priest, named Gan-jin arrived in Japan, the faithful, even the laity, to attain Nirvâna, and to enjoy and became the founder of the Ritsu sect. The above thiscondition during their life. Shaka-muni and Kwan- may be called the ancient sects, being called the six sects non arethe divinities preferred, Kwannon always. The of Nan-to, or Southern Capital-i. P., Nara-where they Kami, Buddhicised under the form of Bishamon, Dai- were established in the earliest period. They are'generally koku, and other genii, have an important rôle as guardians enumerated in theorder, Ku-sha, Ja-jitsu, Ritsu, Hossö, of the earth, gods of wealth, etc. This is the sect that is San-ron, and Ko-gon. richest in images. 2. TheMedizval sects are two-the Ten-daiand the 4th. Hokke-shü, enumerated by Mr. Nanjio under the Shin-gon.They are called the two sects of Kiöto. In name of Nichi-ren-shü, or Nichi-ren sect, which it is also 804 A. D., Sai-chõand Kü-kai went to China. Having called, after the name ofits founder, Nichi-ren. This returned to Japan, the former established the Ten-da¡ sect sect puts the Law aboveBuddha. On the altar of its on Siount Hi-li, and the latter founded the Shing-on on temples are habitually placed the Sam-bô, or Buddhist Mount Kö-ya. TriTzi[y, Buddha,Dharma, and Sangha.Buddha and 3. The modern sects are theremaining four. In 1174 Sangha are ordinarily personified with the features of I22 RELIGIONS OF JAPAN. JAPANESEBUDDHISM. 123 Buddha Ta-hô, and Shaka-muni. Dharma isfigured by a 472. SHAKA-MUNI,seated. Bronze, gilded. Height, : tablet, bearing the following inscription, in gold letters 13.25 inches. The image is supported upon agilded Namu-miò-hò-ren-guè-Rid,'6 Salutation to the Lotus of wooden pedestal. (Lent by Dr. W. W. McClure.) the Good Law," which is placed between the two images of Buddha. There are many Hindu gods worshiped by this The Japanese accounts of Shaka-Muni correspond closely with that given by Dr.Eitel in the Hand-book of Chinese Buddhism, and sect, as Brahma, Garuda, andIndra. This is the only adopt, together with the erroneous Chinese chronology, all the feebly sect in which the ceremony of Kai-gan, '' Opening the extravagant fables with which priestly invention has filled gaps in his Eyes," has been observed. Its object is to cause the spirit biography. of the god to enter the image representing it,-that is, to 473. AMIDA,standing. Bronze, gilded. Height, 18.5 animate the idol. inches. 5th. JO-do. This sect has always a funereal rôle. Its An inscription engraved upon the back of the image states that it is principal divinity is Amida-Dharma-Datsu, or Amida of a copy of a copy of the celebrated image in the Zen-ko temple in the the secondary paradise of Sukhavati, which is a place of province of Shinano. The original is reputed to have been made by beatitude inferior to Nirvâna, but also easier to attain. It Shaka-Muni himself. It was afterward taken to Corea and remained has for its object the rescue from hell of the souls of little there IIIZ years until 552, A. D., when it was sent over as a present childrencondemned for the faults committed intheir from thethen reigning king of Corea. This was the commencement of the introduction of Buddhism into Japan (see page 120). Miracu- earlier existences. They believe in the mysticformula, lous stories are related of vain attempts to destroy this image by fire and Namu-Amida-Butsu, has the power to open the gates of hammers, which may account for the statement that is made of plati- Sukhavati to those who pronounce it with faith and love. num. The image here exhibited was offered, according to the inscrip- The hell of this sect is eternal. tion, by a man who desired offspring. 6th. Shin-shü. Ancientlya sub-sect of Jö-do,it 474. SHUSAN NO SHAKA. Shaka returning from the numbers to-day the greatest number of the faithful, which mountains. A man with beard and shaven head, attired is due, probably,to the simplicity of itsdoctrine. They in flowing garments, which are agitated by the winds, address their prayers to Amida-Buddha, supreme and eter- holding his hands in a position of prayer. Wood carved nal, the inspirer of Shaka-Muni. It is sufficient for their . with traces of gilding. Height, 5.25 inches. (Lent by salvation to be devout to Amida, and to repeat, as often Mr. Joseph G. Rosengarten.) as possible, the all-powerful formula : Namu-Amida-Butsu. 475. AMIDA,seated. Carved wood, gilded.Height, Kwannon and Seïssí are the customary acolytes of Buddha- I I. 5 inches. (Lent by Dr. Edward H. Williams.) Amida. In this sect the priests are not bound to celibacy, 476. AMIDA,seated upon lotusa on a pedestal. nor to abstinence from meat, and the office is hereditary. Brass. Height, I 1.625 inches. Supported upon a The greater part of the fasts ordained by the other sects pedestal of gilded wood, the brass base resting upon a are abolished by this. Their hell ,is not eternal. lotus, which stands upon a hexagonal base havingthree The compiler has gratefully availed himself of Mr. Wil- stages, the lowest ornamented with lions' heads at the six liam Anderson's Descr$tive and Historical Catalogue of a corners. Height of base, 14.5 inches. (Lent by Mrs. Collection of Japanese and Chinese Paintings in the British John Harrison.) Museum for many of the notes in this section. 477. .\MIDA, seated. Gilded wooden image. Height, JAPANESE BUDDHISM. 125 I 24 RELIGIONS OF JAPAN. 6.5 inches. Contained in a gilded wooden shrine. Height, is gilded. Hêight, 6.75 inches. The inner surface of the 19.25 inches. doors bear pictures of lotus flowers and leaves painted in 478. AMIDA, seated upon a lotus (height, 1.75 color upon the gilding.(Lent by Mrs. William Frish- inches) between KWANNON(Sanskrit Avalôkiteçevara) muth.) standing upon a lotus (height, 1.875 inches), and MAKEI- 482. SHAKA-MUNI,seated, between FU-GEN,seated on SHURA (Sanskrit Maheçvara) standing upon lotusa an elephant, and MON-DJO,seated on a lion. Microscopic (height, 1.875 inches). Wood, ornamented with gild- wood carvings, about .4375 inch in height. Inclosed in ing. Inclosed in a black lacquered shrine,the interior a black lacquered shrine, the interior of which’ is gilded. ,of which is gilded. The doors of the shrineare painted Height, 2 inches. (Lentby Stewart Culin.) in colors, with Buddhas and the Twelve Deva Kings (Ja- Made atRai Gan Zan, “Holy Rock Mount,” inthe province of panese Jiu-ni Ten or Jiu-ni O). Height, 6 inches. (Lent Iwashiro, one of the oldest temples in Japan, where the art of carving by Dr. Edward H. Williams.) these minute images has been handed down for centuries. It is said to have beenintroduced by KO-baDai-Shi, and to have beenperpetuated by Amida, with his spiritual sons, is the most frequent subject for the a single priest at this temple, who taught his successor. These images Buddhistic painter and sculptor in China and Japan. It is noticeable were carved by Tsukimoto Bokusen, who is now 81 years of age. In e that AvalBkiteçevara and Maheçvara have always a feminine aspect. A recent letter he says that he never uses any wood except that which similar Trinity is formed by Çakya-Muni, Samantabhadra, and Mandju- grows upon the holy mount. He uses only a common table and a sin- ,çri, the supporters in this case also assuming the appearance of women. gle knife. In the year 1888 the number of the carvings WBS 4,861,all 479. SHAKA-MUNI,seated upon a lotus (height, 1.375 of which he did himself. Formerly he did not use glasses, but now he wears spectacles when he finishes his work. inches), between FU-GEN(Sanskrit, Samantabhadra), A photograph of the Rai Gan Zan is exhibited with the carvings. (height, I inch), on the left, and MON-DJO(Sanskrit, Mand- juçri), (height, I inch), on the right. Fu-gen is seated upon 483. Kwannon, standing upon a lotus, with a cylindri- a lotus supported upon a white elephant, and Mon-djo cal cover. Microscopic wood carving. Height, .375 upon a lotus, supported upon a lion. Wood, painted and inch.(Lent by Stewart Culin.) gilded. Inclosed in a black lacquered shrine, the interior Carved by Tsukimoto Ebkusen. of which is gilded.Height, inches. (Lent by Dr. Ed- 6 484. DAIKOKU(see page 132). Microscopic carving. ward H. Williams.) Height, .og7 inch. (Lent by Stewart Culin.) 480. AMIDA,standing upon a lotus (height, 4.25 Carved by Tsukimoto Bokusen. inches), between KWANNON;standing upon a lotus, and MAKEI-SHURA,also standing upon a lotus. The last two 485. KWANNON,seated upon a lotus. Unpainted figures have theirhands clasped, as if in prayer. Wood, wooden image with gilded ornaments. Height, 7.25 gilded. Inclosed in a black lacquered shrine, the interior inches. The image is supported upon agilded pedestal ofwhich is gilded. Height, 10.75 inches. and contained in a black lacquered shrine, the interior of 481. AMIDA, standingupon a lotus, between KWANNON which is gilded. Height, 22.25 inches. (Lent by Mr. and MAKEI-SHURA.Minute wooden images, covered with a John T. Morris.) glass globe and supported upon agilded pedestal. In- 486. KWANNON, standing,holding in her left hand the closed in a black.lacquered shrine, the interior of which precious ball, ‘‘ mani.”Unpainted wooden image, with I RELIGIONS JAPAN. 26 OF JAPANESE BUDDHISM. 127 gilded ornaments. Height, 8 inches. Theimige issupported worshiped under the name of Bishamon or Tamon Ten, as one of the upon a gilded pedestal, standing directlyupon a lotus, and Seven Gods of Good Fortune. q. v. is contained in a black lacquered shrine, the interior of 492. MARISHITEN (Sanskirt Maritchi Dêva). Triple- which is gilded. Height, inches. (Lent by Dr. 17.625 headed figure of threatening aspect, with six arms, holding Edward H. Williams.) a bow, a spear, wheel and other objects, and riding upon a KWANNON,seated on clouds. Bronze, inlaid with 487. homed animal which is bounding through turbulent water. silver. Height, inches. The image is supported on a 7.5 Lightning or flames surround the image. Height of image stand of cutcinnabar and black lacquer. (Lent by Dr. about 3.25 inches. Inclosed in a lacquered shrine, the in- W. W. McClure.) terior of which is gilded. Height, I I. 125 inches. (Lent To. Pagoda.” Composed of two stages, the 488. by Mr. John T. Morris). upper one containing a bell, and the lower one consisting of a shrine, the doors of which are ornamented with bronze Marichi is usually represented by the Japanese in the form of theDe- ’ fender, but Chinese pictures frequently show him as the presiding Genius images of the Ni Ö (see 533), within which is a small im-. of Light, a female divinity with eight arms, in two of which are emblems ape of Kwannon. Iron, with bronze and gilt decorations. of the Sun and Moon. The Brahminic original was a personification Height, 17 inches. The pagoda is supported upon a of Light. carved wood base. Height, 4.5 inches. (Lentby Dr. 493. DARUMA(Sanskrit Dharma), seated. Glazed pot- Edward H. Williams.) tery. Height, about 13 inches. (Lentby Mr. John T. SEN-JIUKWANNON. Thousand-handed Kwannon. 489. Morris.) Image, with a multitude of arms, standing upon a pedestal, of which thetop is a lotus. Unpainted wood. Height, 6‘ Badhi Dharma, the twenty-eighth Indian and first Chinese Patriarch, was the son of a king in Southern India. He arrived in China A. D. inches. Inclosedin a black lacquered shrine, the 2.875 520, and established himself in a temple iu Loyang. During nine interior of which is gilded. Height, 6.75 inches. (Lent years of his stay therehe remained buried in profound\ abstraction, by Mr. John T. Morris.) neither moving nor speaking, and when he returned to consciousness of 490. MON-DJO,seated upon alotus supported upon a his surroundings, his legs had become paralyzed owing to their long disuse. It is said he came to Japan A. D. 613, and died there. The lion. Unpainted wood. Height, I inch. Inclosed in subject is often treated with irreverential humor by artists of the popular black lacquered shrine, the interior of which is gilded. school. The saint is sometimes reduced to a comical head and round Height, 3 inches. (Lent by Mr. John T. Morris.) body, divested altogether of arms and legs, which are supposed to have 49 I. BISHAMONTEN, standing. Warrior in full armor, withered away from disuse.” holding a miniature. pagoda. Unpainted wood. Height, 494. KICHIM~JIN(Sanskirt Hâriti, or DaitjaMâtri). 2.5 inches. Inclosed in a black lacquered shrine, the in- ‘Female figure of repellant aspect with horns, canine tusks, terior of which is gilded.Height, inches. (Lent 4.25 and barependant breasts. Bronze. Made by Munesada by Dr. Edward H. Williams.) Nakao, Osaka. Height, 6.75 inches. (Lentby Mr.

The image of Vaiçramana, the Brahminic Kuvera, or pod of Wealth, Frank Wister.) % with those of his brethren, is constantly found in the more important H%riti or Anti, once adevourer of infants, was converted by Çakya- Buddhistic temples of China and Japan. Inthe latter country he is Muni and became a Buddhist nun. She is now worshiped as a protector of children, and in China her image is often seen in convents. In Japan JAPANESE BUDDHISM. 129 128 RELIGIONS OF JAPAN. she is more frequently represented in her unconverted state, as one of others hold avadjra, bow, arrows, bell, and lotus. ‘The the Rakchas?, devouring the five hundred offspring to which she had ground is strewn with sacred gems. been compelled to give birth as a punishment for her evil deeds. 2. FUDOMIO O, seated upon apedestal, holding a sword and a coil of rope. 495. Buddhist priest, standingand holdinga nio-i. is a Wood, carved. Height, 8.125 inches. (Lent by Dr. Ed- Aizen Mia O transformation of Atchala, the Insatiable. Fudo ward H. Williams.) Mi0 O (Fu, without ; do, movement), (Sansltrit Atchala-Mahakrödh- rajah) is a transformation of Dai-Nichi (Sanskrit Adi-Buddha). 496. Temple bell. Bronze cauldron shaped bell. Di- Such amulets are carried by warriors, either a matter of devotion or ameter, 13.25 inches. Height, 16.375 inches. Supported with the hope of being preserved by the grace of these gods, who are upon a wooden stand, painted red and gilded. Height, patrons of soldiers. 15.5 inches. The bell rests directly upon a cushion of 501’. Mokugyo. Drum inthe formof a fish,used in white, orange, and purple cloth. (Lent by Dr. Edward H. Buddhistic worship. Wood. Width, 8 inches. (Lent by Williams.) Mr. John T. Morris. j 497. Nio-i. Carved wood, in the form of a fungus, 502. Temple lanterns (pair), used in Buddhist temples. with silken cord.Wood, unpainted. Length, about 12 Bronze. Height, 40 inches. (Lent by Mr. Thomas Hock- inches. (Lent by Dr. Edward H. Williams.) ley. ) The Nio-i (Chinese ju-i), is a short curveil wand commonly termi- 503. Candlestick. A Kirin (Chinese K’i-lin), uni- nating in a kind of trefoil, at the extremity opposite to the handle. It corn, on pedestal, holding a flower branch in itsmouth, the is probably symbolical, according to Mr. Anderson, of the power of the candlebeing placed onthe topmost flower.Bronze. Faith. In Japanit ischiefly used by the Zen sect. It is saidto be Height, 29.75 inches. (Lent by Mrs. JohnHarrison.) employed by priests, who were formerly the school-masters, to reprove their pupils. Used in Buddhist temple. The Chinese consider that there are four Supernatural Animals. According to the Li M (see page Sg), they are 498. Batoncarried by ahigh priest. A staff carved the Fung (Phœnix), Kwei (Tortoise), Lung (Dragon), and Lin (‘‘Uni- in the form of a lotus stem with leaves, terminating in a corn”). The K’i-lin is a composite animal having the body of a deer, lotus bud, with a door hinged atthe base. Opened, the tail ofan ox, and a single horn. It is described as the noblest of it discloses a seated image holding a bell. Wood, painted. animal creation and an emblem of perfect good. As ir Buddhistic ani- Length, inches. (Lent by Mr. John T. Morris.) mal it is said to tread so lightly as to leave no footprints, and so cau- 29 tiously as to crush no living creature. The appellation K’i-lin is com- 499. Shari-tô.Reliquary. Sphere of crystal inclosed pounded of K’i, the male, and Lin, the female animal. in three plates of brass in the form of flames, supported 504. Koro, with three legs, surmounted with aKirin. upon a pedestal, of which the-upperpart represents a Bronze, inlaid with gold and silver. Wooden base. lotus. Height, 3.25 inches. Lentby Dr. Edward H. Height, 13 inches. (Lentby Mr. CarlEdelheim.) Williams.) 505. Koro.Circular wooden box, with six rounded 500. Amulet. Lacquered box (diameter, 2.125 inches), segments, decorated with swallows and butterflies in gold composed of two flattened hemispheres, the inner surfaces lacquer on black ground. A copper box, with open-work of which bear images carved in relief: cover, fits into theouter box. Height, 4.75 inches. I. AIZENMIO O, seated upon a lotus, with flaming halo (Lent by Mr. Francis C. Macauley. j and six arms. One hand is clenched and threatening, the 130 RELIGIONS OF JAPAN. JAPANESE BUDDHISM. ‘3’

506. Koro, with four legs, with handles in the form of ’ 512. Photograph. Buddhist temple and graveyard. lions, and decorated with a Kirin in relief on each of the (Lent by Stewart Culin.) four sides. Glazed pottery. Height, 8inches. (Lent by 513. Temporary ridge-pole of a Japanese house. Un- Mr. Carl Edelheim.) painted wood. Length, g5 inches. The pole is encircled 507. Koro. Circular vase with three legs,with two handles with seven, five, and three black bands, (seven, five, and in the form of elephants’ heads, with suspended rings, at the three being regarded as a lucky numerical sequence), and sides. Bronze, with decorations of batsand geometrical is inscribed in Japanese text as follows : ‘‘ Meiji Period, designsin niello, Height, 6.5 inches. Wooden cover a3d year (188g), 7th month, Ist day, successfully finished. has decorations of bats in open relief, and is surmounted By order of Mr. John T. Morris, United States of America, with algamatolite knob in the form of ascending smoke. Philadelphia. Builder Tokahashi Daisuke constructed Supported upon a carved black wood base. Entire height, this house.” 14 inches. (Lent by Mr. John T. Morris.) One end of the pole is cleft and several strips of white 508. Koro. Iron, inlaid with silver. Crest of .the paper, cut in a peculiar manner-gohei‘are inserted. The Mikado. Height, 4.125 inches. (Lent by Dr. Edward pole is wrapped with a strip of white paper at this place, H. Williams.) tied with the red and white paper strings-midzuhiki. A sog. Koro. Cup-shaped vase, decorated with Buddhist similar wrapper at the other end is inscribed with the Chi- saints and supported upon three legs, surmounted with nese character Shau (Japanese Jiu) ‘‘ Long life. ’’ Several lions’ heads. Glazed pottery (Satsuma). Height,, 3 objects are fastened to the pole, comprising three folding inches. (Lentby Mr. Carl Edelheim.) fans, extended to form a disc, strips of cotton cloth, red, 510. Prehistoric bell. Bronze. Height, 22.5 inches. white, and yellow, vegetable fibres dyed yellow, and a

(Lent by Mr. Benjamin Smith Lyman.) small metal toilet mirror, a coarse comb, and a “ switch ”

Bells like this, of various heights, from a couple of inches up to five of human hair. The last three articlesare usually bor- feet, have been dug out of the ground in Japan, chiefly in the more rowed from the wifeof the owner of the house. (Gift of central provinces and Shikoku, quite frequently since A. D. 669. None Mr. John T. Morris.) has ever been found on the surface of the ground ; and none with any. This pole is erected when the framework of a house is completed, it inscription. Their origin and use are not known ; but it seems proba- being the occasion of a ceremony called Mune-agi., “ Ridge pole put- ble they were hung as ornaments at the eaves of the many stories of ting up.” This pole is allowed to remain about two days. tower-shaped pagodas, datingperhaps from about 1500 years ago. Professor E. S. Morse has suggested that they may have been incense- burners. (U. S. L.)

5 II. Photograph.Amida, at Hase, near Yokohama. This colossal bronze image probably dates from I 2 5 2 A. D., and is the largest Buddhist image in Japan. Its height is 49 feet 7 inches, and circuAference 97 feet 2.2 inches. The eyes arepure gold and the silver boss weighs 20 pounds. 132 REL1C;IONS OF JAPAN. SEVEN GODS OE GOODFORTUNE. I33

SEVENGODS OFGOOD FORTUNE. 5. Ilishamon Ten, orTamon Ten. This divinity is wellknown to students of Buddhism as the Brahminic Ihvera or Hindu Plutus, and The little group of divinities known as Shichi-fuku-jin, as Vâicramana,the Mahâradja of thenorthern quarter of Mount or Seven Gods of Good Fortune, according to Mr. William Sumeru. Notwithstanding his fierce looks and martial guise, he is not Anderson, form a sort of popular appendage to Japanese especially associated with military glory, but is more particularly a God Buddhism. By most of theforeign writers upon Japan, of Wealth. these seven divinities are assumed to be charged with 6. Ben-zai Ten (popularly abbreviated to Benten), the Devi of Elo- quence and Talents, like Bishamon and Daikoku, is the object of a special functionsin relationto the lower world, This seriouscult. She is identifiedwith Sarasvati. (See page 27.) embodies the suggestions which their pictorial representa- 7. Ju-r6,or Ju-re-jin, the Genius of Longevity, is thelast of the tions naturally awaken, but such an arrangement, that par- generallyaccepted group. His attributes are the same as those of titions out the task of supervision of the various worldly Fuku-roku-jiu; the crane, white stag, and tortoise appertaining to either, needs of man amongst a series of presiding powers does and their names are often interchangeable. He nearlyalways retains his imposing figure, and in the merry groups of the Shichi-fuku-jin gen- not seem to have entered the thoughts of those who grouped erally seems tohe looking ou at his companions with a sage indulgence thedivine beingstogether. Theyare nominallya Bud- that pardons but does not share their mirth. dhist assemblage,but the separate elements of the little group are derived from no less than four different sources- 514-520. SHICHI-FUKU-JIN.Seven Gods of GoodFor- Brahmanism, Buddhism,Taoism, and Shintoism. There tune. Seven Shakudö,bronze images inhigh relief, is no clue to the authorship or period of this heterogeneous representing theseven gods with their attributes,exquisitely assemblage, but it has no clam to great antiquity, notwith- decorated with various colored metals-gold, silver, cop- standing the more or less remote origin of its individual per. Height from 2.75 to 4.25 inches. (Lentby Dr. members. Edward H. Williams.) 52 I. FUKU-ROKU-JIU,standing, holding peach. Carved I. Fuku-roku-jiu. The pseudonym of theold man with thetall wood. Height, 9.25 inches. (Lentby Mrs. JohnHar- head signifies “Wealth, Prosperity,and Longevity.” (See No. 233.) He has nothing worthy of the name of a history, and his very identity rison.) is hopelesslyentangled with that of Ju-rb-jin. He is,however, un- 522. FUKU-ROKU-JIG,holding a staff in right hand and doubtedly of Taoistorigin, perhaps representing Láu Tsz’ himself. * a peach inthe left. Silver gilt. Height, 3 inches. (Lent 2. Daikoku, who appears to have no artistic prototype in China. As by Mr. Carl Edelheim.) a Buddhistic divinity, he is identical with Mahakala (of which his name 523. FUKU-ROKU-JIU,seatedupon a rock,holding a is a translation), the black-faced god placed before the gates of Indian and Chinese temples. ‘There are several forms under which he is rep- deer.Partially glazed,so-called Corean pottery. Height, resented, the one as seen in modern works of art being that of a sturdy 5.25 inches.(Lent by Mr.Carl Edelheim.) figure habited in the ancient dress of a well-to-do Chinese burgher. In 524. EBISU,holding fish under his arm. Wood, carved. his right hand he holds a mallet, while his left hand grasps the mouth Height, 6. I 25 inches. (Lent by Dr. William Pepper.) of asack that is slung across hisshoulder. He standsupon a well- 525. HOTEI,with sack. Bronze. Height, 8.125 inches. filled pair of rice bales. 3. fibisu, the fisherman, is a Japanese, hut his sole claim to considera- (Lent by Dr. Francis W. Lewis.) tion is the fact that he was the son of Izanagi and Izanami. 526. HoTEI. Wooden box.Carved figure of the god 4. Hotei, half Taoist, half Buddhist, is perhaps the least dignified of forms thelid. Diameter, 6.5 inches. (Lent by Mr. the seven. For an account of him, see W-thi (No. 363). Thomas Hockley.) I34 RELIGIONS OF JAPAN. RELIGIONS OF JAPAN. 155

527. Candlesticks(pair). Man with long arms (Tén- ket containing fish. Carved ivory. Height, 5. I 25 inches. aga), seated upon arock, supports holder for candle. (Lent by Mr. Simon A. Stern.)

Bronze. Height, ,13.75 inches. (Lent by Mr. Thomas 533, NI-o. ‘6 TwoKings.” Image, representing one Hockley.) ’ of the Two Kings who are placed at the entrance of Bud- 528. Dragon, holding crystal ball. Silver bronze. dhist temples. Painters are at work upon the figure, and a Width of coil, g inches. (Lent by Dr. Edward H. Wil- woman carrying a child upon her back stands at its side. liams.) Carved ivory. Height, 4.5 inches. (Lent by Mr. Simon ‘The Japanese Dragon (Chinese Lung; Japanese Rio or Tatsu) is a A. Stern.) faithful transcript of the models received in early times from Chinese TheseTemple Guardians are the Indian Brahma and Indra. This artists, and although long since thoroughly incorporated with the native image,which grasps a vadjra (No. 407), representsTaishaku Ten, traditions, its original characters do not appear to have undergone any Indra. alteration. 534. SHOKI(Chinese Chung Kw’ei), surprisingthree The dragon, according to Mr. Mayers, is the chief among the four divinely constituted beasts (see No. SOI), and is a legendary monster, demons, one of whomis pointingto the picture of a depicted by Chinese tradition as a four-footed reptile, resembling in its woman ona screen. Carved ivory. On teakwood stand. shape the huge saurians which palnontologists have brought to light Height, 2.615 inches. (Lent by Mr. Thomas Hockley.) in recent years. Chung Kw’ei, the Demon-Queller, a favorite myth of the Chinese, The early cosmogonists declared that there are four kinds of Lung, was supposed to be a ghostly protector of the Emperor Ming Hwang of which many accounts are given. Thus it is said, there is the celes- (713-762 A. D.). He is usuallyrepresented a burly, truculent giant tial dragon, which guards the mansionsof the gods, and supports them, clad in official garb and armed with a two-edged syord. He is com- that they do not fall ; the spiritual dragon, which causes the winds to monly shown as punishing or compelling to menial service a band of blowand produces rain for the benefit of’mankind; the dragon of pigmy demons who adopt the most comical subterfuges to escape from earth,which marks out the courses of rivers andstreams; and the the keen eye of their persecutor. dragon of hidden treasures, which watches over wealth concealed from mortals. A peculiardescription of pearl, possessing magic virtues, is 535. SHI YEI. A man rkading a book and riding upon said to be carried by the dragon upon its forehead. Dr. De Groot in- a winged and horned carp. Ivorycarving. Height, 4.5 clines to the belief that the origin of .the dragon is to be found in the inches. (Lent by Mr.Thomas Hockley.) crocodile, rather than in the extinct species of saurians, or in the snake 536. GAMA SENNIN.A wild-looking being, lying upon as suggested by Mr. Anderson. his stomach, with a frog perched upon his back. Bronze. 529. Lions (pair), mounted on pedestals. . Bronze. Length, 4 inches. (Lent by Mr.Carl Edelheim.) Height, 13 inches.(Lent by Dr. Edward H. Williams.) Gama Sennin is the Japanese appellation of a Taoist Rishi, of whom 530. KW~~NNON, standingupon a dolphin, and carrying little can be discovered beyond the statementhe lived in the mountains a basket offish. Carved ivory. Height, 7 inches. (Lent and had as a companion a frog or toad (whence the name “ Gama”). by Mr. Cornelius Stevenson.) The toad is frequently represented as having three legs and in the act of exhaling a rainbow or nriruge. 531. KWANNON,holding a hsket containing fish in 537. Netsuke, in form of Fuku-roku-jiu. Carved ivory. right hand, and in left akoro, from which smoke is as- Height, 1.5 inches. (Lent by Mr. Carl Edelheim.) cending. Carved ivory. Height, 6.5 inches. (Lentby The netsuke is a kind of carved button of wood or ivory, which is Mr. .Simon A. Stern.) attached to the cord of the tobacco pouch, ink horn, or medicine box, 532. KWANNON, standingon a lotus and holding a bas- and thrust through the girdle. 136 RELIGIONS OF JAPAN. 538. Netsuke, in form of Daruma. Carved wood. Height, 1.5 inches. 539. DARUMA,seated. Carved dark wood. Height, 1.25 inches. (Lent by Mr. Carl Edelheim.) MO1HAMMEDANISM. 540. Magatama, ‘‘ Curved Jewels ” (six), of chalce- . ~~ . dony, amygdaloid,steatite, and serpentine, one inthe

I form of aring. Length from 2 to 6.25 inches. (Lent Islam,” says Renan, ‘‘ was the last religious creation by Mr. Francis C. Macauley.) of humanity.” It bursts into veiw at thebeginning of Magatama is the name given by the Japanese to a small stone object the seventh century of our era. Its birthplace is Mecca, of prehistoric origin, believed by the Japanese to have been made by an ancientsettlement in Arabia,which acquired importance the gods andtherefore collected and preserved in Shinto temples. It through its position onthe high road of the caravans is one of their peculiarities that the hole with which they are pierced is invariably smaller at oneend than the other. It has beensuggested passing constantly between Syria and Yemen ; its founder that they are conventionalized representations of bear’s claws. is Mohammed, atrue son of Arabian soil. About the year 610, Mohammed, thena man of mature years, un- lettered, but with experience of the world, gained as a merchant, journeying annually to north andsouth, and possessing some knowledge of Christianity and Judaism, which he gathered chiefly through intercourse with Christians and Jews on his travels, inaugurated a religious revolution in his native town by denouncing the religious practices of the Arabs. As a substitute for the worship of many deities, some of a local character, others the personification of natural forces, he proclaimed the doctrine of one power presiding over the universe and ruling all mankind’. After endeavoring in vain for a number of years to convert to his faith the family to which he belonged-the Koreish- in whose custody there had been for many years a favorite sanctuary of the Arabs, known from its dice-llke shape, as the Caaba-i. e., the cube-he is finally forced, in the year 622, by the opposition which he arouses to leave the city with a small band of adherents. As the scene of his future activity he chooses acity, Jathrib by name, situated some distance to the north of Mecca, and where he at once found a fruitful soil for his teachings. His fol- lowers increase as his fame spreads throughout the peninsula of Arabia, until he considers himself strong enough I31 13% MOHAXIMEDANISM. XIOHAhihIEDANISbI. I 39 toplan an attack upon Mecca. He entersthe city in andthe theologies thathave grownup inher midst are triumph.His former opponents flock to his side,and but variations of this ZeitmohJ But, however intricate theair is filled with theshout, henceforth to be the and manifold the theories and speculations with regard to watchword of the new religion, “There.is but one God, the nature and essence of the one power, called by Moham- l and Mohammed is His messenger.” In gratitude for the med Allah, a term whose original meaning seems to have aid it furnished him at a criticalmoment in hiscareer, been “The Strong,”they never obscured thepractical Mohammed makes Jathrib the capital of the State which side of the religion, well characterized by the name sug- he establishes in connection with his religion, and in re- gested for it by Mohammed-eZ-ZsZunz, which literally ren- turn the city becomes known for all times as the Medinet- deredisThe Surrender.;” but, which, throughthe el-Nabî, the city of the Prophet, or more briefly, el-Medi- double meaningof the underlying stem conveys to the Mo- neh-i. e., The City. The greater part of Arabia soon be- hammedan the sense of peace of soul and mind, attend. came subject tohim, and his ambitiontaking higher ant upon a surrender of one’s self to God. Theterm assumes flight, he plans campaigns destined to spread his teachings the existence of the Deity, and emphasizes the chief duty beyondthe confines of theArabian peninsula. Death devolving upon the believer-complete resignation to overtakes him in the year 632 while busy with these plans, the will and power of Allah. Hence,the comparatively and he leaves to his trusty lieutenants the task of bringing little influence that the theological and philosophical sys- theentire world underthe standard of theprophet. In tems which arose within Islam have had upon the develop- a remarkably short time the Arabs overrun Persia, Mesa- ment of thereligion, for after all has been said and all potamia, Palestine, Syria, Asia Minor, Egypt, Sicily, and has been thought, there remains the alpha and the omega Spain,and withthese conquests,, Islamenters as a per- -IsZdvt, thecommand tosurrender.” “Allahknows manent factor in the world’s history; and overcoming the allabout it” is the final answer thatMohammedanism obstacles which proved fatal to an Alexander, the nloslems gives tothe cravings of thehuman mind for certain carried the standard of their new religion and State across knowledge. the waters of the Ganges. To-daythe sway of Islam- The belief in Mohammed as the messenger of God is for professed by over onehundred and twenty millions of * the Mohammedan a historical fact rather than an article of people-extends from extremeIndia and the borders of hisfaith. To the ordinary manAllah is unknowable and China across to the Mediterranean, and, despiteserious in- unsearchable. He is notthe living Father watching over roads, stillcontrols the greater part of thelands lying his children ; He is the powerful Sultan sitting invisible be- aroundthe Mediterranean (with theexception of Italy , hind the curtain, accessible only to his chosen courtiers- and Spain), while in return for the losses she has sustained the grandviziers. Mohammed is one of the favorites to at the northern points of her domain, there has been more whom Allah has revealed Himself, and apart from the dis- than a corresponding gain through the new triumphs sig- tinction of beingthe last of theDivine messengers, he nalledin the centre and south of Africa. Thedoctrines does not differ from thelong line of such messengers, of Islam aremarked by their extreme simplicity- Adam,Noah, Abraham,Lot, Salich, Hud and Jesus, amounting almost to bareness. There is butone God with whom he associated himself. Allah, however, brooks is thesingle melody thatrings through their religion, no real associates, and even Mohammed canonly pass \IOH.43I\IEI).~NIS~I. 14 I 140 hlOHAMMEDANISM. within two bow-shots ’’ of thethrone of grace.The abstains fromall food, daily, from sunrise to sunset. ‘The personality of Mohammedplays nopart in the worship nights are devoted to feasting and jollification. and rites of Islam, and even in its theology, his rôle apart Every Mohammedan is obliged to perform the pilgrim- fromthe fact thathe was’ the bearer of messages from. age to Mecca at least once in his life, though in case of his Allah, is not accorded any special prominence. absolute inability to doso, he can engagesome one to per- The rites of Islam reflect the simplicity of its doctrines. form the rite in hisstead. Upon approaching the sacred There are in the main five duties devolving upon the be- precinct of Mecca, the Harâm, as it is called and whichem- liever: (I) Ceremonialpurification; (2) prayer; (3) braces a circuit of two miles on all sides of the city, the fastingduring the sacred month ; (4) the pilgrimage to pilgrim takes off his ordinary dress and assumes the Mecca, and (5) the legal poor tax.All of these rites are pilgrim’sgarb, called ihrcim, whichconsists of two regulated with scrupulous nicety. pieces of cloth,one tied around the loins, theother Before prayer orany religious actthe Mohammedan thrown across the shoulders. Head, arms, and feet washes his hands with water if accessible, with sand in the must be bare,though sandals are permitted to those in- absence of water. Similarly, afterincurring any real or capable of enduringthe hot and stony ground. As soon symbolical uncleanness (e. g., by touchinga corpse), he per- as possible after his arrivalat Mecca, the pilgrimpro- forms ablutions of his entire body or of certain portions ceeds to the ancient sanctuary of the Koreish family-the of it-the rite and its regulations being similar to the He- Caaba-marches seven times around it, reciting certainfor- brew ordinances set down in the Book of Leviticus. muk, and each time that he comes to the corner facing Five times daily-(a) between day-breakand sunrise, the East he kisses the sacred Black Stone,” which is im- (6) at noon, (c) afternoon shortly before sunset, (d) after bedded in the wall at a height of about four feet. He does sunset, (t) at night-the Moslem turns to Mecca in prayer. not enter the Caaba, and, indeed, it is not often that any The prayers, consisting of recitations takenfrom the Koran, oneobtains permission to scale theladder, by means of and of formulz involving chiefly a recognition of God’s which alone the entrance can be reached. After the seven greatness and His power, are accompanied by certain pos- circuits, the pilgrim passes through the gate on the east side tures of the body-five chiefones with five variati0.m- of the court-yard in which the Caaba stands, to a small hill called Safa, and runs rapidlyseven times to and fro between some of these repeated so that a complete ‘‘ prayer ” cycle consists of fourteen attitudes. On Friday, which is a day Safa and a second hill, Marwa, situated some zoo yards of general assembly, but otherwise bears no sacred’charac- distant.These two acts-the circuit, called the Ta70ûA ter, there are in addition to public prayers, two sermons and the Sa’ai, the “ run ”-constitute what is called the delivered in the mosque by the Imâm-i. e., leader, who is minorpilgrimage,” and may be performed atany generally areligious teacher. The personal petitionto season of the year. Besides this, there is the ‘‘ major pil- Allah plays a subsidiary part in the ritual. grimage,” only to be performed during theDm-d‘-Ha@- Duringthe month of Ramadan, which, owing, tothe i. e., monthof pilgrimage-and which, inaddition to regulation of the calendar by the movements of the moon the rites described, consists of an excursion throughthe alone, may fall at any time of the year, the Mohammedan Valley of Mina, just outsideof the city, a distance of three miles to the foot of a mountain called Am&‘. The march 142’ MOHAMbiEDANISM. BfOHA1\lJiEDANISM. ‘43

to Arafat takes place en masse on the 8th dayof the month heathenism. Prayerand fasting aredirect importations of pilgrimage, the pilgrims arrivingat their destination from Judaism and Christianity, while the ceremonial puri- generaily on the evening of that day. The night is spent fication is a survival of the “ animistic ” stage of religion, atthe foot of the mountain,which is ascendedat day- preserved by Mohammed through the example of surround- break of the 9th day. The dayis spent in prayers and listening nations, bothprimitive and advanced. The fifth of ing to a sermon, which, beginning early in the afternoon, the chief duties is the legal poor-tax-an assessment of about is obliged by regulation to last till sunset. The same even- two and one-half per cent. on personal pioperty, originally ing the departure from Arafat takes place, and on the re- levied for the support of the poor,but developinginto turn to Mecca the pilgrims make a halt at a mosque, Mcrz- a revenue for the State. dalifa, where the rest of thenight is spent. After Besides the doctrines and the rites described, a promi- prayers begun atdaybreak of thenext day, the proces- nent feature of Islam is the Koran. sion passes on to the Valley of Mina, where again a halt The Koran, consisting of I 14 divisions or Stir-as (liter- is made for the purpose of bringing a sacrifice-the only ally“walls ” or ‘(partitions),” purports tobe the ad- survival of the ancient rite in Islam. Every pilgrim must dresses of Mohammeddelivered duringhis career, both sacrifice a sheep or a camel, and with this act thepilgrimage at Mecca and Medina. The collection was made within is considered at an end. Most of the pilgrims, however, a few years after the death. of the prophet, at the com- spend three days in the valley, called the ‘I three days of mand of Omar, thesecond caliph (which signifies meat-eating,” and which, as the name implies, are devoted simpiy successor of Mohammed). Oraltradition was un- to jollification. Theentire valleyis covered with tents, doubtedlythe chiefsource inthe gathering of the wherein the pilgrims, returningto the custom of their speeches, though it is probable that in the later years of ancestors, house for thetime being, and the spectacle Mohammed’scareer, the speeches were takendown by witnessed during these three days is exceedingly pictur- some of hissecretaries orauditors. The language and esque, thoughalso.exceedingly boisterous. Uponthe re- thoughts of theKoran are a reflection of Mohammed’s turnto Mecca thepilgrim removes his ihnînz, indulges mind,and in this sense it is anauthentic work of his. in the luxury of a wash and a shave-acts forbidden from Consisting of admon.itions, of explanation of doctrines, his approach to the sacred precinct until the end of the of repliesto opponents, of stories introducedpartly in essential rites of pilgrimage, and henceforthhe assumes illustration of his views, partly, particularly inlater the title of a Ha&-i. e., one who has performed the pil- years, to sustain the interest of his auditors,the Koran grimage, or Ha@. Recent investigations have shown that presents a rathercomposite aspect. Ifto this be added the goal of the pilgrimage to Mecca was originally not the the abruptness of style, frequentlybreaking off inthe Caaba, but the sacredmountain Arafat. Mohammed, middle of a thought to pass toanother of a different pledged by tradition and natural affection to the sanctu- order, not to speak of the logicalgaps in the unfolding ary of his family, brought the Caaba into prominence by of an argument, and the constant and all too brief refer- connecting the rites associated with it with the far more ences to events and personages connected withMoham- importantand moregeneral worship of themountain. med, it is naturalthat atranslation, and be it the best, The Hadj is the link that unites Islam to ancient Arabic can furnish but an imperfect picture of its real character, I44 MOHAMMEDANISM. MOHAMMEDANISM. I45 and much less explain the powerful hold that it still has 542. Coran. Lithographed.Dated 1273 A. H. upon the adherents of Islam. Read, however, in the light Size, 10x13 inches. (Lent by B. F. M. P. C.) of Mohammed’s character, with the assistance of the 543. Coran.Lithographed. Lucknow (India), 1865. abundant traditionsconcerning him which have been Size, 9.5~13inches. (Lent by the Library of the Univer- studiously collected by Mohammedan writers, !he Koran sity of Pennsylvania.) becomes the chief source for a psychological study of 544. Coran. Persian. For pocket. Illuminated MS. Mohammed, and once understanding Mohammed, the Hexagonal. Diameter, 4 inches. (Lent by Mr. Talcott key is found for the solution of the chief problems that Williams. j Islam presents. Used principally as a talisman and carried upon the person. In the hands of the Persians, who early adopted Islam, Illuminated roll, containing many chapters of the the Koran becomes the foundation for agreat structure 545. Coran. Writtenon parchment paper. Width, inches. of theology, which, while it promoted the intellectual 3 Length, 142 inches. (Lentby B. F. M. P. C.) activity that, communicating itself to the Arabs, and Moorish (Moslem) Prayer-book. Illuminated spreading to other disciplines, had its outcome in the lit- 546. MS. Contains prayers, lists of companions of Moham- erary and scholastic productions, that marked for some med, etc. A. H. (A. D. Size, centuries the sway of Islam, particularlyin Egyptand 1305. 1888.) 4.5x4.5. , (Lent by Mr. Talcott Williams.) Spain, also changed the theoretical aspect of Islam, and Arabic text, printed in gold upon black paper, directly accelerated thesplitting up of the religion into 547. such as are commonly pasted up in shops and dwellings : numerous sects. However, as intimated above, the practi- Says the Prophet, (God be gracious unto him and grant cal side of the religion was but little affected by this disin- him peace) : Khâna mihmar sajjîo el-kaum, which means tegrating process, and since, by virtue of the non-differen- apparently that a gossip betrays a people’s ruler.’ ” Size tiation of the religious and policial functions in the Mo- inches. (Gift ofMrs. John Harrison.) hammedan State, the political and social character of these 18x23 Moorish prayer-book incurrent use. Illuminated sects predominated over their purely religious aspect, 548. MS. Size, inches. (Lent byMr. Talcott Wil- theyled tothe division of the staterather than of the 3.25~3.25 liams.) l religion. The latter, to thisday, successfully resisting all inroads of modernthought, .presents throughout its The names of Allah, Mohammed, and other particular sacred words wide domain a strikingly homogeneous character. are written with colored ink. Dr. Morn>Jastrow, Jr. 549, Ceremonies et Coutumes ReZzgieuses de tous ,?es PeopZes du Monde. Bernard Picart.Tome cinquieme Cerémonies des Mahometaans Amsterdam, MDCCXXVII. 541. Coran, written in the mosque of Omar, Jerusalem, Quarto.(Lent by U. S. National Museum, Smithsonian A. H. 1252. (A. D. 1832). Size, 4x6 inches. (Lent by Institution, Washington, D. C.) Mr. Talcott Williams.) 550. Stand for Coran. Carved wood. Height, 8.75 inches. Cairo. (Lent by Mr. Herbert Friedenwald.) This is the orthodox and ordinary size and shape of the workfor personal use. 551. Stand for Coran. Carved wood. 146 MOHAMMEDANISM. MOHAMMEDANISM. I47

552. Bag for Coran. Crochetted cotton thread, orange, of 33 each by one long and two short wooden pendants. yellow, and green, decorated with beads of various colors, Olive wood. Constantinople. (Lent by Mr. Herbert Frie- in conventional designs. (Lentby Miss Helen Bunker.) denwald.)

Worn slung under thearm as a charm. Used to count the Surahs of the Coran as repeated. 553-557. Statuettes representing the five principal atti- 564. Set of silver studs strung upon a silver chain. tudes of prayer : Shiite” talisman. Each stud bears an invocationas I. Upright position at beginning, expressing intention follows, beginning at one end on the first stud : O Allah ! to say so and so many rekas. second, O Mohammed ! third, O Ali ! fourth, O Fatima ! 2. At the words, “1 acknowledge the perfection of my (wifeof Ali) ; fifth, O Hassan ! sixth, O Hussein ! sev- Lord, the Great One ” (three times repeated.) enth, O Good One ! eighth, O Merciful One ! ninth, O

3. At the words, 6‘ God is great.” Beneficent One ! (Lent by Mr. John T. Morris.) 4. At the words, God is great.” (‘ The last three are names of God. 5. At the words, The perfection ofmy Lord, the Most High.”(Three times repeated.) 565. Sandals (pair) worn by children in andabout Algiers. Plaster. Height, from .S75 to 3.75 inches. Mecca. Soles of leather of many thicknesses, ornamented (Lent by Dr. Cyrus Adler.) on the inside with gold embroidery.Thongs of yellow 558. Photographs (two) representing six of the attitudes leather, with green leather decorations. (Lent by Mr. Her- of prayer, each attitude corresponding to certain formulz. bert Friedenwald.) A reka comprises seventeen different attitudes. (Lent by The following photographs, from No. 566 to No. 621, U. S. National Museum, Smithsonian Institution, Wash- intended to illustrate the monuments and customs of the ington, D. C.) Mohammedan East, were collected in the East by Mr. 559-560. Dervish cups (two). Brass. Diameter, 6.25 Herbert Friedenwald, bywhom they are lent to the and 5.875 inches. (Lent by Mr. Talcott Williams.) Museum. 566. Jerusalem. Mosque, El Aksa. Exterior view. The margin is inscribed with part of the opening chapter of the Coran, with other extracts, and the name of Ali often repeated. The fountain in front is said to have been originally fed with water from the so-called pools of Solomon, several miles beyond the city 561. Drum used by Dervishes intheir religious cere- limits. monies. Cairo. Diameter, 5.25 inches. (Lent by Mr. 567. Interior view. Alongside the upper arches are the Herbert Friedenwald.) names of the early Caliphs. Bell-shaped brass casting, covered at large end with skin. Beaten 568. Mimbar or pulpit. A handsome specimen of inlaid with a leather strap thataccompanies it. wood-work. The edges are inscribed with the ordinary 562. Ornament from the top ofstaff of begging Der- formula about Allah. vish. (See No. 613). Brass. Constantinople.Length, 569. Jermsakm. Mosque of Omar. General view, show- 6 inches. (Lent by Mr. Herbert Friedenwald.) ing ancient exterior and interior walls. In the distance is 563. Rosary of 99 beads, divided into three divisions seen the Mosque El Aksa. 148 MOHAMMEDANISM. MOHAMMEDANISM. I49 570. Exterior view, showing fountain and broad stairs 585. Cuiro. Fountainof ablutions in the court of the leading to arched entrance. Mosque of Sultan Hassan (1357 A. D.). ' 5 7 I. Exterior view, with fountain at side and well. 586. Cairo. Court-yard of the famous Mosque El- 572. Exterior wall of Mosque. Highlycolored tiling Azhar,the great Mohammedan University. Groups of and fine latticed windows, the gifts of various Sultans. professors and students in characteristic attitudes. 573. Above-mentionedarched entrance to Mosque, 587. Constantinopk. General view of Stamboul, as with a Mimbar made of delicately carved marble at the seen from bridge across theGolden Horn. At extreme side. left is the Mosque of St. Sophia ; in the foreground Yeni 574. Exterior view of the Golden Gate leading to in- Djami ; inthe distance to theright, the palaces of the closure around Mosque. Sheik-ul-Islam and of the Greek Patriarch. 575. Interior view of Golden Gate. 588. ConstantinopZe. Mosque of Yeni Djami. 576. Interior view of Mosque, showing the famous rock 589. Constantinople. Another view of MosqueYeni on which the Jewish Temple stood. The rock is surrounded Djami, as seen from wharves at Stamboul. by a wooden railing, within which it is forbidden to go. 590. Constantinopk. Mosque of reigningSultan, Beyond the railing is a high inclosure of iron work. Ceiling Ahmed II, with the palace of the Sultan to the left. is handsome mosaic work. 59 I. ConstnntinopZe. Mosque of reigningSultan, 577. Interior view of Mosque, with doorleading to AhmedII. Ceremony of Sultan's weekly visit tohis small shrine below rock. mosque, known as SeZaamZìk. 578. At side of entrance is a Mimbar, on top of which 592. Constanti?to?Ze. Fountain of ablutionsat entrance is a Coran-stand with Coran. In the arch above entrance to Mosque Nouri Osmanieh. is name of Allah, andabove that a quotation from the 593. ConstantinopZe. Mosque of St. Sophia, general view. Coran. 594. ConstanthopZe. Fountain of ablutionsin court- 579. Subterranean vault within inclosure of Mosque. yard of Mosque St. Sophia. So-called stables of Solomon. 595. ConstantinopZf. Entranceto St. Sophia. 580. Cairo. General view, showing greatvariety of 596. Constantinopk. Interior view. To theright of mosques. In the distance, the pyramid of Gizeh. the shrine is the Mimbar, or pulpit; to the left the special 581. Cairo. Citadel, withMosque Mohammed Ali, seat of theSultan. Along the upper row of pillars are known also as the alabaster mosque. To the right are the plaques containing the names of Allah, Mohammed, and tombs of the Khalifs. the early caliphs. 582. Cairo. Tomb Mosque Kaïd Bey, one of the 597. Constantinopk. Mosque of Ortakeui, on the Ros- Mameluke Sultans, who died 1496 A.D. (Before restora- phorus. tion.) 598. Constantinople. Mosque of SultanAhmed, known 583. Cairo. Tomb Mosque Kaid Bey. Restored by also as the mosque of the many minarets. the Vice-Royal Commission for the restoration of Ancient 599. Cairo. General view of anArabic cemetery. Arabic monumegs. 600. Consfantinojk. General view of a Turkish ceme- 584. Cairo. Interior of the mosque El-Merdani. tery. MOHAMMEDANISM. 51 1 50 MOHAMMEDANISM. ' 601. Constantinople. Turkish tombstone,with inscrip- 61%. Cairo. Arabs at prayer,showing useof prayer tion. rugs. 602. ConstanhnopZe. Turkish cemetery. Between the 619. Cairo. Arab boys studying the Coran. horns of the buffaloes in the foreground are to be seen 620. Cairo. Fountain and Arabic school of the Validé talismans made of vari-colored glass beads. Khediva. 603. Constantinople. Tombs of Sultans Mahmoud II, 62 I. Cairo. Decorated camels,with riders, who per- and Abdul Asiz. form upon the instruments before them. They form part 604. Palesfine. Tomb known as that of Elijah. of an Arab weddingprocession, and are seen quite fre- 605. Cairo. Tombs of the Khalifs. General view. quently in the streets. 606. Palestine. Tomb known as that ofSamuel.

607.I PaZeshne. Group of 'Druse girls. 608. PaZesh'ne. Drusewoman in wedding costume. 609. Constantinople. Throne of the Ancient Sultans in the famous old Seraglio Treasury. Is made of tortoise- shell and is inlaid with mother of pearl and precious stones. 610. Constantinople. Photograph from a sketch of the building in which the Dervishes dance. To the left in the gallery are the musicians. The dance consists of a whirl, beginning veryslowly and gradually getting faster and faster and lasts about fifteen or twenty minutes. It is conducted with the utmost solemnity. 61 I. ConsfuntinopZe. Group of Dancing Dervishes, showing their costume and their reed musical instrument.

612. Constantinople. Chiefof the Dancing or Whirl- a ing Dervishes. 613. Constantinople. A begging Dervish. In his hand he carries the staff, with peculiar ornamentation at the top, which is a symbol of his occupation. 614. Constantinople. Dervish, withstaff in one hand and the begging-bowl suspended from his arm. 615. Constantinople. BeggingDervish. Still seenin the streets of Constantinople. 616. Cairo. Dervish chief. 61 7. Cairo. Tents of the Dervishes at a Mouled or anniversary festival of the birth of a saint. NORTHWEST COAST. I53

gress so far, the imagination of the Peruvians being less active than that of thenorthern tribes. Moreover, we NATIVE AMERICAN RELIGIONS. have few accounts of the early religions of their various tribes. Their pottery is, however, remarkable for its accu- ___. ._ racy in the imitation of nature. The material objects illustrating the religions of the Dr. Daniel G. Brinton. American Indians of the area of the United States are not

___ ~ . numerous, as they were usually made of ‘perishable mate-. rial. The ceremonies in which they .were employed were NORTHWEST COAST. usually of the nature of jugglery, by the so-called ‘6 medicine men,” or were sacred dances. 622. Rattle in the form of a whale. Carved wood. To the former class belong the rattles, with which the Sitka, Alaska. Length, 10.5 inches. (Lent by Mr. John shaman summoned or exorcised the spirits under his con- T. Morris.) trol ; the “ medicine sticks,” on which were painted or 623. Rattle in the form of a bird. Carved wood. Sitka, inscribed the songs and rituals he chanted ; the bags or Alaska. Length, 12.5 inches. (Lent by Mr. John T. pouches of skin in which hecarried his amulets and Morris.) medicine ;” the ornaments which he wore distinguishing 624. Rattle inthe form of a bird. Carved wood. his craft, and the like. Length, 13 inches. Thisrattle is accompanied by abag To the latter class belongthe masks and costumes in made of the inner bark of the white cedar, in which it was which the actors in the sacred dances and dramas appeared contained. (Collection formerly belonging to Prof. E. D. in the ceremonial acts. Such impersonations are found all Cope.) over the continent, and the garbs were often manufactured 625. Rattle in the form ofa bird. Carved wood, painted with much ingenuity. red, blue, and black. Length, 13.5 inches. (Collection The worship of the northern tribes of the continent was -formerly belonging to Prof. E. D. Cope.) simple compared with that in Mexico, Central America, 626. Mask. Carved wood, painted blue, red, and and Peru. In these districts complex mythologies with black.Height, about 9 inches. (Collection formerly correspondingly elaborate cults were quite common. The belonging to Prof. E. D. Cope.) religion of Mexico was a polytheism, with hundreds of 627. Mask. Carved wood, painted red and black. deities, many of whom wore garbs of traditional form and Height, 8.75 inches. (Collection formerly belonging to color, and symbolic ornaments by which they can always Prof. E. D. Cope.) be recognized. The same is true of the Maya Nations, 628. Mask. Carved wood, paintedred, green, and who inhabited Tabasco, Yucatan, and Guatemala, and the black. Alaska. Height, 8.25 inches. (Lentby Mr. old authors give us considerable information on their myths Joseph G. Rosengarten.) and rites. The extreme and apparently aimless elaborate- 629. Mask, painted red, blue, and black with fur at top ness of the Mexican and Central American idols is in fact and porpoise teeth. Alaska. Length, 8 inches. (Lent a richly developed symbolism. In Peru thiadid not pro- by Mr. Joseph G. Rosengarten.) 152 I54 NATIVE AMERICAN RELIGIONS. UNITED STATES. ‘55 630. Mask. Carvedbone with copper eyes.Alaska. 638. Gorget, in the formof a fish.-4laska. Bone. Length, 6.25 inches. (Lent byMr. Joseph G. Rosengar- Width, 5.125 inches. (Lent by Mr. Joseph G. Rosengar- ten.) ten.) 631. Headdress in the form of the head of an animal. 639. Bag made of porpoise skin ornamented with beads, Wood, carved and painted, and decorated with plumes of simulating the form of a man, with head, legs, and arms, whalebone and feathers.Purchased atFort Wrangle. and cord for suspension. Carried by the Stikeen Siwash of (Lent by Mr. John T. Morris.) Alaska as a memorial of a deceased friend, whose ashes it 632. Drum. A hoop coveredwith hide, on the inner contains. Length of bag, 1.75 inches. (Gift ofMr. side of which is a grotesque face painted in red, and cords Robert T. Brinton.) by which it is held. Diameter, 12 inches. (Lent byMr. 640. Ichthyophallus. Stone. Length, 6.75 inches. Joseph G. Rosengarten.) Alaska. (Lent by Mr. Joseph G. Rosengarten.) 633. Ceremonial arrowwith flat shaft and pendants 641.Amulets (three), piercedfor suspension and tied coveredwith porcupine quills, and stone point. Alaska. together with cords ; a whale’s tooth (length, 3.5 inches) ; Length, 28 inches. (Lent by Mr. Joseph G. Rosengarten.) strip of ivory carved with a Russian inscription (length, 4. 634. Raven holding a mask before its breast.Carved inches), and a crescent-shaped piece of slate inscribed on stone, painted black.Alaska. Length, 4.375 inches. one side with a fish, and on the other with a Greek cross (Lent by Mr. Joseph G. Rosengarten.) surrounded with dots, overarched bytwo curved lines In the myths of most of the Northwest Coast tribes the creation of (width, 3 inches). Lent by Mr. Joseph G. Rosengarten.) the world is attributed to a great bird, a raven or crow, which brought The curved lines on the last amulet probably represents the firma- forth the visible universe. The dark storm clouds are spoken of as the ment, the dots, stars, and the cross, the four directions. shadows of its wings, and the thunder as the noise of their flapping. This demiurgic bird is still the mystic source of life. The present specimen shows it holding in its hands a mask; in other words, thehead ofa UNITED STATES. person who is masked for a sacred ceremony, and is vitalizing him as in the act of broodiqg. It is remarkable that precisely the same sym- 642 Rattle used by Sioux Medicine Man, consisting of bolism is the explanation of the winged globe,” so frequent on Egyptiad stick covered with deer skin and ornamented with blue and monuments, as has been shown by Mrs. Cornelius Stevenson. yellow beads, from which depend carved rattles made of an- 635. Pipe in the form of an eagle.Carved wood. telope’s hoofs. Beaded buckskin thongs, to one of which Height, 7.5 inches. (Lent by Mr. Joseph G. Rosengar- is fastened long strips of deer skin, are attached to one ten.) end of the stick. Length of stick, about 9 inches; of 636. AMULETof stone in the form of a bird. Purchasedl thongs, 45 inches. (Gift of Dr. William Pepper.) atFort Wrangle. Length, 3.5 inches. (Lentby Mr. 643. Rattle. A tin can, coveredwith deer-skin, upon John T. Morris.) which are designs of outstretched hands, worked in blue por- 637. BAG made of leather embroidered with porcupine cupine quills. A stick, covered with cotton cloth, and orna- quills to contain an amulet like the above. Purchased at mented with beads, which passes through the can, serves Fort Wrangle. Width, about 5 inches. (Lent by Mr, as a handle. Length, I 2 inches. (Collection formerly be- John T. Morris.) longing to Prof. E. I). Cope.) MEXICO. 156 NATIVEAMERICANRELIGIONS. I.í7 644. Rattle. Twisted twigs, containing stones. Wíscon- 653. CASTof the so-called Sacrificial Stone.Original sin.Length, 13.5 inches. in the City of Mexico. 645. Gorget of shell, with string of white beads attached. This is believed to be the stone upon which human victims were Worn when procured (1850) by Sioux Medicine Man, sacrificed to the gods. Dakota.Greatest diameter, 3.5 inches. (Gift ofDr. 654. MortuaryFigure, with the legs drawn up inthe F. Swartzlander.) position of the corpse at interment. Height, 17.5 inches. 646. Head of Indian Medicine Man's staff, carved with a 655. Idol (fragment). The face is marked with a cross human face. Dark wood. Length, 6.5 inches. (Lent in relief, and the upper part of the image, which alone re- by Dr. William Pepper.) mains, with two cup-shaped depressions. Stone. Height, 647. Drum, used in dances by theSioux Indians. A ring 14.5 inches. made of staves about 7.5 inches in depth, over one end of 656. Idol. Standing image, with head-dress, and hands which hide is stretched. The body of the drum is painted on breast. Black clay. Height, 17 inches. red, blue, and green, andthe top with the figure of a 657. Head of idol. Stone. Height, 7 inches. warrior and other devices, in the same colors. Diameter, 658. Head of idol. Stone. Height, 4.25 inches. 15 inches. Supported by thongs upon four painted forked 659. Head of idol. Volcanic rock. Height, 3.5 inches. sticks, which are drivenin the ground. (Lent by Capt. 660. Head of idol.Painted terra-cotta. Height, 7.5 C. N. B. Macauley, U. S. A.) inches. 648. Dance-stick. Carved wood, decorated with colored 661. Head of idol.Painted terra-cotta. Height, 6.25 porcupine-quills. Sioux Indians.Length, 40.5 inches. inches. (Lent by Captain C. N. B. Macauley, U. S. A.) 662. Idol. Seated image, with legs crossed. Terra- 649. Pole used in dances. Decorated with feathers. cotta,Height, 4.5 inches. Length, 96 inches. 663. Idol.Standing image, with head-dress. Terra- 650. GODOF WATER. Seated image of unglazed pottery. cotta. Height, 6.5 inches. Made by Pueblo Indians.Height, 5.25 inches. 664. Idol.Standing image. Terra-cotta.Height, 65 I.Idol. Seated image of unglazed pottery. Made by 5.375 inches. Pueblo Indians.Height, 8 inches. 665. Idol.Standing image. Terra-cotta.Height, 4.7 5 inches. MEXICO. 666. Idol.Infant, swathed, in cradle. Terra-cotta. Length, 3 inches. The objects Nos. 652 to 673 belongto the collection Idol. Seated image. Terra-cotta.Height, formerly the property of Prof. E. D. Cope. 667. 3.25 inches. 652. Cast of the so-called Calendar Stone. Original in the City of Mexico. 668. Idol.Standing image. Terra-cotta.Height 5.2 5 inches. This stone is probably a votive offering to celebrate a special occa- 669. Idol. Duplicate of above. sion. There are several theories concerning it, some maintaining that ,'670. it was the representation of a certain code of laws, and others that it Idol.Standing image. Steatite. Height, 8.625 was intended to represent the system of the Mexican calendar. inches. SAN DOMINGO, W. I.-PERU. '59 158 AMERICANNATIVERELIGIONS. 671. Idol. Standing image. Steatite. Height, 6.375 SAN DOMINGO, W. I. inches. 685. Zeme. Stone idol. Height, 9 inches. (Gift of 672. Moldforimage. Terra-cotta. Height, 6.625 Hon. John S. Durham.) inches. Found in the bed of a stream. 673. Image made in above mold. Plaster cast. Height, 6 inches. PERU. 674. Idol. Seatedimage. From the Mound of Teo- tihuacan. Blackclay. Height, 5.25 inches. (Lent by 686. Idol, fromAncon. Terra-cotta.Height, 4.875 Mr. Francis C. Macauley.) inches. (Lent by The Numismatic and Antiquarian Soci- 675. Idol.Standing image. From the Moundof ety of Philadelphia.) Teotihuacan. Blackclay. Height, 5.25 inches. (Lent 687. Idol, from Chancay. Terra-cotta.Height, 4.875 by Mr. Francis C. Macauley.) inches. chnt by The Numismatic and Antiquarian Society 676. Idol.Standing image. From the ruins of Mit- of Philadelphia.) Ian. Terra-cotta. Height, 5 inches. 688. Idol, from Chancay. Terra-cotta. Height, 4.5 677. IdoI. Seated image. From ruins of Tula. Terra- inches. (Lent by The Numismatic and Antiquarian Soci- cotta.Height, 1.875 inches. (Lent byMr. Francis C. ety of Philadelphia.) Macauley.) 689. Idol.Terra-cotta. Height, 2.75 inches. (Lent 678. Idol. Seatedimage. Terra-cotta. Height, 2.625 by The Numismatic and Antiquarian Society of Philadel- inches. (Lent by Mr. Francis C. Macauley.) phia.) 679. Idol. Seatedimage. Terra-cotta. Height, 2.375 690. Moldfor making idols, from Chancay. Terra- inches. (Lent byMr. Francis C. Macauley.) cotta.Height, 3.5 inches. (Lent by The Numismatic and Antiquarian Society of Philadelphia.) 680. Idol. Seatedimage. Alabaster. Height, 2 inches. (Lent by Mr. Francis C. Macauley.) 691. Cast,made in the abovemold. Height, 3. I 25 681. Idol. Black pottery. Height, 5.75 inches. (Lent inches. by Miss Alice Scott.) 682. Idol. Bronze. Height, 2 inches. '(Lentby The 682. Tablet, with image of a god in low relief. Terra- Numismatic and Antiquarian Society of Philadelphia.) cotta. Height, 8.25 inches. (Gift ofMr. Wilson Eyre.) 693. Idol. Bronze. Height, 2 inches. (Gift of Mr. 683. Serpent god. Seatedimage, holding two serpents Levy.) which are coiled about the leg and body of the image. Terra-cotta. Height, 17.375 inches. (LentbyB. F. M. P. C.)

YUCATAN. 684. Maya idol. Stone. Height, about 29 inches. (Collection formerly the property of Prof. E. D. Cope.) RELIGIONS OF POLYNESIA. 161

nounced as sacred, and none but the priests dare approach them. In some of the islands, colors had a sacred signifi- RELIGIONS OF POLYNESIA. cance, as red among the Maoris of New Zealand. The mythology of most of the islands was quite rich, . . ~~~~ ~_..- ~- and occasionally indicated a profoundness of thought 1 The religions of the Polynesians belong distinctly to the whichsurprises. The genealogy of the gods was usually lower stages of the expressions of the religious sentiment. related at elaborate length, and was often associated with The gods are classified into those of the individual, those thetraditional history of the people.-Dr. Daniel G. of the family, and those of the village or tribe. In addi- Brinton. tion to these, most of the powers of nature are held to be incarnations of divinity, and on some island groups the 694. TIKI-KEIA.Stone image, carved from volcanic spirits of the dead, especially of some celebrated warriors rock. Two human figures, standing back to back. Height, or chieftains, are paid divine honors. ' 6 inches. The material representations of these gods are in stone, Supposed to have been an object of worship by the aboriginesof the wood, cloth, shell, orfeathers. Stone is, probably, the Marquesas Islands. mostcommon. Generally it is not chipped or artificially 695. TIKI-KEIA.Stone image,same as above. Height, polished. A smooth stone is selected onaccount of its 6 inches. peculiar form, and it is placed in the sacred house, wrapped 696. TIKI-KEIA.Stone image, similar to above, except in mats, and offerings offood and drink are placed be- thatit represents one humanfigure, standing. Height, fore it. On the Gilbert Islands, slabs of sandstone are 5.7 5 inches. set on end to represent the male gods, andothers are 697. TIKI-KEIA.Like preceding. Height, 6.5 inches. placed in a prone position as female divinities. On the 698. TIKI-KEIA.Like preceding. Height, 7.125 Tonga group, some such slabs show more or less carving, inches. and especially on Easter Island the volcanic tufa offered a 699. Image. Female figure,with eyes of bone and ready substance for the native artists to block out in rude obsidian. Marquesas Island. Carvedwood. Height, forms of the human figure. Among the offerings were 22 inches. scarce shells, baskets of peculiar shape, cups of cocoanut, 700. TIKI-AKAN.Wooden image, standing. Said to and vases filled with kava. All such offerings, as well as bevery old, representing a human figure. Typee valley. the precincts of the temple, were tapu "-that is, sacred- Island of Nukahira. Marquesas group. Carved from andit was rigidly believed that trespassing or touching I very hard wood. Height, 57 inches. was certain deathto the unauthorized. The officiants 701. TIKI-AKAN.Same as preceding. Height, 53 wereusually the chiefs and heads of families. They ap- inches. pointed the festivals, and announced the will of the Deities. 702-703. Images. Two sets,each consisting of three Idols of wood, carved in elaborate designs, were placed in human figures, attached to base block, carved from same front of their houses to signify the sacred officeof the piece. From Island of Ouapod. Marquesas group. resident. Particular trees or groves were frequently an- Wood. Height, from 3.75 to 4.125 inches. I 60 162 RELIGIONS ‘OE’POLYNESIA. RELIGIONS OF POLYNESIA. 163

704. Image, male, supposed to represent a deity. Stand- Height, 14inches. Formerly used as an object of worship ing in a kind of frame which it clasps with each hand, with by the Maori natives of New Zealand. large egg cowries over thetop. Carved wood, decorated Original in the collection of Sir George Grey, New Zealand. in black and white. He’::ht, including base, 24.125 inches. t‘ ‘I 7 I I. Image. Male figure, . ;h eyes of bone and obsi- Supposed to have been an object of worship by the natives of Solo. dian and breast bone and ribs sharply defined. Easter Is- mon’s Island. land. Carved wood. Height, 17.5 inches. 705. Image, female, supposed to represent deity.a 7 I 2. Image. Similar tothe preceding. Height, Standing, and carrying on its head a large wooden bowl, 16.875 inches. EasterIsland. which it supports with both hands. Carved wood, deco- These images, according to Paymaster William J. Thompson, U. SC N., havebeen called household gods. They were never worshiped, rated in black and white. Height, 23.5 inches. but they were regarded as representations of certain spirits. Similar Supposed to have been an object of worship by the natives of Solo- figures were made to represent deceased chiefs and persons of note, mon’s Island. and were given a place of honor at feasts and ceremonies. 706. Image, representing a human figure. Bone or ivory. 7 13. Image. Male figure, with head ornamented with red Height, 5.87 5 inches. and black seeds. EasterIsland. Carved wood. Height, Supposed to have been an object of worship by the natives of Fiji 19.5 inches. Islands. 707. Image, representing a human figure (male). Bone. Height, 4.5 inches. Supposed to have been an object of worship by the natives of Fiji Islands. 708. TEKOTEKO. Images supposed to represent some great Maori deities. Three human figures, standingone upon the headpf the other. Only the head of the lower one is represented, while the two upper ones ar at full length. The faces and body bear tattoo marks, and.iR e tongues pro- trude. The eyes are made of rings of Haliotis shell. New Zealand. Carved wood. Height, 52 inches.

Formerly attached to the gable-roofed portico of the house of a native chief. 709. TEKOTEKO. Similar tothe preceding. Height, 48 inches. 710. Image (cast) representingsquattinga human figure. Original of dark brown lava, weighing I 8 Ibs. I oz.I RELIGION OF THEBANTU TRIBES. ‘65

them are departed humanspirits-Anina. Others-Om- buiri, Abambo-existed independently of human life, and RELIGION OF THE BANTU TRIBES. like dryads, etc., live in, though not confined to certain -. __ objects of nature, as great trees, singular rocks, caves, or The great Bantu Family includes all the tribes occupy- other noticeable localities. ing the one-third of the African continent lying below 4O All these classes of spirits, even of their departed rela- N. Lat. (excepting Hottentotsand Bechuanas). There tives, maybe malevolent, They are therefore to be pla- are probably thousands of tribes, but their language is es- cated. In this consists the,native idea of worship. Wor- sentially one ; the elements of its grammar are almost the ship is conducted, Ist. Indirectly by pacifying the spirits same, the differences being verbal. One who can speak ,with prayer, in which there is no thanksgiving, con- the Ki-Swahili of the Erist Coast would soon be. able to fession, or praise, only deprecation of evil, and with communicate in the Di-Kële of the West Coast, and vice sacrifice of ordinary articles of food, or in critical cases versa. This is a chief reason why Stanley was able to carry the blood of a fowl or goat. You will see in the villages interpreters from tribe to tribe across the entire continent. a little hut in which stands an idol as the representative of I believe the religion of all these thousands of tribes to be a spirit, and before it is placed a plate of plantains or other practically the same. On the western equatorial portion a food, or blood is sprinkled at the threshold ; 2d. Directly region some three hundred miles square, in which my Ga- by enlisting the spirits’ aid. boon and Corisco missionis located, there are scores of This last aspect of their religious life is soconstantly and tribes or clans. The dozen with which I have specially almost solely brought forward that practically, for the mass traveled, I know to have the same religious beliefs. of natives, it constitutes the whole of their religiotl. Starting with natural religion, they themselvesknow, They believe that by use of charms, amdets, talismen, Ist,that there is a SupremeBeing, called variously An- greegrees, and fetishes the aid of a given spirit can be ob- yambe, Njambi, Anzam, etc. Their conception of his tained for any purpose-for love, hate, revenge, cupidity, character andattributes isvery imperfect. 2d. That h% etc., etc., for trade, agriculture, etc., etc., for, in fact, all was Creator. They are veryvague as tothe line where possible human wishes. The native magic doctor for a price divine creation ceases and human skill begins.gd. That conjures by his incantations a spirit intosome small object, there is a hereafter. They vary in conjecture as to its re- such as a shell, nut,horn, pebble, etc., etc. Indeed, lations. 4th. Acknowledgment of a conscience as tothe anything, even a rag or stick, may be chosen. This fetish- right orwrong of certain acts. They regard its dictates charm will protect the wearer, or house, or plantation from very lightly. evil and assist in the accomplishment of a given wish. A Beyond these ideas their religion in daily life is a pure different charm isused for every separate wish. If the superstition based on a belief in witchcraft. They say .that wearer fail in what he attempts he does not lose faith in the God, having created us, has no farther interest in us, is afar system of belief, but the doctor tells him that some enemy off, and has abandoned us to the operation of spirits. Of had antagonized him by a fetish containing a more power- the origin of these spirits they areuncertain. Some of ful spirit. The weaker charm is then thrown awayand the 164 doctor paid for a new one containing a stronger spirit. .. __

166 RELlGIONOF THE BANTUTRIBES. Hxl~1(;l()N OF lflr 114*lll 'l'NllLl~,S, Ii.7

The Hoodoo or Voudouism of the American Negro was made of porcelain buttons. I'rilllr(1 \,I~IWIInld tmu- brought direct from Africa. These fetishes, while not dis- , mented with strings of beads. \VorkhiIml by ha I1'n1w, tinctly worshiped, occupy in the wearer's mind the position Ogove River, zoo miles from the coast. ICqrlatoriul ?tlric,u. held by idols in other heathen countries, for to them' is Wood. Height, 24 inches. (Gift of Rev. Dr. l

with some dark substance, into which a tooth is inserted. Pierced forsuspension, with iron chain attached. (Lent by B. F. M. P. C.) CHARMS AND AMULETS. 723. Fetish. Object of iron (length, 6.25 inches), covered with a black substance wrapped with cord, terminating in a hook to which a band of woven vegetable fibre Numbers 733 to 763 arethe gift of Mrs. John Har- is attached. (Lent by B. F. M. P. C.) -rison, who collected them in the East in 1890-91. 724. Fetish. Antelope horn (length, 5 inches), filled 733. Ornament. Worn by women on the forehead to with some dark substance, to which cords of plaited vege- keep off the evil eye. Green, red, and yellow glass beads, table fibre are attached. (Lent by B. F. M. P. C.) with pendant coins. Cairo. 725. Fetish. Horn of African cow(length, 4.25 inches), 734-737. Ear-rings (fourpairs). Worn as a protection filled withsome dark substance, into which white beads against headache, sore eyes, evil eye, etc. Brass wire with are inserted, with cords of plaited leather attached. (Lent .colored glass pendants, and gilt imitation coins. Cairo. by B. F. M. P. C.) 73%-739. Amulets (two). Worn by boys on forehead. 726. Fetish. Antelope horn (length, about 7 inches), Blue gliss discs, pierced with holes. Cairo. studded with brass-headed nails and filled with some vege- 740. Necklace to keep off the evileye. Green glass table substance. With iron chainattached to both ends, rings. Cairo. upon which is hung a key and a small horn (length, 3.75 741. Anklets (pair). Worn bysmall children to keep inches.) (Lent by B. F. M. P. C.) off the evileye. Silvered wire with bells and coins. 727. Fetish. Triangular bag of leather, with leather ,Cairo. loop and pendants. (Lent by B. F. M. P. C.) 742. Bracelets. Worn by children to keep off the evil 7 2%. Fetish. Antelope horn, filled with some dark sub- .eye. Colored beads. Cairo. stance. Length, 4.75 inches. (Lent by B. F. M: P. C.) 743-744. Ornaments (two). Worn by boys on their 729. Fetish. Antelope horn, filled with some black sub- caps to keep off evil eye. One made of beads of differ- stance. Length, 3.5 inches. (Lent by B. F. M. P. C.) ent colors, and the other of beads, imitation coins and 730. Fetish. Antelope horn, with end coveredwith smallshells. Cairo. glass. Length, 4 inches. (Lent by B. F. M. P. C.) 745. Small stamped metal hand with Hebrew inscription, 731. Fetish. Antelope horn, with end covered with net- ‘worn by Jewishboys on forehead to keep off evil eye. work of cord. Length, 4 inches.(Lent by B. F. BI. Cairo.

P. C.) The inscription reads : first line, Ben pôrath Jôs2A l‘ a young branch 732. Fetish. Wooden paddle (length, 13 inches), is Joseph,” Gen. xlix, 22. Second line, Shaddai. Third line, “ Jerusa- wrapped in the middle with a fabric made of cords, with lem the Holy City.” a smallbag attached. (Lent by B. F. M. P. C.) 746. Amulet necklace, consisting of miniature hands of parti-colored glass, blue, yellow and orange. Jerusalem. 747. Amulet.Disc of blue paste pierced withholes. Jerusalem. 6 169 1 70 . CHARMS AND AMULETS. CHARMS .-1NII AMULETS. ’7’

748. Syrian amulet worn on top of head-dress. Tube 765. Box for amulet,circular, with three pendants of with bulb attop from which discs depend by chains. coins, and coral beads. Ring for suspension and chain at- Silver. Jerusalem. tached. Silver. Greek. (Lent by Mrs. William Frishmuth.) 749. Amulet. Triangulardark stone set in silver with 766. Boxfor amulet, triangular, with coin pendant. silver pendants. Jerusalem. Silver. Greek. (Lentby Mrs. William Frishmuth.) 750. Amulets worn by boys on their caps. Pendants of 767. Amulet ring with pendants. Silver. Greek. (Lent small blue and white beads. Constantinople. by Mrs. William Frishmuth.) 751. Amulet. Two canineteeth with tnetal bandand 768. Amulet. Crescent-shaped object composed of two pendants. Damascus. ivory tusks united by a silver band, with silver crescent 75 2. Amulet highly prized by Mecca pilgrims on account and star suspended by chainin the middle. Width, 3 of semblance of aneye in thenatural stone. Agate, inches. (Lent by Mr. Herbert Friedenwald.) pierced for suspension. Port Saïd. Worn either on the breast of a horse or between the horns of an os. 753. Amulet, inscribed Allah Alî, “God is high,” in Arabic ofCufic type. Jade, Jaffar. 769. Cover for a vessel containing food. Used to keep 754. Right hand with first and fourth fingers extended. off the evil eye. Plaited straw in the shape of a cone. Pink coral. Naples. Egyptian Soudan. (Purchased in Cairo.) Height, 5 inches. 755. Right hand with thumb between first and second Diameter, 9.25 inches. (Lentby Mr. Herbert Frieden- finger. Redcoral. Naples. Wald.) 756. Right hand of black stone, clasping wire with four 770. Miniature hand carved from an alligator’s tooth, red coral pendants. Naples. worn by children as aprotection against convulsions. 757. Forked red coral, with ring for suspension. Naples. Nicaragua. (Gift of Mrs. E. A. P de Guerreo.) 758. Amulet. Boar’s tooth set in silver. Vienna. 771. Pebble with natural hole, called a wish stone.” 759-760. Bracelets to keep off the evil éye. Blue glass. (Lent by Stewart Culin.) Athens. 772. Magic Bowl with Hebrew inscriptions from Niffir. 761. Necklace worn by horses and donkeys to keep off Unglazedpottery. Diameter, 5 inches. (Lent by Prof. evil eye ; three triangular leather bags suspended by a red John P. Peters.) cord. Athens. Howls of this character have been found in large numbers beneath 762. Necklace worn by horses to keep off illness, accident, the mounds of Southern Mesopotamia, though inthe upper strataof the or evil eye. Leather, with leather bag attached, the cord mounds known to have been used as places of burial in late times. beingencircled with glass rings of different colors. None of them, to judgefrom the writing, appear to be much older than the fifteenth century A. D. Precisely in what way they were used has Athens. not been definitely ascertained, but it seems likely that water put in 763. Box for amulets, embossed with figure of St. them was supposed to acquire a magic character through contact with George. When worn containsa prayer. Silver. Athens. the inscription,which contained a charm against evil spirits and the ‘764. Box for amulet suspended by, chains from a pin in water was then used as a remedy against disease. the form&a sheathed sword. Silver. Greek. (Lefit by There can be no doubtof the great antiquityof the use of bowls filled with water for purposes of purification, since in the incantation texts of Mrs. William Frishmuth.) the ancient Babylonians, we have frequent references to such a rite, and 172 CHARMS AND AMULETS. we also learn from these texts that the water was poured over the person troubled with disease or other evil caused by some malicious spirit. Quite a number of such Babylonian bowls made of bronze, that may ADDENDA. have been used in this way, have been dug up among the remains of ancient Babylonian cities, though it is to be noted that none as yet have been found bearing inscriptions. The custom seems to have been MEXI.CO. adopted by theHebrews dwelling in Mesopotamia, or, perhaps, remained among them as a survival of very ancient times, as it survives to 777. Idol. Seated image. Terra-cotta. Height, 7.5 this day among the Arabs in various districts, whose bowls, made. of inches. (Lent by Mr. H. G. Clay.) clay, china, and bronze, usually contain verses or entire chapters from 778. Idol. Seated image withserpent. Terra-cotta. the Coran. It appears also that these bowls were buried with the dead, Height, 6.75 inches. (Lent by Mr. H. G. Clay.) serving as a protection against the evil spirits that were supposed to in- fest the grave. (Dr. Morris Jastrow, Jr.) 779. Idol. Female figure, standing, holding child. Terra-cotta. Height, 4.25 inches. (Lentby Mr. H. G. 773. Magic Bowl with Hebrewinscriptions. From Clay.) Niffir. Unglazedpottery. Diameter, 4.37 inches. (Lent 780. Head of idol. Terra-cotta.Height, 8 inches. by Prof. John P. Peters.) (Lent by Mr. H. G. Clay.) 774. Charm. Paper,printed in red with Chinese inscription and magical characters. Corea. Size, 4.25x6.25 CHIRIQUI, C. A. inches. (Gift of Dr. E. B. Landis.) 775. Charm.Paper, similar tothe above. Corea. 781. Frog. Gold. Length, 2.5 inches. (Lent by Size, 5.125~13inches. (Gift of Dr. E. B. Landis.) Mr. H. G. Clay.) 776, Planchette. Heart-shaped board supported by two 782. Nondescript animal (dragon ?), grasping an en- small wheels and the point of a lead-pencil with which the circling wire. Gold. Length, 2.25 inches. (Gift ofMr. communications are written. Made in the United States. Clarence S. Bernent.) Length, 7.625 inches. (Lent by Stewart Culin.) PERU. This instrument first made its appearance in 1867 and attracted uni. versa1 attention, becoming the craze of th&day. Marvelous tales were 783. Idol. Male image, standing, holding two round told by the credulous ab. ut it, and eminent scientific men were drawn objects, with serpentaround neck. Silver. Height, 2.75 into controversies concerning It. inches, (Lent by Mr. H. G. Clay.) This and numbers 784 to 787 belong to a class'of objects known as huacas, representative of personal, family or totemic deities. 784. Idol. Male image with triple-peaked cap, holding a baton in the left hand and a star-like object in the right. Silver. Height, 2.75 inches. (Lent by Mr. H. G. Clay.) 785. Idol. Male image, standingand holding a bird. Silver. Height, 2.75 inches. (Lent'by Mr. H. G. Clay.) I73 PERU. 1 74 S 786. Idol. Male image, with ceremonial robe and head-dress of feathers, holdingan unrecognized object. Silver. Height, 2.125 inches. (Lent by Mr. H. G. Clay.) l 787. Idol. Image, with conical cap, with Janus face, and correspondingbody. Bronze. (Lent by Mr. H. G. Clay.) 788. Idol. Female image, standing, with hair down back. Silver. Height, 8.5 inches. (Lent by Mr. H. G. Clay.) Dragged from the bottom of Lake Titicaca. 789. Idol. Image, standing. Santiagode Caos, near Trujillo. Terra-cotta.Height, 4.25 inches. (Lent by Mr. H. G. Clay.) 790. Idol. Image, standing. Wood. Height,6.25 ì inches. (Lent by Mr. H. G. Clay.) 791. Idol. Female image. Black pottery. Height, 8 inches. (Lent by Mr. H. G. Clay.) 792.Vase. Seated image. Black pottery. Height, 1 9.75 inches. (Lent by Mr. H. G. Clay.) 793. Vase. Seated image, with puffed cheeks. Pisco. Black pottery. Height, 7.75 inches. (Lent by Mr. H. G. Clay.) 794. Vase. Seated image. Kedpottery. Height, 7 inches.(Lent by Mr. H. G. Clay.)