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Home , Ammophila (wasp), Aswan Governorate, Ballota, Callipeltis, Capitata, Carduncellus

Egypt National Strategy and Action Plan to 2030

.

2015

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TABLE OF CONTENTS Executive summary Introduction Background • Geographical features • Demography • Country’s biodiversity profile • Summary of biodiversity in • Habitats' diversity • Renewable natural biodiversity resources • Non-renewable natural biodiversity resources • Conservation of natural biodiversity resources • Successful models • Successful stories • Importance of biodiversity for Egypt • Socio-economic significance of biodiversity • Threats • Main pressures on and drivers of change to biodiversity - direct and indirect) Biodiversity-related national commitments and programs • International Cooperation • International conventions • Regional Cooperation • Bilateral Cooperation Guiding Principles and Goals • Guiding Principles • Goals • General Considerations Vision and Mission • Vision • Mission Strategy (Strategic Goals and Targets) • Strategic Goal 1: Conserve and manage terrestrial and aquatic biodiversity to ensure sustainable use and equitable benefits to the people • Strategic Goal 2: Sustainable use of natural resources: 2

• Strategic Goal 3: Access to genetic resources and Benefit sharing (Nagoya protocol, indigenous knowledge and traditions) • Strategic Goal 4: Improve our understanding of biological diversity and ecosystem functioning in a changing environment: • Strategic Goal 5: Prepare for climate change and combat desertification: • Strategic Goal 6: Build partnerships and integrate biodiversity into all national development frameworks: Action Plan Reporting References

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Certainly Egypt has unique biodiversity that contributes to its economy and supports human wellbeing and provides regulating and supporting services. It is the home of a wide variety of ecosystems and terrestrial and aquatic life. Many , microorganism and species in Egypt go back millions of years. At the time being Egypt is in an urgent need to implement several environmental projects in varied disciplines such as protection of coastal areas from erosion by coral reefs and mangroves, combat threats in terrestrial, marine, freshwater and coastal ecosystems, overgrazing and over-fishing, pollution, invasive species, 3 climate change, desertification, wetlands, River systems, coastal and marine environment, desert biodiversity, land degradation and agro biodiversity The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) that came into force at the end of 1993 requires setting a national biodiversity strategy and action plan (NBSAP) as the primary mechanism for the implementation of the CBD strategic plan to stimulate conservation action at the national level. A National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (1997-2017) were developed by Egypt using a wide participatory approach. The strategy was adopted by the Government in 1998 as response to Egypt’s obligations under the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). Although the NBSAP stimulated conservation action at the national level and contributed to a better understanding of biodiversity, its value and management have not been fully effective in addressing the main drivers of biodiversity loss or mainstreaming biodiversity and ecosystem services in development activities. Egypt, as a Party to the CBD, is revising NBSAP in line with the new CBD Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011–2030, which includes reference to improving mainstreaming. It should also be noted that the NBSAP 1998-2017 was developed with limited guidance from the CBD as it predated the first CBD Strategy and Action Plan 2002-2010. Thus, no clear national targets or indicators have been established and the NBSAP was not structured to be directly related to the global biodiversity conservation agenda (CBD 2010 targets). It rather addressed the Egyptian situation at the time of its development. The NBSAP 1998-2017 had 6 main goals and a national action plan composed of 11 programmes categorized into enabling and supporting, applied, and research and monitoring projects. In April 2002 the Parties to the CBD committed themselves to achieve by 2010 a significant reduction of the current rate of biodiversity loss at the global, regional and national level as a contribution to poverty alleviation and to the benefit of all life on Earth. They identified 7 global focal areas (COP VII/30) and a provisional framework of 11 goals and 21 action- oriented targets (COP VIII/15) for achieving their commitment. The 7 global focal areas are: (1) Reducing the rate of loss of the components of biodiversity, including: (i) biomes, habitats and ecosystems; (ii) species and populations; and (iii) genetic diversity; (2) Promoting sustainable use of biodiversity; (3) Addressing the major threats to biodiversity, including those arising from invasive alien species, climate change, pollution, and habitat change; (4) Maintaining ecosystem integrity and the provision of goods and services provided by biodiversity in ecosystems, in support of human well-being; (5) Protecting traditional knowledge, innovations and practices; (6) Ensuring the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the use of genetic resources; and (7) Mobilizing financial and technical resources, especially for developing countries, in particular least developed countries and Small Island developing States among them, and countries with economies in transition, for implementing the Convention and the Strategic Plan. Despite Egyptian NBSAP did not follow a clear and structured approach for its implementation, many of its objectives and focal areas were addressed, some to a high level of achievement (e.g. those related to PA establishment and management and the NCS / EEAA capacity development). On the other hand objectives concerned with the introduction of biodiversity concerns and priorities into the mainstream of the Egyptian socio-economic landscape were not well addressed, or at least were not widely or systematically addressed. This was reflected on the limited adoption of biodiversity issues in the policies and

4 regulations of most mainstream sectors. Overall, successes had been mainly in short and medium term achievements, with limited impact on policy level processes and root causes (despite multiple efforts), particularly those outside the environmental realm and in the mainstream economic sectors . Moreover, some CBD target areas that were not clearly addressed by the Egyptian NBSAP were nevertheless dealt with in an adequate way (e.g. biosafety and access and benefit sharing issues) by the wide variety of activities and projects that were initiated by the NCS/EEAA and relevant NGOs. Generally CBD targets that were directly related to the NCS/EEAA and under their direct influence resulted in the greatest degree of achievement and more closely followed the stated objectives. The dominant role of the NCS/EEAA over the NBSAP implementation and the inability to more fully or sustainably engage other stakeholders probably contributed to the limited mainstreaming success of the NBSAP. This is probably partly an outcome of the inherent difficulty of Egyptian Governmental and NGOs alike to form cooperative links across sectoral lines and not a specific issue for the NCS/EEAA. However, this is likely to have been exacerbated by the general low value or importance given to biodiversity in Egypt, particularly in governmental institutions. The absence of a clear implementation schedule and to some extent the infrequent monitoring and assessment of the NBSAP had also contributed to some degree of ambiguity about the status of the NBSAP amongst potential stakeholders.. The inadequate participatory process that governed the NBSAP in the past probably contributed to the erosion of the NBSAP value as a national planning document and confirmed its place as an NCS/EEAA plan. Egypt had prepared a National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP) in 1998 spanning the years 1998 to 2017 through a consultative process. The NBSAP 1998-2017 had six main goals and a national action plan composed of 11 programmes categorized into enabling and supporting, applied research and monitoring projects. Progress towards implementing of the main goals and programmes of the National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 1998-2017 and the CBD 2010 Targets was mixed, with significant progress in a number of areas (e.g. those related to PA establishment and management and the NCS/EEAA capacity development), and limited progress in many others (notably the introduction of biodiversity concerns and priorities into the mainstream of the Egyptian socio-economic landscape). Most significant results were achieved in the development of legislation that regulates many aspects of biodiversity conservation, establishment and development of PAs network, establishment of the NCS as the institutional structure responsible for the coordination of implementing the nation’s biodiversity agenda in general, PAs management and raising public awareness in particular. The implementation of the Convention and the NBSAP had shed light on some valuable insights for Egypt. The role of biodiversity in the supply of ecosystem goods and services is gaining recognition in Egypt although identifying economic values of biodiversity goods and services is relatively new. Protected areas have been Egypt's most important and effective tool to conserve its biodiversity, preventing the potential loss of species and habitats, as well as fulfilling its international commitments. By the year 2013, Egypt had established 30 protected areas, covering over 146,000 km 2 or about 14.6 % of the total surface area. However, the coverage did not meet the CBD 2020 Aichi target (Aichi Target 11: “at least 17% of terrestrial and inland water areas and 10% of coastal and marine areas”). In spite of numerous efforts made in the establishment of the protected areas network, critical problems and risks still exist, including the inability to retain trained staff, under-funding and lost opportunities to generate substantial revenues. The performance of protected areas in maintaining populations of their key species is poorly documented. There was a need to assess the completeness of coverage and status of the existing protected area network and identify additional sites which make important contributions towards the comprehensiveness and proportional representatives of the PAs network.

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Outside protected areas, limited complementary ex-situ conservation measures were undertaken for genetic resources for food and agriculture and for selected animal and plant species. Limited efforts have also been undertaken to rehabilitate some endemic flora and fauna species to increase their numbers in their natural habitats to protect them from extinction. Sustainable agriculture has been garnering more attention lately. Although local communities were not excluded from protected areas, none of the existing protected areas is being managed by local communities. They were encouraged to actively participate through partnership arrangements, as in the case of the medicinal project in St. Katherine PA. A number of important poverty alleviation and community development programs had been initiated, and presented opportunities for improving natural resource management and employment for local communities and linking biodiversity and social development. The absence of legal and administrative mechanisms to regulate access to Egypt’s genetic resources and to set conditions for benefit-sharing is a key constraint towards achieving a meaningful access and benefit sharing framework. It is hoped that the draft law on the regulation of access to genetic resources and related traditional knowledge and the equitable sharing of benefits from their use that has been finalized will be soon approved by the Egyptian Government. Relatively few initiatives had been taken to maintain, protect, document and promote traditional knowledge as it relates to natural resource management and on mechanisms to promote access and benefit-sharing of genetic resources. The absence of legal and administrative mechanisms to implement the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety was a key constraint towards the safe transfer, use and transboundary movement of GMOs. It is hoped that the draft national biosafety law will be soon approved by the Egyptian Government. Some of the major factors affecting Egypt’s implementation of the NBSAP and achieving CBD global targets include the lack of financial and human resources, inadequate coordination between government agencies, soft enforcement of environmental laws and policies and the insufficient mainstreaming of biodiversity into other sectors. There is still limited evidence of biodiversity concerns being reflected in a serious way in the policies, legislation and regulations governing most of the productive sectors in the country, and it is not reflected in the nation’s development agenda in many significant ways. The impact of conservation interventions on the risk of ecosystem loss or degradation, extinction of species and genetic diversity cannot be assessed due to the lack of monitoring programs over a certain period of time. Some examples of the impacts of major threats on biodiversity and associated effects on ecosystem services and human well-being are available. Major efforts are still needed to conserve genetic diversity of animal genetic resources. Without enforcing environmental regulations in regard to land use and new development activities to save the natural habitat and preserve the monuments of Egypt, loss of biodiversity and nature-derived benefits will continue decline. Mainstreaming of biodiversity into key economic sectors should be a priority. Although the NBSAP stimulated conservation action at the national level and contributed to a better understanding of biodiversity, its value and management have not been fully effective in addressing the main drivers of biodiversity loss or mainstreaming biodiversity and ecosystem services in development activities. Many of the policies and NBSAP plans have not been finalized and/or implemented due to lack of both financial and human resources. Government’s fiscal difficulties over the last few years have impacted significantly on resource availability. National responses to the continuing loss of biodiversity are varied and responses so far have not been adequate to address the scale of biodiversity loss or reduce the pressures.

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In 2014, Egypt, as a Party to the CBD, has revised its NBSAP in line with the new CBD Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011–2030, through another wide participatory process. After initial stocktaking and appraisal of the current status of national biodiversity and the underlying causes of biodiversity loss, 6 strategic goals were identified to address the decline in biodiversity and achieving the Aichi Targets. In the light of Egypt's commitment to achieve the targets of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) by 2015, several national committees were established (sustainable development, integrated management of coastal zones, climate change, wetlands and conservation of biodiversity) to achieve harmonization between policies, strategies and national action plans of development, by executing specific indicators to determine implementation efficiency in different fields, such as environmental sustainability, reduction of poverty pressure, enabling women, improving the quality of health and education. Egypt prepared many strategies and specialized programs addressing the conservation of wetlands in 2005, ecotourism in 2006 and medicinal plants conservation in 2007. The eight MDGs are integrated in the National Development Plan 2008-2011 under the different key areas. This shows the government’s commitment to achieving the MDGs. One of the key lessons learned was the need for NBSAP 2030 to be more focused, and this is reflected in a more concise structure. Based on national and regional prioritization exercises providing the overarching framework for NBSAP 2030. The 20 Aichi Targets were reduced to 6 national targets which are considered to be specific, measurable, attainable, and relevant and are time-bound to Egypt. In this way, NBSAP 2030 is both closely aligned to the CBD Strategic Plan and Aichi Targets (2011-2030), and targeting Egypt’s unique priorities and circumstances. The Strategic Goals and Targets of NBSAP 2030 are:

Strategic Goal 1: Conserve and manage terrestrial and aquatic biodiversity to ensure sustainable use and equitable benefits to the people T1: By 2030, PAs network secured and expanded to cover 17% of total terrestrial and inland water and at least 5% of coastal and marine representative areas, especially priority sites of particular importance for biodiversity and key ecological Processes, and Effective management of PAs T2: By, 2020 develop and implement unified Egyptian methodology for the identification and monitoring of priority of all components of biodiversity according to the international standards to ensure the maintenance or rehabilitation of 50% of our most threatened species focusing on mammals and reptiles to a favorable conservation status T3: By 2030, National conservation and/ / or rehabilitation programmes of the largest part of threatened species and endemic species at risk are developed and implemented with measurestoevaluate its implementation T4: By 2030, all IAS and pathways are identified and prioritized with measures in place to update and verify these pathways, in addition to development of national programmes of 30% of identified pathways to control and manage IAS.

Strategic Goal 2: Sustainable use of natural resources: T5: By 2020, Conservation of natural resources through the adoption of ecologically sustainable agricultural and fishing management practices, including control of fertilizer and pesticides. T6: By 2018, apply CBD tools to monitor and control the impact of tourism on biodiversity, in particular in protected areas and vulnerable ecosystems. T7: By 2020, measures, including waste management plans and law enforcement, are in place to prevent and reduce the impact of pollution and waste on ecosystems, especially on wetlands and coastal and marine areas

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T8 a: By 2017, negative effects of different sectoral policies (land-use planning, transport, energy, uncontrolled urbanization, etc.) on priority elements of biodiversity are minimized, and measures to correct these effects are applied through developing and implementing land use management plans. T8 b: By 2021 rate of wetland loss reduced by 50%, water efficiency in farming improved by 50%, orienting the investment of 1 $ billion to development inland water ecosystems and BMP is available to policy makers T9: By 2027, promote the implementation of good fishing practices in both and Red Sea, favorable to fish protection and their habitats, e.g., medicinal plants

Strategic Goal 3: Access to genetic resources and Benefit sharing (Nagoya protocol, indigenous knowledge and traditions) T10: By 2025, Effective operational biosafety and ABS mechanism (measures and legislation) in place, in accordance with national laws and relevant international obligations and serving national priorities relating to biodiversity. T11: By 2020, to promote sustainable hunting and harvesting through adequate planning, restoration and protection of key biological resources

Strategic Goal 4: Improve our understanding of biological diversity and ecosystem functioning in a changing environment T12: By 2020, the knowledge, the science base and technologies relating to biodiversity, its values, functioning, status and trends, and the consequences of its loss, are improved, widely shared and transferred, and applied T13: By 2030, Research and implement measures and strategies to strengthen local-level biodiversity resilient T14: By 2020, investigate and monitor all the effects of climate change on biodiversity and ecosystem services

Strategic Goal 5: Prepare for climate change and combat desertification: T15: By 2020, enhancing environmental awareness of Egyptians of the importance of biodiversity and ecosystem services through integrating environmental themes into university and school curricula, promoting green media, and supporting youth clubs and eco-industry. T16: By 2015, biodiversity values are promoted and integrated into national planning process and mechanisms to support their incorporation into national accounting and reporting systems to be developed T17: By 2017, ensure that the national strategy is supported by effective legislation and institutional frameworks to improve its enforcement

Strategic Goal 6: Build partnerships and integrate biodiversity into all national development frameworks T18: By 2016, proper NBSAP and associated resource mobilization are in place, in addition to establishment of the national biodiversity committee to ensure periodic evaluation of NBSAP

The implementation of NBSAP 2030 will be coordinated by EEAA with the full participation and guidance of the cross-sectoral NBSAP 2030 steering committee. Independent evaluations of NBSAP 2030 will be undertaken to ensure that the status of biodiversity in Egypt is

8 effectively tracked and so that Egypt’s contribution towards the achievement of the CBD Strategic Plan (2011-2020) and the Aichi Targets could be effectively measured.

Introduction Biodiversity, that astonishing array of ecosystems, species and genes bordering us signifies our livelihoods insurance and represents a natural capital strengthening our sustainable development and economy. The deterioration and loss of biodiversity jeopardize food security, health, clean environment as well as economic development. "The current turn down in biodiversity is for the most part associated with certain human activities and represents a serious threat", says the Agenda 21 plan of action, agreed upon at the Earth Summit in 1992. Parallel to that, the CBD upraised in 1992 the prospect of protecting much of the world's biodiversity resources yet confronts are still decisive. However, imperative need for more operative conservation and sustainable use, trends from accessible indicators advocate that the state of biodiversity is worsening, the pressures upon it are cumulative, and the benefits came from biodiversity are diminishing. Despite the many efforts taken around the world to conserve biodiversity and habitats and use them sustainably, retorts so far have not been pleasing to tackle the scale of biodiversity loss or reduce pressures. In certain species were sacramental (e.g. the sacred ibis, sacred scarab, etc.) or protected as public property because of their economic importance (e.g. papyrus). Not long ago, the Egyptian government issued certain laws to protect biodiversity and natural habitats. For instances, in 1982 the presidential decree no. 631 established the Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency (EEAA) and in 1983 the Parliament enacted the Law no. 102 that empowered the Prime Minster to issue decrees assigning prescribed territories as protected areas and outlining their rulings. Egypt also signed the CBD that was subsequently ratified in 1994, followed many significant events and achievements in the conservation of Egyptian nature. The most important achievement is that the natural protectorates reached 30 with an area of some 150,000 km 2, representing 15% of total Egypt’s area. These protectorates cover most of the distinguished ecosystems and habitats sheltering more than 2000 species of plants and . The Parties of the CBD met in 2010 at Nagoya, Japan and adopted a Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011- 2030 to motivate broad based actions sustaining biodiversity over the next decade by all countries and stakeholders. In recognition of the imperative need for action, the UN General Assembly has also declared 2011- 2030 as the UN Decade for Biodiversity that necessitates effective and urgent actions to halt the loss of biodiversity in to ensure that by 2020 ecosystems are resilient and continue to endow with key services, thereby securing the planet’s variety of life, and contributing to human well-being and poverty suppression. To warrant this, pressures on biodiversity will be abridged, ecosystems are restored, biological resources are sustainably used and benefits arising out of utilization of genetic resources are shared in a fair and equitable manner; adequate financial resources are provided, capacities are enhanced, biodiversity issues and values are mainstreamed, appropriate policies are effectively implemented, and decision-making is based on sound science and precautionary approaches. Together with those services, are effectively conserved and equitably managed, ecologically representative and well-connected systems of protected areas and other effective area-based conservation measures, are integrated into wider landscape and seascapes.

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The Strategic Plan includes a shared vision, a mission, strategic goals and 20 ambitious, yet achievable targets, collectively known as the Aichi Targets. The Strategic Plan functions as a bendable framework for setting national and regional targets and promotes the coherent and effective implementation of the CBD objectives. The development of national targets, and the updating and revision of national biodiversity strategies and action plans (NBSAPs), will be a key processes in rewarding the commitments set out in the Strategic Plan. By 2030, biodiversity is valued, conserved, restored and wisely used, maintaining ecosystem services, sustaining a healthy planet and delivering benefits essential for all people. The National Environmental Action Plan (NEAP) represents Egypt’s agenda for environmental actions from 2002 to 2015. It complements and integrates with sectorial plans for economic growth and social development. The Egyptian NEAP is the basis for the development of environmental initiatives, actions and activities. It was designed to be the framework that coordinates future environmental activities to support sustainable development of Egypt. The current NBSAP is based on Nagoya Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011- 2030, Aichi Targets and Egyptian NEAP. Our intention is to set a roadmap covering multiple pathways of biodiversity conservation, produce a user-friendly synthetic tool, promote cross-sectorial collaboration, partnership, integration, build on success & focus on implementation and results, mainstream Egypt future sustainable development strategy or National Plan for green economy and contributes to global biodiversity conventions (CMS, CITES, WHC, UNCCD, UNFCCC, CBD). In 1998, Egypt organized an NBSAP spanning the years 1998 to 2017 through a wide consultative process. In 2014, Egypt, as a Party to the CBD, has revised its NBSAP in line with the new CBD Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011–2030, through another wide participatory process. A 15 member National Biodiversity Committee on behalf of various stakeholders and six working groups, assisted by national and international consultants, working in thematic and cross-cutting areas have been conventional to guide the update of the NBSAP. After initial stocktaking and review of the current status of national biodiversity and the underlying causes of biodiversity loss, 6 strategic goals were renowned to forward the decline in biodiversity and achieving the Aichi Targets. In addition, the NBSAP sets clear national biodiversity targets and priorities and aims for the integration of biodiversity concerns into relevant sectors and contributing towards the attainment the global biodiversity agenda and the Millennium The CBD targets that are directly associated to the NCS/EEAA and under their straight weight resulted in the furthermost degree of realization and more intimately followed the stated objectives. The leading role of the NCS/EEAA over the NBSAP execution and the inability to more entirely or sustainably fit into place other stakeholders probably contributed to the inadequate mainstreaming success of the NBSAP. This is perhaps partly an upshot of the inherent obscurity of Egyptian Governmental and NGOs alike to form supportive links across sectoral lines and not a specific issue for the NCS/EEAA. However, this is likely to have been exacerbated by the broad-spectrum low value or magnitude given to biodiversity in Egypt, for the most part in governmental institutions. The lack of an apparent achievement calendar and to some extent the infrequent monitoring and assessment of the NBSAP has also contributed to some degree of uncertainty about the status of the NBSAP amongst potential stakeholders. National Reports are outstanding sources of reporting and accounting of achievements, but provide some degree of guidance for future follow up and forward planning. The inadequate participatory process that governed the implementation of NBSAP in the past most likely contributed to the erosion of the NBSAP value as a national planning document and confirmed its place as an NCS/EEAA plan.

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Background Geographical features Egypt is located at the northeastern corner of and the western extension of Asia (the ). It is also part of the Mediterranean Basin (ca. 1200 km coastal front), and holds two biogeographically corridors that bring together the tropics in the south with the Palearctic in the north, the Red Sea connects the tropical seas of the Indian Ocean with the temperate Mediterranean, and the River links equatorial Africa with the Mediterranean Basin. The Red Sea and the Nile Basin are two foremost highways along the migratory routes of the Palearctic-tropics journey of birds, and the Mediterranean wetlands of Egypt (northern lakes: Bardaweel, Manzala, Burullus, Idku and Mariut) are vital resting stations. They are internationally notable sites within the framework of the Wetland Convention (Ramsar, 1971) and the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Animals (Bonn, 1979). Egypt is a gathering point of reliable bio-elements having place in four bio-geographical regions: i) Mediterranean- regional transition zone that inhabits a small area along the Mediterranean coast; ii) Sahara- Sindian regional zone that cottages the vast desert occupying the greater part of Egypt; iii) Irano-Turanian regional center of endemism that dwell in a small area in the Sinai highlands and some enclave areas in the (e.g. Galala Mountains); and iv) Sahel regional transition zone that consist of the Afrotropical Gebel Elba mountainous region in the southeast of Egypt. The Nile Basin encompasses the valley in the south (Upper Egypt) and the Delta in the north (Lower Egypt), and forms a riparian oasis (40000 km 2); this is the densely inhabited farmlands of Egypt. According to the system applied in the UNESCO map of the world distribution of arid regions that takes into consideration the degree of aridity, the mean temperature of the coldest and the hottest months of the year and the time of the rainy period relative to the temperature regime), four major bioclimatic provinces are recognized in Egypt: the hyper arid province that includes the Eastern Desert except the coastal mountains along the Gulf of and the southern parts of the , the hyper arid province that includes the mountainous massif of Southern Sinai, the coastal belt falling under the maritime influence of the Mediterranean Sea that extends between and and the sub-coastal belt.

Demography The inhabited irrigated farmlands area in Egypt is about 84% of its total area, where almost 99% of the population residence in an area of only 42000 km 2, and the population density is l170 /km 2 while the rest of the country (deserts) is thinly populated. Egypt is divided into 26 Governorates, of which 21 are in the Nile Valley, the Delta and the attached terri tories, while the enduring five are in the desert. Human impacts on the environment and its excruciating natural resources prolongs over thousands of years, at present the problems of encroachment of urban settlements on farmland and desertification are troubling very large. The main outcomes of such problems are the continual loss of agricultural areas and the decrease of these areas per person of the population.

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Country’s biodiversity profile The majority of the data and information exhibited in this chapter has been abbreviated from Egypt’s 5 th national report (2014 ) submitted to the CBD. Despite being consistently arid or semi-arid, Egypt is home to an extensive diversity of terrestrial habitats, fauna, flora and microorganisms due to its very varied eco-zones. Although comparatively Egyptian biodiversity is low in species numbers and with few endemics, it is exceptionally diversified in their composition, and portrayed with a global magnitude.

Summary of species biodiversity in Egypt Egyptian biodiversity signals the characters of three bio-geographical zones, Western Palearctic, Eastern Palearctic and Afrotropical. Egypt’s first national assessment of biodiversity at the ecosystem level was carried out during 1996 - 1998 as part of weighing the completeness of coverage and status of existing protected areas (PAs) network as the main vehicle for biodiversity conservation (Abdel-Azeem and Salem, 2013; Shaltout and Eid, 2010). The flora of Egypt encompass some 2145 species and 220 infra-specific taxa of native and naturalized vascular plants; in addition to 175 species and subspecies of rare and 13 hepatics. The preliminary red data list of the vascular plants includes 457 species (ca 20% of the total flora) classified into 14 extinct, 123 endangered, 54 vulnerable, 173 rare and 93 in terminate species. Alga diversity is just about 1500-2000 species (still need further studies). Twenty Important Plants Areas (IPAs) were selected using criteria that measure species vulnerability irreplaceability and richness; in addition to the threatened habitats. These IPAs harbor 46 endemics, 25 near endemic, 77 Mediterranean endemics and 278 national threatened species. Other areas are promising as IPAs but need further studies (4 close to the Mediterranean are in each of Nile, North Sinai, western and eastern desert. The abundance classes of the flora of the different phyto-geographical regions of Egypt and their current status are presented in Tables (1 & 2). The agro-biodiversity in Egypt contributes 25.3% of the Egyptian flora, 38.1% of its genera and 63.6% of its families. The rophytes is the major represented life farm, followed by geo-helophytes. Most plants are “small range-narrow habitat-non abundant species; they are classic rarities that are often endangered or threatened (Shaltout et al 2010). Table (1) Abundance classes of the Egyptian flora (Khedr, 2006) Region Very rare Rare Common Very Common End emics Total

Nile Delta 102 167 194 167 2 630 Nile Valley 61 134 49 160 2 504 Fayoum 18 49 109 131 1 307 Oases 63 125 143 163 4 494 Mediterranean 212 329 298 206 13 1045 West Mediterranean East 131 210 225 170 9 736 Eastern Desert 72 164 147 15 7 10 540 North Eastern Desert 70 110 81 101 1 362 South

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Isthmic desert 176 225 221 180 15 802 Western Desert 38 77 115 124 3 354 Red Sea Coast 63 105 54 81 2 303 Gebel Elba 199 142 48 54 3 443 Sinai 275 225 159 153 34 812

Table (2) Main Egyptian Biodiversity Kingdom Group English name No. of Specie Stat in Global R End Es VIRUS — Viruses 44 1000 - - - MONER Bacteria Bacteria 97 3000 - - - Myxoplasma Bacteria 60 141 - - - Cyanobacteria blue -green algae 162 1700 - - 32 FUNGI: Zygomy cota Zygomycetes 68 665 - - - Ascomycota cup fungi 219 10650 - - - Basidiomycota Basidiomycetes 189 16000 - - - Oomycota water molds 92 580 - - - Chytridiomycota Chytrids 59 575 - - - Acrasiomycota cellular slime molds ■> 13 - - - Myxomycota pl asmodial slime •y 500 - - - Lichen Lichen forming 9 18000 - - - ALGAE: Chlorophyta green algae 415 7000 - - 31 Euglenophyta Euglenoids 39 800 - 4 Pyrrhophyta dinoflagellates, etc. 295 1100 - - 1 Chrysophyta diatomes,etc. 544 12500 - - 3 Phaeophyta brown algae 48 1500 - - - Rhodophyta red algae 142 4000 - - 1 PLANTS: Bryophyta mosses, liverworts, 337 16600 - - - Psifophyta Psilopsids 0 9 - - - Lycopodiophyta Lycopsids 0 1275 - - - Equisetophyta horse -tails 1 15 1 - - Pi licophyta Ferns 16 10000 15 - - Gymnospermae conifers, etc. 6 529 6 3 - Dicotylcdoncae Dicots 1636 17000 - 86 8 Monocoty ledoneae Monocots 430 50000 - 11 - ANIMAL Protozoa protozoa 371 30800 - - - Porifera sponges 73 5000 1 - - jell yfish, corals 389 9000 76 - - Ctenophora comb jellies 7 - - - Platyhelminthae flat worms 7 12200 - - - Nematoda round worms 7 12000 - - - Annelida earthworms 167 12000 17 - - Mollusca molluscs 552 50000 - - - Echinodermata echinoderms 255 6100 97 - - Arthropoda: - - - Insecta 10000 75100 - - - Arachnida scorpions, spiders, 1528 60000 - . - Crustacea crustaceans 379 9300 - - - Chordata: chordates - - - Tunicata tunicates 115 1250 - - - Chephalochordata acorn worms 7 23 - - - Vertebrata: vertebrates - - - Agnatha jaw]ess fish 1 63 - - - Chondrichthyes cartilaginous fish 95 843 35 - 15 Osteichthyes bony fish 659 18150 35 - 1 Amphibia amphibians 7 4184 - - - Reptilia reptiles 91 6300 - - - Aves birds 515 9040 11 17 12 13

Mammalia mammals 132 4000 28 10 5 R: rare; End: endemic; Ex.: extinct? The group has not yet been studies.

Three hundred and twenty-four species of fauna and many flora species that survive in desert habitats are well thought-out of ecological importance, especially in Sinai. Along with deserts, wetlands also represent an important ecosystem, with 80 plants, 100 animals and 82 fish, notably along Nile, spread over 1,530 km of the national territory. Overall, Egyptian biodiversity comprises 143 types of globally important species, 1500-2000 species of non- flowering plants, 2,302 flowering plants, 111 species of mammals, 480 species of birds, 109 species of reptiles, 9 species of amphibians, and more than 1,000 species of fish. There exist a large number of , 10,000 to 15,000 species of insects, more than 200 types of coral species, and 800 species of mollusks and over 1,000 crustaceans. Eighteen indigenous coral species are considered to be world’s best as a result of not having been subjected to coral bleaching. Two types of mangroves ( Avicennia marina and Rhisphoramucronata ) provide shelter for numerous species (40 species of insects, 72 species of , 65 mollusks, 17 polychaetes, 22 species of fish). From a terrestrial point of view, outside Nile Valley, Egypt is one of the most hyper arid countries in the world, with huge areas of copiously barren desert. There is to some extent more rainfall in the north, close to the Mediterranean coast, in the mountains of Sinai, and in the extreme southeast where fog deposition. Although the country’s species diversity is rather low owing to its general aridity, many species are very narrowly dispersed or highly localized, making habitat conservation crucial. Many species have been introduced in the last two centuries and became the backbone of Egypt’s agriculture, i.e., cotton, fruit , animal races including fish and chicken. This has resulted in the neglect of local breeds, and therefore some have been faultily degraded with others disappearing.

It is noteworthy that many plant and animal species in Egypt are on the very edge of their geographical or ecological range, and have therefore very some degree of tolerance for ecological pressures (e.g. coral reefs and mangroves).

Habitats' diversity Egypt has an immense array of habitats and micro-climates zones holding extensive biodiversity and local communities. Satellite pictures mapped the Egyptian habitats into 22 groups such as urban, islands, oases, dunes, metamorphic & sedimentary rocks, open & fresh water, warm springs, coral reefs, and mangrove trees. Every habitat might be subdivided into divisions depending on its morphological characteristics and important biodiversity that inhabit it, e.g. Mediterranean habitat, Sahara-Sindian regional zone, Irano-Turanian regional center of endemism and Sahel regional transitional zone. The natural habitats of Egypt, however, might be broadly divided into wetland, desert, mountains, agricultural, pasture ands and marine landscapes. Wetlands Habitats: Wetlands have an imperious bio-ecological function through maintaining everlasting fit place for distinctive groups of biodiversity, especially migratory water birds. The six Egyptian Mediterranean brackish water coast wetlands or lagoons are sited along coast (Manzala, Borollus, and Maryout) and to the east of the Suez Canal (Port-Fouad and Bardawil). All of them, with the exception of Lake Maryout, are directly connected to sea. The aquatic fauna of the Northern Delta lakes is a mix of freshwater and marine species. The freshwater fauna is dominated by tilapia species which make the majority of catch. Many Nile species also inhabit these lakes such as; Hydrocynus forskalii, Lates niloticus, Cyprinus carpio, Barbus bynni, Clarias lazara, C. gariepinus , Bagrus bayad,

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Lates niloticus. Several marine species tolerant of freshwater are also found in the Delta lakes, including mullets, soles, seabream, seabass, meager, eels and shrimp . In recent years many fish disappeared from these lakes and all of these species are of marine origin species Lake Burulus is a weighty coastal wetland and Ramsar site on the northern coast of Egypt. Despite the status of Protectorate under Egyptian legislation, the environmental conditions in witnessed adverse sever changes over the past 40 years. A total of 887 species had been recorded in Lake Burullus, 274 species of vascular plants (137 annuals and 97 perennials), 11 species of aquatic reeds ( Phragmites australis) , 276 species of phytoplankton (145 of diatoms, 50 species of blue algae, 10 species related to other groups), 90 species of zooplankton, 33 species of benthic animals, 127 species of land invertebrates (screwworms, molluscs, arthropods), 33 species of fish (but only 25 were recorded recently), 23 species of reptiles, 112 species of birds, and 18 species of mammals. During 1970's, 33 species of fish were recorded in Lake Burullus but at the beginning of this century 52 species were recorded (most of them fresh water fish and migratory fish) while 8 species of marine fish disappeared. However, in spite of increasing primary productivity of the lake, the quality of fish (mostly freshwater fish) value had decreased dramatically. Lack Bardawil is listed as a Ramsar Wetland of International Importance, and its eastern part was afforded national protection in 1985 (Zaranik Protected Area). In Lake Bradawil, a total of 2111 species had been recorded, 203 species of vascular plants (83 annuals and 120 perennials), 241 phytoplankton and 59 zooplankton species), 72 species of invertebrates including field worms, crustacea (shrimps), molluscs and echinoderms, 55 spiders, 202 species of insects, 45 fish species (bream and mullets), 23 species of reptiles, 241 species of birds (more than 50% of recorded species in Egypt) and 21 species of mammals. Newer fishing practices, like bottom trawling, had reduced the sea bass population because fine mesh nets trap both adult and juvenile fishes. The declining sea bass population, combined with increased water salinity had attracted shrimps and crabs, the sea turtles' favorite food and the Lake had become an attractive wintering ground for sea turtles. In October 2012, over 90 sea turtles were found dead in various stages of decomposition on the shores of Lake Bardawil (Fig 1), suggesting that the killing had been going on for several months (Sarant, 2012; Yahia, 2014). Lake Bardawil is one of the less polluted bodies of water in the country, so pollution seems improbable as a major source of mortality. Of the 90 dead turtles found, only 74 could be clearly identified through photographic evidence.

Fig (1) Turtles found dead and in various stages of decomposition on the shores of Lake Bardawil

All three species of sea turtle occurring in the Mediterranean, the loggerhead, the green and the leatherback turtle were endangered due to human activities and as such are protected through international and national legislation. The health and size of a sea turtle population might serve as a useful indicator of the health of the wetlands located at marine and coastal habitats. A rapid field survey was carried out on 2-3 November 2012 to search for dead or 15 injured sea turtles in Lake Bardawil. Results showed that a total 80–100 Dead Sea turtles was documented. With few pollution sources affecting the lake, it does not seem to be a likely cause of mortality. Death due to litter ingestion cannot be excluded, but it is unlikely to be the main cause of multiple or ongoing stranding. Few fishermen admitted intentionally killing turtles. Only five of the 16 recently dead turtles exhibited evident signs of human-induced external damage (head trauma); therefore, there is no conclusive evidence to support whether this activity is common practice. Several fishermen claimed that other fishermen were using illegal poisoned bait; however, there is no physical evidence to support these statements. The fishermen attributed their negative feelings towards turtles to gear damage and impact on fishing effort. Interviews with fish men documented low awareness and misconceptions regarding sea turtle biology, their ecological value and protected status. Fayum governorate is a depression below sea level, formed by wind erosion 1.8 million years ago, covering ca 12,000 km 2. It consists of two lacustrine complexes, Birket Qarun and the two artificial Wadi el-Rayan lakes. Lake Qarun is a saline remnant of the historical freshwater . It used to be supplied by Nile water between its formation (about 1980 BC) and the Ptolemaic period (323–246 BC). The lake is no longer connected to Nile and needs to be supplied with pumped water that evaporates in its basin. Consequently, the lake showed a strong increase in salinity, especially during the twentieth century. It evolved from a brackish to a hyper-saline state, with incisive repercussions on all biota. In Wadi el-Rayan area, two successive lakes, separated by a waterfall, were created as a reservoir for agricultural drainage water. These lakes currently exceed the capacity of Lake Qarun. It is argued that the rapid change in salinity of Lake Qarun excludes the presence of endemic species in its fauna. Flora of Protected Area was monitored (areas of springs and Rayan lakes) and did not exhibit any significant changes in the status of species as 56 flora species were monitored. Aqua culture ponds predominantly built in the fringes of the Lake at the account of shore line vegetation (marsh vegetation and reed) and non irrigated agricultural lands increased from nearly 11.000 hectares in 1978 to nearly 17.000 hectares in 2011. Active management (mowing and removal of detritus) had prevented further encroachment of reed and greater loss of open water. The loss of open water, combined with the deteriorating water quality had a damaging impact on the biodiversity (7 valuable fish species disappeared) and the livelihoods of about 50.000 fishermen living around the Lake. With support of the government of the Netherlands a process started with a first step describing current environmental conditions of the Lake including analyses of the water quality, current and past land use changes, status of biodiversity and analyses of threats followed by a second step of discussing gained results during a seminar for which all relevant stakeholders will be invited and that will produce a roadmap towards the elaboration and endorsement of a management plan.

Desert habitats: Arid and semi-arid habitats cover over 90% of Egypt’s territory amalgamating disparate environmental ecosystems. The Mediterranean coastal desert receives the highest rain fall in Egypt that covers up to 60 km inland (nearly 200 mm annually) and has a realistic amount of vegetation cover and the greatest national floral biodiversity. Western Desert that inhabits about two-thirds of the country’s area (681 thousand km 2) is ruthless environment ecosystem for plant growth due to hot summer and extreme daily temperature fluctuation in winter as well as rare rain water. Oases are the most outstanding features of the Western Desert and are the sole source of water and vegetation over much of this desert. A total of 233 species (116 annuals and 103 perennials), belonging to 151 genera and 44 families were recorded in western Mediterranean sand dunes. Some 30 species have unique incidence in these dunes. A total of 219 species (116 annuals and 103 perennials), belonging to 154 genera and 47 families were recorded in Sallum area. In contrast, the desert bordering Red Sea is very dry and the vegetation is mainstream of that of the Eastern Desert (223 thousand km 2), being for the most part delimited to mouths of

16 larger wades and along the coast where vegetation exists. As for Sinai Peninsula (61 thousand km 2) it is well-thought-out to be a gigantic mass of basic formation with high rough peaks (St. Catharine Mountain), valleys and some oases. Wades and mountains are characteristic of the landscape of much of the Eastern Desert and Sinai. About 1775 plant species had been confirmed in desert ecosystems, 279 in North Sinai, 472 in South Sinai, 328 in North Coast, 66 in Halayeb, 250 in Western Desert and 280 in Eastern Desert. Most of recorded plants are coupled to traditional knowledge in Sinai, North Coast, Eastern and Western deserts. Biodiversity recorded in El-Omayed includes 251 plant species (1 endemic, 11 threatened, 17 endangered of extinction), 324 animal species (39 bird species: 4 endemic, 1 globally endangered, 19 rare; 10 mammals: 1 endemic, 2 endangered of extinction, 4 rare; 33 reptiles: 3 endangered of extinction, 12 under environmental threat; and 242 species (2 endangered of extinction). In addition to the presence of some genetic resources such as wild cotton in Siwa. includes 139 plant species (98 of them became extinct between 2000 and 2006 and 6 species are deteriorating due to over and random grazing), 15 mammal species (including The Barbary sheep ( Ammotragus lervia ), Gazelle, Heyena, sand cat, fox, mountain rabbit, Ibn Awa, and wild donkey) and100 bird species; ostrich species were last seen in 1992. Biodiversity reported in Siwa includes 53 plant species, 28 wild mammals including 8 rare species threatened with extinction (namely cheetah, striped hyena, Egyptian gazelle, white gazelle, red fox, wild cat and Fennec fox), 32 reptile species , 164 bird species and36 insects and a large number of invertebrates. In Wadi El Gemal and Hamata 140 plant species including 32 used in traditional medicine, 24 mammal species, 29 species of reptiles and amphibians and 45 bird species were recorded. Helmy et al (2013) stated that the use of species distribution modeling in deserts is a functional tool for mapping species and assessing the impact of human induced changes on individual species. Such applications are still infrequent, and this might be credited to the fact that much of arid lands and deserts around the world are located in inaccessible areas. Their study is the first to conduct spatially explicit modeling of plant species distribution in Egypt. The random forest modeling approach was applied to climatic and land-surface parameters to predict the distribution of selected weighty plant species in an arid landscape in the northwestern coastal desert of Egypt. The impact of changes in land use and climate on the distribution of the plant species was assessed. Their results indicated that the changes in land use in the area over the last 23 years had resulted in habitat loss for all modeled species. Projected future changes in land use revealed that all modeled species will continue to suffer habitat loss. The projected impacts of modeled climate scenarios (A1B, A2A and B2A) on the distribution of the modeled species by 2040 varied. Some of the species were projected to be adversely affected by the changes in climate, while other species are expected to benefit from these changes. The collective impacts of changes in land use and climate pose serious threats to most of the modeled species. Their study found that all the species are predictable to suffer loss in habitat, except Gymnocarpos decanderus . They tinted the worth of assessing the impact of land use/climate change scenarios on other species of restricted distribution in the area and could help in shaping policy and mitigation efforts to protect and preserve biodiversity in desert of Egypt.

Mountains habitats : Mountainous habitats are mainly found in three places in Egypt, South Sinai, El Owaynat, and, Red Sea and Elba. They cover 0.7 % of Egypt’s territory and are exemplified by exclusive biodiversity, predominantly plants because of the variety of habitats individualized with dryness and graduation of temperatures according to the altitude and different habitats such as mountain peaks, rifts, mountain slopes, desert valleys, mountain 17 valleys, and caves. Recent studies proved that high mountains area of St. Catherine's plays an important role in the genetic segregation between valleys that represent the main reason for the diversity of many species of the same family. These act as a normal barrier to the transfer of genes through pollen and that increase isolation of individuals of the same species. On the other hand the studies showed that insects like bugs have no significant differences between its individuals of the different populations within valleys because of its high ability for movement and extend between valleys. Results clarified a concomitant relationship between the rate of increase “71% “between (Alloped) plant and the Alontrawfora insect. The studies did not show any concomitant relationship between Ahargel plant and bugs. The major threats disturbing biodiversity in the mountains are human activities (hunting, logging, trafficking in species, urban development); in addition to alien invasive species, climate change and natural disasters (mainly flooding). The different taxonomic groups so far recorded in mountain ecosystems are 472 plant species (including 30 endemic ca 50 % of the endemic species in Egypt and 140 medicinal plants), 85 taxa (out of 175 taxa recorded in Egypt: 48.8 %), two of them are endemic ( Tortula kneuckeri Broth & Geh and Grimmia anodon Bruch & Schimp. var. sinaitica Renauld & Cardot). It contains also one species of hepatics (Riccia cavernosa Hoffm.); 41 mammals, 36 reptiles, 50 birds and 33 butterflies in St. Katherine Mountains; 361 plant species in Eastern desert mountains; 458 plant species (3 endemic), 36 mammals, 38 reptiles and amphibians and 60 birds in Elba; 150 plant species in Hamata; 71plant species (40 species became extinct in the last 20 years), 12 mammals, 12 reptiles, 30 birds and 24 invertebrates in El Owaynat and 64 plant species in Gelf Elkebir. Most familiar mountain mammals include Slender horned gazelle, Nubian ibex ( Capra nubiana ), Wild cat ( Felis silvestris), Swamp cat ( Felis chaus), Caracal (Caracal caracal), Rock hyrax ( Procavia capensis), hedgehog and ozone vulture.

Agricultural habitats: Agricultural cropland habitats have been diminishing since late 1980s. These declines are thought to be connected to changes in land use and agricultural practices. Agricultural land remains to be lost to human settlements. It is estimated that some 47,700 feddans are lost every year. The introduction and wide use of high yielding varieties led to the neglect and disappearance of traditional varieties and the erosion of crop plant genetic diversity. Currently, Egypt depends on 4 crops (wheat, corn, rice and potato) for 50% of its vegetarian food and 14 mammal and bird species for 90% of animal proteins.

Pasturelands habitats : Pasturelands existing in Elba and Wadi Allaqi in the south and in El- Omighted and Sinai in the north are the most imperative areas of grasslands in Egypt. For example, the local communities located in Elba Mountain, used to stay in aggregates (Madareb) where their houses are located in the vicinity houses of the larger family and the families gather in tribes. The word (Madareb) means areas that inherited from grandparents and parents where boundaries are distinct and recognized. The use of resources within these properties is governed by the Sheikh of the tribe where he sets up rules for the exploitation of wells’ water, and cutting trees used in building houses or for fuel.

Marine habitats: Egypt is bounded from the north by the Mediterranean Sea with about 995 km and from the east by the Red Sea with about 1941 km. The Egyptian coastal and marine environment is distinguished by specific habitats, namely coral reefs and mangroves where the greatest known species diversity of any marine ecosystem are found. Marine environment of both Mediterranean and Red seas is distinguished by many habitats and endangered species especially all marine mammals (17 species), marine turtles (4 species), sharks (more than 20 species) mangrove trees and many birds (white eyed gulls, sooty falcons, ospreys). This is in

18 addition to the great marine biodiversity (more than 5000 species) represented in 800 species of seaweeds, 209 species of coral reefs, more than 800 species of molluscs, 600 species of crustacean, 350 species of Echinodermata, in addition to hundreds of species that have never been revealed until now especially in the Exclusive Economic Zone in the Red Sea and the Mediterranean. Sadek (2012) reviewed the Egyptian aquaculture development and how carrying capacity management status could assist and protect the durability of this important industry. Rapid expansion of the Egyptian coastal aquaculture is identified as the major problem affecting the sustainable development of aquaculture, resulting in several important issues such as environmental pressure and pollution. There are several laws and regulations dealing with the Egyptian fisheries, aquaculture sectors, but still lack of effective monitoring and legislation on the aquaculture site. He added that Egyptian fish farms produce about 65% of the country’s total freshwater and marine fish production, providing a cheap source of protein. It is clear that the current bottlenecks limiting the reasonable aquaculture site selection and carrying capacity management.

Natural protectorates Egypt has declared a relatively good proportion of its land as PAs, and the ecological and social benefits offered by Egypt’s PA system are high. Protected Areas have been Egypt's most important and effective tool to conserve its biodiversity, prevent ongoing losses of species and habitats and fulfill its international commitments. They have expanded over the past 30 years in both number and area. By 2013, 30 protected areas were established, covering over 146,000 km 2 or about 14.6 % of the total land and marine areas of the country. They vary in size, from the largest, El Gelf El Kebeer PA, at about 48,500 km 2 to Saluga and Gazal, at about 0.5 km 2 ( Fig 2).

Fig (2) Extent of nationally designated PAs from 1983 -2013 (Area protected % of total/ terrestrial and inland water areas, coastal and marine areas, versus years every 5 years The natural protectorates declared so far in Egypt cover three main environmental categories wetlands, deserts and special geological formation. Each of these categories embraces a variety of habitat types. There follows a brief account of the individual protectorates of each category.

Wetland Protectorates (Marine, Lakes & Riverine)

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Most of these protectorates exist in Red Sea and Al-Aqaba Gulf zones except El Sallum that exist in Mediterranean Sea. They include interconnected marine and terrestrial sectors based on conserving coral reefs and accompanying systems, marine biome, mangrove bushes, marine islands and adjacent mountain and desert areas. They are Ras Mohamed, Nabq, and Abu Galum protectorates on Aqaba Gulf in , Elba and Red Sea islands natural protectorates, Wadi El Gemal/ Hamata protectorate in and Sallum in . These protectorates are located largely in the Mediterranean shores and the Nile River banks. They specifically include some northern lakes and coastal zones as well as Nile islands. They protect resident and migratory bird habitats, assist in management of fisheries, local community’s development and promote ecotourism. Among these protected areas are Zaranik in , Ashtum El Gamil in Governorate, Omayed in Matrouh Governorate, Lake Qarun and Wadi El- Rayan in Fayoum Governorate, and Saluga and Ghazal Islands in Governorate and the 144 Nile Islands and El- Burrullus in Kafr El Sheick Governorate. . 1) Ashtoom El-Gameel (Lake Manzala): It was declared a protectorate by Prime Minister's decree no. 459 of 1988. It occupies the northeastern corner of Lake Manzala close to Port Said, and covers an area of about 35 km 2, extending southwards for 3 km into the Lake (thus including Tennees Island) and westwards for ca 7 km along the Mediterranean shore. A constricted sands bar separates this part of the Lake from the Sea. Lake Manzala is one of the crucial fisheries in Egypt as it contributes 50-60% of the total catch of the northern lakes. Human settlements are fascinated to the area around Lake Manzala for fishing and hunting. This protectorate is regarded as an internationally important wetland owing to the fact that large numbers of birds winter in it. 2) Zaraneek and the Bardaweel Lake : The Bardaweel is a shallow water body in the northern coastal part of Sinai Peninsula. It extends between 31° 3' and 31" 14' N, 32°40' and 33°30' E and covers an area of 595 km 2. A narrow sand bar separates the shallow lake from the Mediterranean, with a number of openings joining them. One of these openings is found in the outermost eastern section of the lake at Zaraneek. This protectorate is an internationally important site for resident and migratory birds and had recently been predictable as a Ramsar site. It is also among the important locations for fishing and quail hunting that attract tourism and traditional settlements. 3) Sabkhat Al-Ah rash Protectorate : It has been declared a protected area by the Prime Minister’s decree no. 1429 of 1985 and covers an area of about 4 km 2. It occupies part of the sand dune system between El- and Rafah cities in Northern Sinai, close to the Mediterranean shore and falls under its climatic influence. It has a dense growth of planted Acacia trees as well as numerous and herbs, thus serving as an important source of firewood and as rangeland for herds of the local . The vegetation of this area is also useful in sand dune fixation, thus helping to stop sand encroachment. 4) Ras Mohammed National Park : It was declared a protectorate by the Prime Minister's decree no. 1068 of 1983 and occupies the southern tip of the Sinai Peninsula together with the two small islands (Tiran and Senafir) of the Tiran Straits at the southern end of the . The total area of this national park is about 750 km 2. Results of monitoring the status of coral reefs from 2001 to 2011 using photo permanent quadrates methods in 17 diving sites revealed that sites that are far away from human activities witnessed 15% increase in coral reefs compared with areas with human activities (5-7%), due to pollution or unfavorable environment where soft corals had been increased at the cost of hard ones. Different taxonomic groups so far recorded in Red Sea coral reefs ecosystems include more than 1000 fish species, 500 species of Crustaceans, 400 Mollusca species and hundreds of species of other organisms. Technical and financial assistance towards the development of this national park is generously provided by the European Community in three stages of three years each the first started in 1989, the second in 1992, and the third in 1997. The management plan for this protectorate included the finishing point of the infra-structure and a training programme 20 for rangers and scientific staff. The Ras Mohammed National Park is remarkably rich in biodiversity as has been shown by the abundant baseline studies of its fauna and flora. Apart from rich coral growth, plant life ranges from meadows of seaweed (numerous Sargassum, Turbinaria, Ulva spp.), sea grasses (Halodule uninervis, Halophila ovalis, Halophila Stipulacea, etc.) and a wide diversity of halophytes inhabiting the coastal hyper-saline mudflats and mangroves (Avicennia marina) to vast acreages of rangelands, wadi beds with copiousness of silted catchment areas supporting large Acacia raddiana trees and various herbaceous species, and mountain slopes sheltered with small characteristic herbs of magnificent colors and aroma. Ras Mohammed National Park is the first reserve to have its infrastructures completed (visitors centre, tracks and passes, field laboratories, staff accommodation, etc.). Rangers and staff are trained and carry their functions actually. Management scheme is implemented; it is already receiving revenue that could sustain its operation. 5) Nabq (Multiple Use Management Area): It was declared as a protected area by the Prime Minister's decree no. 1511 of 1992 and covers an area of about 600 km 2 of the southeastern part of the Sinai Peninsula. Nabq protectorate incorporates a variety of ecosystems ranging from marine to mountainous and harbors rich populations of corals, marine animals and sea grasses. It provides food and shelter for abundant resident and migratory birds (e.g. the osprey). The shores at Nabq provide the northernmost limit of the mangrove trees in the Red Sea region. The wadis (valleys) of this protectorate are home for numerous mammals including rodents, gazelles, ibex and hyenas, together with some reptiles. 6) Abu-Galum (Multiple Use Management Area): This is undoubtedly one of the most picturesque parts of Egypt, where the high hills of southern Sinai steep at several points directly into the waters of the Gulf of Aqaba. It was declared as a protected area by the Prime Minister's decree no. 1511 of 1992. The total area of this protectorate is about 500 km 2, including several mountains traversed by an elaborate network of deep wadis, freshwater springs and coastal sand dunes. Diving, fishing and safari tours are the main attractions of this protectorate. Biologically, this protectorate has a rich and exclusive fauna and flora. The arak (Salvadora persica) community occupying most of the vast alluvial fan of wadi Kid is the largest of its kind in the country. 7) Lake Qaroun Protectorate: Declared as a protected area by the Prime Minister's decree no. 943 of 1989. It covers an area of 250 km 2; the water level is 34-43m below sea level. The Lake is nearly 40 km long, with a maximum width of 5.7 km and an average depth of 4.2 m. It receives the agricultural drainage water of Fayum Governorate, and some ground water from a few natural springs in its bottom. Excess water runs further south of the Lake to the Wadi El-Rayyan Depression. Lake Qaroun is regarded as an internationally important wetland because numerous birds winter in it. 8) Wadi El-Rayyan Protectorate : Declared as a protected by Prime Minister's decree no. 943 of 1989. The area is a natural depression in the Western Desert, ca 18 km to the southwest of Lake Qaroun. It covers an area of 710 km 2 and includes two artificial lakes formed by the drainage water flowing from Lake Qaroun as well as agricultural drainage water from the nearby farmlands. The protectorate has several interesting geological formations and a number of relicts from the Graeco-Roman period. The wadi also includes a number of natural springs that sustain a rich vegetation, more than 100 species of birds, 16 species of reptiles, 16 species of mammals (including the red fox, the fennec fox, the slender- horned gazelle), as well as a number of fish species. This area is also the wished-for site for the Captive Breeding Centre. 9) The Saluga and Ghazal Protectorate: these two islands were declared as protectorates by Prime Minister's decree no. 928 of 1986, as well as all the small islands between them, in River Nile. These granitic islands are located three km north of Aswan . They harbor a unique flora and are regarded as a great reservoir of rare genetic diversity, hence their special

21 biological significance. It is proposed that the protectorates be lengthened westwards into the Western Desert and to include some arid and semi-arid habitat types as well.

Desert Protectorates (Highlands, Valleys & Plains) Most of those protectorates are located in Sinai and Eastern and Western Deserts. They include mountains, plains and wades. They protect flora and fauna diversity in these regions, regulate and promote safari tourism, and support local communities. They are the Al- Ahrash in North Sinai Governorate, Taba and St. Katherine in South Sinai Governorate, Al Omayed and Siwa in Matrouh Governorate, White Desert in , Wadi Asiuti in Assiut Governorate, and Wadi Allaqi in , El-Gelf El-Kebeer in El-Wadi El-Gedid Governorate, and El-Wahat El-Baharia in Governorate (Fig 3).

Fig (3) Development of desert PAs

1) St. Katherine Protectorate: It was declared as a protectorate by the Prime Minister's decree no. 613 of 1988. It is one of the large reserves in the country, occupying an area of 5750 km 2 in the central parts of the mountainous massif of southern Sinai. The St. Katherine summit (2641m) is the uppermost in the country, and most other summits (including Moses Mountain, with its well-known religious significance) are higher than 2000 m. The protectorate includes St. Katherine City and the St. Katherine Monastery that attracts a great deal of religious tourism to the area. The climate is agreeably moderate and fresh water is satisfactory for irrigating the monastery garden and plantations. From the biological point of view, the area is characterized by a remarkably high concentrate on of endemic species of plants and animals, as well as a wealth of medicinal and poisonous plants. It represents in biogeographic terms the most western outpost of the Irano-Turanian biota. A scheme is being implemented, with the technical and financial assistance of the European Union that will provide a management scheme for this complex park, and will initiate implementation of the scheme. 2) Wadi Allaqi Biosphere Reserve: This is a dry river system traversing the southern part of the Eastern Desert of Egypt and joining the Nile valley at a point some 180 km to the south of Aswan. The protectorate covers an area of ca 30,000 km 2. After the construction of the High Dam at Aswan in 1964, the water level was raised south of the Dam and formed Lake Nasser and water entered into the downstream part of Wadi Allaqi for a distance of about 80 km. When the water level in Lake Nasser subsided in subsequent years, the water retreated some 40 km downstream Wadi Allaqi, leaving behind an area covered with an appreciable layer of riverine silt suitable for the dense growth of Tamarix. Wadi Allaqi has been the site of extensive research programmes in fields of , sociology and

22 economics. Research scholars from UK, USA, Couldada, The Netherlands, France, , etc. participate in these research programmes. Mineral deposits in the protectorate include gold and more than a few types of gem stone. In 1993, this protectorate was declared by UNESCO a biosphere reserve. 3) The Elba Protectorate : This is by far the largest reserve in Egypt, covering an area of 35,600 km 2 and including four distinct types of ecosystem, i.e., mangrove forests of Red Sea coast and its numerous islands, Doaib region, Gebel-Elba region and Abraq region. The Gebel-Elba region has large mangrove communities along Red Sea coast that are the most important breeding sites for marine birds. The region is also a home for many species of wild animals including mountain goat, wild ass, `numerous gazelles, hares, sand foxes and hyrax. The avifauna of this region is also well diversified. It includes many falcons, eagles, vultures, crows, sea gulls and herons. The mountains of Elba represent formation of mist oasis in Egypt. Plant diversity in Elba is also remarkable; records include 396 species of flowering plants and ferns and the vegetation is particularly lush after incidents of rainfall. 4) The Omighted Biosphere Reserve : This protectorate was declared by Prime Minister's decree no. 3216 of 1996; it covers an area of about 700 km 2 and is located some 83 km to the west of (or 200 km east of Matrouh) and nearly 15 km south Mediterranean shore. It incorporates a variety of habitat types, animal and plant communities, traditional bedouin settlements, and patterns of land use. In 1981 it was declared a biosphere reserve by UNESCO. It has been the field site of one of the IBP desert biome (1973 -1976), and site for ecosystem research studies till now. 5) Wadi El-Assyuti Protectorate : This relatively a small protectorate covers an area of only 24 km 2 on the western banks of River Nile at Assyut in Upper Egypt. It was declared by Prime Minister's decree no 710 of 1997. 6) Taba Protectorate : It was declared as a protected area by a Prime Minister's decree in 1997. It occupies a stretch of desert to southwest of the township of Taba on eastern borders of Egypt. The area embraces geological and geomorphological features of scientific interest and spectacular landscape, i.e., caves, an intricate network of wadies and rocky plateaus, mini-oases and archeological sites. It presents rich biodiversity are, 25 mammal species; 50 species of birds, mostly rare; 24 species of reptiles together with a rich diversity of plants. All this rich biota is threatened by over-exploitation. This protectorate completes the network of nature reserves in Sinai Peninsula as they now represent the main habitat types and areas that need to be protected for their natural and cultural attributes.

Geological Protectorates They constitute unique geological phenomena identified as scientifically and touristically important destinations (Fig 4). They are Hassana Dome, Petrified Forest and Wadi Degla in Governorate, in Beni Sueif Governorate, El-Dababiya in Governorate, and Niazak Gabal Kamel in El-Wadi El-Gadid Governorate. 1) The Hassana Dome : It was declared as a protected area by Prime Minister's decree no. 946 of 1989. It is a peculiar geological formation covering an area of 1 km 2 on Cairo-Alexandria highway. It is part of a larger formation known as Abu-Rawash formation that dates back to the Cretaceous. The Abu Rawash formation in turn falls on the line joining similar domes of Al-Maghara Mountain in Northern Sinai with those of in the Western Desert. These formations are very useful in geological teaching and research. 2) The Petrified Forest at : It was declared as a protected area by Prime Minister's decree no. 944 of 1989. It is situated at 18 km east of Maadi (a suburb to the south of Cairo). It is a flat expanse of gravel and sand covered with innumerable pieces of silicified tree trunks and stumps, some of which are almost intact with clearly visible annual rings. The whole

23 formation belongs to the Oligocene (32-35 million years). These fossils are interesting records of ancient life in the area. 3) The Cave of Wadi Sannour: It was declared as a protectorate by Prime Minister's decree no. 1204 of 1997. This cave is found in Western Desert about 70 km southwest of city. It is 700m long and 15 m wide with numerous stalactites and stalagmites that formed in the Middle Eocene (ca. 60 million year) as a result of seepage of saturated solutions of calcium carbonate through the cave's roof. This protectorate derives its significant from the rarity of such formations in Egypt. It could be a major tourist attraction, and sheds light on the pale climate of the region.

Fig (4) Development of geological PAs

Performance of PAs: The performance of protected areas in maintaining populations of their key species is poorly documented. To assess the completeness of coverage and status of the existing protected area network and identify additional sites that make important contribution towards the comprehensiveness and proportional representatives of the PA network, and establish a data base that could be used in future assessments of the PA network in Egypt, and in order to evaluate the PAs network in terms of species of flora and fauna represented in the network, an extensive data base of collected specimens and observations was required. By early 2006, the BioMap project funded by the Italian Cooperation computerized and mapped more than 200,000 records using GIS programme. In the meantime, the number of endangered species is used as an indicator of species representation in the PA network.

Renewable natural biodiversity resources

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Renewable natural biodiversity resources in Egypt are mainly represented by farmlands, coastal belt, fisheries, wild animals and natural vegetation. The renewable resources of farmlands and water (agriculture) are limited, not exceeding 7 million feddans or 60 billion m3 respectively. With the increase of population, the share of farmland per person contentiously decrease that underlines special significance of measures to conserve and sustainably use these limited natural resources. The farming system tends to reclaim new land irrigated with developed irrigation schemes. The two major projects of El- Salam Caudal in Sinai and Toshki Caudal in the Western Desert aim at adding 600000 and 500000 feddans respectively to agricultural lands. During the last two centuries, Egypt has introduced a number of crop plants (including cotton) that form now the backbone of agriculture. The last three decades have also witnessed the introduction of numerous cultivars of fruit and vegetable crops and animal races including fish and chicken. Production of these new introductions has been increasing steadily, with negative implications for the neglected local breeds, some of which have been badly degraded while others have disappeared. Limited rain-fed agriculture prevails in the Mediterranean coastal belt where the annual rainfall is 150- 200 mm. In years of relatively high rainfall barley and wheat are cultivated in flat areas, while olive and fig trees are grown in runoff-collecting sites. In the sub-coastal arid belt (rainfall 100 mm/yr), natural vegetation provides grazing sites for livestock mainly sheep and goats. Fisheries prevail along the coasts of Mediterranean and Red Sea, northern lakes, inland lakes (Qaroun, Wadi Rayyan, Nasser), and River Nile and its associated irrigation networks. Aquaculture and mariculture are on the increase and use both local and introduced species of fish. Wild animals (gazelles and antelopes), and resident and migratory game birds are under pressures of excessive hunting. This is one of the major causes of deterioration and sometimes complete loss of wildlife. Natural vegetation, though often thin and widely dispersed, provides the desert inhabitants with resources of considerable importance fuel for their consumption and charcoal and medicinal herbs as cash crops. Excessive collection is a cause of deterioration of the vegetation and the loss of species.

Non-renewable natural biodiversity resources The ground waters resources of the deserts of Egypt are mostly fossil water stored since the rainy periods and are used in irrigating arable lands of the oases of the Western Desert and to a limited extent in Sinai. Development of Nubia Sandstone aquifers in southern parts of the Western Desert includes East Oweinat programme and Darb EI-Arbaeen (extension of the Toshki irrigation scheme) programme. Prospecting and exploitation of oil resources in Egypt date back to the beginnings of the 20 th century. Extensive Egyptian and international efforts are being made to explore and develop additional oil in all parts of the country. Large reserves of natural gas have already been found (in the Delta and the Gulf of Suez) and are being developed. Coal deposits are recorded in a few sites in Sinai, of which the one at EI-Maghara is being developed. Mineral deposits including gold, copper, gemstones and others were known and exploited in ancient Egypt together with building stones of various kinds. Other mineral sources recorded in Egypt include tin, tungsten, lead, , nickel, chrome, iron, titanium, talc, barite, asbestos, magnesium, graphite, and phosphate, marble, alabaster and other building material.

Conservation of natural biodiversity resources Encouragement of biodiversity and habitats conservation is one of the main national priorities in line with the global goal (achieving at least 10% of the effective protection of each ecosystem in Egypt). Current and future planned protected areas, that represent different habitats, had been covered and included within Map of State Land Use of Egypt, to be considered in the future planning of land use processes.

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National targets were developed for specific action programs (agricultural biodiversity, inland water, coastal and marine ecosystems, arid and semi-humid and mountains ecosystems) then included within National Environmental Action Plan (2002-2017), relevant national strategies (i.e. wetlands, eco-tourism and medicinal plants). Emphasis was engaged to marine areas, wetlands and mountains (Elba - St. Catherine PAs), arid and semi-arid area. Protection was afforded to areas with special interest (fish nurseries, coral reefs and mangroves areas); in addition to areas with endangered species (e.g. Turtles, Gazelle and Dolphins). In the future, focus will be targeting fresh water and agro-biodiversity. One of the most priority sites for migratory birds is Zaranik PA where 217 species had been recorded during past five years representing 89% of the total number of birds species (245 species) recorded since seventies until now; this means that Zaranik PA still retains more migratory birds species, some of which are endangered and worthy at a global level, which confirms the standing of the region as one of the most significant migration routes for birds in the world. Port Said and Manzala Lake are of Egypt's most judicious wetlands (due to their importance for birds, especially migratory water birds). Different sectors of Manzala Lake were surveyed and different water birds species were recorded during 2009, results showed that there were 45 species of birds belonging to 38 and 24 families, including 37 species of water birds (82%) and 8 of terrestrial bird (18%). In Manzala lake, especially Ashtom El-Gamel Protected Area more than 34 thousand birds during (October, November and December) with monthly average of up to 11 thousand birds from 83 species were monitored, including 6 species of regional and international standing; in addition to verifying the second largest breeding colony of Larus genei in Port Fouad (estimated with 6 thousand birds). Furthermore, Lake Nasser is one of the most vital wetlands in Egypt as a key source of freshwater fishery that donates about 25% to 40% of the total production of inland fisheries. During 1992, fish production reached about 26,000 tons. The most common fish species was Tilapia that represented 97-98% of the total fish production from the Lake. As time goes on, Lake Nasser greatness increased and during the winter of 1995 their total number were approximated to about 200,000 individuals, rendering it as one of the most important wetlands in Egypt. Some birds’ species are with international importance (e.g. Aythya neroca which is globally threatened) while others are confined to Lake Nasser; in addition to species of mammals, reptiles and the most famous . During 2010, Lake Nasser’s water birds were estimated with about 150 thousand birds belonging to 56 species, including 6 species globally threatened; this indicates relative stability in water birds population in Lake Nasser, However there is a growing pressure from agricultural and tourism activities but their adverse impact are relatively limited. Egypt had issued a number of laws relating to biodiversity conservation. The Ministry of Agriculture was endorsed to put most of these laws into effect and to follow up their implementation through an authority for the protection of nature (Egyptian Wildlife Service). In 1983, Law 102 was enacted to set up a legal framework for the declaration and management of protected areas and followed by Law 101 (1985) was enacted to ensure suitable finding for protected areas through living a tax on locally issued airplane tickets. This was later followed by Law 4 for 1994 in which article 28 regulates hunting of wild animals and prohibits destruction of their natural habitats; article 84 of this law sets forth the penal code for illegal hunting. In 1989 the NBU had completed a detailed and comprehensive study on the control of hunting practices. As regards the habitat diversity, conservation programmes focused on the selection of habitats with relatively high richness in biodiversity, those harboring species of special interest (endemics, rare, endangered or extinct), or those with natural formations (geological or geomorphological) with special scientific, cultural or aesthetic value. Ecosystems apt to harsh and/or irreversible modifications associated with development programmes and misuse of resources also feature high on the list of habitat types eligible for conservation.

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In programmes of conservation of species diversity, priority was given to endemics and near endemics as well as to rare and endangered species, species with critical taxonomic or evolutionary significance, the close relatives of domesticated plants and animals and those with high industrial value (e.g. medicinal plants), and sources of special products (Table 3). Conservation programmes also gave precedence to species with a wide range of morphological and/or physiological plasticity (i.e. a relatively large number of biotypes), and to species with a wide range of ecological plasticity (i.e. a relatively large number of ecotypes), as well as those with other features that might suggest the presence of special genes or genomes in them. This also included the conservation of cultivars and races that had a significant role to play in farming and still amass a useful genetic make-up but had been replaced by other varieties and races in the wake of green revolution. Conservation of such cultivars and races is the work of the gene bank. In this connection, special mention should be made of the multitude of cultivars and races of some crops (e.g. cotton, wheat, rice, dates, etc.) and farm animals (cattle, chicken, goats and sheep).

Table (3) Conservation status of assessed animal and plant taxonomic groups Red list Mammals Butterflies Odonata Birds Apocynaceae Euphorbiacea Primulaceaa Amaranthaceae Category

CR 4 1 3 10 7 EN 11 1 7 6 2 7 1 3 VU 24 14 10 10 7 22 3 6 NT 36 17 11 11 11 15 LC 5 NE 21 14 1 3 11 DD 15 16 9 2 2 5 Total 111 63 species 40 43 22 species 51 species 9 species 25 species species species species CR: Critically Endangered EN: Endangered VU: Vulnerable NT: Near Threatened LC: Least Concerned NE: Not Evaluated DD: Data Deficient

Successful models Detecting flora species: Flora surveys had been run during the years 1998, 2003 and 2004, in the high mountains of St. Catherine Protected Area (northern sector) to identify and follow-up status of its vegetation coverage and prepare a complete database about their plants including the scientific name, botanical family, economic importance, geographic distribution, negative impacts on wild plants and the most fitting environment for their growth. All these data were downloaded on geological maps and geographic information systems. The surveying program was apportioned into three phases, i.e. data collection, input into a database data analysis and, preparing output database of the protectorate. Mangrove trees : Studies done by remote sensing and field testing confirmed that total area of mangrove trees increased to 700 hectare by the end of 2009, compared with 525 hectare in 2002. This is mainly due to impeding encroachment and starting transplantation programs in many areas along past years, where more than 50 feddan were cultivated with more than 50 thousand seedlings of both mangrove types ( Avicennia marina and Rhisophora mucronata ), and the establishment of nurseries in Nabq, ,Wadi El-Gemal and Shalatin. In addition, a biological study was conducted on mangrove trees (height, volume, density, fruit production, and flowering period) proved that mangrove habitats are portrayed by high biodiversity. Biotic communities so far recorded in Red Sea mangrove ecosystems (Fig 5) included more than 22 fish species, 36 species of algae, 40 insect species, 82 Crustacea species, 65 Mollusca species and 17 Echinodermata species. However, the diversity of macro fauna (crustacea, molluscs and echinoderms species) reported in 2006 (27 27 genera) were lower than those recorded in 2002 (33 genera) while the coral cover in the fringing reefs adjacent to the mangrove did not change.

Fig (5) Mangroves provide habitat for a large number of faunal assemblages of marine organisms including a high diversity of fish, crustaceans, mollusks and echinoderms.

Many terrestrial organisms and avifauna visit mangroves for reproduction, food and shelter. They are surrounded by very rich habitats including coral reefs and sea grasses. They act as nursery for juveniles of commercially important fish species.

Coastal and Marine Species Diversity: The Egyptian coastal and marine environment is distinguished by specific habitats and threatened species, such as marine mammals (17 species), marine turtles (4 species), sharks (more than 20 species), sea cucumber, special bivalves (clams), coral reefs, mangrove trees and many birds (white eyed gulls , sooty falcons, ospreys). This is in addition to great biodiversity (more than 5000 species), including 800 species of seaweeds and sea grasses, 209 species of coral reefs, more than 800 species of molluscs, 600 species of crustacea, 350 species of echinodermata, and many others yet to be discovered in the Exclusive Economic Zone in the Red Sea. The conservation status of species found in the Mediterranean Sea, between southern and northern Africa is Critical/Endangered. A total of 19 species of cetaceans can be found in the Mediterranean, with eight of them considered common to the Mediterranean (Fin Whale, Sperm Whale, Striped Dolphin, Risso's dolphin, Long Finned Pilot Whale, Bottlenose dolphin, Common dolphin, Cuvier's beaked whale), four considered occasional (Minke Whale, Killer Whale, False Killer Whale, Rough Toothed Dolphin) and 6 considered alien to the Mediterranean, but have been occasionally sighted in the last 120 years (the Humpback Whale among them). Sea Turtles : Loggerhead and Green Turtles have been listed as Endangered by the IUCN while the Leatherback Turtle is listed as Critically Endangered (UNEP/MAP 2012). While the Loggerhead remains relatively abundant, it seems to have almost deserted the Western Basin. The Leatherback and Green Turtle are becoming increasingly rare. Marine turtle monitoring in the Red Sea and Mediterranean is considered to be one of the most successful monitoring programs in large part due to the existence of specialists in this field for more than 10 years. The Red Sea is known to host nesting sites for the endangered Green Turtle, the most important ones being located in , , and Egypt. Nesting activities along the Egyptian coast was described as low-density and scattered with three major concentrations: Tiran Island (Northern Red Sea), Wadi Gemal National Park (Southern Red Sea, in-shore) and Zabargad Island (Southern Red Sea, off-shore).

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During 2009/2010 numbering of marine turtles along the Egyptian coast of the Red Sea was fulfilled. There were 47 green turtles on Zabarged island in addition to monitoring 3 turtles numbered during 2006, getting the total number of numbered turtles on Zabarged Island to 121 one. Surveying of different regions ran throughout 2010, confirmed 1960 old nest and 1347 new one in Zabarged Island, which is well thought-out one of the most important nesting areas of the green sea turtle, Chelonia medas , on the Egyptian coast. Marine turtles monitoring program in Red Sea and Mediterranean recorded four species of marine turtles (green, loggerhead, hawksbill and leather back) in 15 sites on the beach and islands. They have been monitored; with high percentage of nesting in El-Zabargadis land (5336 nests were found in 2007 and remained stable in comparison with 438 in 2001). El-Giftoun Island is rich with hawksbill turtles where 21 nests were found in 2001 and increased to 255 nests in 2007. A satellite tracking monitoring program for green turtles was imitated also last year 2012 in Wadi El Gemal National Park. Results obtained from irregular surveys between 2001 and 2008 suggested that as many as 610 turtles could nest on the 3.5 km long beach on the island In October 2012, 96 sea turtles were found dead (Fig 6) and in various stages of decomposition on the shores of Lake Bardawil, suggesting that their deaths may have been occurring for several months (Sarant, 2012; Yahia, 2012). Lake Bardawil is one of the less polluted bodies of water in the country. Of the 96 dead turtles found, only 74 could be clearly identified through photographic evidence. The vast majority found were Loggerheads. However, a few Green Sea Turtles and one Leatherback were also identified. Four turtles had been decapitated and one died from a head trauma caused by a blunt object. The conclusion reached was that turtles interfered with the catch of fishermen, driving fishermen to eliminate their competition.

Figure (6) Turtle Mortality

Available data on marine turtles nesting in the Egyptian Red Sea are scattered, and usually have been collected with different methods and by different teams over time. Zabargad Island is considered the most important nesting site for Green Turtles in the region.

Nesting success (NS) was calculated as the number of true nests divided by the total number of observed tracks. Recently, the total number of true nests on the island was estimated at 2,262.51±531.27 in 2009; 1,073.90±268.80 in 2010 and 1887.29±388.97 in 2012 while the total number of true nests was 227 in 2009, 130 in 2010and 510 in 2012. The Nesting success was 10%, 12%, and 27% in 2009, 2010, and 2012 respectively. Green turtle population in the Red Sea is estimated to be around 450 nesting females per year (El-Sadek et al., 2013). Dolphins : Few years ago, divers discovered Samadi area, south of city, in the Red Sea where large and young dolphins (80 dolphins) occur. It is worthy that divers, snorkelers, and vessels had recently dramatically increased in this area leading to unacceptable behavior chasing dolphins, making noise in the water, and in some cases, 29 vessels were set on fire resulting in dolphin’s desert for about two weeks. In 2004, after one year of implementing a management plan, dolphins had been increased from 32 to 78 and associated with an extraordinary increase in coral reefs growth. The establishment of Abu- Salama association for dolphins led to protecting them reaching 120 dolphins daily during summer. Studies succeeded in determining the breeding season of dolphins, along with identifying dolphin’s food that included fish, mollusks and crustaceans. Sea Cucumbers: Sea cucumbers are invertebrates living at the bottom of the sea and play an important role in marine ecological balance specifically in food chain of coral reefs and sandy areas and are classified under Echinodermata. They feed on benthos and organic materials improving water quality. There are many species of sea cucumber in Egypt; some species live in shallow water close to coral reefs and sea grass (86-95 sea cucumber/100m 2). Fishing of sea cucumber started in 1998 by fishermen outside Red Sea area, using illegal fishnets that lessened their numbers to 30 sea cucumber/100 m 2. The total catch of sea cucumber was valued as 12000 animals annually. These activities resulted in the increase of mortality of non-professional divers that reached more than 30 cases, due to high price of sea cucumber. Accordingly, fishing of sea cucumber was outlawed since 2001. Studies were then conducted to know the impact of sea cucumber depletion on the marine environment. During 2001-2003, field surveys validated the gigantic decrease in their numbers and densities that reached 10 animal / 100 m 2. Most of the areas that experienced illegal fishing became empty from sea cucumber (compared with 35 animal /m 2) in protected areas. In addition to the decisions taken to preclude catching of cucumber and the continuous monitoring of its depletion, measures were taken to culture sea cucumber at laboratories of both Suez Canal University and Ras Mohamed National Park. Results had shown substantial success of breeding sea cucumber that could be released into the sea. Whale Shark : Whale shark is one of the hugest marine creatures with a size analogous to whale reaching 15 meters in length and 20 tones in weight. It lives in tropical areas and feeds on plankton and is characterized by a calm behavior. Whale shark is a threatened species as it is recorded in the Red List of IUCN hence requires unifying efforts to be protected from extinction (Fig 7). Researchers in Red Sea and Gulf of Aqaba conducted studies to monitor whale shark and conducted questionnaire on its distribution. Thirty five whale shark, were watched from 2003 until February 2008 in , Sharm El-shikh, Ras Mohamed, , Quseiur, Marsa Alam, Port Ghaleb, Elswany Islands, Elsayal, Elsokor, and Elafiston. The highest record was during spring time (12 whales) and at the end of summer (9 whales). This indicated that whale shark migrates from one place to another. The study of the Protection of the Environment of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden (PERSGA) about shark species in the Red Sea indicated the presence of 33 species. While latest studies conducted by Red Sea Protected Areas indicated that recorded species did not exceed 17 despite the availability of recent monitoring equipment such as appliances of diving, photography and measurement of water chemistry. These results pointed to a loss of sharks’ diversity up to 30% of the recorded species during past fifty years mainly due to the steady increase in the interactions between human and sharks over the past years; increase in sea water temperature; feeding fish and sharks by tourists; over-fishing; nature of the bottom of Red Sea and Gulf of Aqaba and dumping of ships and boats’ wastes crossing the Tiran Strait. Shawky and De Maddalena (2013) studied the human impact on the presence and behavior of sharks from June to November 2008 at some Red Sea diving sites. A total of 194 hours of field observations was done; sharks were encountered during 110 of 138 dives. Eight species of sharks for a total of 292 specimens were recorded: whale shark Rhincodon types (1 specimen), pelagic thresher shark Alopias pelagicus (12), silvertip shark Carcharhinus albimarginatus (1), grey reef shark Carcharhinus amblyrhynchos (61), silky shark Carcharhinus falciformis (2), oceanic white tip shark Carcharhinus longimanus (123), whitetip reef shark Triaenodon obesus (5), scalloped hammerhead Sphyrna lewini (87). They found the frequency of encounters in Elphinstone Reef is considerably lower than in the other 30 study areas. Presence of recreational divers was recorded during almost all the dives, 134 cases on the total of 138 dives, with a presence of a total of 971 boats and 15,601 divers. Both the mean number of divers and the mean number of boats recorded for each dive are higher for Elphinstone Reef than in the other study sites. In Elphinstone Reef the high number of boats is also widely distributed for the entire area, making it impossible for the sharks to avoid human presence.

Fig (7) Whale shark

The massive human presence in Elphinstone Reef is negatively affecting the presence of sharks and might also increase the probability of attacks on humans occurring. The number and conduct of boats of divers and boats frequenting this site need to be regulated by appropriate rules. It is therefore urgently necessary for Elphinstone Reef to be declared a protected area. Dugong : is one of the most threatened species in the world, and their size reaching more than 2 meters in length, typically found in sea grass beds (Fig 8). A follow-up plan to monitor dugong in Red Sea had been implemented through distributing questionnaires on dive centers and safari boats covering most of the diving areas in Red Sea. 195 questionnaires were distributed among which 102 were received customarily recording observations of dugong in Abu Dabab Gulf due to the presence of their natural environment rich with marine grass. A total of 50 Dugong (mermaid) were recorded. The largest number of dugong (17) was recorded during summer 2007. In addition, other marine sea mammals especially spinner dolphins and humpback whales were also observed during 2007.

Fig (8) Dugong: a famous marine mammal in the Red Sea (SOE 2007, 2010)

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Deer : Red Ghazal ( Gazella dorcas ) is one of the most important components of Egyptian desert ecosystems. It is one of the (browsers) contributes in pruning scattered plants in the area of its presence; on the contrary to (grazers) that destroy most of the vegetation coverage. Being talented of adapting with desert harsh conditions, it acts as an indicator of the soundness of the environmental ecosystem. Coral Reefs : Egypt’s coastline holds a significant range of the most amazing universal coral reefs that is found in Red Sea along an area reaching nearly 3800 km 2. The coral reefs spread from North to gulfs of Suez and Aqaba and Ras Hedarba in the South at the border of Sudan. Most coral reefs are situated along the coast and surrounding off shore islands. They are however not continuous because periodic flooding from wadies created gaps within coral reef system. Among 300 hard coral reefs species found in Red Sea, 2/3 were found in Egyptian reefs (Table 4), including some endemic species (Kotb et al . 2001). The total economic worth of coral reef could be imitating from the value of all goods and services delivered by marine ecosystems.

Table (4) Number of genera and species of reef-building corals in Red Sea Region Genera Species Gulf of Aqaba 47 120 Gulf of Suez 25 47 North Red Sea 45 128 Central Red Sea 49 143 South Red Sea 31 74 Coral reefs rank as the most diverse and productive natural ecosystems, their high productivity stemming from the fit biological recycling, high retention of nutrients and structure complexity that provides habitat and food for vast numbers of organisms. The world conservation strategy (IUCN/UNEP, 1985) announced coral reefs as "one of the indispensable life support systems" for food production, health and other features of human survival and sustainable development. The areal extent of coral reefs is small compared to the entire ocean, but large compared to shallow water areas. Following their shapes, they are classified according to their relationship with land as fringing reefs. It was estimated that coral polyps need about 10,000 years to form a reef and 100,000 to 30 million years to build a fully mature reef. Polyps are only able to build a reef with the help of single-celled Zooxanthellae algae. At the Southern House Reefs, both coverage and diversity of coral reefs community from 2005 to 2011 were strong-minded and analyzed (Fig 9) and ranked as follow, site displayed an increase in living percentage cover included House Reef of North Shams Alam Resort and sites exhibited a decrease in living coverage included House Reef of Marsa Shagra. Percentage of coral cover was ranged between 31-100 % which is high compared to sites in the northern area of Red Sea indicating high density of coral cover in the southern region at Red Sea. The effect of patrolling and diving pressure on coral reef in 15 sites in Red Sea in Hurgahada area & 7 in Southern area was monitored . The good patrolling system by Red Sea protectorates helped reduce of coral damage by swimming tourists and increase of coral cover. The presence and the continuous maintenance of mooring system revealed to be effective, as the number of coral colonies damaged by anchoring is dramatically reduced. Violations in coral reefs during the last 10 years amounted to 600 violations for hotels, other tourism establishments, ships and individuals. These had led to destruction of coral reefs in many sites with economic loss of tens of billions of Egyptian pounds (Figs 10, 11 & 12). The northern part of Red Sea has the highest coral diversity (Table 5) and number of islands while the south has the highest terrestrial biodiversity for the whole country . Coral reefs 32 sustain valuable fish species, live coral cover of Egyptian reefs averages 48% and major fishes are the fish ( Chaetodontidae ) with 7.2 per 500 m 3, parrotfish (2.2 per 500 m 3), snapper and grouper (0.8 per 500 m 3). Valuable pelagic or migratory species such as mackerel and tuna also partly depend on reefs as often feed on small reef-bases fish and in some cases to spawning area. The bait for pelagic fishes usually comes from reef area. Numerous other products are found on reefs, including aquarium fishes, mother-of-pearl and others. The total number of reef fish found in Egyptian Red Sea is 325 of which 17% are endemic species.

Change in Coral community 2005-2011 at House Reef 3 2 1 0 House Reef Marsa Shagra House Reef North Shams Alam Resort 2005-2006 -1 2005-2007 -2 2005-2008 -3 2005-2009 -4 2005-2010 2005-2011 -5 % of decrease or increase in coral reef -6 -7 Sites Fig (9) Change in coral covers percentages

Change In coral Community 2001-2011 in Hurghada 20

2001-2003 2001-2004 15 2001-2005 2001-2006 2001-2007 10 2001-2008 2001-2009 2001-2010 5 2001-2011

0 Gotta Abu Umm Carless EL Fanadier El Fanous Ishtah Sabina Small Giftun Ramada Gammer % of decrease of % Increase or in Coralcoverage

-5

-10 Sites

Fig (10) Change in coral coverage in Hurghada, 2001-2011

Change in Coral community 2003-2011 at southern area

2003-2004 8 2003-2005 7 2003-2006 2003-2007 6 2003-2008 2003-2009 5 2003-2010 2003-2011 4

3 2 1

0

cover in coral or increase % of decrease El shehr Panorama Elphenston Gotta Ishtta Ras Baghdady Samadi Reef Nekari -1

-2 Sites

Fig (11) Change in coral coverage in Southern sites, 2001-2011 33

Change in Coral community 2005-2011 at House Reef 3 2 1 0 House Reef Marsa Shagra House Reef North Shams Alam Resort 2005-2006 -1 2005-2007 -2 2005-2008 -3 2005-2009 -4 2005-2010 2005-2011 -5

% of decrease or increase in coral reef -6 -7 Sites

Fig (12) Change in coral coverage in Southern House Reefs, 2001-2011

Recently, Butterfly fish had decreased in Red Sea from an average of 9.7 per 100 m 2 to 5.2 per 100 m 2 in 2002, and Sweetlips populations dropped by 69% (Hassan et al. 2002). In addition, the abundances of groupers and parrotfish in Egyptian Red Sea had also decreased and this might be due to lack of enforcement of law where poaching in the no take zones is high (Hassan et al . 2002). About 60% of Red Sea coral reefs were assessed as at risk primarily due to coastal development, overfishing, and the potential threat of oil spills in the heavily trafficked Arabian Gulf and southern end of Red Sea. Since 2001 Red Sea coral reefs status in Egypt had been monitored in more than 120 sites in Red Sea and Gulf of Aqaba, using environmental indicators (living/nonliving coral reefs, number of species, and other indicators such as fish and vertebrates). The studies indicated that coral reefs status inside protected areas is better than elsewhere. In addition, sites, that are far away from human activities had witnessed increase in coral reefs (14%) compared with areas with human activities (5-7%), where soft corals have been increased at the cost of hard ones (Attalla, et al 2012).

Table (5) Key coral reef indicator species abundance in 2002 and 2008 Abundance (fish number per 100 m 2 2002 2008 reef) + + Butterfly fish 8.6 -0.36 6.10 -0.07 Sea urchin < 5 < 1 (Diadema ) + + Giant clam 2.2 - 2 3.0 -1.4 + + Grouper 0.77 -1 0.74 -0.03 + Lobster 0.02 -0.08 - + + Parrotfish 2 -1.6 2 -0.4 Sea cucumber < 1 Nearly 0 + + Snapper 5 -5 11 -10 + + Sweetlips 0.4 -0.1 0.8 -0.05 Triton <1 -

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A major coral bleaching event occurred in central Red Sea near Thuwal, Saudi Arabia, in the summer of 2010, when the region experienced up to 10–11 degree heating weeks, Furby et al (2012) documented the susceptibility of various coral taxa to bleaching at eight reefs during the peak of this thermal stress. Oculinids and agaricids were most susceptible to bleaching, with up to 100 and 80% of colonies of these families, respectively, bleaching at some reefs. In contrast, some families, such as mussids, pocilloporids, and pectinids showed low levels of bleaching (20 % on average). They resurveyed coral reefs 7 months later to estimate subsequent mortality. Mortality was highly variable among taxa, with some taxa showing evidence of full recovery and some (e.g., acroporids) apparently suffering nearly complete mortality. The unequal mortality among families resulted in significant change in community composition following the bleaching. Significant factors in the likelihood of coral bleaching during this event were depth of the reef and distance of the reef from shore. Shallow reefs and inshore reefs had a higher prevalence of bleaching. This bleaching event showed that Red Sea reefs were subject to the same increasing pressures that reefs face worldwide. Their study provides a quantitative, genus-level assessment of the vulnerability of various coral groups from within Red Sea to bleaching and estimates subsequent mortality. As such, it could provide valuable insights into the future for reef communities in Red Sea Climate change impacts on biodiversity have been recorded throughout several monitoring programs: coral bleaching in 2007; Ombet trees ( Medemia argum ) ( Error! Reference source not found. on elevated areas of Elba Mountain; medicinal plants in the St. Katherine mountain; and the Sinai Baton Blue ( Pseudophilotes sinaicus ) with a home range that doesn't exceed 5 km 2. Tourism, one of the main sources of Egypt’s national income, is predicted to be affected in the future by climate change. The number of tourists coming to Egypt’s coasts each year is expected to decline because of the potential impact of climate change on coral reefs. Worldwide, almost all coral reefs have been affected by climate-change induced coral bleaching at one time or another. Corals depend on a certain kind of algae (Zooxanthellae ), using the nutrients they produce while providing the algae with physical support, protection and maintenance in adequate levels of sunlight for photosynthesis. When exposed to high water temperatures (more than 1°C or 2 °C rise in sea surface temperature above normal summer maximal temperatures for a period longer than 3–5 weeks), corals expel the algae, resulting in loss of coral color.

Fig 13 Coral Bleaching in the Red Sea

Divers could injure corals and other fragile organisms through physical contact with their hands, body, and equipment and fins. Most coral injuries caused by individual divers are 35 relatively minor. A single fin kick will crush or break the tips of branching corals or abrade massive corals. Such injuries are unlikely to kill a large coral colony because corals had an ability to regenerate tissue over small injuries. The line transect methods were used to measure human impacts on coral reef, by count number of colonies that was damaged as results of human activates. This damage was represented by different forms, the most prominent are broken coral, abrasion tissue, abrasion colony, reattached branches and recently dead coral and old dead coral. The highest number of damaged colonies was estimated at Gotta Abu Ramada of 40.6 colonies/20m and the lowest number of damaged colonies of 19.3 colonies/20m was recorded at Ishtta Reef. In addition, its being 31.05 and 22.75 colonies/20m at summer (high visitation season) and winter (low visitation season) respectively; and it was being 37.25, 25.13 and 21.77 colonies/20m at high, moderates and low diving level, respectively. Regarding to sites, and seasons, the overall means of the total damaged colonies counted at depth 1-3m was 12.56 colonies/20m, while it was 14.33 colonies/20m at depth 8- 10. The overall means of the total number of damaged colonies estimated at sheltered and exposed sites averaged 27.2 and 26.6 colonies/20m respectively. In all sites, depths, season, and sites with different damage level, and sheltering condition, generally abrasion tissue and old dead colonies were represented the highest percentage of occurrence to the total damaged colonies, while reattached branches represented the lowest percentage of occurrence to the total damaged colonies.

Successful stories Crown of thorn starfish: Crown of thorn starfish is classified under the phylum Echinodermata and they are illustrious by many arms and toxic spines and feed on coral reefs. In normal circumstances, they don’t exceed small numbers of 10 m², but in some cases they increase greatly in number and accumulate over each other until reaching 50 starfish/m² triggering serious problems on coral reefs. During 1994, excessive numbers of Crown of thorns were recorded, reaching 370 in two sites at Ras Mohamed National Park, and then they spread in 13 other sites. During 2000 some other 37 sites were experiential in Ras Mohamed and soon they spread to the north along the Gulf of Aqaba reaching Dahab, and to the south reaching Hurghada on the Red Sea (more than 30 sites). More than 100 000 individual were recorded, leading to the death of more than 40% of the coral reef colonies. In 2001, great efforts were exercised from protected areas staff, NGOs and volunteers from Sharm El- Sheikh, Dahab and Hurgada. They collected 150,000 starfish. In 2002 and onwards, their numbers had been radically decreased, and the coral reefs also recovered, exhibited by an increase in growth rate (10 cm/year). Sooty Falcon ( Falconconcolor ): The sizeable colony of Sooty Falcon (Falconconcolor) in Wadi El-Gemal Island is thought as one of the topmost colonies in number. It is an endangered species that had been monitored since 2004 to collect data on their migratory season, breeding season, incubating egg period and parental care. Breeding time starts at spring and egg hatchling in summer. Thereafter migrate towards East of Africa in September and October. Numbers of Sooty Falcon are virtually the same during the past five years, in spite of the increasing number of nests from 73 in 2004 to 94 nests in 2007 Biodiversity of arid lands: Arid lands cover 92% of Egypt joining different environmental systems; Western Desert (681 thousand km 2) formed of equatorial plateau in its greater portions (significant plateau of El-Gilf El-kebir and El-Ouwaynat Mountain); and many depressions (El-Qattara, Siwa, El-Fayoum); in addition to parallel belts of sand dunes lines (Bahr El-Remal El-Aazm). As for Sinai Peninsula (61 thousand km 2) it is thought as a huge mass of basic formation with high rough peaks (Saint Catharine Mountain), valleys and some oases (EL-Fyran). Valleys are well-thought-out to be one of the main features of deserts, in addition to surface rocky, erosion pavement, gravel desert, slopes and cliffs; as all these habitats are categorized as vegetation cover differ from one place to another. Surface rocky habitat is very dry deprived of any existence of necessary requirements for plants growth 36 except for some kinds of plants called rocky plants that insert their roots through rocks. In addition, little amount of rainfall in the desert might initiate small holes in rocks where some soil and water are collected, giving rise to growth of seasonal plants. The upper layer of the second habitat (erosion pavement) is covered with fine gravel mixed with some round rocks, and this layer might be even or wavy. Surface water concentrate in water courses lined with layer of fine sand, therefore plants find an appropriate ecosystem for their growth. In gravel desert habitat, surface sedimentations are composed for the most part from movable substances and not from substances emerged from broken infrastructure soil. Winds blow sands away from surface of gravel deserts, precisely in heights leaving little stones on surface bare of soil. However they shelter underneath soil from being motivated by winds; appropriately, they are well thought-out to be a protective shield for soil. Little stones interfere and connect to compose a solid layer, where roots of plants couldn’t penetrate. For that reason gravel deserts are deliberated to be a barren environment, where plants couldn’t grow excluding some rocky trees and soil moss. In some areas constitution of solid gravel cover does not comply with on surface of earth, however it become little, distant and mixed with large amount of fine soil. In that kind of environment some seasonal and annual plants could grow. Habitats of slopes are found at edges of plateaus and sides of valleys, mountains and hills. Surface of such habitat is covered with rocks' crumbles, composing fitting consistency for plants' growth, as there are small pockets within surfaces of rocks where sands and water concentrate composing suitable environment for plants' growth particularly those tolerating dryness. In slopes of high mountains, vegetation cover is intolerant by elevation factor; where bottom parts of these slopes collect large amount of rain water than upper parts. This leads to a change in plants types from bottom to upper part of the mountain. This phenomenon is perceptibly clear in Red Sea Mountains and Sinai Peninsula. Cliff’s habitat is well thought- out to be very drought environment that hinder plants' growth except from some little kinds using rocks clefts that are depressed from the formation of surface soil. Only sands, carried by winds are gathered inside clefts. In the presence of little amount of water, seeds of some plants, adapted with that kind of habitat, and could germinate. Valleys are well-thought-out to be the most essential ecosystem in the Egyptian deserts, as they encompass drainage systems for waters of rains and floods. For that reason, they receive huge amounts of water than other ecosystems. Then, their vegetation cover is heavy, but at the same time exposed to oppressive cut and over grazing. Their structures are formed of rocks' crumbles that vary from being tiny sand particles to large stones. Quantities of water and soil are the main factors that shape the quality of vegetation cover in valleys. If the soil is delicate and surficial, it is wetted during rainy season but they dry out fast. In that kind of soil that is not gifted to preserve water, only short lived vegetation cover (seasonal) could grow. As for deep soil, that allow to maintain greater amount of water underneath its layers and accordingly they are considered to be a steady source of perennial plants with deep roots including herbal plants, trees and bushes. Habitats of assorted sand dune formations that are broadly spread in Egyptian deserts, such as sand dunes, are very crucial. Plants grow and overcome in that habitat (Sand dune stabilizer), having the ability to sediment sand borne by winds around them and accumulating them in different formations of heights and sizes of sand dune. These plants generate large number of horizontal roots from their stems and branches empowering them to overcome the problem of total burial with sand, as they have the capability to produce new branches uppermost; and in that case, branches and stems play the role of roots after being buried under sands. By this way, plants could grow upright penetrating sand bar covering them. There are two kinds of coastal and inland salt marshes in Egypt. As for coastal salt marshes, they are found along coasts of Mediterranean Sea, Red Sea, Gulf of Suez and Gulf of Aqaba in addition to Northern Lakes. Inland salt marshes are located in salty marshes and lands in

37 oases and depressions. About 1775 species of plants were recorded therein as follows (279) in North Sinai, (472) in South Sinai, (328) in North Coast, (66) in Halayeb, (205) in Western Desert and (280) in Eastern Desert. Results of surveys clarified that most of recorded plants are included in the traditional knowledge in Sinai, Northeast, Eastern and Western deserts. Biological diversity is represented by 324 species in El-Omighted protectorate that is considered as an example of deserts' protectorates, including many endangered species particularly large mammals, such as Gazelles. In addition to the presence of some genetic resources such as wild cotton in Siwa. Dorcas Gazelle ( Gazelle dorcasdorcas ): Egyptian Desert was resided by six species of large mammals known by Antelopes, Mountain Gazelle ( Gazella gazelle ), Scimitar Horned Oryx (Oryxdammah ), Rhim Gazelle ( Gazelle leptoceyos ), and Africa Wild Ass ( Equusasinus ). These animals were prevalent in the deserts till mid-1940 th of the last century. As a result of hunting and drought, Mountain Gazelle ( Gazella gazelle ), Scimitar Horned Oryx (Oryx dammah), Rhim Gazelle ( Gazelle leptoceyos ), Africa Wild Ass ( Equusasinus) exclusively disappeared and only Orcas Gazelle ( Gazelle dorcasdorcas ) and Rhim Gazelle ( Gazelle leptoceyos ) endured and are in jeopardy of extinction. The Orcas Gazelle is moderately widely spread than Rhim Gazelle that had been monitored in limited areas of Western Desert close to ; while Orcas Gazelle subsist in plentiful areas as it was monitored in eleven protectorates (Wadi El-Gemal, Siwa, White Desert, Elba, Wadi El-Rayan, Wadi El- Alaky, El-Asuti, Catharine, Degla, Nabeq and Taba). Studies designated that numbers of Gazelles are habitually decreasing with different rates according to their area of existence and range of threats they are exposed to. Dorcas Gazelle is well thought-out to be one of the indicators of biodiversity conditions in Egyptian environment that is eminent by its sprightly and quick movements to remote distances looking for graze. It feeds on and fruits of El-Sayal trees, grasses and bushes being one of the browsers and not grazers. For that reason, it assisted in the estimation of plants and consequently helping in their growth. Both male and female of Dorcas Gazelle have ring horns but female's horns are smaller and more cylindrical than those of male. Breeding season starts in autumn, giving birth in spring and sometimes early in January. Female mostly deliver only one borne each time and nursery period does not exceed three months. Egyptian Gazelle could live for more than twelve years. Studies conducted on Gazelle evidenced that it existed in all Egyptian deserts and valleys and due to threats; Gazelle had been exposed to many threats during last decades. For that a program to monitor Gazelle was carried out in all protected areas known of its existence to determine its current status. Studies concentrated in protectorates of Wadi El-Rayan, Saint Catherine, Nabq, Wadi El-Gemal, and Elba Mountain.

Importance of biodiversity for Egypt Biodiversity strengthens countless lives and livelihoods with economic returns; it is the basis of food, medicines, industries, tourism, spiritual fortification and recreational activities. Furthermore, it plays a part in amending the natural processes thus maintaining the earth’s life support systems (Table 6). Agricultural production, for instances, is reinforced by biodiversity and ecosystem services such as provision services (food, fuel or fiber is the end product), a support services (microorganisms cycling nutrients and soil formation), regulatory services (pollination and pollution control), and cultural services (spiritual or aesthetic benefits). The loss and degradation of biodiversity would therefore have serious social, economic, cultural and ecological implications.

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Table (6) Services and goods provided by ecosystems Services provided Goods provided Ecosystem Agro ecosystems Food crops Maintain limited watershed functions (infiltration, flow Additional food items (e.g. control, partial soil Conservation terrace fields, fishery Provide habitat for birds, Frankincense, fibre pollinators, soil organisms important to agriculture Build soil Crop genetic resources crops organic matter Bind atmospheric carbon Provide employment Mountain and Rangeland Timber Rénove air polluants, produc Ecosystems oxygen Fuel wood Cycle nitrents Protect water Drinking and irrigation resources (infiltration, Water purification, flow control, soil stabilization) Maintain Fodder biodiversity Non-timber products Bind atmospheric carbon Food ( honey, mushrooms, fruit, Moderate weather extremes and and other edible plants; game impacts Generate soil Provide employment Contribute aesthetic Genetic resources beauty and provide recreation Freshwater Ecosystems Drinking and irrigation Water Lessen or prevent the impact of flooding Dilute and carry away Fish and other aquatic organisms wastes Cycle nutrients Maintain Hydroelectricity biodiversity Provide transportation corridor Provide Housing materials employment Contribute aesthetic Medicines beauty and provide recreation Genetic resources Coastal and Marine Ecosystems Fish and shellfish Moderate storm impacts (mangroves; barrier Sea weeds (for food and islands)Provide wildlife (marine industrial use and terrestrial) habitat Maintain Salt biodiversity Dilute and treat wastes Genetic resources Provide harbors and transportation routes Provide employment Contribute aesthetic beauty and provide recreation

The genetic components of some fauna and flora species sustain the development of medicinal, agricultural and industrial products as well as the basic daily needs of local communities. In addition, biodiversity supports the development of many new industries (e.g. ecotourism) which provide high economic return. Loss of biodiversity touches the ability of ecosystems to deliver these and other services. Identifying economic values of biodiversity goods and services is relatively new and is gaining recognition in Egypt. Virtually all-present Egyptian water bodies are fished to their maximum capacity and some have been overexploited already; potential production increase is marginal. Without additional production systems, either the percentage of self-sufficiency or the consumption per capita will decrease. The plan to maintain per capita consumption levels at 10 kg (or even to increase to over 14 kg in 2017) are not realistic, unless present 39 production levels of existing resources are preserved and strong expansion of aquaculture and/or import takes place. Production levels are endangered already in a number of the current production areas by developments in other sectors: e.g. land reclamation in Lake Manzala and hyper-salinization in Lake Qarun. Fish production from all aquatic resources has increased by 69% in the period between 1989 and 1998.

Socio-economic significance of Biodiversity Recently, several socio-economic and cultural studies were carried out in different Protected Areas representing different ecosystems, results confirmed the revenues linked with biodiversity. Omighted Protected Area (representing desert ecosystem) provided services to agriculture worth of 33 million LE annually, rangelands provided returns equal to 8 million LE annually. Services provided by Brullus Protected Area (representing wetlands) are estimated more than annual L.E. 200 million. Services afforded by marine ecosystems (Red Sea) are worth of hundreds of billion pounds annually. They are so dissimilar, including coral reefs, mangroves, islands, beaches, sea grasses, fishes, reptiles, birds and marine mammals. A noteworthy portion of Egypt’s Gross Domestic Production (GDP) is truthfully related to the use of bio-resources. Total agriculture production accounted for 13.2% of Egypt’s GDP (81.3 billion Egyptian pounds) and employed 32% of the total work force (more than 6 million jobs in agriculture and fisheries) in 2012. According to the annual report issued by the General Authority for Development of Fish Resources (GAFRD, 2012), fish production in 2011 over 1.3 million tons with a value of 18 billion Egyptian pounds are captured from marine and inland capture fisheries and brackish and freshwater aquaculture. The natural resources (Nile River, Red Sea, and Mediterranean) provided 375,354 tons (18.5% of total production) of which marine fish production reached 122,303 tons (12.5% from total fish catch). The aquaculture sector produced 986,820 tons (81.5% of total fish production). In addition, fish hatcheries produced more than 270 million fish fries (sea bream, sea bass, soles, shrimps, tilapias and carp) that are used in developing fish production in some lakes and fish culture. The traditional knowledge of Local communities, mainly tribes of Bedouins in Sinai, Ababda, Bishariah and Rashida in the eastern desert; and Sons of Ali and Barber in the western desert includes all sciences and experiences mystifying in the memory of local communities. The importance of traditional knowledge is providing the new generation with the experience of their old generation in life styles and environment. Therefore, the Egyptian government had given special attention to protect and document all traditional knowledge and their uses. Traditional knowledge of a large numbers of plants had been recorded including those in South Sinai (38 species), North Sinai (45), Halayeb (19), Western Desert (13), and Eastern Desert (16). Information included handicrafts in Elba, Wadi Gemal, St. Catherine, Al-Arish, Mattrouh and Siwa. However, up to date studies had shown decreases in such traditional knowledge as new generations were not tied to them, and were interested in modern civil life style that bring diverse job opportunities (e.g. tourism). A draft law on regulation of bio- resources had been prepared, together with a national strategy of medicinal plants that were based on their implementation on local communities.

Threats All trends from of available indicators suggest that the state of biodiversity in Egypt is declining and the pressures upon it are cumulative despite the many national efforts were taken to conserve biodiversity and use it sustainably. The losses are due to a range of threats including fragmentation and loss of habitats, overuse of natural resources, pollution, invasive species and tourism driven by a range of socio-economic drivers. Climate change might synergistically act with other threats resulting in serious consequences on biodiversity loss. Although the country’s species diversity is relatively low owing to its aridity, many species 40 are endemic and/or narrowly distributed or highly localized with limited geographical distribution in certain areas (Oasis, Elba Mountain and Sinai Mountains), making habitat conservation crucial. Threats to marine ecosystem: Major threats to marine ecosystems are unregulated tourism, exploitation of marine resources, overfishing and fishing in illegal areas (e.g. breeding grounds) and coastal pollution. At present, 20% of Egyptians live in coastal areas that are also visited annually by 11 million tourists. In addition, more than 40% of industrial activity exists in coastal zones. Lack of a sustainable and operative system to address natural heritage management issues is hampering the nation’s ability to conserve and manage its unique and critical resources. Lack of sufficient regulation of marine tourism, lack of satisfactory infrastructure to protect the natural resources and insufficient regulation of desert tourism are causing the destruction and degradation of natural habitats, landscapes, cultural heritage sites and other resources. Lack of sufficient coordination and cooperation among all concerned parties in Egypt for data collection, storage and analysis of biodiversity and absence of comprehensive legal protection for natural heritage resources outside the Protected threaten future sustainable return from these resources. All of these are compounded by the fact that few economic incentives are for biodiversity conservation (National Environmental Action Plan (2002-2017). Monitoring programmes had been established for sensitive ecosystems and regional surveys of coral reefs ecosystems were conducted in 2002 and 2008 (PERSGA, 2010) using fish indicator species (Hudgson, et al 2006). The mean abundance of different indicator species per 100 m 2 recorded at different PERSGA countries during 2002 and 2008 surveys are presented in Fig (14).

Butterfly fish : indicator of ornamental fish trade and overfishing

Sweetlips ( Haemulidae ): indicators of overfishing by line-fishing and spear-fishing close to reef areas.

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Groupers (larger than 30 cm): indicators of overfishing by line-fishing and spear-fishing close to reef area

Snapper: an indicator of overfishing as important food fish Groupers and sweetlips indicators of overfishing

Parrotfish : an indicator of over fishing; it plays important role in coral reefs ecological balance.

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Spiny lobsters : an indicator of overfishing by direct collection from reefs for food (universally prized as seafood).

Giant clams : an indicator of overfishing by direct collection from reefs for food (highly prized seafood)

Sea cucumber : an indicator of direct collection as exported food

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Crown-of-thorns starfish can cause major damage to reef coral through predation during outbreak

Hard coral cover: an indicator greatly affected by the distribution of hard substratum on a reef as well as by the health of the coral living there.

Nutrient indicator algae (NIA): seaweed algae an indicator of high nutrient input from land- based sources such as fertilizers and sewage pollution to the sea.

Fig (14) Mean abundance of different indicator species per 100 m 2 recorded at different PERSGA country during 2002 and 2008 surveys. Bars represent Standard Deviation.

The percentage of coastal and marine protected areas of total PAs, number of marine species extinct or at risk of extinction as a result of change in the marine and coastal environments and its degradation, and the status of threatened sensitive marine and coastal habitats (e.g. mangroves and coral reefs) could also be used as state and pressure indicators.

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Biodiversity is confronting many threats including population growth pressure, hunting removal of wild flora particularly medicinal plants, cut of trees in many important habitats, globalization and its unenthusiastic impacts on extraction of biological resources, limited human and financial resources, habitat worsening due to pollution, agricultural and industrial activities, habitat fragmentation due to large projects. In addition, too many species of plants and animals were introduced into Egypt over the last two centuries; some of them with economic importance such as cotton, fruits, fishes, chickens, and cattle’s. This led to many Egyptian species became so sparse and are about to disappear (agriculture genetic resources). Some species were introduced intentionally (to increase agriculture, animal and fish production) or unintentionally (Suez Canal, bird migration). This led to dispersal of many invasive species that had been affected negatively on the agriculture (pests such as Red Palm Weevil), and aquatic (water hyacinth, freshwater lobster) habitats. Consequently, biodiversity hurts greatly from the introduction of invasive species in Egypt. It might be said that all ecosystems, habitats, and species are no longer in ecological balance, where all habitats of Egypt whether wetlands, inland, agricultural, deserts or even mountains as well as deep habitats in Mediterranean Sea had been impacted by human interventions. During the tenth COP of Biodiversity Convention hold in Nagoya-Japan, most parties highlighted that the following five major pressures are still affecting global biodiversity around the world represented by habitats mortification; over-exploitation and unsustainable use; climate change; invasive alien species and pollution. Threats touching costal and marine areas in Egypt are mainly pollution and unsustainable use of marine resources. Degradation of environmental quality and gradual deterioration of its renewable resources might decrease ecosystem services and finally cause their complete loss. This degradation of coastal and marine areas is mainly resulting from development pressures that exceeded their carrying capacity as unsustainable exploitation of marine resources and unplanned rapid economic development for some areas such as urban development along the coast of Suez Canal, and northern coast, deterioration of fish stocks due to overfishing and deterioration of its breeding and nursery areas in many areas, especially in Mediterranean Sea. The deterioration of fish stocks in Red Sea is lower than in Mediterranean Sea due to declaration of some protected areas along coasts and islands of Red Sea. This forced some Egyptian fishing companies to go fishing in international waters of some neighboring countries within Red Sea. Sanitation discharged in Mediterranean Sea and some of its coastal lakes are of the most important sources of coastal pollution in Egypt deterioration of marine and coastal environment in Egypt, are resulting from the social pressures on the government to meet needs of the growing population (unemployment, introduction of new patterns of development, competition for exploiting available resources, lack of public awareness with the importance of inherited culture associated with unorganized development plans and threat of investments due to beaches' erosion). Threats to wetlands ecosystem: Egypt’s wetlands are subject to a variety of human induced threats that are leading to the degradation of this valuable national resource. Main threat facing Egyptian Northern coastal lakes and their vulnerability to climate change is habitat loss and degradation driven by significant reduction in area as a result of drainage for conversion to other land uses such as agriculture and settlements, abstraction of water for irrigation, coastal erosion, water pollution, over fishing, use of illegal fishing methods, illegal harvesting of fish fry, introduction of alien species, spreading of aquatic plants and the blockage of their connections with the sea. The severity of pollution varies among various lakes and the main causes in all cases are the discharge of untreated or partially treated industrial and household waste water (mainly sewage) and the dumping of agricultural drainage loaded with fertilizer, pesticide and herbicide residues. Eutrophication resulting from enhanced input of plant nutrients mainly nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) due to agricultural runoff and discharge of domestic wastewater, as well as occurrence of metal and pesticide contaminants constituted in these lakes problems of increasing concern. The levels of pollution in these lakes are Lake

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Maryout> Lake Manzala> Lake Edku> Lake Burullus. River systems had also been degraded drastically during the past 50 years. They are being significantly affected by water withdrawals, leaving some small rivers nearly or completely dry, reducing biodiversity. However, the water quality of Nile River and Lake Nasser is within the international permissible level (State of the Environment Report 2007). Many invasive species are also recorded in the Nile River; most important are water hyacinth and freshwater crayfish. The water hyacinth covers some 487 km 2 of the river and the networks of irrigation and drainage canals throughout the country and 151 km 2 of the lakes, causing 3.5 billion cubic meters water loss annually from evaporation. It also prevents the sunlight penetration causing changes in the ecosystem and species diversity. Freshwater crayfish uncontrolled spreading led to deterioration of local fisheries, crops and irrigation networks. As early as 1977, prior to the dramatic increase in private fish farming enclosures, lake surface areas lost to land reclamation were already 60% in Maryout, 29% in Edku and 11% in Manzala lakes Tables (7 8 & 9). By 1988, losses had risen to 30% in Manzala and 62% in Edku. Today, Manzala’s surface area is a mere one third of its original expanse of 327,000 feddans and Lake Edku has been reduced to less than half its original size . Similarly , Lake Burullus had lost an estimated 37% of its open-water area and 85% of its marsh area in the past 40 years, largely as a result of ongoing drainage and land reclamation. The situation is compounded by the fact that the water quality in what remains of these lakes has been seriously compromised through the systematic discharge of waste into them. Northern Delta lakes are highly eutrophic as a result of the enhanced input of plant nutrients mainly nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P). Lakes had become increasingly rich in plant biomass, especially algae, resulting in the depletion of dissolved oxygen and often cause increased species mortality, changes in species assemblages and loss of aquatic flora and fauna diversity (Gamil and El-Karyony, 1994; El-Tantawy, 2012). Pesticides and the relatively higher levels of heavy metals are severely damaging fish habitats, species survival and water quality in wetland areas. According to surveys of fish in the 1980s, over 60% of fish sampled in the four Delta lakes contained DDT and benzene chloride. Numerous other investigations in the four lakes had shown high levels of heavy metals, pesticides and PCBs in fish. Wetlands in Egypt are facing many threats that lead to their degradation, such as: • Excessive expansion in scooping costal lakes for implementing development projects. For example El-Burullus Lake had been shrunk from 57 thousand km 2 in 1953 to 42 thousand km2 in 2000, meaning loss of more than 1/3 of its total area. • Intrude of sewage drainage with agricultural water generated from cities and villages located along costal lakes that increase rate of pollutants in coastal lakes such as El- Burullus, Edko and El-Manzala that affect biota and decrease services and resources of these lakes. • Sedimentation, alluvium and sand creep are among the natural threats wetlands are exposed to, which threaten to shrink narrow barriers separating each lake from the sea. • Climate change, mainly sea level rise. • Overgrazing and erosion of vegetation coverage due to the increased pastoral load to meet increased local consumption, in addition to drought episodes associated with low rainfall and poor management of rangelands. • Mines spread along large areas of North Coast and Western Desert, left from the II World War in El-Alamein area that contains nearly 17.5 million mines occupies an area of more than quarter million feddans suitable for agriculture.

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The four northern Delta lakes (Manzala, Burullus, Edku and Mariout) were among the richest and most diverse ecosystems in Egypt until just 40 years ago. Production levels are endangered already by developments in other sectors: e.g. land reclamation in Lake Manzala, hyper-salinization in Lake Qarun. The four northern Delta lakes (Manzala, Burullus, Edku and Maryout) provided 35% of Egypt's fish catch during the 1970s. They now account for just 17% of the catch. The dwindling catch is attributed to pollution and improper resource management, among others. The relative areas, in hectares (ha), and fish production, in metric tons (t), for the four lakes are shown in Table (10) and the development of fish catch in Lake Maryout from 1974 to 2006 is presented in Fig (15).

Table (7) Change in the areas of the four Nile Delta lakes (2008) Lake Area (Feddan) Area Mean production in 2008 (before 1950) (tone)

Manzala 90,000 350,000 62,000

Burullus 70,000 220,000 48,000

Edku 10,00 0 45,000 9,000

Table (8) Changes in Lake Maryout area Year Area (1000 Area Percentage of Comments Feddans) 2 (km ) 1889 Before 6000 years 571, 315 2,400 950% Lake and Val ley 1889 60 252 100% 10.5% of original 1920 41 172.2 68.3% 31.7% decrease in area within 30 years 1952 39.6 159.6 63.3% 7.3% decrease in area within 32 years 1965 38 136.9 54.3% 14.2% decrease in area within 13 years 2001 50 19.8% 63.5 decrease in area within 63 years

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Table (9) Changes in Lake Manzala area Year Area Percentage of Comments (km 2) 1900’s 1900’s 1698 100% 1981 905 55.3% 46.7% decrease in area within 81 years 1988 770 54.3% 14.9% decrease in area within 7 7 years 2007* 700 41.2% % decrease in area within 19 years 2015 forecast 469 27.8% % decrease in area within 8 years *Assuit University www.aun.edu.eg/abstract_th.php?R_ID=4058

Table (10) Relative areas and fish production in the four Delta lakes Lake Maryout Edku Burullus Manzala Landings (t) 3,500 8,209 59,200 59,600 Area (ha) 6,800 7,100 48,000 80,500 Production (t/ha) 0.5 1.1 1.2 0.7

Fig (15) The production on both Lake Maryout and Lake Manzala who are adjacent to large urban populations is on the order of half of the production on Lakes Edku and Burullus who are adjacent to lower-density agricultural communities and are consequently less affected by domestic and industrial pollution and fishing pressure.

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As a result of wastewater discharge into Lake Maryout since 1988 and excessive fishing pressure, most of the less tolerant high-valued fish such as Mugil cephalus , Labeo niloticus , Bagrus bajad , Latesniloticus and Barbus bynni , decreased or completely disappeared from the lake while Tilapia spp. flourished and it represented about 90 % of the total yield in recent years (Table 11). The mullet catch in Lake Maryout has been reduced from 3.6% of the catch in the late1970s to less than 1% in the early 1990s. The eel catch is in danger of disappearing completely. In Lake Manzala, there had been a substantial reduction over the last few decades in both fish and bird species. In Lake Burullus, the fish composition of the Lake has changed over the years due to the change in the environmental conditions of the lake. In Lake Bardawil, fisheries catch composition had been changed since 1995 and the contribution of the most economic species such as the sea bream and sea bass has sharply declined from 56.5 %, in the 1982-1988, to about 7.5 % in 2007, of the total catch.

Table (11) Development of fish catch in Lake Maryout from 1974 to 2005 Year Ton Year Ton Year Ton 1974 17,000 1986 5,630 1996 4,000 1976 10,797 1987 4,453 1997 4,500 1977 13,200 1988 3,040 1998 4,521 1978 13,985 1989 2,137 1999 5,235 1979 13,577 1990 1,706 2000 6,378 1981 10,161 1991 1,956 2001 6,200 1982 11,300 1992 3,100 2002 5,303 1983 7,643 1993 3,437 2003 4,861 1984 7,537 1994 3,631 2004 5,024 1985 5,831 1995 3,466 2005 5,292

Threats to mountain habitats: Mountains and wades are characterizing landscape of much of the Eastern Desert and Sinai. Mountain habitats of South Sinai and Eastern Desert, particularly Gebel Elba support exclusive faunal and floral biodiversity. Biodiversity loss in mountain habitats is initiated from certain human activities such as hunting, logging, trafficking, urban development, invasive alien species, climate change and natural disasters (mainly flooding). Climate change phenomenon has been documented in St. Catherine Mountains by monitoring its impact on the desertion of living organisms on peaks of St. Catherine due to temperatures’ increase that might expose some organisms to be in danger, such as Sinai baton blue (Pseudophilotes), the smallest butterfly in the world. Its feed on buds of Sinai Thyme ( Thymus decussates ), while adult butterflies feed on nectar of its . Studies evidenced that annual change in temperatures; expedite its exposure to danger of extinction. It is viewed that rate of Sinai Thyme ( Thymus decussates ) decreased with about 40% or more during drought years, and if temperature degrees continue its increase, Sinai Thyme ( Thymus decussates ) will resume its decrease that would expose Sinai baton blue (Pseudophilote) to danger of extinction within very limited period, especially if exposed to human threats, such as over grazing and collection of Sinai Thyme ( Thymus decussates ) for medical purposes.

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Threats to agricultural biodiversity (SOE 2010): The main threats to the agricultural biodiversity in Egypt are: 1) urbanization expansion on agricultural land; 2) introduction of high yielding varieties and their wide use that led to the neglect and disappearance of traditional varieties and local breeds and the erosion of crop plant and livestock genetic diversity; 3) abandonment of traditional agricultural practices caused loss of cultural landscapes associated with biodiversity; 4) invasive species, such as palm weevil, invasive weeds and various agricultural pests that caused significant economic losses; 5) excessive use of agrochemicals had led to the disappearance of important agricultural wildlife (pollinators, kite, owl, fox, mongoose and wild cat) and groundwater contamination; 6) absence of suitable successive agricultural cycles; viii) use of surface flooding irrigation that led to land degradation, reduction of soil fertility and increased soil salinity; increased migration from rural to urban areas with increasing burden on resource, 7) use of surface flooding irrigation methods that led to land degradation, reduction of soil fertility, 8) increase soil salinity, groundwater contamination with pesticides and chemicals, However, the impact of conservation interventions on the extinction risk of these species cannot be assed due to lack of monitoring programs over a certain period of time.

Main pressures on and drivers of change to biodiversity (direct and indirect): Threats to biodiversity in Egypt are either directly or indirectly linked to human impacts, with the former including extreme hunting, clear-cutting and deforestation, and the latter linked to habitat devastation for developmental purposes and all pollution types, including refuse from industry and human settlements. Disproportionate hunting is endangering several species of resident and migratory birds as well as a number of hoofed animals (e.g. gazelles). Pollutants in the air, water and soil (especially in rural areas) are also threatening a large number of plants and animals as well as leading to a extensive increase in other harmful exotic ones (e.g. species of rats and birds, red spider, American cotton worm). A famous example is the detrimental effect of the introduction of the water hyacinth ( Eichhorniacrassipes ) on life in the Nile River. Major threats to marine ecosystems are unregulated tourism, exploitation of marine resources, overfishing and fishing in illegal areas (e.g. breeding grounds) and coastal pollution. At present, 20% of Egyptians live in coastal areas which are also visited annually by 11 million tourists. In addition, more than 40% of industrial activity occurs in the coastal zone. Threats are accentuated by increases in the level of desertification due to climate change as well as in human populations. Many plant and animal species are situated at the limits of their geographical or ecological dissemination ranges. Under such surroundings, these species have limited tolerance for ecological pressures, as is exemplified by corals in the Red Sea, the Gulf of Suez and the Gulf of Aqaba.

3. Biodiversity-related national commitments and programs International Cooperation Egypt has been among pioneer countries interested in biodiversity conservation and the preservation of natural resources and heritage. In 1936, Egypt became party to the Convention Relative to the Preservation of Funa and Flora in their Natural State (London 1933). This was later followed by signing and ratifying conventions and agreements pertaining to the various aspects of biodiversity conservation, such as The Agreement for the Establishment of a General Fisheries Council for the Mediterranean Sea" in February 1952, The Agreement for the Establishment of a Commission for Controlling the Desert Locust in the Near East in 1972, The Africa Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources in 1969, The International Convention on the Protection of Cultural and Natural Heritage (Paris, 1972), The Convention on Trading in Endangered Species of Wild Animals (Washington, 1975), The Convention on Conservation of Migratory Animals (Bonn, 1979), and The Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat (also 50 known as the Ramsar Convention, in 1986). Furthermore, Egypt welcomed the World Conservation Strategy formulated jointly by IUCN, WWF and UNEP in 1980. The National Committee of IUCN in collaboration with ASRT put forward a "Draft National Strategy for the Conservation of Natural Heritage in Egypt". However, implementation of this draft strategy has not been achievable for various political and socio-economic reasons. In 1992, Egypt signed the Biodiversity Convention. Ratification of this Convention has been completed in 1994. In article 6, this Convention required the parties to formulate national strategies setting framework for the conservation of biodiversity. A national strategy for biodiversity conservation should define the goals, the guiding principles and the national plan of action. The policy-making body entrusted with the task of biodiversity conservation is EEAA. For the national strategy to be comprehensive and appropriate, it should cover species diversity, covering all hierarchical taxonomic levels of plants, animals and micro-organisms, habitat diversity, and genetic diversity in species of plants, animals and micro- organisms. International conventions The conservation of judicious ecosystems and biodiversity is mandated through regional and international conventions that call on member states to establish and maintain protected areas. The Arab Republic of Egypt is signatory to some eight international and regional agreements having provisions for protected areas. These conventions obligate Egypt and the member states to establish and maintain a network of protected areas to protect ecosystems, representative habitats, threatened species, cultural heritage sites and traditional knowledge of value to all mankind. According to the Constitution, international conventions signed by Egypt have the same power as Egyptian law.

Regional Cooperation Mediterranean Action Plan: The need for action to protect environment and to care for development in Mediterranean Basin became ubiquitous. In 1975, the Mediterranean countries and the European Economic Community (EEC) adopted the Mediterranean Action Plan (MAP), and in 1976, the Convention for the Protection of the Mediterranean Sea against Pollution (Barcelona Convention), under the auspices of the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP). The main objectives of MAP were to assist Mediterranean Governments to weigh up and control marine pollution, to formulate their environmental policies, to improve skill of Governments to identify better options for alternative patterns of development, and to make coherent choices for allocation of resources. MAP is synchronized by the Barcelona Convention Secretariat, the Coordinating Unit (MEDU) that had been based in Athens since 1982. Contracting Parties to Barcelona Convention (the Mediterranean States and the European Union) meet every two years on a Ministerial level to deliberate on general policy, strategy and political issues pertinent to their cooperation as well as to decide on MAP’s program and budget in the fields of marine conservation and coastal areas management.

Red Sea and Gulf of Aden Action Plan : The geographic coverage of this plan is seven States (Egypt, , Palestine, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, Sudan and Egypt). The action plan was adopted in 1982 and the convention was signed in the same year and started to be operative in 1986, yet the plan did not attain real progress due to lack of funds. Two programming sessions were held between the Secretariats of UNEP and of the Program for the Environment of Red Sea and Gulf of Aden (PERSGA) that technically co-ordinates the action plan (Jeddah, 25-26 June 1987; Nairobi, 25-26 April 1989). The following major potential areas of co-operation were acknowledged, ecological surveys aiming at development of conservation strategies; valuation of the levels and effects of oil pollution; and intensification the pollution research and monitoring capabilities of the region. The areas 51 identified for co-operation fall within the overall program adopted by the meeting of the Interim Council of PERSGA (Aqaba, September 1988). Under an agreement between UNEP and IOC, and in cooperation with PERSGA, the IOC will organize the finalization and follow-up of the project proposals on strengthening marine pollution monitoring capabilities in four countries (Egypt, Jordan, Sudan and Egypt) within the framework of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden Action Plan, and will provide preparatory assistance to national institutions selected as participants in these projects. These projects will aim at establishing a marine pollution-monitoring network in that part of the region and at strengthening the associated national institutions.

Bilateral Cooperation During the past decade, Egypt received a total amount of about £E 950 million for environmentally related projects from the donor community. GOE allocated about £E 63 million for these initiatives. The donor funds billed for technical and institutional support of MSEA and EEAA were £E 114 million, about 12 percent of the total funds the donors provided to Egypt in the sphere of protecting the environment. MSEA and EEAA received another £E 68 million, about seven percent of the total funds, to meet their mandate in protecting nature. The remaining £E 768 million were allocated for projects that MSEA and EEAA jointly put into practice with other agencies. The following pages provide a detailed description of these projects.

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Components of National Biodiversity Strategy

4. Guiding Principles Goals and Guiding Principles : The NBSAP adopts a framework that places Egyptians and nature at the center of the government anxiety in the development process. Its components had been based on the following sustainable development principles: 1. Equity • Ensuring social consistency and harmony through unbiased distribution of resources and providing various sectors of society with equal right of entry to development opportunities and benefits today and in the future . No individual or social groups should be denied the prospect to benefit from natural resources. The equal rights and opportunities of men and women must be assured. 2. Solidarity and shared responsibility • Recognizing that sustainable development is a communal, collective and inseparable responsibility that calls for institutional structures based on the spirit of solidarity, convergence and collaboration between and among various stakeholders. • Recognizing that since communities residing within or most neighboring to a given ecosystem would be the ones to most precisely feels the positive and negative impacts of human activities on that ecosystem, they should be enabled access to and control over common natural resources, such as water and biodiversity. • Protection of natural resources is viewed as a joint and indivisible responsibility of all individuals, families, communities, and other institutions in society. • Biodiversity conservation and enhancement are pursued through direct commitment of local communities and indigenous peoples and the extension of corroborate to institutional initiatives including harmonization of national and local biodiversity-related policies, legislation and programs. 3. Ecological Soundness • Recognizing nature as our common heritage and thus respecting the restricted carrying capacity and integrity of nature in the development process to ensure the right of present and future generations to this heritage. • The uprightness and carrying capacity of biological resources should not be degraded, but rather conserved, protected and enhanced in the process of development. • Egypt own rich biotic resources many of which are now threatened and some already extinct. The future development of the country must be a sign of the intrinsic value of its landscapes, terraces, ecosystems, habitats, populations, species and genes. 4. Know-how and eco-technology • The biological limits to natural resource productivity are scientifically researched and recognized and had become the bases and indicators for strategic policy decisions on societal use of the country’s natural resources • Habitual review, proposals for proper amendment of the strategy, and precise enforcement of environmental laws are undertaken by both communities and appropriate government institutions.

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5. Spiritual Values Spiritual commands us to look up to other plants, animals and creatures living with us and to consider them living communities, exactly like mankind. God created earth and all creatures living on it in due proportion and measure. So protection, conservation and development of the environment and natural resources is an obligatory Spiritual duty to which everyone should be dedicated any deliberate or intentional damage to the natural environment and resources is a kind of mischief or corruption that is forbidden. The Spiritual actions calls all individuals at all levels to protect, conserve and use environment and natural resources sustainably. 6. Sustainable use of natural resources. • Protecting the biodiversity resources against dangers of deterioration or loss through establishing and improving natural protectorates’ networks, conducting research, and adopting essential monitoring and evaluation measures. • Ensuring the sustainable management and use of natural protectorates and promoting conservation of biological diversity. • Preserving the natural values and reducing adverse environmental impacts on natural protectorates. • Ensuring that each protectorate is managed appropriately to optimize income generation without prejudicing the natural values for which it has been protected. This income is to be used in improving and developing other parks. • Promoting the conservation and sustainable use of wild resources outside national protectorates in consultation and, where practicable, in collaboration with rural communities and user groups. Goals : The goal of a national strategy for conservation of biodiversity is to set the basis of the rational use and sustainable development of the national natural resources so that they remain fit for use and capable of production in ways that provide for the rightful necessities of the present and for the basic needs of future generations as shown in the following figure.

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This will oblige harmonization and maximum harmonization between conservation measures and national plans for development in the various sectors of the economy (agriculture, industry, tourism, housing, etc.). Natural resources comprise ecosystems that produce human needs (farmlands, pasturelands, fisheries and woodlands) and the biotic (plants, animals and micro-organisms) and the abiotic elements (soil, water and air) of these ecosystems, non-renewable (stored) resources (geological formations of minerals, coal, oil, natural gas, fossil groundwater) and energy elements within the biosphere (solar, wind, waves and tides and geothermal). This strategy aims at conserving these natural resources and guarding against their destruction or over- exploitation so as their production be sustained at present and in the future. The strategy also aims at setting in clear terms that margins the social dependability of the present generation. Sustainable development requires justice in sharing the resources and maintenance of social peace and setting ethical responsibility towards future generation, our children and grandchildren, as sustainable development and conservation of natural resources foresee long term time horizons into the future. This might be achieved through the following six goals: 1. Conserve and manage terrestrial and aquatic biodiversity to ensure sustainable use and equitable benefits to the people. 2. Sustainable use of natural resources. 3. Access to genetic resources and Benefit sharing (Nagoya protocol). 4. Improve our understanding of biological diversity and ecosystem functioning in a changing environment. 5. Prepare for climate change and combat desertification. 6. Build partnerships and integrate biodiversity into all national development frameworks. The achievements of these goals necessities the implementation of dissimilar activities and projects covering varied areas.

General Considerations • To guarantee the best use of biodiversity elements, those with known economic utility and those that we do not yet know their use but future inquiries might discover their uses. • To argue ecological balances in the productive ecosystems so as to avoid viscous circles of ecological imbalance, e.g., incidence of new pests, deterioration of productivity, etc. Maintenance of ecological balance in pristine ecosystems is particularly necessary in nature reserves. • To shelter elements of biodiversity resources against dangers of deterioration or loss. These elements might provide future generations with valuable resources. These elements have their inherent right to survive and it is our human responsibility to observe this right. • To care for elements of biodiversity as parts of our cultural heritage. The Pharaonic heritage is rich with murals and depictions of plants and animals, and literature (poetry) is burdened with references to names and attributes of plants and animals. The loss of papyrus and sacred ibis is a cultural loss for Egypt. • These issues and concerns are, and should be, reflected in rules and mechanisms set for regulating use of biodiversity resources, that is, hunting and culling, grazing, cutting wood and collecting medicinal plants, etc. Egypt is also worried with a number 55

of important issues related to biodiversity conservation, sustainable development and the rational use of natural resources. These include: • The issue of bio-engineered organisms and its economic, ethical and legal aspects; this is the issue of bio-safety. The Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Agriculture established by decree no. 85 of 1995 a National Committee for Biosafety under his chairmanship. The Committee negotiated and endorsed a: Biosafety Regulations and Guidelines for Egypt. • The problems associated to parasites and pathogens borne by wild and domestic animals, particularly transient and migratory birds, which could infect humans; this might require the furtherance of the quarantine functions. • The multifaceted issues related to protection of indigenous knowledge and intellectual property; the Biodiversity Convention provided for these rights among countries parties to the Convention (the right to share equitably the benefits of developing and utilizing indigenous biodiversity materials), but this principle does not commit countries that are not signatories and hence countries, like Egypt, should enact a national law which ensures the protection of national property rights as regards native biodiversity resources.

5. Vision and Mission Vision Sustainable development includes economic, environmental, and social sustainability, which can be achieved by rationally managing natural, physical, and human capital. Biodiversity is a natural capital that underpins sustainable development in many ways. Poverty eradication, food security, provision of fresh water, soil conservation, and human health all depend directly on maintaining and using biological diversity and therefore sustainable development cannot be achieved without the conservation, sustainable use and sharing of benefits of biological diversity.

Mission: To achieve by 2020 a significant reduction in the current loss of Egypt’s biodiversity in order to ensure that are resilient and continue to provide essential provisional and regulatory services, through their conservation and sustainable use.

6. Strategy (Strategic Goals and Targets) Article 6 of the CBD on General Measures for Conservation and Sustainable Use states that each Party shall in accordance with its particular conditions and capabilities: • Develop national strategies, plans or programmes for the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity. This has come to be the principal instrument for the implementation of the Convention at the national level and to be known as NBSAPs. • Integrate, as far as possible and as appropriate, the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity into relevant sectoral or cross-sectoral plans, programmes or policies. • In 1998, Egypt prepared an NBSAP for 1998 to 2017 through a consultative process and updated its NBSAP in 2014 through a wide participatory process. The updated NBSAP 2011-2020 has the following strategic goals and targets: • The Convention’s Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020 and the Aichi Biodiversity Targets adopted at Nagoya, Japan in 2010 (CBD, 2010) has the following strategic goals and targets:

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Strategic Goal A: Address the underlying causes of biodiversity loss by mainstreaming biodiversity across government and society Target 1: By 2020, at the latest, people are aware of the values of biodiversity and the steps they can take to conserve and use it sustainably. Target 2: By 2020 at the latest biodiversity values have been integrated into national and local development and poverty reduction strategies and planning processes and are being incorporated into national accounting, as appropriate, and reporting systems. Target 3: By 2020, at the latest, incentives, including subsidies, harmful to biodiversity are eliminated, phased out or reformed in order to minimize or avoid negative impacts, and positive incentives for the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity are developed and applied, consistent and in harmony with the Convention and other relevant international obligations, taking into account national socio-economic conditions. Target 4: By 2020 at the latest Governments, business and stakeholders at all levels have taken steps to achieve or have implemented plans for sustainable production and consumption and have kept the impacts of use of natural resources well within safe ecological limits. Strategic Goal B: Reduce the direct pressures on biodiversity and promote sustainable use Target 5: By 2020, the rate of loss of all natural habitats, including forests, is at least halved and where feasible brought close to zero, and degradation and fragmentation is significantly reduced. Target 6: By 2020 all fish and invertebrate stocks and aquatic plants are managed and harvested sustainably, legally and applying ecosystem based approaches, so that over-fishing is avoided, recovery plans and measures are in place for all depleted species, fisheries have no significant adverse impacts on threatened species and vulnerable ecosystems and the impacts of fisheries on stocks, species and ecosystems are within safe ecological limits. Target 7: By 2020 areas under agriculture, aquaculture and forestry are managed sustainably ensuring conservation of biodiversity. Target 8: By 2020, pollution, including from excess nutrients, has been brought to levels that are not detrimental to ecosystem function and biodiversity. Target 9: By 2020, invasive alien species and pathways are identified and prioritized, priority species are controlled or eradicated, and measures are in place to manage pathways to prevent their introduction and establishment. Target 10: By 2020 the multiple anthropogenic pressures on coral reefs and other vulnerable ecosystems impacted by climate change or ocean acidification are minimized so as to maintain their integrity and functioning Strategic Goal C: To improve the status of biodiversity by safeguarding ecosystems, species and genetic diversity Target 11: By 2020, at least 17 per cent of terrestrial and inland water, and 10 per cent of coastal and marine areas, especially areas of particular importance for biodiversity and ecosystem services, are conserved through effectively and equitably managed, ecologically representative and well-connected systems of protected areas and other effective area-based conservation measures, and integrated into the wider landscapes and seascapes. Target 12: By 2020 the extinction of known threatened species has been prevented and their conservation status particularly of those most in decline has been improved and sustained. Target 13: By 2020, the genetic diversity of cultivated plants and farmed and domesticated animals and of wild relatives, including other socio-economically as well as culturally valuable species is maintained, and strategies have been developed and implemented for minimizing genetic erosion and safeguarding their genetic diversity. 57

Strategic Goal D: Enhance the benefits to all from biodiversity and ecosystem services Target 14: By 2020, ecosystems that provide essential services, including services related to water, and contribute to health, livelihoods and well-being, are restored and safeguarded, taking into account the needs of women, indigenous and local communities, and the poor and vulnerable. Target 15: By 2020, ecosystem resilience and the contribution of biodiversity to carbon stocks has been enhanced, through conservation and restoration, including restoration of at least 15 per cent of degraded ecosystems, thereby contributing to climate change mitigation and adaptation and to combating desertification. Target 16: By 2015, the Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from their Utilization is in force and operational, consistent with national legislation. Strategic Goal E: Enhance implementation through participatory planning, knowledge management and capacity building Target 17: By 2015 each Party has developed, adopted as a policy instrument, and has commenced implementing an effective, participatory and updated national biodiversity strategy and action plan. Target 18: By 2020, the traditional knowledge, innovations and practices of indigenous and local communities relevant for the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity, and their customary use of biological resources, are respected, subject to national legislation and relevant international obligations, and fully integrated and reflected in the implementation of the Convention with the full and effective participation of indigenous and local communities, at all relevant levels. Target 19: By 2020, knowledge, the science base and technologies relating to biodiversity, its values, functioning, status and trends, and the consequences of its loss, are improved, widely shared and transferred, and applied. Target 20 By 2020 the mobilization of financial resources for effectively implementing the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011–2020 from all sources and in accordance with the consolidated and agreed process in the Strategy for Resource Mobilization should increase substantially from the current levels. This target will be subject to changes contingent to resource needs assessments to be developed and reported by Parties Egypt has signed in 1992 and ratified in 1995 the International Convention on Biological Diversity that was launched at the Earth Summit conference in 1992. In so doing, Egypt has acknowledged the value of biological resources as an integral part of its natural heritage with the potential for yielding long term benefits for Egyptians as essential foundation for sustainable development. The Government of Egypt takes its responsibilities for the conservation and sustainable use of its natural resource seriously. It recognizes also that the well being of its contemporary and future communities depends on the conservation of the diversity and abundance of its biological resources. The pressing need of the current strategy and action plan is endorsed by various reasons represented by its national significance in reflecting the international concepts related to competion and where Egypt stands and what is its role. This, however, in addition to the major problems facing Egypt now in managing its biodiversity, some of these problems were not tackled enough in the last strategy (1989) and should be cared of

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7 National Biodiversity Strategy

Activities (to be National Challenges to be Themes Baseline National Targets Priority actions identified Indicators Strategic Goals addressed by TWGs and NBC) SG1: Conserve Protected Areas • 30 declared • Weak operational, T1: By 2030, PAs • Establish the Nature • PAs coverage and manage protected areas. administration and network secured and Conservation Agency • Number of declared terrestrial and . • Existing protected management system expanded to cover • Establish coherent and international sites aquatic areas coverage is for protected areas; 17% of total terrestrial resilient ecological • Annual allocated biodiversity to 150,000 km 2 • lack of proper and inland water and at network of PAs with budget for PAs secure ensure • Million of the updated PA least 5% of coastal and especial attention to • Annual generated sustainable use invasive birds are management plans marine representative marine income from PAs and equitable hunted annually • Insufficient staff areas, especially • Set programmes for benefits to the • 25% from sharks and financial priority sites of the capacity building people. are endangered resources. particular importance of staff members • Five species of • Unsatisfactory law for biodiversity and • Set up GIS-based turtles out of enforcement key ecological national planning and seven are mechanisms for processes, and evaluation system in endangered PAs. Effective management accordance with the • 14 PAs have • Weak use of GIS in of PAs CBD/PoWPA management plans planning process requirements (8 of them are out • Lack of accurate • Define and of date) information system implement proper • 12 PAs passed on the number of criteria for identifying through fauna and flora key biodiversity hot management species in Egypt spots effectiveness • Limited • Establish standardized evaluation (all are Institutional national monitoring out of date) Capacities for system within PAs • 3 PAs have protected area • Increase close business plans • Absent proper cooperation with • Average annual criteria for defining international income is LE 20 critical habitats organizations at both Million/year. • lack of international technical and financial

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Activities (to be National Challenges to be Themes Baseline National Targets Priority actions identified Indicators Strategic Goals addressed by TWGs and NBC) • 4 international cooperation to levels Ramsar sites support PAs • Biodiversity and • 34 international • Lack of regular poverty important areas monitoring of PAs alleviation might (IBAs) • Limited • One World environmental be précised using Heritage Site awareness, and lack regular data on (WHS) of knowledge of returns and • Two biosphere current activities employment reserves • Perceived conflict through tourism, of interest between protected areas and trophy hunting, local communities wildlife meat • Illegal hunting and harvesting, use of natural medicinal plant resources within collection, and PAs non-timber forest etc. Different conservation land uses are drivers of poverty alleviation and contribute to ecosystem resilience in rural areas • Women must be involved in biodiversity as day-to-day

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Activities (to be National Challenges to be Themes Baseline National Targets Priority actions identified Indicators Strategic Goals addressed by TWGs and NBC) managers; they are the most affected by biodiversity loss and degradation • Women are ought to play a major role in biodiversity conservation management through private game parks and nature reserves, tourism concessions, conservancies and community for- ests.. • Develop and implement CEPA strategy foe PAs • Develop five years action plans that include required staff, equipment and infrastructure based on the actual financial gaps • Issue a presidential decree to solve the conflict of interest with

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Activities (to be National Challenges to be Themes Baseline National Targets Priority actions identified Indicators Strategic Goals addressed by TWGs and NBC) other stakeholders • Implement green economy instruments Endemic and • Limited data on • Curre nt status of T2: By, 2020, develop • Develop national • No/(%) of inputs Endangered Species endemic species most species is and implement interactive centralized within the biodiversity distribution and unknown unified Egyptian biodiversity information system abundance • No. enough methodology for the information system • Number (%) of known • No official national systematic data to identification and • Assess status of threatened species Red List of species evaluate the species monitoring of species and habitats communities assessed • Several against the Red List priority of all • Ensure the comprehensive criteria. components of conservation of 20% and documented national lists • Many species are biodiversity of threatened species • Number (%) of (butterflies – critically according to the and reintroduce extinct conservation programs mammals- reptiles- endangered at international species as appropriate initiated for key standards to ensure birds- plants ) as global level and feasible species given in annex 1of • Quotas have not the maintenance or • Ensure conservation • No/(%) of Shaltout 2010- been established for rehabilitation of 50% and sustainable use of 2012 economically of our most biodiversity hot spots implemented recovery • National lists of important plant and threatened species located outside programs for species are out of animal species focusing on mammals protected areas threatened species date • Habitats host and reptiles to a • Promote ex-situ and • Primary, globally species, are favorab le inter-situ conservation important and endangered conservation status sensitive species • Overexploitation of communities have resources has not been identified resulted in the • Weak law degradation of enforcement of species wildlife protection communities measures outside • Update the limited PAs information on important areas for biodiversity outside

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Activities (to be National Challenges to be Themes Baseline National Targets Priority actions identified Indicators Strategic Goals addressed by TWGs and NBC) protected plant, bird & marine areas Ex situ Conservation • Complementary ex- • Existing botanical T3: By 2030, National • Practice and adopt a • No/ (%) of species that situ conservation gardens can conservation and/ / or national policy on ex- re-introduced into PAs measures for 17 undertake rehabilitation situ conservation. annually. animal and plant conservation programmes of the • Inspire ex situ • No/ (%) of ex situ species (the activities largest part of conservation through mechanisms Scimitar Oryx, • There are few threatened species and the establishment of implemented. Arabian Oryx, captive breeding endemic species at risk natural history • No/ (%) of gene Caracal, Crested centers for are developed and museum, gene banks, banks, banks, Porcupine, threatened native implemented with seed banks captive green belts and public Cheetah, Dorcas animal species measures to evaluate breeding centers, zoos gardens established. Gazelle, African • No mechanisms for its implementation . and public gardens. turtles, Arfeja, re-introduction of • Develop guidelines and Zayteia, Alloseeg, captive/breeding mechanism for Alghasah, wild animals into wild collection, turtles, Acacia, inside PAs. maintenance, Sarh plant) • No guidelines for reproduction and • The exact baseline establishment and reintroduction of plants numbers for the operation of captive and animal species in above species are breeding centers. ex-situ programmes available in the 5th • Scarce data NR available about the produced generations in captivity Alien Invasive • 137 alien plant • Insufficient T4: By 2030, all IAS • Update and verify a • • No/(%) of published Species (AIS) species: causals (50 information about and pathways are list of alien invasive AIS species), number, trends and identified and species and identify the • No/ (%) of national neutralizers (50 extent of invasive prioritized with most dangerous ones. implemented programs species), weeds (31 species in Egypt. measures in place to • Monitor and control the for controlling AIS species), invaders • Limited information update and verify expansion of key AIS annually.

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Activities (to be National Challenges to be Themes Baseline National Targets Priority actions identified Indicators Strategic Goals addressed by TWGs and NBC) (5 species) and about the impacts of these pathways, in with relevant transformer (1 AIS on ecosystems, addition to authorities species) (Ref. 5th economy and development of • Reinforce quarantine NR) human health. national programmes measures to control • 211invasive • No well-defined of 30% of identified intentional and species: aquatic figures about pathways to control unintentional plants (44 ssp.), human, financial and manage IAS. introduction of AIS terrestrial plants and technical • Launch and strengthen (40 ssp.), resources needed for database of alien crustaceans (16 combating AIS. species ssp.), insects (26 • Lack of institutional • Institute a specialized ssp.), spiders (1 capacities in unit to be concerned ssp.), fish (29 ssp.), evaluating and with AIS. mammals (3 ssp.), preserving alien birds (5 ssp.), species. reptiles (1 ssp.), • Lack of monitoring amphibians (1 system for alien ssp.), viruses (17 invasive species. ssp.), fungi (8 ssp.), • Shortage of bacteria (6 ssp.), adequate legislative nematodes (5 ssp.), tools to control mollusks (5 ssp.), introductions of echinoderms (1 alien invasive ssp.), coelenterates species. (1 ssp.) and • Lack of preventive polychaetes (2 ssp.) and remediation (Ref. 5th NR) measures. • No established programmes and weak implementation of AIS .

SG2: Agrobiodiversity& • Currently total • Little attention is T5: By 2020, • Develop a national • Number (%) of

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Activities (to be National Challenges to be Themes Baseline National Targets Priority actions identified Indicators Strategic Goals addressed by TWGs and NBC) Sustainable use Fisheries agriculture paid to the Conservation of agrobiodiversity national program of of natural production conservation of natural resources conservation program agrobiodiversity resources exceeded one agrobiodiversity at through the adoption with relevant conservation officially million ton the national level of ecologically authorities in approved annually and • Lacking of sustainable association with public • Number (%) of accounted for information on agricultural and organizations domestic plants and 13.2% of Egypt’s Egypt’s fishing management • To improve capacity animals reported in the GDP (81.3 billion agrobiodiversity, its practices, including for the recovery and national Red list Egyptian pounds) current status, control of fertilizer preservation of, and • Number (%) of action and employed 32% associated products and pesticides. research into, plans for endangered of the total work and traditions. agrobiodiversity and domestic species and force (more than 6 • Import/export of fisheries varieties created million jobs in genetic materials is • To create an • Number (%) and areas agriculture and not legislatively agrobiodiversity and of organic farms fisheries) (Ref. 5th controlled fisheries inventory and annually NR) • Access to genetic a red list of domestic • Number (%) of local • Over 1.3 million materials is limited plants and animals domestic plants tons, having a value for both farmers and • To conduct research cultivated annually of EGP 18 billion, research and conservation • Number (%) of fully were produced programmes relating to the wild equipped hatcheries from marine and • Economic relatives of native using modern fish inland capture incentives for the domestic species and breeding techniques fisheries and conservation of varieties established. brackish and Egyptian • Strengthen the capacity freshwater agrobiodiversity are of relevant aquacultures. lacking governmental agencies • The total area of • Gaps exist in through (among other clean farming current legislation mechanisms) provision estimated roughly relating to of specialized training at 170,000 hectares agriculture and (70 farms – 160 fishing companies) • The recovery of certain

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Activities (to be National Challenges to be Themes Baseline National Targets Priority actions identified Indicators Strategic Goals addressed by TWGs and NBC) economically important fish species will require specific restoration efforts • Specific mechanisms for fish stock restoration and protection have not been put in place Tourism • Tourism including • Unsatisfactory T6: By 2018, apply • Sustainable • • Number (%) of National Parks is regulation of CBD tools to management of survey published

. one of the best ecotourism and monitor and control ecosystems, its reports on assessment ever developing lack of adequate the impact of heritage and cultural of impacts of eco-

sectors of the infrastructure is tourism on resources based on tourism on biodiversity

Egyptian economy damaging the biodiversity, in best conservation and components especially • The past two natural resources particular in tourism models for the coral reefs. decades witnessed that catch the protected areas and socio-economic • Number (%) of hotels a huge growth in attention of the vulnerable wellbeing of the and companies applied nature-based tourists, in ecosystems. communities and other criteria for eco- tourism and particular the stakeholders . tourism. ecotourism in coral reefs of the • Number (%) of pilot Egypt contributed Red Sea • Promote tourism projects to more than LE • Low level of environmentally implemented in 96.8 billion (5.6% environmental sound, sustainable protected areas of total GDP) in awareness and tourism through “wise annually. use”, ecotourism 2013. ecological • Number (%) of sites practices and • Tourism directly education. published in the technologies, in supported • Generalized national a directory for particular at South 1,251,000 jobs deficiency in eco- eco-tourism Sinai, Red Sea, (5.1% of total tourism facilities. Western Deser t employment) in • Inadequate

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Activities (to be National Challenges to be Themes Baseline National Targets Priority actions identified Indicators Strategic Goals addressed by TWGs and NBC) Egypt in 2013. legislative • Promote marine • 14.7 million framework and conservations and Tourists in 2010. weak enforcement ecotourism in the • 2.5 million Tourists of eco-tourism business community visited PAs. legislation. and general public • Nature-based • Fragile local • Promote desert safari tourism is a communities and to be ecologically hastily growing private sector reliable avoiding market in Egypt, participation in destruction and predominantly in tourism degradation of South Sinai, Red management and natural habitats, Sea and Western investment in this landscapes, cultural Desert. sector. heritage sites and • Achieving the • The Red Sea other resources. conservation of Sustainable • Carry out surveys of Tourism Initiative biological resources areas suitable for eco- targeted through the tourism, taking into adoption of ecotourism account habitat ecologically development in vulnerability. Red Sea, while the sustainable • Support criteria for Red Sea LIFE management eco-tourism project aimed at practices for tourism development in maximizing local and recreation. protected areas and community buffer zones. benefit from the • Reduce the impact of tourism industry. tourism activities on It is estimated that biodiversity and natural 12% of all tourism habitats. in Egypt is directed to Red • Assess impacts of Sea alone. recreational activities in coastal areas. • In Western Desert the Italian • Develop capacity building plan for the

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Activities (to be National Challenges to be Themes Baseline National Targets Priority actions identified Indicators Strategic Goals addressed by TWGs and NBC) Cooperation has sector. been supporting • Initiate cooperation and the PA network participation of the there with the aim private sector, NGOs of establishing and local communities them as the in tourism investment nucleus for and management. ecotourism in that • The private sector has region. The EU on an essential role to the other hand play, both in investing supported the in biodiversity-related development of opportunities and in ecotourism promoting sustainable infrastructure in consumption and South Sinai. production. Most of • Ecotourism has the Egyptian Tourism been identified at associations are the policy level as managed by private an important game reserves, as well sector for growth as the investment by by both the many private Ministry of companies in low- Tourism and the impact, high quality Ministry of eco-tourism, also Environment. represent key Some of the good elements of examples of biodiversity collaboration and conservation and mainstreaming sustainable use. are the • Revise, update and establishment of a publish a directory for development code eco-tourism sites. for coastal • Encourage eco-tourism tourism in established and

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Activities (to be National Challenges to be Themes Baseline National Targets Priority actions identified Indicators Strategic Goals addressed by TWGs and NBC) infrastructure managed national along the southern parks. Red Sea coast. • Top priorities are • There is still a marine-based large gap and tourism, desert need for (safari) tourism and mainstreaming of promoting the ecotourism concept of objectives into ecotourism. other productive ••• Match up the sectors that have production of a direct and nationwide Marine detrimental Tourism Sustainable impacts on the Development Strategy, prospects of to spot gaps and ecotourism and its recommend potential natural resource actions for the base. Important development of sectors include environmentally and sustainable tourism. mineral extraction industries, ••• Engage local agriculture, communities in the fisheries, energy management of parks and and the sustainable use transportation. of natural resources • Progress in Egypt through the granting toward achieving of tourism and hunting the 2010 target of concessions to local “significantly communities, usually reducing the rate in partnership with of biodiversity private sector loss” is mixed, investors. with significant

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Activities (to be National Challenges to be Themes Baseline National Targets Priority actions identified Indicators Strategic Goals addressed by TWGs and NBC) progress in few ••• Strengthen and areas, and limited build capacity in the progress in many institutions responsible others. for overseeing • Tourism is implementation of the estimated to have management system. accounted for 20.5% of GDP in ••• Launch projects to 2011, and it is a establish key that links infrastructure and Egyptian management programs economic for marine tourism at development with key sites to mitigate poverty alleviation negative and biodiversity environmental impacts conservation. ••• Diagram and implement training . programmes to sensitize tourism companies to marine conservation and ecotourism ••• Assemble NGO participation to facilitate the implementation of the management programs. ••• Coordinate the production of a National Desert Tourism Sustainable

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Activities (to be National Challenges to be Themes Baseline National Targets Priority actions identified Indicators Strategic Goals addressed by TWGs and NBC) Development strategy, to identify gaps and recommend potential actions to develop environmentally sound, sustainable desert tourism in Egypt. ••• Set up guidelines and licensing procedures for the desert tourism industry. ••• Extend and enforcement and monitoring system to insure compliance to the regulations. ••• Strengthen and build capacity in the institutions responsible for overseeing implementation of the system. ••• Launch projects to establish infrastructure (i.e. tracks and sign posting) and management programmes at key

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Activities (to be National Challenges to be Themes Baseline National Targets Priority actions identified Indicators Strategic Goals addressed by TWGs and NBC) natural and cultural heritage sites to mitigate negative environmental impacts. ••• Prepare and implement training programmes to sensitize tourism companies to desert conservation and ecotourism and improve compliance to the guidelines. ••• Mobilize local community and NGO participation to facilitate the implementation of the management programmes ••• Develop environmental education and awareness campaigns to generate awareness about desert conservation, ecotourism and encourage support for management program

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Activities (to be National Challenges to be Themes Baseline National Targets Priority actions identified Indicators Strategic Goals addressed by TWGs and NBC) ••• Identify opportunities arising from successful ecotourism developments for the exchange of information and experience, so as to make conventional tourism more ecotourism oriented. ••• Build up an Ecotourism Action Plan for the Region/Governorate to inventory ecotourism resources and recommend actions to develop ecotourism in an environmentally sound and sustainable fashion ••• Conduct training programmes for service providers (i.e. guides, drivers, boat captains, etc...) about biodiversity and natural heritage resources and promote “wise use” management practices. ••• Offer small

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Activities (to be National Challenges to be Themes Baseline National Targets Priority actions identified Indicators Strategic Goals addressed by TWGs and NBC) grants/loans to local communities (i.e. Bedouins) to establish or develop establishments or services catering to Eco tourists. Pollution • Levels of • Shortage of T7: By 2020, • Set up periodical • • Number (%) of pollutants knowledge on measures, including national assessment of published reports on concentration in pollution impacts, waste management pollution within assessment of the Nile River, trends, associated plans and law different ecosystems pollution. northern lakes, costs of damage, enforcement, are in taking into account • Number (%) of Issued inland water and root causes and place to prevent and habitat vulnerability. decrees to enforce marine mitigation reduce the impact of • Establish criteria for pollution control. ecosystems, are measures for pollution and waste monitoring of pollution • Number (%) f given in the 5th marine, air on ecosystems, inside protected areas rehabilitated or NR on 2014 (e.g. pollution, national especially on and associated buffer restored pilot projects fertilizers, capital for wetlands and coastal zones. in polluted ecosystems. nutrients, agriculture and marine areas. • Set Capacity building • 3rd and 4th pesticides, heavy • Deficient level of for research and Greenhouse Gas metals, etc.) professionalism development regarding Inventory • Through large scale and training in combating pollution. Emergency committee in irrigation pollution • Undertake measures place (particularly in monitoring to minimize the • Number of waste North-Eastern • Inadequate impacts from local disposal sites Regions), pollution legislative pollution instances is damming and framework and such as oil spills, upgraded over- abstraction of weak enforcement harmful algal blooms • Volumes of waste groundwater of pollution and hydrogen recycled annually • Pollution of water, treatment. sulphide • Number (%) of bio- the expanding events at the coast gas digesters; amount number of intensive • Update greenhouse of solid waste utilized irrigation schemes, gas inventory and

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Activities (to be National Challenges to be Themes Baseline National Targets Priority actions identified Indicators Strategic Goals addressed by TWGs and NBC) and the use and take action to reduce • Compliance with disposal of Greenhouse Gas Environmental chemicals were emissions Management Plans considered as major • Develop and (mining companies) concerns as well as implement • Trends in water quality the rapid and Environmental in aquatic ecosystems uncontrolled Management Plans (, rivers and Ramsar urbanization that is (EMPs) for all urban Sites) taking place areas • Presence / absence of • Develop and key indicator pollution .. implement National Implementation Plans species (NIPs) for the • Pollution standards in Stockholm and Basel place, respected Conventions • Compliance with • Promote increased Environmental adoption of the Management Plans "reduce, re-use and recycle" principle by residents and the public and private sector Bill on waste management and

pollution control enacted and implemented • Investigate and install alternative systems to make use of solid waste as an economic resource • Develop, monitor and enforce minimum

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Activities (to be National Challenges to be Themes Baseline National Targets Priority actions identified Indicators Strategic Goals addressed by TWGs and NBC) national standards on soil, water and air quality as well as occupational health • Enhance the infrastructure and natural resource base of all protected areas to make them attractive destinations for tourists and tourism investors and to improve the working environ Land use planning, • • Damage of natural T8 a: By 2017, • Uphold • ` • Number (%) of land- habitats as a result negative effects of environmentally zones and land use of deforestation, different sectoral friendly land use management plans desertification and policies (land-use practices. implemented. land conversion. planning, transport, • Enhance the • Number (%) of SIA • Destruction of energy, uncontrolled implementation of land developed and sensitive natural urbanization, etc.) regulation, pricing and approved and habitats caused by on priority elements registration. implemented unplanned land of biodiversity are • Minimize the • Number (%) of reclamation. minimized, and uncontrolled restoration and • Rapidly growing measures to correct urbanization and desertification control population with these effects are enhance land-zoning project carried out. intensive use and applied through and land use • Number (%) of maps pressure on natural developing and management plans. developed for resources implementing land • Develop mapping of sustainable land use particularly in the use management soil degradation and planning. densely populated plans. desertification centers of the • Expand desertification country. control programs focusing on

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Activities (to be National Challenges to be Themes Baseline National Targets Priority actions identified Indicators Strategic Goals addressed by TWGs and NBC) conservation of plant cover, reduction of soil erosion and watershed management. • Develop guidelines for strategic EIA for projects. Inland waters • Species diversity in • T8b: By 2021 rate of • Continue wetland • • Number (%) of ecosystems Nile includes: 87 wetland loss reduced restoration and contracting parties aquatic weeds, 100 by 50%, water desertification control • Number (%) of zooplankton and 80 efficiency in farming programs National reports from phytoplankton improved by 50%,, contracting parties species (algae), 58 orienting the • Number (%) of species of fish, 31 investment of 1 $ parties completed amphibian species billion to wetland inventory and reptiles, and development inland • Number (%) of more than 200,000 water ecosystems and Ramsar sites are bird species were BMP is available to improved and recorded. policy makers effectively managed • Status of species • Number (%) of sites diversity in inland at risk water and northern • Guidance prepared lakes is well by STRP adopted by reported in the 5th COP NR as a baseline. • Use in water in • farming

Sustainable use of • Status of species • Over-exploitation, T9: By 2027, • Develop habitat • • Number and % of Coastal/Marine Life diversity in marine pollution and promote the mapping, and assessments, reports ecosystems is well mismanagement of implementation of sensitivity analysis of and maps on coastline reported in the 5th fishing in the Red good fishing the entire coastline, habitats and NR as a baseline. Sea and practices in both including distribution endangered species. Mediterranean Sea Mediterranean Sea of rare and endangered • Number and % of

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Activities (to be National Challenges to be Themes Baseline National Targets Priority actions identified Indicators Strategic Goals addressed by TWGs and NBC) and Egyptian and Red Sea, species. reports about fishery Islands. favorable to fish • Develop data base resources. • Destruction of protection and their management systems • Number and % of coastal and marine habitats ,e.g., of fishery resources pilot ICZM Plans habitats caused by medicinal plants based on stock implemented. ship dumping, assessment. • Number and % of industrial, • Prepare and implement fishery management agricultural and pilot Integrated Coastal plans officially sewage effluent. Zone Management approved. • Over-fishing and Plans • Number and % of lack of quality • Conserve key pilot area of forest controls. threatened coastal, mangroves re-planted. • Damage of coral coral relief, mangrove reefs and and marine species, underwater habitats habitats and caused by bottom ecosystems. trawling, • Re-plant/re-forest ornamental fishing mangroves wherever • Weak conservation feasible. and sustainable use of marine and fishery resources.

SG3: Access to Access to genetic • No. national • No legislation to T10: By 2025, • Carry out stock-taking • Number and %. of genetic resources and sharing legislation and control the national, Effective operational and assessment of national biotechnology resources and of benefits (Nagoya mechanisms for or international biosafety and ABS existing policy and biosafety Benefit sharing protocol and controlling the movement of GMOs mechanism biotechnologies frameworks approved (Nagoya Cartagena Protocol) transfer and use of and give the rights (measures and application and use. and enforced. protocol) GMOs. to public to monitor legislation) in place, • Building the capacity • Laws on LMOs and • No national these GMOs in accordance with of NCS as the entity Biotechnology legislation for ABS • There is little national laws and responsible for the prepared and enacted. • Number of plant information on the relevant management and • Number and % NCS genetic resources short or long term international control of staff trained on

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Activities (to be National Challenges to be Themes Baseline National Targets Priority actions identified Indicators Strategic Goals addressed by TWGs and NBC) recorded and impacts obligations and biotechnology and biosafety and ABS preserved in the (ecological, social serving national biosafety issues. issues. national gene bank or economic) of priorities relating to • Build up National • Number and % as reported in the GMOs biodiversity. Biosafety Database and permits reported in the 5th NR. • There is little operational BCH. BCH. information • Normalize, manage or • Number and % concerning control the risks laboratories capable of alternative options associated with the use detecting content of to the use of GMOs and release of LMOs. GMOs • There is little • Institute "polluter • Record and capacity to assess pays“ legislation to disseminate traditional the risks of recover rehabilitation knowledge addressing biotechnology use costs of damaged sustainable use of • There is poor resources by polluting natural resources understanding of industries how to prevent the • Form guidelines for accidental release of trading Egyptian’s GMOs in to the native genetic environment, and resources and for low capacity of how pharmaceutical and to respond in this biotechnological uses situation • Lack of participation of local communities Sustainable use of • Egyptian baseline • Weak Institutional T11: By 2020, to • To maintain the • • Hunting quotas and list Terrestrial Wildlife for wildlife trade structures and promote sustainable populations of each of sites officially Resources (Fauna and & CMS global financial resources hunting and wild species at an approved Flora) database in 2014. to ensure the harvesting through optimal levels • Gaps in maps and • Illegal wildlife sustainable use of adequate planning, • To develop effective information pertaining trade does not natural wildlife. restoration and tools for protection of to endangered exist • Current levels of protection of key wild animals and ecosystems, habitats, illegal hunting and biological resources control of hunting. vegetation and rare

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Activities (to be National Challenges to be Themes Baseline National Targets Priority actions identified Indicators Strategic Goals addressed by TWGs and NBC) trade of wild • Improve the licensing species identified. species. procedure for hunting • Assessments report on • Current of migratory birds rangeland management application of • Define hunting quotas and utilization hunting and for migratory birds and published and harvesting practices conduct studies on accessible. do not take into hunting • Survey and assessment consideration • Develop the concept of report of wildlife principles of traditional hunting utilization published. biodiversity • Ensure that income conservation generated from the use • Hunting and of biological resources harvesting on may be used for monetary value conservation and rather than their renewal of these conservation status resources • Smuggling and uncontrolled exporting of wildlife (funa and flora) and threaten medicinal plants species

SG4: Imp rove More oriented IT, • Numbers and • Responsibilities T12: By 2020, the • To enhance the legal • Fully equipped our research, & Data status of species about biodiversity knowledge, the base for biodiversity biodiversity understanding of Management (CHM, and habitats monitoring are not science base and research & monitoring monitoring information biological national biodiversity reported in the 5 th clearly defined technologies relating • To strengthen the role Centre set up diversity and database and NR. among agencies to biodiversity, its of the Environmental • No. of list of key ecosystem medicinal plant • Results about • There are no agreed, values, functioning, Ministry in the field of biodiversity functioning in a strategy ) biodiversity in approved, adopted status and trends, biodiversity research & components changing Egypt in WCMC and integrated and the monitoring presented in an environment Traditional in 2014. methods of consequences of its • To improve & maintain official publication of knowledge loss, are improved,

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Activities (to be National Challenges to be Themes Baseline National Targets Priority actions identified Indicators Strategic Goals addressed by TWGs and NBC) interdisciplinary biodiversity widely shared and a regularly up-dated the Ministry of research valuing research & transferred, and biodiversity data base. Environment social and economic monitoring applied • To provide oriented impact of climate • Information systematic reports for change exchange between the general public responsible agencies about the status of is poor biodiversity • An easily accessible • To designate an entity electronic data base (centre) responsible for exist but need to be biodiversity data improved to the analysis and for the international development of standards recommendations from • There is limited monitoring within the understanding of NCS. modern monitoring techniques within the country (e.g. ecosystem services). Addressing • Mainstreaming of • Degradation of T13: By 2030, • Combating sand dune • • Improvement in the desertification the status of irrigated farmland Research and movement soil fertility level desertification as a result of using implement measures • Remediation of • Combating the synergies with low quality water in and strategies to deteriorated areas deterioration in climate and irrigation, strengthen local- • Ameliorating the agricultural ecosystems biodiversity • Degradation of rain- level biodiversity farming system in conservation as fed farmland resilience to decertified regions given in the 5th (northern coastal desertification NR. belt and northern Sinai rainfall • Degradation of rangeland (northern coastal belt) through overgrazing,

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Activities (to be National Challenges to be Themes Baseline National Targets Priority actions identified Indicators Strategic Goals addressed by TWGs and NBC) degradation of plant cover, • Encroachment of sand formations, especially from the Western desert, on the Nile Valley land (southern Egypt)

Climate-related • Impacts and status • Predictable impacts T14: By 2020, • Assess the impact of • • Capacity for Egypt to biodiversity of climate change of climate change. investigate and climate change on Respond to UNFCCC " adaptation and as reported in the • National policies monitor all the biodiversity in and NNFCC mitigation 5th NR. and measures effects of climate vulnerable areas and • National policy responding to change on protected areas. • Strengthen climate change. biodiversity and • Conduct a feasibility cooperation with • National assessment ecosystem services assessment of the other institutions needs including application of financial assistance, international technical and mechanisms, suggested technology transfer, by UNFCCC (REDD+, monitoring systems, international carbon education, and market), in Egypt. public awareness. • Climate Change Capacity Building Phase II. • The Integrated Solar Thermal / Natural Gas Power Plant at Kuraymat. • The Energy Efficiency Improvement and Greenhouse (GHG) Reduction Projects.

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Activities (to be National Challenges to be Themes Baseline National Targets Priority actions identified Indicators Strategic Goals addressed by TWGs and NBC) • Promotion of wind energy for electricity generation.

SG5: Prepare for Public awareness, • Impacts and status • Public awareness of T15: By 2020, • Develop national • • Results from climate change education and training of CEPA reported biodiversity issues enhancing guidelines (topics and sociological surveys and combat (including needs in the 5th NR as is low, and precise environmental sources of information, indicating the scale and desertification assessments on given in levels of knowledge awareness of teaching type of work needed to capacity, technology medicinal plants have been poorly Egyptians of the methodologies, a list of raise public awareness and finance) strategy assessed importance of typical • Number of • Knowledge of biodiversity and errors/misconceptions brochures, leaflets, public rights ecosystem services concerning biodiversity CD, workshops, provided by national through integrating issues in the natural printed materials etc. and international environmental and social science and film produced legislation results is themes into textbooks) for teaching annually, low when related to university and school of biodiversity and public participation curricula, promoting prepare in decision-making green media, and recommendations for • Informal supporting youth the National Teaching environmental clubs and eco- Plan education is industry. • Dissemination of unsystematic and biodiversity fragmented information in rural • There is a lack of areas widespread • Increase the national expertise in capacity for ensuring environmental law the production and use • Knowledge of of high quality biodiversity issues textbooks; prepare among local education materials communities is poor suitable for use at • Weak cooperation preschool institutions among related and schools

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Activities (to be National Challenges to be Themes Baseline National Targets Priority actions identified Indicators Strategic Goals addressed by TWGs and NBC) sectors • Support the • An integrated establishment and biodiversity functioning of eco- information base clubs in schools to exist, to provide promote teaching of improved access to biodiversity-related information topics • To increase the role of the media in ecological education and strengthen conservation information dissemination • To encourage the development of local NGOs focusing on conservation and environmental education Valuation of • Status of valuation • Lack of practical T16: By 2015, • Conduct an economic • No. of ecosystem ecosystem goods and of ecosystem goods guidelines for biodiversity values valuation of the services valued services and services valuation of are promoted and country’s biodiversity annually. reported in the 5th ecosystem services integrated into and ecosystems using • No. of trained staff on NR. • Lack of systematic national planning TEEB (The Economics the mechanism and predictive models process and of Ecosystems and method of valuing the • Effect of change on mechanisms to Biodiversity) ecosystem services. goods and services support their • Develop an integral provided by incorporation into value of biodiversity ecosystem national accounting and its links with • Lack of common and reporting livelihoods and key understanding of systems to be ecosystem services to cumulative impacts developed human well-being and on ecosystem human development

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Activities (to be National Challenges to be Themes Baseline National Targets Priority actions identified Indicators Strategic Goals addressed by TWGs and NBC) services • To develop the right • Lack of capacity or tools and mechanism to human resources to incorporate the value of conduct valuation of biodiversity and ecosystem services ecosystem services into the national plans • To formulate an indicative economic plan for biodiversity conservation, based on international experience, • To create sustainable economic mechanisms for the conservation of biodiversity. Legal and institutional • Law 102 /1983 for • Weak legislation on T17 : By 2017, ensure • Legal framework for • • Issue the presidential framework protected areas. wildlife protection that the national the establishment of the decree for the • Law 4/1994 outside PAs strategy is supported Nature Conservation establishment of the amended by law • The legal basis for by effective Agency Nature Conservation 9/2009 for ABS and biosafety legislation and • Set legal mechanisms Agency protection of is poor institutional for economic • No. of regulations environment. • The legal basis for frameworks to incentives for issued for sustainable • No. law for wildlife economic incentives improve its sustainable use of economic incentives or biodiversity for sustainable use enforcement biodiversity • Issue the law for outside PAs. of biodiversity is • Develop law for wildlife protection • NCS agency is not weak conservation of • Issue the law for ABS declared until now. • Weak law biodiversity • Issue the law for • Revision of enforcement of the • Enforce legislation biosafety existing existing laws regulating biosafety & • Implementation of legislations to 102,/1983 and ABS issues and provide scientific decrees satisfy national 9/0229 all necessary • needs • Harmonization institutional support for

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Activities (to be National Challenges to be Themes Baseline National Targets Priority actions identified Indicators Strategic Goals addressed by TWGs and NBC) national legislation its implementation with international obligations under • Develop national governmental mechanism to clearly treaties and define the conventions; responsibility for land • Some laws either tenure between very old or have different stakeholders been developed on the basis of foreign legislation and have not been adequately adapted to the national situation. • No clear legislation for land tenure between different stakeholders

SG6: Build NBSAP • Results reported in • Weak clear and T18 :By 2016, proper • Establish National • Number of achieved partnerships and Implementation the stock taking structured approach NBSAP and Biodiversity actions adopted in the integrate study and for NBSAP associated resource Committee (NBC) in NBSAP. biodiversity into incorporated in the implementation. mobilization are in order to conduct • Expended budget form all national 5th NR will be the • Poor sustainable place, in addition to periodic assessments, other stakeholders and development baseline for this financial establishment of the evaluation and update donors regarding the frameworks theme mechanisms for the national biodiversity of the NBSAP NBSAP NBSAP committee to ensure • Create guidelines and implementation implementation periodic evaluation of scenarios for • Number of reports on • Weak national NBSAP mainstreaming of biodiversity indicators system for biodiversity into the • No. of fully ma monitoring of national development Number of in biodiversity plans streamed sectors indicators • Set up a national regarding to

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Activities (to be National Challenges to be Themes Baseline National Targets Priority actions identified Indicators Strategic Goals addressed by TWGs and NBC) • Weak mechanism system for conservation for mainstreaming biodiversity indicators biodiversity of biodiversity into • Number of reports and the national decrees issued by the development National Biodiversity planning Committee (NBC) • No periodic assessment, evaluation and update of the NBSAP Financing the • Poor financial T19: By 2020, • Develop resource • • Number of reports on Implementation of the mechanisms to Adequate financial mobilization strategy macro-economic NBSAP (strategy for support resources for the and mechanisms for the assessment resource mobilization conservation of effective NBSAP • budget allocated from for the biodiversity implementation of implementation different sources for implementation of the • Establishment of the Strategic Plan for • To create additional implementation of the NBSAP) economic value for Biodiversity 2011- financial mechanisms NBSAP biological diversity 2020 has been to promote biodiversity • 750 staff working in components mobilized of from all conservation and existing Pas; (25% of • Weak information sources, and protected areas them are database on increased • Develop mechanisms environmental financing of substantially from to indemnify financial researchers) and are biodiversity the current levels. risks, and the expected to reach conservation opportunity for cross- 5000 by 2025 • The real values of sectoral debate between • Average annual biodiversity (and state crediting budget is L.E. 18.5 possible costs of institutions and Million/year and is damage to the ministries. expected to reach resource base) are • To formulate an 100 million by 2020 not taken into indicative economic account in plan for biodiversity determining taxes conservation, based on

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Activities (to be National Challenges to be Themes Baseline National Targets Priority actions identified Indicators Strategic Goals addressed by TWGs and NBC) on natural resource international use, resulting in experience unsustainable use of • Reflection of coast of natural resources biodiversity and under-valuation conservation on national budget

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National Action Plan

Certainly Egyptian natural resources are the core of the national economy, the depletion or deterioration of these resources represents not only a loss of the country’s national capital but undermines the sustainability of its economy. In the NBSAP process a number of environmental issues of national concern were recognized and analyzed in order to determine their priority weight and inclusion in the action plan. This section describes priority actions for implementing the strategy, and presents the tactic used for the selection of priorities. Given the large number of issues enclosed by the strategy, considering the country restricted resources, it was obligatory to prepare a set of criteria for prioritizing actions and projects contributing to the implementation of the contemporary strategy. These criteria are geographic iimpact, consistency with convention objectives, urgency, sequence, country- driven, attainable and resource able and multispectral implications. These primary criteria might be discussed as follows: Geographic Impact: Actions with potentially comprehensive geographic impact are more imperative than actions of localized impact. Consistency with Convention Objectives: Action that directly affects biological diversity is deemed less pertinent than action that directly affects it. Urgency: The action is pressing when it addresses highly deteriorated ecosystems, and where a large number of people or resources are under immediate threats or risk. Sequence: Actions/projects are prearranged in time-sequence when one action/project’s output is input or precondition to a second one. According to this criterion, programs addressing data, policy and legislation gaps are located before implementation programs and forest protection programs are before forest production programs and so on. Country-driven: Projects that keep up the inclusive country interest and lie within government’s priorities are more viable than projects that are of pure global nature. Such projects are politically supported by the government and have many opportunities to be funded from national sources, including government, NGOs, private sector and local communities. Multispectral Implications: A specific involvement is given special priority when it seeks to address issues of interrelated impacts on biodiversity, climate, freshwater and desertification. Terrace rehabilitation, protected areas establishment and eco-practices in agriculture are examples of such actions. Attainable and Resourceable: Projects with clearly defined objectives and sufficiently funded activities backed-up with cross-sectorial, shared and inclusive management mechanism are certainly to be more successful in producing their planned outputs in an efficient and effective manner.

Priority actions It is planned to give priorities on the following components: • Strategic Goal 1: Conserve and manage terrestrial and aquatic biodiversity to ensure sustainable use and equitable benefits to the people • Strategic Goal 2: Sustainable use of natural resources:

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• Strategic Goal 3: Access to genetic resources and Benefit sharing (Nagoya protocol, indigenous knowledge and traditions) • Strategic Goal 4: Improve our understanding of biological diversity and ecosystem functioning in a changing environment: • Strategic Goal 5: Prepare for climate change and combat desertification: • Strategic Goal 6: Build partnerships and integrate biodiversity into all national development frameworks:

FUNDING NBSAP Defective funding is major obstruction affecting national biodiversity conservation and might harshly influence the attainment of settled on targets. Regrettably conservation spending baseline data is not easy to assemble and incomplete in many countries. Egypt is no exception. It is therefore critical that activities are undertaken to calculate the relative sufficiency of the levels of Egypt’s conservation finance. It is also imperative that such baseline judgment adequately carry out a disparity analysis of the level of underfunding in biodiversity conservation. Leveraging on ensuring the diversification of sources of funding as a strategy is very important. This should make certain that domestic expenditure is aided by donor spending, private philanthropy and conservation trust funds. Finally innovative forms of financing should also be explored to guarantee that appropriate economic instruments and financing mechanisms are acknowledged and used. The exploitation of such economic instruments and financial mechanisms should be motivated by their expediency in implementation as well as their congruency with the broader economic, political and social and equity dynamics of Egypt.

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THE NATIONAL BIODIVERSITY ACTION PLAN Participating Title Description Strategic Initiative Indicative Activities Out Puts Participating Time Coast Agencies Frame Million Years LE

Strategic Goal 1: Conserve and manage terrestrial and aquatic biodiversity to ensure sustainable use and equitable benefits to the people Establishment and The nationally designated Raise public Component one: Integrated and EEAA, 15 45 without protected areas system comprehensive Governorates, Development of a awareness of the Data collection and secured contains a good representation database and Ministry of Comprehensive meaning and value analysis (including fund The of Egyptian habitats with high relational GIS Tourism, National Integrated of conservation of Gap assessment and most likely biological significance, along system for NGOs, Local priority listing) and external Protected Areas with other sites of importance biodiversity and wise biodiversity Communities. integration in sources of System in Egypt such as biodiversity hotspots, use biodiversity by established and existing running GIS funding are cultural heritage, geological target groups functional. systems UNESCO, formations, landscapes of Comprehensive UNEP, outstanding natural beauty Develop and apply Promote protected areas CBD and Important Bird Areas criteria and understanding and system design wide- Secretariat, (IBAs). According to the procedures for clarify values of ranging with initial technical WWF global classification, selecting and PA site boundaries, assistance, Egypt falls in the Palearctic biodiversity evaluating protected supportive GEF, biogeographically realm or development of areas. information, map UNDP and ecozone and contains habitat positive attitude Produce a proposal and validation for other types and eco-regions of towards conservation for an inclusive each site bilateral aid global significance. Protected and use of network of protected areas had been one of the Budget estimates for biodiversity areas for official primary responses for all priority reserves designation and maintaining biodiversity in prepared and management. Egypt. They include a Develop geo-spatial implemented. representative range of tool to identify key Component two: Protected Area national habitats and biodiversity areas Develop and Management Plans physiographic regions, along throughout Egypt complete Protected for the priority areas with other sites of importance. and take measures to Area Management prepared and They also cover major habitat enhance their types/biomes and eco-regions Plans implemented protection of global importance Resource Thirty protected identified in Egypt. PAs Establish mobilization for areas are

91 generally meet their mechanisms for protected area established, covering 2 conservation objectives and ecological management and over 146,000 km or the staff technical skills are connectivity to link small scale about 14.6 % of the generally good; the PA total land and together protected community system is a vitally important conservation marine areas of the areas and to reduce socio-economic asset to Egypt initiatives. country. but many benefits are fragmentation Institutional, unrealized; PAs are all under- Protected Area technical and human resourced, far below the norm Management Promote protected resource capacity for Developing Countries or activities areas as good requests for even for Africa; there is a practice examples of Training and protected area marked disparity in the broader capacity building management and allocation of staff and budgets community to areas as opposed to their environmental Affair all the conservation needs and the national management and Protected Areas, identified and priorities in regard to eco-tourism through comprehensive supported. biodiversity value; the destinations management plans conversion of land use, of protected areas recreational use (especially based on sound tourism) and hunting are scientific, Develop and managerial and considered as the greatest pressures operating on the PA improve economic factors. system and coordinated conservation and Identify and afford national strategies are monitoring systems the full complement required to address these of well-trained and in protected areas Establishment and issues; while there appear to outfitted staff, fitting management of new be good local relations, local visitor facilities and Conduct annual selected priority people don’t necessarily monitoring and assessments of the protected areas support the PAs and they are enforcement not involved in management management mechanisms for the decisions; the system is effectiveness of state Protectorates. vulnerable as a result of poor protected areas Number of protected Look at the law enforcement, areas being managed opportunities for overexploitation of resources, Upgrade the according to lack of resources and wider private sector approved infrastructure of all contribution in the excessive pressure on management plans managers to accommodate state protected areas management of unsustainable demands; site Protected Areas. Assessment of planning is generally poor and As a model, set up a

92 only half of the protected regional management areas have formal development effectiveness; management plans or Programme with income generated. definitive work plans. The Protected Area(s) . lack of financial resources is (e.g. Marsa Maruh, currently one of the main North Sinai, Gebel limitations to the effective Elba) as the focal management of existing point. protected areas in Egypt. The number of PAs in Egypt had Identify, develop and increased from 21 in 1999 implement ecologically sound (covering about 77,776 km²) to 30 in 2013(covering over systems for tourist 141179.5 km² and extending activities within over 14.6 % of the total land selected protected and marine areas of the areas. country. Despite of that many The scale of of Egypt’s crucial and unique implementation of habitats are not represented in these activities will the nation’s Protected Area be synchronized at Network. Besides most of the national level, Protected Areas that have with management been identified and designated and implementation under Law 102 of 1983 are at Governorate and still lacking proper local levels. management and infrastructure : Egypt’s most important marine biological diversity hot spot (i.e. Red Sea coral reefs) is fairly represented by the existing PAs network. Similarly, the country’s four terrestrial biological diversity hot spots (St. Katherine, Elba, wetlands and western Mediterranean coastal desert) fall completely within existing protected

93 areas. Major sources of protected areas funding in Egypt currently include national government budget, bilateral and multilateral agencies (e.g. member countries of the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), the Global Environment Facility (GEF) and the World Bank; and probably other sources. Generally, however, neither government budgets nor international assistance have kept pace with the expansion of Egypt’s protected area network since the CBD came into force in 1993. PAs are all under-resourced, far below the norm for Developing Countries or even for Africa. In order to match the regional or developing countries norms Egypt would need many fold increase on current expenditure. Although public sector funding and bilateral/multilateral assistance will certainly continue to be important funding sources, new and innovative financial mechanisms are required to fill existing and future funding gaps. Financial

94 sustainability is a critical requirement of the effective protected area networks envisaged by Aichi Target 11. Considering this situation and the economic value of protected areas, a number of economic instruments have been applied in Egypt to generate funds for protected areas and to make them financially self-sustaining. While several of these mechanisms have been around for some years, their successful implementation may also require new approaches to ensure protected areas indeed retain critical funds for effective performance and future growth. The current project is composed of two components Component one: Identify the National Protected Areas Network including establishment of a system plan that assesses all existing, coulddidate and potential protected areas and reviews and assesses them through field and desk studies. The Protected Area network should encompass all of the nation’s most marvelous natural heritage resources, important centers for

95 biodiversity and a proportional illustration of the country’s natural habitats. No doubt the current System Plan is in urgent need of revision and updating Component two: Develop management and infrastructure of the Protected Areas network, including development and implementation of management plans for obtainable protected areas. These plans should deal with the integration and development requests of local communities, sustainable utilization of the resources considering the potential sites for eco-tourism and their role as focal points for regional planning. Worthy to mention that management plans (of variable quality) are available for most PAs, but infrastructure and implementation are lagging in most cases The current proposal aims to identify, establish and develop a comprehensive National Integrated Protected Areas System for Egypt including the terrestrial, wetland and marine environments to strengthen community livelihood, identification and

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design of the NIPASY, establishment and management of new selected priority protected areas and permit small scale community conservation initiatives. Capacity Building Egypt is in urgent need for a Build national Manpower National Ministry of 15 22 sustainable and operative Programme for State for the for Conservation capacity for development, The most system to deal with the capacity building Environment - and Sustainable conserving and the Monitoring, data likely conservation and sustainable and sustainable Egyptian Use of Biodiversity sustainable use of network and external use of biodiversity. It has a use of Environmental sources of in Egypt deficit in national capacity in biodiversity in Egypt Education and biodiversity. Affairs Agency funding are the field that is hampering the awareness (EEAA) Build-up the UNESCO, nation’s capability to conserve programmes. Governorates, Institute an technical UNEP, and manage its unique and Ministry of appropriate capabilities CBD critical natural resources. The Education, institutional structure Furnishing the (equipment, Secretariat, current proposal is composed Universities, technical capability electronic technical , of two components, the first under Law 102/1983, Research of Department networks, trained GEF, deals with building up the Law 4/1994 and Centers, personnel) of the UNDP and structure and capacity of the international nature National mechanisms Department of other Nature Conservation Section conservation Nature bilateral aid (NCS) within the Ministry of conventions Conservation and State for Environmental its associate units Affairs to realize its mandate and institutions under Law 102, Law 4 and Development of international environmental decision support Establish a conventions and the second systems based upon functional with building capacity inclusion of sound mechanism for building within, and environmental the relationships networking between, other information of mutual Line Ministries, Governorates support between and other government EEAA and organizations having an Restructuring, NGOs and civil impact upon Egypt’s natural developing and be society. heritage resources.. providing trained manpower and technical and

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operational facilities. National While there are an immense Biodiversity Component Institutional National 10 25 deal of information about Department still with Institution Biodiversity Biodiversity and development in Natural Heritage Egypt’s natural heritage, limited capacity and strengthening for the organizations Unit, ASRT, information is lacking in some Scientific Inventory and weak and fragmented NBU. outside the fields and outmoded in others. capability EEAA/NCS in Research Monitoring Training programmes Information is essential to response to Centers, Limited and for key personnel. make qualified and informed biodiversity issues Universities, decisions about natural scattered inputs to Zoological and support some of the Establish or develop or needs resource management, in monitoring and Botanical major collections Capacity building particular for setting priorities assessment Gardens, and training of and developing sound nature Biodiversity programmes for NGOs. personnel from conservation policies and information biodiversity and EEAA partner actions. In addition, there is database(s) both for natural heritage organizations, either insufficient harmonization scientific uses and resources, including: and cooperation between all environmental in Government or in Habitat and concerned parties in Egypt for impact assessments the NGO, academia the data collection, storage (EIAs); landscapes or private sector. and analysis of biodiversity, inventory(s); National natural Provide small grants habitat/landscape diversity Red data lists for to institutes, and other natural heritage heritage sensitivity fauna and flora; universities and resources. Egypt also lacks map (encompassing sufficient facilities for critical habitats, Regularly updated NGOs to support biodiversity study and migratory corridors status statements for and promote research. The current project and bottlenecks, various resources biodiversity research biodiversity hot- aims to establish the (species, habitats, and monitoring. spots, etc.) necessary systems and etc.). Establish the facilitates to inventory, Develop the network Develop cooperation institution and its evaluate and monitor Egypt’s and coordination and skill mechanisms collections. natural heritage and mechanism between between the NBU biodiversity. The programme the organizations and other EEAA is composed of three involved in departments, as well components: the National biodiversity research other national and Biodiversity Unit (NBU) will and monitoring in international bodies be strengthened to be a focal Egypt and abroad. involved in point to coordinate and biodiversity research

facilitate biodiversity research and monitoring. and monitoring, institution strengthening and capacity Make easy the

98 building for other dissemination and organizations involved in exchange of biodiversity research and information (such as monitoring, particular at through a newsletter, scientific collections, research website, workshops, institutes and universities and publication of a Natural History Museum periodicals, etc…). will be established to promote Monitor and assess the study and research of biotechnology biodiversity either in Egypt or advances and the region (/North applications. Africa). The scale of implementation will be at Investigate and National, Governorate and promote local levels. opportunities for economic measures applicable to biodiversity conservation, such as bio-prospecting fees and patents. Component 2: Institution strengthening for key organizations involved in biodiversity research and monitoring in Egypt, including training in biodiversity inventory and monitoring, particularly within the scientific community. Research areas

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include: surveys of species and habitat richness, habitat and species conservation and management; and species variation; chemical screening of species; Socio-economic studies. Component 3: Continue support for reference collections until such time as the museum has been established. Produce the necessary pre- project studies to establish a National or Regional Natural History Museum. Develop training, education and research programmes for the facility. Public Awareness, Low public awareness and Produce education Develop EEAA Produce printed and EEAA, 10 with 30 indebtedness of nature and public awareness capacities to create audio visual Ministry of an Education and Involvement of heritage is an underlying materials for the and implement materials and Information, addition factor contributing to the department on conservation and information packs Ministry of al phase Natural Heritage unsustainable and extreme use natural heritage public awareness for the key Education, of five of these resources both by issues, such as information Ministry of

100 government and the private information programmes distributors focusing Higher years sector. Education and packages and a on Egypt’s natural Set up a service to Education. information providers have newsletter or heritage. limited knowledge about magazine. provide technical Egypt’s natural heritage and support, training and Provide training, Start a data base and its magnitude. Furthermore, other materials exchange network to there is a lack of high-quality (video film, programmes and disseminate photographs) related and interesting information grants to university information to about the rich and unique to natural heritage to professors in applied national and diversity of nature that exists information fields related to international either nationally or locally. distributors. biodiversity/nature organizations. conservation. The private sector is among Conduct workshops the primary users of natural Devise and and training with the Develop out-reach heritage resources, but implement education main distributors of programmes for undervalues and over exploits programmes, information in Egypt, schools and or inappropriately utilizes including a mobile e.g. written and universities, such as these resources largely as a unit(s) and exhibits, broadcast media, field trips and result of lack of awareness. for the Natural government mobile units to While the government is Protectorate, information units, generate awareness increasingly looking towards National religious leaders, about Egypt’s businesses, NGOs and local Biodiversity Unit etc... For natural heritage. communities to support in and programmes dissemination of environmental protection, related to key natural information relating Support existing and these bodies lack sufficient heritage resource to natural heritage new university field stations to provide capacity and expertise in management issues, issues. natural resource management. such as Hunting students with hands There are also insufficient Management, Develop regular on training in private sector initiatives to International television/radio applied research on show(s) about natural serve as models for the Conventions, etc. biodiversity/nature sustainable and wise use of heritage issues for conservation. Build up education national broadcast. natural heritage resources. Develop This project consists of a programmes and materials about Establish a National demonstration number of components Institute for Natural projects to provide building public awareness natural heritage and biodiversity Resource business, NGOs and capabilities and insert Management at an local communities biodiversity conservation into conservation for the national curriculum Egyptian University with hands-on- the national education that would provide training experience curriculum and build (higher, secondary and primary undergraduate and and establish models education institutions and postgraduate training in the sustainable

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teaching capacities in this schools). in natural resource and wise use of field and raising awareness management, natural resources. Develop teaching and appreciation in the including in wildlife modules and business, NGO and local management, Establish exchange teacher’s training community about natural protected area programmes for programmes with the heritage issues and develop management, and the business, NGOs and Ministry of the capacities of these bodies ecological local communities to Education. see other country’s to support initiatives for the components of experiences. sustainable and wise use of Provide small grants environmental natural heritage resources. for business, NGO impact assessments. The project will be primarily and local community Provide support to implemented at the national wildlife and habitat the Conservation and local levels. conservation Education Center at initiatives, including the Giza Zoological for projects related to Garden, the Natural women and History Museum for biodiversity. Children and other similar public facilities to strengthen their abilities to conduct education programmes about biodiversity and natural heritage conservation. Conduct workshops and training programmes for businesses, NGOs and local communities. Institutional Egypt lacks a sustainable and Set institutional Component 1: National EEAA, On-line 10 28 Developments and effective system to deal with structure and Recognize gaps and Programme for Ministries, Capacity Building natural management issues capacity building for recommend actions institutional Governorates. and has a deficit in national to determine the Development, for Nature conserving and the capacity in the field of institutional and Research,

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Conservation conservation that is sustainable use of training requirements networking of hampering the nation’s biodiversity in Egypt of the NCS. biodiversity capability to conserve and Launch institutional manage its unique and critical Build-up the strengthening natural resources. The current Institute an technical programmes in proposal is composed of two appropriate capabilities priority departments components, the first building institutional structure (equipment, at the section. electronic a capacity for the Nature to fulfill networks, trained Conservation Section (NCS) Perform training conservation personnel) of the within the Ministry of State programmes for key responsibilities under Department of for Environmental Affairs to personnel. realize its mandate under Law Law 102/1983, Law Nature 102, Law 4 and international 4/1994 and Component 2: Conservation and its associate units environmental conventions international nature Carry out training and institutions and the second building conservation programmes for capacity within a network conventions. government bodies Extend and between, other Line Implement projects at the National and implement Ministries, Governorates and that detrimentally Governorate Levels. social-economic other government tools and impact Egypt’s Monitor and advise organizations having an incentives for the on National and impact upon Egypt’s natural natural biodiversity. optimal Governorate-level heritage resources. This might Launch institution management of. include the development of strengthening polices and decision support systems programmes in activities that impact the natural based upon inclusion of sound priority environmental information. departments in key heritage resources The project would be On-Line Ministries of Egypt and develop implemented at a National and Governorates and Governorate levels. which are involved mechanisms to in natural heritage mitigate or control such activities. management or are impacting natural heritage resources. Egypt’s natural heritage, to help remedy the inadequate integration of natural

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heritage conservation considerations into Egypt’s development policies, plans, and programmes, as well as, in environmental impact assessments Natural Heritage There is a lack of Furnishing Identify and devise Tourism EEAA, 15 25 comprehensive legal Biodiversity with legal and other Governorates, Resources development Management protection for natural heritage trained personnel and measures and standards for coastal Universities, resources outside the recent facilities initiatives to fill NGOs . developments along Protected Areas. Much of the problems and gaps Develop the limited country’s habitats, wildlife in the protection and the Red Sea and scattered inputs and landscapes are being management of private captive to support some of smashed and degraded at an Egypt’s natural breeding initiatives the major collections alarming rate due insufficient heritage outside the and community protection, monitoring and Address the adverse protected areas. based resource management. The current impacts of current Set and implement management proposal aims at forwarding activities on, and to management plans, the adverse impacts of current initiatives in and develop protection as well as other activities on, and to develop near PAs measures for the protection measures more measures more conservation of specific for the management specific for the Ex-situ conservation critical habitats of, natural heritage resources management of, outside the measures are outside Protected Areas (i.e. natural heritage Protected Area undertaken outside not under the auspices of Law resources outside network. protected areas. 102) and will cover issues not Protected Areas (i.e. addressed by other Promote the not under the programmes. This should establishment of Advancement include development of plans auspices of Law 102 green spaces within towards the systemic and legislation for landscape / 1983). and around urban treatment of the and habitat conservation, as Establish captive areas that could be major biodiversity well as initiatives for the breeding and managed so as to conservation issues conservation of endangered reintroduction have recreational outside the PAs species. Worthy to mention programmes for and educational as that there are only a few on- priority endangered well as wildlife going species conservation species. value. Establish the initiatives in Egypt, including national legislation

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an IUCN project to assess the Produce and that implements the status of Cheetah, as well as a implement provisions of the Darwin Initiative project to management plans Cartagena Protocol conserve Mediterranean Sea for endangered on Biosafety. turtles. species that are designed to halt and On the other hand there was reverse their Regule the handling little (e.g. landscape planning decline. of genetically and invasive species management, etc.). Start or develop engineered products within an academic

or scientific Inclusion of institution of a biodiversity Middle concerns in the EIA Eastern/North process. Africa Regional Draft law regulating seed bank of the handling of international standards of genetically indigenous flora engineered products (both feral and wild in Egypt strains), as an alternative reservoir of genetic material and as a controlled and regulated source for commercial research. The project will be implemented at the national and Governorate levels. Endemic and Egypt is home to a relatively Enhance the Limiting sea-based Initiate species and EEAA, 10 35 Endangered large number of pristine Governorates, management of mining activities that taxa management Species natural habitats, many of threatened and threaten habitats even and recovery plans Universities, which are home to high levels NGOs . vulnerable species in protected areas, under of species endemism and

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. species richness, as well as and improve their marine ecosystems implementation being providers of essential . conservation status and wetlands ecosystem services. These vulnerable to illegal Encouraging in-situ areas are threatened to Prevent the loss of logging, population and ex-situ differing extents by various economic, demographic and sensitive habitats pressure and land-use conservation of social pressures. The after underlying change. wildlife and plants. distribution of most of the causes through an endemic taxa in Egypt integrated approach Lowering over- Set research coincides with that of the to development. abstraction of water programmes for biodiversity hot spots. Thus, from farming as well managing Endemic they are fairly covered within Enforcement of and Endangered the existing protected areas as pollution in water Hunting regulations network. The coverage of canals and Nile river. Species in Law 4 / 1994 were endangered species in the updated recently by current protected areas Rehabilitated some Directorate in-situ Law 9 / 2009 and its network is relatively fair. endemic flora and executive conservation of Taking faunal elements as regulations, which fauna species to wildlife of Natural indicators of coverage, many provided an updated increase their Resources of the globally endangered listing of protected numbers in their Management as that species of fauna listed by species in Egypt. IUCN that still occur in Egypt natural habitats to driven in ex-situ protect them from conservation of are represented in the existing Strengthen the network of protected areas. extinction. plants through the framework for law Examples of endangered National Plant enforcement and species include the Cheetah Emphasis needs to be Genetic Resources (Acinonyx jubatus ), Slender- implementation with based on the Centre (NPGRC). horned Gazelle ( Gazella regard to the illegal following tools to leptoceros ), Egyptian Tortoise trade in fauna and prevent the loss of Strengthen human (Testudo kleinmanni ), White- flora and derived eyed Gull ( Larus high biodiversity and infrastructural products leucophthalmus ), Small Giant value habitats: capacity of

Clam ( Tridacna maxima ), Integrated Land Use institutions such as

Fennec Fox ( Fennecus zerda ), Planning the NPGRC and the Four-toed Jerboua ( Allactaga Mapping and National Museum so tetradactyla ), Greater Jerboua (Jaculus orientalis ) and protection of key that the ecological Barbary sheep ( Ammotragus biodiversity areas and management lervia ). Among the 61 (KBAs) needs and

106 endemic species to Egypt, 33 The use of EIAs and conservation status are restricted to the mountains SEAs to guide of threatened and of the St. Katherine development endemic species are Protectorate (South Sinai). decision-making, as better known. That is to say, 60.7 % of the endemics to Egypt are well as the wider conserved in situ within this enforcement of the Research and PA. From the most important Environmental knowledge of micro- endangered animal species Management Act of organisms, many that are currently under 2007 marine organisms breeding are Dorcas Gazelle Integrated and endophytes and (Gazella dorcas dorcas ), mechanisms for Nubian Ibex ( Capra ibex extremophytes are nubiana ), Barbary Sheep natural resource implemented. (Ammotragus lervia ), Hyrax governance at (Procavia species ), Fennec different levels . Fox ( Vulpes zerda ), Striped including Integrated Hyena ( Hyaena dubbah ), Coastal Zone Caracal ( Caracal caracal Management (ICZM) schmitizi ) ,Swamp Cat ( Felis chaus ); in addition to 3 as well as Communal species: Addax Antelop Land Boards and (Addax nasomaculatus ), Oryx expert working (Oryx dammah ) and Lepto groups on biodi- cerus gazelle which is versity sensitive believed to be on the verge of areas extinction. These animals have bred successfully. The coverage of endangered species in protected area network is fair. Taking faunal elements as indicators of coverage, many of the globally endangered species of fauna listed by IUCN occurring in Egypt are represented in the existing network of protected areas, e.g. Slender-horned Gazelle

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(Gazella leptoceros ), Egyptian Tortoise ( Testudo kleinmanni ), White-eyed Gull (Larus leucophthalmus ), Small Giant Clam ( Tridacna maxima ), Fennec Fox (Fennecus zerda ), Four-toed Jerboua ( Allactaga tetradactyla ), Greater Jerboua (Jaculus orientalis ), and Barbary sheep ( Ammotragus lervia ). Threatened and vulnerable plant and animal species are the main focus of this target.

Over the past two decades many activities have been implemented with varying degrees of success and sustainability, but the main goal of establishing a comprehensive hunting management system in Egypt was not achieved. Important steps taken included establishment of rudimentary systems for water bird hunting, regulation of wildlife collection and trade (for scientific research and the pet trade) and CITES management. There were also several serious initiatives in 2010 for the establishment of hunting reserves / hunting concessions: one for Houbara Bustard in the Matruh Governorate and one for Ibex

108 in the Eastern Desert. None of these plans materialized though some came very close to being implemented. Security concerns and concerns over the ability of Egyptian authorities to control the hunting activities properly were the main obstacles. Not all these steps managed to become institutionalized properly. The CITES management is currently under the control of the Ministry of Agriculture, while the efforts to manage wildlife trade faded. Similarly the water bird hunting regulations have had limited application and reach. Although there is no reliable information available on wildlife trade and use in Egypt because they are not appropriately regulated, or managed through permit and licensing systems, all available data suggest that intensive commercial collection and habitat destruction are the two main factors which have led to the disappearance of many wildlife species in Egypt. For instance, the Egyptian Tortoise ( T. kleinmanni ) is disappearing from much of its former range because of intensive collection for trade and habitat destruction despite

109 that it was protected by the Minister of Agriculture Decree 1403 for 1990. This decree however was not implemented and has joined similar wildlife conservation legislation in their fate of ineffectiveness. Egypt is probably one of the most important countries in the international trade of migratory species whether through direct export of its natural resources which are mostly endangered or through being a transit country for many species that come from Africa or being smuggled through illegal trade. In spite of all exerted efforts since early 2000 to form administrative and scientific committees to regulate and strict control over all Egyptian “seaports and airports”, prohibit trading of these endangered species, inspection campaigns on hotels and bazaars selling these endangered species or their derivatives (leather and ivory handicrafts); however due to the limited qualifications and capacities of committees’ members and customs’ employees (mostly veterinarians) they require enhancement of their technical and institutional

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capacities; as well as conducting scientific surveys on current status and trends of these endangered species, in order to issue exporting permits on a scientific basis. There is also a need to implement education and public awareness campaigns at all levels. Hunting regulations in Law 4 / 1994 were updated recently by Law 9 / 2009 and its executive regulations, which provided an updated listing of protected species in Egypt. These legislative reviews do represent a step forward and a positive advancement in the legal framework governing the hunting issue; however it still falls short of addressing the harvest of biodiversity resources in a more holistic and comprehensive manner. Ex-situ Promote Improve the long- National EEAA, On-line 15 78 Ex-situ conservation means Conservation understanding and term conservation of conservation and/ / Ministries and literally, "off- site conservation". It is the clarify values of indigenous livestock or rehabilitation Governorates. procedure of protecting biodiversity breeds through programmes of the an endangered species of development of characterization and largest part of plant, microbe or animal positive attitude ex-situ conservation threatened species outside their natural habitat. towards conservation and endemic species The preeminent method of and use of Support human and maximizing a species chance at risk are developed financial resources of survival (when ex- biodiversity. and implemented situ methods are mandatory) for the conservation with measures to is by relocating part of the Implement of indigenous crop evaluate its population to a less threatened species and other

111 setting. Zoos and botanical sustainable rare, threatened and implementation gardens are the most management useful indigenous traditional methods of ex- practices in existing plant species. Ex-situe incentives situ conservation. Both have and new community assessment study an educational value as they report notify the public of the to enhance Conserve and assess conservation and the genetic diversity threatened status of Forming working endangered species and sustainable use of of crops and other group on factors that cause the warning, biodiversity major socio- biosystematics with the hope of creating economically public interest in stopping and valuable plant reversing those factors that Analyze existing and Establishment of species ex-situ jeopardize a species' survival identify potential new infrastructure in the first place. Endangered incentives to Establish a national including a plants might also be preserved encourage conservation facility in part through seed biodiversity database on wildlife banks or germplasm banks. conservation and crime incidences and at national museum For plants that cannot be sustainable use and offenders and modern preserved in seed banks, the discourage activities equipment for that impact only other option for Develop a game biosystematics preserving germplasm is in- negatively on translocation vitro storage, where cuttings biodiversity strategy, procedures Maximizing the of plants are kept under firm and decision support number of setting in glass tubes and Enhance the vessels. Ex- situ conservation, tools for transporting specialists and management of while helpful in humankind's game into areas of technicians trained threatened and efforts to sustain and protect historic range and number of vulnerable species environment, is seldom training programmes adequate to save a species and improve their undertaken from disappearance. It is to be conservation status used as a last way out, or as a Setting a web-based complement to in situ conservation. Instead, ex-situ biosystematics conservation removes the database species from its natural ecological contexts, Developing a preserving it under semi- Knowledge base on isolated conditions whereby microbial diversity natural evolution and

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adaptation processes are either temporarily halted or altered by introducing the specimen to an unnatural habitat. Seed banks might be ineffective for certain plant genera with recalcitrant seeds that do not remain fertile for long periods of time. These factors combined with the specific environmental requirements of many species, some of which are nearly impossible to recreate by man, make ex- situ conservation impossible for a great number of the world's endangered flora and fauna. The current proposal aims at conserving endangered biodiversity using the most recent techniques. Alien Invasive Determine national Invasive species are All IAS and EEAA, On-line 10 28 Invasive species are un- Species(AIS) Ministries, native plants, microbes needs and priorities identified (revised) pathways are Governorates. . or animals that were identified and introduced to a specific Dedicated policy or Pathways are prioritized with

habitat and are characterized programme on alien identified measures in place to with a tendency to spread, invasive species; update and verify causing damage to the Promote awareness management plans these pathways. environment, human economy on sources for invasive species; and/or human health. While threatening establishment of Development of all species compete to survive, biodiversity through invasive species appear to working group on national NGOs, civil society have specific traits or specific alien invasive programmes of 30% combinations of traits that of identified Cooperation with Develop mechanisms allow them to contend native pathways to control species. In some cases the neighboring and measures to and manage IAS. antagonism affect rates of countries prevent the growth and reproduction, or establishment and

113 interacts with each other more Prioritization (e.g. introduction of alien directly. Typically, an capacity building on invasive species and introduced species must risk assessment) to control or Synergy and survive at low population eradicate existing cooperation with all densities before it becomes Setting national relevant sectors invasive in a new location. alien invasive species targets and indicators (agriculture, Some invading species fill niches that are not used by fisheries, water Prepare a national native species, and they also resources, tourism, could create new ones. project on invasive local authorities). Following invasion events, species selection may initially act on the capacity to disperse as Dedicate policy, well as physiological establishment of tolerance to the new stressors working group, in the environment. management plans Adaptation then proceeds to for alien invasive respond to the selective pressures of the new species . environment. These responses would most likely be due to temperature and climate change, or the presence of native species whether it is predator or prey. When economic costs of invasions are calculated as production loss and management costs, they are low because they do not consider environmental damage; if monetary values were assigned to the extinction of species, loss in biodiversity, and loss of ecosystem services, costs from impacts of invasive species would drastically increase.

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Successful management of invasive species relies on preventing the introduction and spread of species to new areas, as well as controlling and eradicating established invaders in accordance with different international agreements and organizations to which Egypt is party. In this regard, ample efforts were undertaken by the Ministry of Environment in collaboration with other relevant agencies to record different taxonomic groups of invasive alien species in Egypt and to control invasive species transported by seas and ballast water, and to obtain information about current status of marine alien-invasive species. Although this signifies the national intent to manage biological invasions, there are no legislation or strategies and management plans to control and eradicate existing ones and to prevent the introduction of new ones. Exerted efforts are still limited and the number of alien invasive species arriving in Egypt is increasing in spite of the fact that invasive species represent real threats to the Egyptian ecosystems, economy and human health. Moreover, information on

115 existing management activities either does not exist or is not readily available. Combating Invasive species is beyond the country’s current potentials in terms of human, financial and technical resources, and requires participation of all concerned agencies . Moreover, information on existing management activities either does not exist or is not readily available. Combating Invasive species is beyond the country’s current potentials in terms of human, financial and technical resources, and requires participation of all concerned agencies. To maximize the benefits and to minimize the potential threats of GMOs for biodiversity, the status of Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) in Egypt was studied within a national framework concerned with safety of handling, transport and use of GMOs through Biosafety project funded by GEF/UNEP. A draft law has been prepared and approved by the Ministry of Justice pending its submission to People’s Assembly. Exerted efforts are still limited and the number of alien invasive species arriving in Egypt is increasing in spite of the fact

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that invasive species represent real threats to the Egyptian ecosystems, economy and human health. The current proposals aims at reaching prevention and control of invasve species, their early detection, monitoring and reporting, eradication and containment management, cooperation, as well as awareness and capacity building, legislation, scientific research and development A variety of sectors deals with alien invasive species in Egypt, and these different sectors need to be coordinated to tackle this problem, which has been identified as a significant threat to biodiversity. There is also a lack of experts in this area and inadequate research and understanding of the issue among the general public.

Strategic Goal 2: Sustainable use of natural resources

General Measures Sustainable agriculture has Strengthen sound Information Agriculture EEAA, Key 15 65 received increasing attention management, biodiversity data Line Miniseries for Conservation of agricultural and because expanding agriculture rangeland technical exchanges, base. (Agriculture, is globally the principal driver information sharing, Water

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Agro-Biodiversity of biodiversity decline. The management networking, resources, extensification of agriculture consensus building, Environment practices that Maintain . in Egypt required more land community etc.) and minimize the agricultural and than intensive agriculture to partnership and inter- Governorates . negative impacts of pastoral ecosystems achieve the same production agency coordination and indigenous agro- levels. Although it may have agricultural / biodiversity. fewer impacts on wildlife and livestock production human health, it led to habitat on Pilot projects and Support the rational loss and fragmentation and biodiversity and programs and sustainable use the erosion of genetic ecosystem development, though pilot projects diversity. In response, the functioning implementation and and awareness National Gene Bank (NGB) monitoring campaigns.

situated in the Agricultural Research Center (Giza) Public awareness Develop Broad-based undertakes the process of raising, Eco- management plans capacity building collecting, conserving, practices propagation for vulnerable and training programs describing, evaluating, species based on regenerating and documenting ecosystem approach the genetic resources of the to fisheries (EAF) flora, fauna and principles micro ‐organisms in the agricultural field.. In Promote the addition, there are many increased adoption of botanic gardens in Egypt with conservation good management and staff agriculture, clean facilities. Almost all the agriculture and other Egyptian plant collections are climate resilient kept in the herbaria of the forms of agriculture universities, research centers and botanical gardens. Nine of founded; small scale these herbaria have been drip irrigation registered in the Index of the New York Botanical Garden. In addition to the establishment of the NGB as the ex situ major conservation facility, there are several botanical gardens which were established during

118 the last 120 years. Most of these botanical gardens belong and are supervised by the Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reclamation. Agricultural biodiversity includes all forms of life directly relevant to farm biodiversity as well as many other organisms such as soil fauna, weeds, pests, predators, and all wild biodiversity existing in farms. Most attention in this field is given to crop varieties and to crop wild relatives. The current main factor now, however, is the replacement of local varieties by high yielding or exotic varieties or species. A large number of varieties could be dramatically reduced when commercial varieties (including GMOs) are introduced into traditional farming systems. To protect Egypt’s agricultural diversity from degradation, maintain agricultural resources and develop sustainable agricultural programmes. The objectives of the current proposal is to get better agriculture biodiversity data and maintain agricultural and pastoral ecosystems and indigenous agro-biodiversity and support their rational and

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sustainable use though pilot projects and awareness campaigns. Nature-based Nature -based tourism is a Addressing the Component 1: Potential actions for EEAA, TDA, 15 45 without hurriedly rising market in Supreme Tourism: specific needs of the Match up the the development of secured Egypt. It has a through impact Council for Management and marine-based and production of a environmentally funds on the country's biological Antiquities, Development desert (safari) nationwide Marine sustainable tourism and natural resources Ministry of Tourism Sustainable Unsatisfactory regulation of tourism. Defense, Development Initiate and marine tourism and lack of Promoting the Governorates, Strategy. enforcement and adequate infrastructure is concept of Tourism monitoring system injurious to the natural Companies, ecotourism. Set industry to insure compliance resources that catch the NGOs, local guidelines and to the regulations. thoughtfulness of the tourists, Enhance the licensing procedures communities, in particular the coral reefs of for dive companies Launch projects to donor infrastructure and the Red Sea. There continues schools, boats and establish community. to be low awareness and natural resource base yachts and marine infrastructure an appreciation of marine of all protected areas sport fishing. management conservation and ecotourism to make them programs for marine Diagram and in the business community tourism at key sites attractive implement training and the general public. Desert to mitigate negative destinations for programmes to (safari) tourism is also a fast environmental tourists and tourism growing activity in Egypt. At sensitize tourism impacts companies to marine present most desert safari investors and to conservation and Strengthen and build tours in Egypt are not improve the working ecotourism capacity in the ecologically trustworthy. environment for staff institutions Unsatisfactory regulation of Strengthen and build Assemble NGO responsible for desert tourism is initiating the capacity in the participation to overseeing destruction and degradation of institutions facilitate the implementation of natural habitats, landscapes, responsible for implementation of the system. cultural heritage sites and overseeing the management other resources. The current implementation of programs. Develop proposal will validate the management environmental Develop environmentally sound, system. education and environmental sustainable tourism through awareness Implementation of the development of a national education and campaigns to system to manage nature- the project will take awareness campaigns generate awareness about the value of based tourism and projects to place at national, about desert marine conservation,

120 reveal “wise use”, ecotourism Governorate and ecotourism and conservation, habits and technologies, in local levels. For encourage public ecotourism and particular at Governorates example, the support for encourage support where there is substantial on- management development of for management going nature-based tourism. programmes. program (i.e. South Sinai, Red Sea, industry guidelines Component 2: Western Desert). The project will be implemented Build up an Coordinate the Ecotourism Action aims at addressing the specific at the national level production of a Plan for the needs of the marine-based where as the projects National Desert tourism, the specific need of Region/Governorate will be implemented Tourism Sustainable desert (safari) tourism and to inventory at the Governorate Development ecotourism promoting the concept of and local levels. strategy. ecotourism. resources and recommend actions Extend and to develop enforcement and ecotourism in an monitoring system to environmentally insure compliance to sound and the regulations. sustainable fashion Launch projects to establish infrastructure (i.e. tracks and sign posting) and management programmes at key natural and cultural heritage sites to mitigate negative environmental impacts. Prepare and implement training programmes to sensitize tourism companies to desert conservation and ecotourism and improve compliance

121 to the guidelines. Mobilize local community and NGO participation to facilitate the implementation of the management programmes Component 3: Ecotourism Identify opportunities arising from successful ecotourism developments for the exchange of information and experience, so as to make conventional tourism more ecotourism oriented. Conduct training programmes for service providers (i.e. guides, drivers, boat captains, etc...) about biodiversity and natural heritage resources and promote “wise use” management practices. Offer small grants/loans to local communities (i.e. Bedouins) to

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establish or develop establishments or services catering to Eco tourists.

Combating Pollution is known to cause Monitor and manage Waste management Pollution of water, EEAA, Line 10 35 Pollution extinctions, higher mortality levels of pollution and pollution control the expanding Ministries rates, changes in species through a range of Act number of intensive compositions, interactions and . effective measures distribution, as well as irrigation schemes, nutrient loading and Set soil, water, air, and the use and acidification. Impacts from Manage all forms of food and disposal of pollution include decreased waste in an effective occupational health chemicals are ecosystem resilience and and efficient manner standards. considered as major productivity, the loss of to reduce its negative concerns. coastal protection (with the impact on the Develop, monitor degradation of reefs and environment mangroves and and enforce The legislative eutrophication) and anoxic minimum national framework and water bodies leading to loss of Pollution of water, standards on soil, development of fisheries. the expanding water and air quality standards for the number of intensive as well as management of The Environment Law 4/1994 irrigation schemes, occupational health waste and for the amended by law 9/2009 is regulating pollution on land and the use and control of pollution and water in effort to conserve disposal of chemicals Update greenhouse is inadequate in and and protect the environment were considered as gas inventory and this needs to be the and the associated life major concerns as take action to reduce starting point for including biodiversity. The well as the rapid and Greenhouse Gas tackling this issue. Ministry of Agriculture is uncontrolled emissions taking necessary steps to issue urbanization that is a decree outlining the rules Institutional capacity and procedures of clean taking place Undertake measures and cooperation to farming for conserving the The legislative to minimize the address this issue is newly reclaimed agricultural framework and impacts from local another critical lands (e.g. Tushka Project in development of pollution instances constraint that needs the southwest Egypt) from the standards for the such as oil spills, to be addressed, as is excessive use of fertilizers management of harmful algal blooms the upgrading of and herbicides. A number of waste and for the and hydrogen infrastructure to

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certifying agents are starting control of pollution sulphide store, handle and now to register, inspect and is inadequate in and Promote increased dispose of waste certify organic products this needs to be the adoption of the satisfactorily. starting point for "reduce, re-use and tackling this issue. recycle" principle by Institutional capacity residents and the and cooperation to public and private address this issue is sector another critical constraint that needs Profile and upgrade to be addressed, as is waste disposal sites the upgrading of in line infrastructure to store, handle and Monitor all sources dispose of waste of soil, water, air and satisfactorily. food pollutants

National Arid While over 95% of Egypt is Undertake the Set a National Arid Minimize the EEAA, Key 15 65 without Lands desert, it has significant rehabilitation and Land Management negative impacts of Line Miniseries secured Management reserves of renewable and restoration of arid Action Plan that will different sectoral (Agriculture, funds non-renewable natural address the necessary policies (land-use Petroleum, land degraded resources. It is rich in legislative, planning, transport, Industry and biodiversity harboring through institutional and energy, uncontrolled Minerals, etc.), constrained range. This unsustainable land policy actions along urbanization, etc.) Governorates. gigantic wilderness area with management with coordination on priority elements its impressive scenery and practices and measures for of biodiversity to numerous cultural heritage establish biodiversity improved correct these effects sites is becoming an offsets management and through developing increasing important resource conservation of and implementing for tourism. Only a small desert regions. land use percentage of the population Support the management plans. Invent and resides in the desert, but those application of implement integrated Institute a national peoples still depend heavily decision support management plans framework for the on native flora for grazing and tools for for desert areas management of arid fodder for domestic livestock, environmental which are priority lands and will fuel, building materials, herbs, management and rangelands or have develop and realize

124 remedial medicines and other protection through important natural and integrated products. Most desert regions cultural heritage improved arid land Develop Integrated in Egypt are coming under sites. and resource use Land Use Plans warning as a result of rapid decisions and land Implement projects (IRLUPs) for all and inappropriate to mitigate and abate regions development. In many areas use planning degradation of key importance for biodiversity arid lands (e.g. over are being damaged and Reinforce grazing, haphazard degraded as a consequence of institutional capacity solid waste dumping) uncontrolled tourism, land at all levels to reclamation, quarrying and promote informed Develop and support solid waste dumping. Over projects to improve and integrated grazing and collection of natural resource vegetation is a problem in decision-making, management and most rangelands threatening harmonized policy alleviate property in the livelihood of the local frameworks and desert regions (e.g. communities? This and coordinated action providing alternative inappropriate land on issues relating to fuel sources). reclamation techniques is land use planning Expand and support causing desertification in arid lands research sensitive areas, such as along the North Coast. Over hunting and monitoring of wildlife in the desert has programmes. led to harsh declines in Foster national populations of a number of capacity in arid lands species, particularly large and rangeland mammals. Cultural heritage management through sites in the desert due to their training programmes, remoteness are being workshops and vandalized and degraded. This seminars. project is seeking to institute a national framework for the Launch national management of arid lands and public awareness will develop and realize campaigns to integrated management plans increase for desert areas which are understanding and valuable rangelands and appreciation of important natural and cultural deserts and heritage sites. The project encourage the

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will be implemented at the management and national, Governorate and conservation of this local levels. important national resource. The Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reclamation is Undertake EIAs for taking necessary steps to issue all new irrigation a decree outlining the rules schemes under the and procedures of clean Green Scheme Policy farming for conserving the newly reclaimed agricultural Promote application lands (e.g. Tushka Project in of sound rangeland the southwest Egypt) from the management excessive use of fertilizers principles and and herbicides. A number of activities in all certifying agents are starting regions and on now to register, inspect and resettlement farms certify clean products Practices underway National Wetland Egyptian wetlands are am ong All wetland living Plan and implement Rate of wetland loss EEAA, 15 65 the most important and management plans at reduced by 50%, Ministry of Management are resources and without productive ecosystems in the should be conserved priority wetlands water efficiency in Health and secured country. The Nile and the (e.g. Lake Manzala, farming improved Population, and utilized funds lakes provide the country with Lake Burullus, and by 50%,, orienting Ministry of water and fish. There are 6 sustainably based on Lake Bardawil). the investment of 1 $ Agriculture, major inland wetland areas in ecosystem approach. billion to Ministry of Develop a system Egypt: the Nile River, Lake development inland Water and initiatives for Nasser, Bitter Lakes, Wadi El water ecosystems Resources, Institute a national wetland research and Natrun, Lake Qarun, and and BMP is Universities, framework for monitoring. Wadi El Rayan Lakes. In wetlands available to policy Research addition, there are many Launch projects to makers Centers, management and smaller wetlands scattered in decline pollution of Donors Strengthen permit the Nile delta and valley, and develop and Egyptian wetlands. in oases in the Western implement integrated system, regulations Desert. Oases are the only management plans Extend and support and implementation projects to improve source of water over much of of Inland Fisheries for priority wetlands. management of the western desert, the Act fisheries, hunting and principal ones being Maghra, Start and strengthen Review the Inland Siwa, Wadi El Rayan, other natural a special unit at the resources from Fisheries Act to

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Bahariya, Farafra, Dakhla, Nature Conservation Egyptian wetlands. strengthen Kharga, Kurkur and Dungul. Section of the EEAA Build national Finalize the revised There are also 6 major coastal to devise, coordinate capacity in wetland lagoons on the Mediterranean: Water Resources and follow-up on management through Bardawil, Port- Fouad Management Act training programmes, (Mallaha), Manzala, Burullus, wetland management and establish the workshops and Edku and Maryout. The Red as specified under seminars. Water and Sanitation Sea coastal habitats and the Ramsar Advisory Council wetlands include mudflats, Convention Launch national community-based reefs, mangroves and marine public awareness management of islands. Wetlands and river campaigns to Produce and wetlands and ecosystems in Egypt are implement a increase fisheries through poorly protected and most National Wetland understanding and Egyptian wetlands and river Action Plan that will appreciation of conservancies systems have been degraded address the necessary Egyptian wetlands drastically during the past 50 legislative, and support the Strengthen Tran’s years as a result of multiple institutional and management and boundary fresh pressures. Although species policy actions along conservation of this diversity was recorded for important national water fisheries with coordination management many inland water wetlands measures for resource. (Nile River, Lake Nasser and (Monitoring, control improved Northern Delta lakes such as management and and surveillance) Lake Burullus and Lake conservation of Participate actively Bardawil), there is a need for Egyptian wetlands. in trans boundary regular assessment and river commissions to evaluation to identify priorities for conservation. improve regional Egyptian wetlands are one of cooperation on water the richest ecosystems in the resources country in biodiversity and management are well thought-out internationally important staging, wintering and breeding areas for water birds. Egypt’s wetlands are subject to a variety of man-made threats which are leading to the degradation of this invaluable national resource.

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The northern lakes have been substantially reduced in size as a result of land reclamation. Virtually all wetlands in Egypt are polluted with industrial, domestic and agricultural drainage water not only leading to changes in the ecology of the lakes, but causing health problems in surrounding communities. Over fishing is also widespread at most wetlands in Egypt. While the problems facing Egyptian wetlands have received national and international attention, insufficient action has been taken for the management and preservation of the wetlands and their resources. This project will seek to institute a national framework for wetlands management and develop and implement integrated management plans for priority wetlands. The project will be implemented at the national, Governorate and local levels. Conservation and The Aswan High Dam in All wetland living Stage 1 (Preparatory) Design the units of Ministry of 10 23 the monitoring State for the Sustainable Upper Egypt, constructed in are resources and Appraisal the The Likely network: location, Environment, Management of 1964–1968, created the should be conserved information external equipment and Ministry of Lake Nasser world’s second largest and utilized available and sources of programmes. water collected during funding are (Aswan High artificial lake, Lake Nasser– sustainably based on resources, High various programmes UNESCO - Dam). Nubia.. Lake Nasser ecosystem approach. Dam Authority of studies (since FAO - (Egyptian part) and Lake and UNEP GEF

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Nubia (Sudanese part) Consultations with 1964), Governorate of - World Aswan. Bank and represent the principal water stockholders on Draft management Bilateral aid reservoir of Egypt. Its management and schemes for conservation aims at keeping institutional conservation of this water body healthy and arrangements various habitat types maintaining its biota (and their biota), (including migratory birds) in identification and Set off building of designation of nature natural balance and data base (GIS), reserves, monitoring biotic invasions

(water weeds, tropical disease Launch mechanisms for participation of vectors, etc.). This stockholders. management project will enforce regulations that Stage 2 (Action) guarantee the sustainable use Establishment of of the resources of the Lake. monitoring network System of management will and research facility, include mechanisms (rehabilitation of the existing research (institutions) that will centre) implement the necessary. As Lake Nasser–Nubia became Training of filled to capacity in the 1990s, manpower, a side valley (the “New Establishment of the Valley”) to the west of the necessary main lake at Khor Toshka was institutions. flooded. The main objective of the current proposal is to conservation and sustainable management of Lake Nasser National Marine The marine environment is Ensure that all living Component 1: Spot certain coastal EEAA, 10 35 the richest in Egypt in terms and marine areas Tourism and Costal marine are resources Set Governorate of biodiversity and which should be Development Management are conserved and Coastal and Marine encompasses some of the Natural Authority, utilized sustainably Sensitivity nation’s most imperative Protectorates and Ministry of natural resources. However, based on ecosystem Development Plans produce and Petroleum, Egypt is engaging in approach to fisheries for each coastal implement Ministry of

129 haphazard, uncoordinated (EAF) principles Governorate (11 in appropriate Marine development along most of Institute a dynamic total), to set out management plans. Transport, the country's coastlines process for national policies and Ministry of Implement priority without sufficient all-inclusive coastal proposals for Industry, Suez projects to consideration to zone (land and sea) development and Canal demonstrate and environmental consequences. sustainable other use of the land, Authority, Port ensure compliance This is leading to the speedy utilization planning, including and Lighthouse to the plans. degradation of the country’s encompassing environmental Authority, marine and coastal resources economic and social protection. Fully operationalize Shore jeopardizing future issues, and based In parallel with the the system whereby Protection sustainable return from these upon strategic high-quality Authority/Mini resources. In addition, there is Governorate plans, planning activities produce Environmental stry of Public no clear responsibility for the undertaken at the Impact Assessments Works and management of fisheries (both complementary and national level and integrated plans and (EIAs) are Water commercial and sport fishing. upon detailed undertaken for all Resources, This programme is composed guidelines on the physical planning regional level (e.g. new establishments Ministry of of two components institute a and management along the Egyptian Defense, dynamic process for national Mediterranean, Red undertaken by each Sea and Sinai coastline which will Institute of all-inclusive coastal zone of the coastal impact upon the Oceanography (land and sea) sustainable coastlines) for each Governorates. sector having environment. and Fisheries, utilization planning, General Sustainable use of activities along the Power the marine encompassing economic and Authority for marine and coastal coast and offshore and coastal zone social issues, and based upon the resources is to be waters (i.e. Tourism, monitoring system strategic planning activities Development reached through a Transportation, and data base to undertaken at the national of Fisheries combination of Petroleum, Fisheries, ensure compliance level and upon detailed Resources/Mini scientific research, etc. and regular updating physical planning and stry of correct quotas and of the plans. management undertaken by Through cooperative Agriculture, regulations, active each of the coastal dialogue, integrate Launch Governorates monitoring and Governorates and sustainable the Governorate and demonstration and NGOs enforcement, and use of marine and coastal Regional Sector projects for the pilot projects resources is to be reached Plans to build up a sustainable use of allowing exploitation through a combination of Comprehensive marine and coastal of certain resources scientific research, correct Sensitivity and resources, by local people. quotas and regulations, active Management Plan for integrating local monitoring and enforcement, Guarantee that all Coastal and Marine people, NGOs and and pilot projects allowing critical and sensitive Resources of Egypt. communities. exploitation of certain marine and coastal Component Two: Conduct an

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resources by local people. habitats (e.g. Build up and assessment of viable implement a Coastal The scale of implementation mangroves, coral aquaculture and Fisheries will be at the National and reefs, sea grass beds) mariculture farms Management Plan, Governorate levels are identified and and use this as a which would include mapped. the setting and basis to establish enforcement of and support fish Develop and appropriate quotas farms to enhance implement action for fish and other food security and plans for the marine species based rural development conservation of on sound science, Strengthen Tran’s globally threatened inspection of fishing boundary marine and coastal gear and other species (particularly harvesting or Management those listed under extraction methods structures international and the establishment management of agreements). and monitoring of marine resources Strengthen the exclusion zones through improved Integrated Coastal Launch and maintain regional cooperation Zone Management a marine and coastal Improve monitoring, Committee (ICZMC) resources data base, control and including Introduce Marine surveillance of information on illegal fishing Spatial Planning feeding, breeding and (MSP) for informed nurseries area of fish practices and and coordinated and other wildlife activities decision- making on populations, e.g. sea Monitor the the sustainable use of turtles, birds, etc. abundance of marine resources commercial fish stocks and commercial crustacean resources Conservation of This programme aims at Outline management 1. In the first stage Establishing and Department of 15 44 establishing and managing (two years) Nature Southern Red Sea schemes for managing systems of The likely systems of biodiversity Conservation Coastal Lands of conservation of Incorporation of the biodiversity external conservation (and sustainable (Ministry of Egypt Including various habitat types results of two conservation (and sources of development of natural State for the projects (the GEF- funding are the Elba Highlands reserves) in three principal (and their biota). sustainable Environment,

131 systems Red Sea littoral Red Sea 1994-1998; development of Executing GEF, together with the mangrove Identification and and the US-AID natural reserves) components for USAID, formations, coral reefs, designation of nature Mubarak-Gore Training of the Natural World Bank islands and littoral salt initiative-coral reefs Protectorates. reserves, design plan personnel, initiate marshes, Red Sea coastal 1994-1998),and Overall of action and a building of data base plain including wadi systems build-up a (GIS), coordination debouching into the sea and system for consolidation base and leading Red Sea coastal mountains sustainable of information on role with the including the mist oases management of biodiversity of the large number of formations represented by the natural resources Egyptian Red Sea institutions Elba highlands with its rich coastal territories, involved in the biodiversity and associated management of a- , including a indigenous societies. The Establish the Egypt’s land-use plan that current proposal aims at institutions coastline, would be acceptable managing the Red Sea coastal (management particularly to stockholders, territories of Egypt in ways mechanisms and regarding the especially those that resolve conflicts among people organizations, development concerned with users, and that set bases of legislation, etc. ) and tourism and sustainable development of capable of implementation recreation, fisheries, natural resources, conserving management of the of broad coastal mineral resources, habitat and biota in abundant scheme and its management industry, energy, areas (reserves), to territories. policy. conservation (nature rehabilitate damaged habitat reserves), The types and to re-introduce lost infrastructure and Governorate of biota, securing (or least Onward the system life-support systems the Red Sea. hazardous) passage of of research will run of indigenous migratory birds along the as a national network communities highway of the Red Sea, and of sites with to sustain the ecological affiliation with other Establish health of this major national networks of mechanisms for biogeographic corridor and nature reserves and participation of providing field sites for with collaborative stockholders. research (various ecosystem relations types), monitoring 2. In the second stage (three years) biodiversity, and education and training. This system of Establish the reserves will include sites institutions representing islands, coral (management reefs mangrove formations mechanisms and

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and associated littoral, coastal people plain together with wadi organizations, systems and mist oases of the legislation, etc). Elba highlands. capable of management of the scheme and its territories/ Establish a series of nature reserves with the necessary infrastructures in each and systems of management as appropriate, Recruit necessary staff, 3. Onward the system of research will run as a national network of sites with affiliation with other national networks of nature reserves and with collaborative relations (programmes) with nature reserves in the Red Sea basin.

Strategic Goal 3: Access to genetic resources and Benefit sharing (Nagoya protocol) Preparation and Biotechnology substantively A national Stock-taking and Realization of EEAA, 10 15 biotechnology policy assessment of state priority activities Ministry of implementation of contributes to the The likely and Biosafety of imported and used and national Health and National development of agriculture, sources of frameworks ready safety/ capacity building Population, Biotechnology/ fisheries, health and funding are Ministry of

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Biosafety environment. However, to and approved biotechnologies programs Agriculture, GEF, Ministry of USAID and Frameworks date there is no national Options analysis and Water Other biotechnology policy or tracking Implementation of Resources, bilateral aid . biosafety framework Institutional capacity biotechnology building on priority activities Universities, irrespective of the reality that applications Biosafety and information Research living modified organisms Policy preparation exchange Centers, Data-base and (LMOs) and other for biotechnology/ requirements Custom national biotechnology products are biosafety Authority, infrastructure Ministry of being developed and Stock taking and establishment Trade and commercialized in Egypt. assessment of Industry, LMOs are also traded Public awareness existing Donors e.g. biotechnologies and internationally and their Preparation of related to Food state of safety in transfer into and out of Egypt national Aid. is unavoidable. To date, Egypt biotechnology policy their application. and Biosafety has no national legislation or Identification and frameworks administrative mechanisms analysis of options pertaining to access to Decree to ban the for biotechnology applications and Egypt’s genetic resources. import of GM living organisms for implementation of The absence of legal and Socotra archipelago Biosafety administrative mechanisms to frameworks. regulate access to Egypt’s genetic resources and to set conditions for benefit-sharing is a key constraint towards achieving access to genetic resources in line with the CBD and its relevant provisions. Almost all the Egyptian plant collections are kept in the herbaria of the universities, research centers and botanical gardens (e.g. Aswan, Orman, Kobba Palace and Zohareya in Cairo;

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Montazah Palace and Antoniadis in Alexandria). The amount or rate of loss of genetic diversity is poorly known. The current proposal aims at minimizing health and environmental hazards that might be associated with developing and introducing genetically modified organisms in Egypt Access to genetic Egyptian Genetic Resources Promote the Stage 1 Architectural Acceding to the EEAA, Key 15 127 and management resources and significantly contribute to the development of an Nagoya Protocol as Line Miniseries The likely designs of the three sharing of benefits overall development of effective and well as the Access to (Ministry of external institutes. (Nagoya protocol agriculture and food security efficient system for Genetic Resources State for sources of Science and Cartagena sector. It improves the the conservation of Stage 2 Building the funding are and Associated (Natural institutes, UNESCO, Protocol) livelihood of Egypt farmers important crop Traditional History programmes of FAO, Japan through policies and viable diversity in Egypt knowledge bill. Museum), training and aid, GEF . programs for the conservation and to facilitate its Ministry of manpower building, Agriculture and the enhanced use of sustainable use. and initial phases of Accede to the (Gene Bank, genetic resources. Egyptian collection of Nagoya Protocol and Captive Genetic Resources conserve Securing reasonable materials, etc. enact and implement Breeding and safeguard biodiversity in functional links Stage 3 Functioning national ABS Centre). State general and plant and genetic between the relevant of the three institutes, legislation Ministry for the resources for food and national institutions, their networks of Environment agriculture in particular with as well as on forming affiliated units. Establish Genetic and the aim of enhancing their Governorates . a suitable mutually Resources and contribution to national accepted Traditional agricultural development, arrangement for Knowledge Unit food security and wellbeing of regional within EEAA Egypt people. By ratifying the collaboration and Nagoya Protocol on access exchange of Establish the and benefit sharing of genetic experience and National resources and associated knowledge among Bioprospecting

135 traditional knowledge in the countries of the to negotiate further 2013, Egypt is committed to region. ABS agreements. implementation of the benefit sharing provisions of CBD Strong national Promote awareness once the protocol enters into programs are the of the provisions of force. To date, Egypt has no building blocks of an the ABS Act and of biotrade and national legislation or effective regional bioprospecting administrative mechanisms collaboration link potential pertaining to access to through functional Egypt’s genetic resources and broadly based associated traditional national PGRFA knowledge and benefit programs that would sharing from their utilization. operate as facilitating The absence of legal and and coordinating administrative mechanisms to platforms. regulate access to Egypt’s genetic resources and to set conditions for benefit-sharing is a key constraint towards achieving more meaningful benefit sharing. The major goal of the current proposal is the conservation and sustainable utilization of plant genetic diversity in Egypt through promoting concerted coordinated efforts at the national level for efficient and effective ex- situ as well as in- situ conservation for prime importance crops. It aims at facilitating partnership and sharing facilities and

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responsibilities to establish regional coordination mechanisms for advancing the long-term regional strategy including the establishment and management of three national institutions Natural History Museum, Gene Bank and Captive Breeding Centre Sustainable use of Despite illegal wildlife trade Promote sustainable Support Approved EEAA, line 15 42 Terrestrial Wildlife hunting and governmental does not exist at a large scale conservancies to management plans Resources (Fauna in Egypt, weak institutional harvesting through implement the for all Terrestrial stakeholders and Flora) structures and shortage in adequate planning, National Policy on Wildlife Resources restoration and financial resources to ensure Human Wildlife (Fauna and Flora) the sustainable use of natural protection of key Conflict.

wildlife exists. The Current biological resources Management application of hunting and Protected areas are Improve quota Effectiveness of harvesting practices do not managed using setting and Terrestrial Wildlife take into consideration participatory and management systems Resources (Fauna principles of biodiversity science-based site across for wildlife and Flora) conservation. planning processes resources so Hunting and harvesting on that incorporate clear utilization is both Trends in investment monetary value rather than biodiversity sustainable and into Terrestrial their conservation status. objectives, targets, maximizes socio- Wildlife Resources Smuggling and uncontrolled management economic returns to (Fauna and Flora exporting of wildlife (funa strategies and conservancies Sustainable and flora) and threaten monitoring medicinal plants specie. Over programmes Support the Financing Plans for the past two decades many Enhance the expansion of the Terrestrial Wildlife activities have been infrastructure and indigenous natural Resources (Fauna implemented with varying natural resource base plant products sector and Flora degrees of success and of all protected areas to encourage value sustainability, but the main to make them addition, sustainable Trends in revenue goal of establishing a attractive enterprises and the and employment

137 comprehensive hunting destinations for upliftment generated through management system in Egypt tourists and tourism of local communities the Terrestrial was not achieved. Important investors and to Wildlife Resources steps taken included improve the working Mmaintain the (Fauna and Flora establishment of rudimentary environment for staff populations of each systems for water bird Consolidate wild species at an Hunting quotas and hunting, regulation of wildlife integrated park optimal levels list of sites officially collection and trade (for approved management to Develop effective scientific research and the pet enable it to generate tools for protection Gaps in maps and trade) and CITES economic benefits, of wild animals and information management. There were also tackle human control of hunting. pertaining to several serious initiatives in wildlife conflicts and endangered 2010 for the establishment of contribute to Improve the licensing ecosystems, habitats, procedure for hunting hunting reserves / hunting biodiversity vegetation and rare of migratory birds species identified. concessions: one for Houbara protection integrated Bustard in the Matruh into the wider Define hunting Assessments report Governorate and one for Ibex landscape quotas for migratory on rangeland in the Eastern Desert. None of birds and conduct management and these plans materialized studies on hunting utilization published though some came very close and accessible. Develop the concept to being implemented. of traditional hunting Security concerns and Survey and concerns over the ability of Ensure that income assessment report of Egyptian authorities to control generated from the wildlife utilization the hunting activities properly use of biological published. were the main obstacles. Not resources may be all these steps managed to used for conservation become institutionalized and renewal of these properly. The CITES resources management is currently under the control of the Ministry of Agriculture, while the efforts to manage wildlife trade faded. Similarly the

138 water bird hunting regulations have had limited application and reach. Although there is no reliable information available on wildlife trade and use in Egypt because they are not appropriately regulated, or managed through permit and licensing systems, all available data suggest that intensive commercial collection and habitat destruction are the two main factors which have led to the disappearance of many wildlife species in Egypt. For instance, the Egyptian Tortoise ( T. kleinmanni ) is disappearing from much of its former range because of intensive collection for trade and habitat destruction.. Egypt is probably one of the most important countries in the international trade of migratory species whether through direct export of its natural resources which are mostly endangered or through being a transit country for many species that come from Africa or being smuggled through illegal trade. In spite of all exerted efforts since

139 early 2000 to form administrative and scientific committees to regulate and strict control over all Egyptian “seaports and airports”, prohibit trading of these endangered species, inspection campaigns on hotels and bazaars selling these endangered species or their derivatives (leather and ivory handicrafts); however due to the limited qualifications and capacities of committees’ members and customs’ employees (mostly veterinarians) they require enhancement of their technical and institutional capacities; as well as conducting scientific surveys on current status and trends of these endangered species, in order to issue exporting permits on a scientific basis. There is also a need to implement education and public awareness campaigns at all levels. Hunting regulations in Law 4 / 1994 were updated recently by Law 9 / 2009 and its executive regulations, which provided an updated listing of protected

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species in Egypt. These legislative reviews do represent a step forward and a positive advancement in the legal framework governing the hunting issue; however it still falls short of addressing the harvest of biodiversity resources in a more holistic and comprehensive manner.

Strategic Goal 4: Improve our understanding of biological diversity More oriented IT, R&D activities in Egypt Develop the Develop a dedicated Establish a science- Key line 14 40 governmental research, & Data would act in conservation modalities of a programme for policy interface to Management biodiversity through possible science improving communicate stakeholders including (CHM, national monitoring of natural policy interface on knowledge on environmental- EEAA biodiversity resources to guide their environmental. microbial diversity related research database sustainable utilization; carry uses for development decision- makers out taxonomical studies to Promote and improve knowledge of encourage research Undertake and Investment and unknown or little known that contributes to continuously update partnerships in species (including those that the knowledge and a technology and biodiversity-related might be of commercial use) understanding of infrastructure needs research, such as microbes, biodiversity and assessment for the technologies and extremophytes, endophytes ecosystems sustainable infrastructure and marine organisms; services and their management of testing, quality assurance and values biodiversity Policy briefs from standards development; research findings innovate and development of Investment and Develop information relating to new biodiversity-based partnerships in technology systems biodiversity products; development of new biodiversity-related and databases to adaptive approaches to research, manage and improve CBD National

141 fisheries and land technologies and access to Reports printed and management. infrastructure biosystematic data widely distributed The principal functions of number of different R&D include the build-up and Policy briefs from Establish appropriate programmes in place completion of data and research findings research facilities information bases that provide relating to dedicated to biotrade Technology needs for planning and formulating biodiversity and bioprospecting assessment report programmes of applied and implementation projects (including choice of Develop regional Compile and of recommendations sites for nature reserves), and centers of expertise synthesize existing Assessment report for setting processes for on sustainable data and information and implementation implementation that ensure development. on biodiversity and of recommendations their sustenance. Monitoring ecosystems and make (collection of data on regular Compile and it accessible to a and time series bases) synthesize existing wider audience provides bases for follow-up data and information of changes in environment in on biodiversity and Undertake and progression of time. This will ecosystems and continuously update also provide means for make it accessible to a technology and assessing success or a wider audience infrastructure needs shortcoming, and will also assessment for the provide a mechanism for early Establish a dedicated sustainable warning as regards damage programme to management of that might harm the support tertiary level biodiversity environment, natural students with resources or man. Scientific research on Assess the current and environmental research biodiversity issues capacity gaps in might be part of the sustaining knowledge and measures, but it is also means Assess the current science for for gaining insights and capacity gaps in biodiversity information that add to data knowledge and conservation, obtained through monitoring. science for utilization and Both research and monitoring biodiversity benefit-sharing and form the sound bases for conservation, feed the outcomes

142 applied projects. Within this utilization and into the curriculum sector room will be accessible benefit -sharing and for regional and international feed the outcomes Establish expert cooperation. Under this broad into the curriculum working groups on area the following elements priority issues might be included biodiversity Foster international including endemic - data and information cooperation and rich ecosystems, institution comprising a focal opportunities for alien invasive (central) unit and a nation- information species, wetlands, wide network of units. exchange and environmental surveys and assessment of support in the field rehabilitation and geographic regions, natural of biodiversity at the biosystematics ecosystems and productive regional and (managed) ecosystems international level Develop and surveys and assessment of for mutual benefit implement approved species (particularly those management plans / which are constrained array Develop the policies for priority and globally threatened), modalities of a species and taxa economics of conservation of possible science nature, protection of the policy interface on Assess and environment and development environmental issues periodically review of its resources, prospecting the status of key studies on species: search for species and taxa and gene resources and chemical where necessary contents, build-up/completion adjust their of transfer collections, and conservation priority taxonomic research related to it, programmes for Carry out a detailed establishment of monitoring study to assess and stations and schemes of their document act inventories of indigenous ecosystems that are knowledge correlated to living degraded and species prioritize those that Modalities to communicate need to be

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relevant research findings to rehabilitated and policy-makers, through a restored through science policy interface mechanism, will be explored. Conservation and It is sensible to state that Protecting the wild Replacing critically Ever -increasing the Key line 12 35 Sustainable Use of medicinal plant resources in medicinal plant endangered resources motivation for governmental St Katherine’s Protectorate resources in SKP sustainable stakeholders Medicinal Plants in are globally significant and management of including Arid and Semi- there are realistic grounds to Setting a supporting medicinal plants EEAA Arid Ecosystem presume that they are subject legal and policy to significant threats that are framework currently not quantified. The time scale over which the ecosystem is operating on is Adapting project much greater than that we interventions in have data for. Cyclical response to changes in rainfall patterns experience gained and the life cycles of several of these plants is poorly understood, as is their response to grazing (and harvesting) stress. Without a doubt, it has not been adequately demonstrated that use of the medicinal plants for grazing, fuel wood or medicinal and aromatic purposes are in fact unsustainable. Worthy to mention that climate change is not the driving force behind medicinal plants loss. The project’s interventions are based upon the assumption that the major impacts are local anthropogenic activities (collection, grazing, fuel wood collection, impact of

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tourism, etc.) rather than as a result of larger scale changes in climate due to global warming. Without a clear understanding of the nature and magnitude of the possible threats to medicinal plants is both hard to develop suitable interventions to reduce the threat, and to fully understand the impact of these interventions on reducing the threat. Insufficient data was collected to develop any confidence in the project baseline. A retrofitted baseline for the condition and conservation status of the medicinal plants resources in SKP will need to be further developed. However, as this is will draw on historic data and with the benefit of hindsight it might not accurately reflect the situation at the time. The project will be implemented at St Katherine’s Protectorate Reviving Traditional ecological Promote the role of Gathering of Develop a EEAA, 10 15 knowledge is a cumulative traditional traditional Ministry of Traditional mechanism to Indigenous Natural body of knowledge, know- knowledge, information maintain, recognize, Water how, practices and innovations and Resources, Resource Identification of protect and representations maintained practices in Ministry of resources persons on Management and developed by peoples environmental document traditional Agriculture, traditional Systems with extended histories of management knowledge relating Universities, knowledge interaction with the natural to and use of NGOs, and environment. These Data verification. biodiversity in local sophisticated sets of communities Consultations with different understandings, knowledgeable communities `

145 interpretations and meanings people on traditional are part and parcel of a knowledge Promote cultural complex.. In most mechanisms that cases, it usually orally passes Systems between generations from identification for facilitate the person to person. In most investigation and harmonization of cases indigenous and local revival traditional and communities often do not Documentation and scientific knowledge have strong traditions of reporting Empower traditional ownership over knowledge authorities in the that resembles the modern Public awareness effective local level forms of private ownership. campaign governance of Many have clear traditions of Experts’ consultation custodianship over to investigate biodiversity knowledge, and customary feasibility of Incorporate customs, law might guide who might replicating traditional practices and use different kinds of management systems traditional knowledge at particular times knowledge in and places, and obligations Provision education curricula that accompany the use of communications knowledge. Although local equipment and public at primary, communities are not excluded awareness campaign secondary school from protected areas, their Incentives provision and tertiary levels role in safeguarding for expanding use of biodiversity remains a indigenous systems challenge to real progress. The recently finalized draft Pilot projects law on the regulation of access to genetic resources and related traditional knowledge and the equitable sharing of benefits from their use covers the protection of traditional knowledge, innovations and practices of communities concerned with biological resources within a framework recognizing their individual and collective

146 rights. From their perspective, misappropriation and misuse of knowledge might be offensive to traditions, and have spiritual and physical repercussions in their cosmological systems. Subsequently, indigenous and local communities argue that others' use of their traditional knowledge warrants respect and sensitivity. Critics of "traditional knowledge", however, maintain that such demands for "respect" are really an attempt to prevent unsubstantiated beliefs from being subjected to the same scrutiny as other knowledge claims. This has particular significance for environmental management because the spiritual component of "traditional knowledge" could be used to justify any activity, including the unsustainable harvesting of resources. By ratifying the Nagoya Protocol on access and benefit sharing of genetic resources and associated traditional knowledge in 2013, Egypt is committed to implementation of the benefit sharing provisions of CBD once the protocol enters into force. To date, Egypt has no national legislation or administrative mechanisms

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pertaining to access to Egypt’s genetic resources and associated traditional knowledge and benefit sharing from their utilization. The absence of legal and administrative mechanisms to regulate access to Egypt’s genetic resources and to set conditions for benefit-sharing is a key constraint towards achieving more meaningful benefit sharing. The current project aims at rreviving ecological ttraditional indigenous nnatural rsource mmanagement ssystems

Strategic Goal 5: repair for climate change and combat desertification Addressing Mainstreaming of the Combating sand Improvement in the Key line 12 35 Desertification has been desertification status of dune movement soil fertility level governmental defined in the text of the desertification Combating the stakeholders United Nations Convention to synergies with Remediation of including Combat Desertification deterioration in climate and deteriorated areas EEAA (UNCCD) as "land agricultural biodiversity degradation in arid, semi-arid ecosystems conservation as and dry sub-humid regions Ameliorating the given in the 5th NR Research and resulting from various factors, farming system in implement measures including climatic variations decertified regions Combat degradation and strategies to and human activities. It is of irrigated farmland strengthen local- driven by a number of factors, as a result of using alone or in combination, such level biodiversity low quality water in as drought, climatic shifts, resilience to irrigation, tillage for agriculture, desertification

overgrazing and deforestation Combat degradation for fuel or construction of rain-fed farmland materials. Vegetation plays a (northern coastal belt major role in determining the and northern Sinai biological composition of the

148 soil. Unprotected, dry soil rainfall surfaces blow away with the wind or are washed away by Combat degradation flash floods, leaving infertile of rangeland lower soil layers that bake in (northern coastal the sun and become an belt) through unproductive hardpan. overgrazing, Techniques exist for degradation of plant mitigating or reversing the cover, effects of desertification, however there are numerous Encroachment of barriers to their sand formations, implementation. One of these especially from the is that the costs of adopting Western desert, on sustainable agricultural the Nile Valley land practices sometimes exceed (southern Egypt) the benefits for individual farmers, even while they are socially and environmentally beneficial . Desertification is recognized as a major threat to biodiversity. Some countries have developed Biodiversity Action Plans to counter its effects, particularly in relation to the protection of endangered flora and fauna. Environmental organizations . focus primarily on educating the local population about the dangers of desertification. Techniques focus on two aspects: provisioning of water, and fixation and hyper- fertilizing soil. Fixating the soil is often done through the use of shelter belts, woodlots and windbreak

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smade from trees and bushes and are used to reduce soil erosion and evapotranspiratio n. Another technique that is useful is contour trenching involves the digging of 150m long, 1m deep trenches in the soil. The trenches are made parallel to the height lines of the landscape, preventing the water from flowing within the trenches and causing erosion. Stone walls are placed around the trenches to prevent the trenches from closing up again. Enriching of the soil and restoration of its fertility is often done by plants. Of these, Legumes that extract nitrogen from the air and fixes it in the soil. Sand fences could also be used to control drifting of soil and sand erosion. Managed grazing methods are argued to be able to restore grasslands, thereby decreasing atmospheric CO 2 levels. Climate-related A warmer and more varied Undertake Impacts and status of Adaptation to Key line 15 32 climate is expected in Egypt climate change as governmental biodiversity vulnerability climate change adaptation and by the coming few years. assessment and reported in the 5th refers to adjustment stakeholders Predicted impacts of climate NR. including mitigation develop relevant in natural or human change on Egypt include Investigate and EEAA rising sea levels, temperature adaptation measures monitor all the systems in response and precipitation, that would to enhance climate effects of climate to actual or expected affect not only people but also change resilience of change on climate stimuli or biodiversity. Adaptation of priority ecosystems biodiversity and their effects that climate change refers to Predictable impacts ecosystem services moderates harm or

150 adjustment in natural or of climate change. Assess the impact of exploits beneficial human systems in response to National policies and climate change on opportunities. actual or expected climate measures responding biodiversity in Establishment of stimuli or their effects that to climate change. vulnerable areas and new environmental moderates harm or exploits National assessment protected areas. regulations and beneficial opportunities. needs including Conduct a feasibility institutions, the Egypt is currently financial assistance, assessment of the implementing a number of application of development of technical and adaptation and mitigation international water supply and technology transfer, projects to help strengthen mechanisms. coastal infrastructure monitoring systems, resilience to climate change. Climate Change and the management education, and public Capacity Building Some sectors and/or activities of forests awareness. Phase II. are particularly more Assessment Study National policy The Integrated Solar vulnerable to climate change, with adaptation Strengthen Thermal / Natural recommendations namely health, tourism and cooperation with Gas Power Plant at Kuraymat. under the coastal strip. It is expected other institutions that climate change would The Energy implementation bring about species Efficiency Improvement and extinctions, expansion or Mitigations an Greenhouse (GHG) anthropogenic contraction of species ranges, Reduction Projects. intervention to as well as changes in species Promotion of wind reduce the sources compositions, interactions and energy for electricity or enhance the sinks distribution. The degradation generation of coastal ecosystems and of greenhouse gases coral reefs will have very such as carbon negative impacts on the dioxide, methane tourism. The decline of fish and nitrous oxide. stocks and their redistribution has major implications for food security and nutrition in poor regions, as communities often rely on fish protein to supplement their diet. The low-lying land, especially farm land, located in the

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northern part of the Delta will be vulnerable to submersion that could happen quickly with subsequent reduction in cropland area. Tourism, one of the main sources of Egypt’s national income, is predicted to be affected in the future by climate change. The number of tourists coming to Egypt’s coasts each year is expected to decline because of the potential impact of climate change on coral reefs. Worldwide, almost all coral reefs have been affected by climate-change induced coral bleaching at one time or another. The current proposal aims at studying climate- related biodiversity adaptation and mitigation

Strategic Goal 6: Build partnerships and integrate biodiversity into all national development frameworks Public awareness, Low p ublic awareness and Raise public Produce education Set up a service to EEAA, 12 with 30 (including needs indebtedness of nature is an and public awareness provide technical Ministry of an awareness of the The assessments on underlying factor contributing meaning and value materials such as support, training and Information, addition capacity, to the unsustainable and information packages other materials Ministry of al phase Likely of conservation of technology and extreme use of these resources and a newsletter or (video film, Education, of five external finance) both by government and the biodiversity and wise magazine. photographs) related Ministry of years sources of private sector. Education and use biodiversity by to natural heritage to Higher Devise and funding are information providers have target groups information Education. implement education World Wide limited knowledge about Start a data base and distributors. programmes, Fund for Egypt’s nature and its network to including a mobile Conduct workshops Nature,

152 magnitude. Furthermore, disseminate unit(s) and exhibits, and training IUCN; WB, there is a lack of high-quality information to for the Natural programmes for UNDP and interesting information national and Protectorate, businesses, NGOs about the rich and unique international National Biodiversity and local diversity of nature that exists organizations. Unit and communities. either nationally or locally. programmes related Build up education Establish exchange The private sector is among to key natural programmes and programmes for the primary users of natural heritage resource materials about business, NGOs and heritage resources, but management issues, natural heritage and local communities to undervalues and over exploits such as Hunting biodiversity see other country’s or inappropriately utilizes Management, conservation for the experiences. these resources largely as a International national curriculum result of lack of awareness. Conventions, etc. Develop (higher, secondary While the government is demonstration and primary increasingly looking towards Conduct workshops projects to provide schools). businesses, NGOs and local and training with the business, NGOs and main distributors of communities to support in Develop teaching local communities information in Egypt, environmental protection, modules and with hands-on- e.g. written and these bodies lack sufficient teacher’s training training experience broadcast media, capacity and expertise in programmes with the and establish models government natural resource management. Ministry of in the sustainable information units, There are also insufficient Education. and wise use of private sector initiatives to religious leaders, natural resources. serve as models for the Establish a National etc... For Institute for Natural dissemination of Strengthen the sustainable and wise use of capacity of EEAA, natural heritage resources. Resource information relating local communities This project is consisted of a Management at an to natural heritage number of components: Egyptian University issues. and relevant that would provide Produce printed and institutions to carry Component 1: Build public undergraduate and audio visual out forest law awareness capabilities within postgraduate training materials and enforcement, the nature conservation in natural resource information packs for section of EEAA. management, including the key information including in wildlife issuing of permits, Component 2: Advance distributors focusing management, monitoring, arrests quantify and quality of on Egypt’s natural protected area information about natural heritage. and fines management, and the heritage and capacities of information distributors to ecological Develop regular components of television/radio

153 disseminate this information. environmental show(s) about natural impact assessments. Component 3: Integrate heritage issues for national broadcast. natural heritage and Provide support to biodiversity conservation into the Conservation Provide training, the national education Education Center at exchange curriculum and build the Giza Zoological programmes and education institutions and Garden, the Natural grants to university teaching capacities in this History Museum for professors in applied field. Children and other fields related to similar public Component 4: Raise biodiversity/nature facilities to awareness and appreciation in conservation. strengthen their the business, NGO and local abilities to conduct Develop out-reach community about natural education programmes for heritage issues and develop programmes about schools and the capacities of these bodies biodiversity and universities, such as to support initiatives for the natural heritage field trips and mobile sustainable and wise use of conservation. units to generate natural heritage resources. awareness about The project will be primarily Conduct an Egypt’s natural implemented at the national awareness campaign heritage. and local levels. on the utility of Support existing and indigenous livestock new university field stations to provide breeds and drought- adapted crop students with hands cultivars, particularly on training in applied research on in light of climate biodiversity/nature change conservation. Promote strong Develop mechanisms partnership and for reporting wildlife cooperation between crime, rewards for relevant law information and enforcement review mechanisms stakeholders for prosecutions and (including at regional appropriate penalties

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level) and facilitate training programme for all enforcement departments including local communities

National A Communication, Education Public information Conservation clubs Increased public EEAA, 11 with 30 and mass media establishment and Biodiversity and Public Awareness collaboration, Ministry of an The most campaigns strengthening including Education, addition Education and Strategy (CEPA) were likely government Universities, Awareness prepared in 2009 following A clearly defined Workshops al phase authorities NGOs, Research external CBD guidelines. It covers local community, of five Training activities for private sector, sources of NGO and private Centers, NGOs, years issues such as the importance various target groups university and others funding are sector role and Local of taking necessary steps to parties concerned in Communities. partnership in the Program World Wide conserve biological diversity; knowledge country’s development for Fund for allocating suitable materials in improvement and conservation newspapers, radio Nature, conservation of the field of education, program and and television Egypt’s natural IUCN; WB, communication and defining protected areas Ecotourism environment, UNDP targeted groups; management. promotion at national protected areas and mainstreaming biological Regional and and international conservation of their diversity in education national press and level benefits. strategies; establishing an broadcast media Numerous fully employed in Superior public role effective method for environmental nature conservation in planning, communication and exchange themes introduced and protected areas executing and of information; developing into the curricula of programs. monitoring of data bases and establishing village/community key schools and websites ; publishing books, Biodiversity development universities. projects. reports, CD's, films, videos; awareness and Increased local holding workshops, TV and traditional Production of government radio interviews, delivering knowledge enhanced educational/awarenes awareness on the lectures for targeted groups. among youth through s materials, extension interrelationship of conservation and This strategy has achieved curriculum reform materials, learning modules and sustainable success in raising public and improved programs for various development. awareness among public that facilities of

155 could be manifested through educational target groups Enlarged local youth awareness and the increasing numbers of institutions Advocacy groups for appreciation for protected areas visitors, and Functional the protection of nature conservation the increasing numbers of capabilities of nature and the and participation in government environment such as electronic mails The main protected areas agencies, NGOs and Youth organizations, goal of this proposal is to educational private sector in the conservation clubs, boost the level of education programs. design and wildlife and nature and awareness for implementation of clubs, and NGOs Targeted campaigns environmental conservation, conservation established and on key and sustainable management programs. expanded. environmental to increase the capacity and threats Mobilize key Conservation clubs capacity for stakeholder and stakeholder e.g. establishment and public participation in imams, private sector strengthening effecting positive changes in political leaders to Workshops Egypt’s biodiversity through support publicly environmental issues promoting public appreciation . for biodiversity conservation Curricula and the protected areas development for program and a positive school and universities. change in attitudes and behavior towards Egypt’s Public information environment through and mass media conservation promotion campaigns interventions. The Objective of the current proposal is to promote public appreciation for biodiversity conservation and the protected areas program and a positive change in attitudes and behavior towards Egypt’s environment through conservation p romotion

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interventions. Valuation of Ecosystems have been Contextualize and Establish and Produce and EEAA, line 13 32 The ecosystem goods maintained through the apply biodiversity capacitate cross- disseminate annual ministries, likely and services declaration of nationally and ecosystem sectoral report on governorates, designated PAs and private sector external services valuation environmental biodiversity-based Environmental Impact and NGOs, sources of Assessment of major tools to quantify and economics network enterprises, income funding are . development projects. EIA monitor the on issues relating to and employment IUCN, has become a critical tool in environmental, ecosystem services opportunities Legal managing impacts on economic and social Valuate identified Specialists, biodiversity resources outside value of biodiversity Undertake a priority biodiversity coast PAs, where there still is a vulnerability and and ecosystem guards, need for legislation that Integrate biodiversity adaptation services regulates their use. police, and ecosystem assessment on military, The protection of coral reefs, services valuations prioritized local mountain ecosystems and into decision-making ecosystems in Egypt judges, mangroves, among other has and to develop a sheiks and enhanced the support for business case for WB, livelihoods at the national biodiversity UNDP, level. Enactment of Protected UNEP Species and Protected Areas regulations has also supported this project Development, Egypt established a system Ensure that the Establish a national An integrated EEAA, line 12 22 The Implementation and legislation for the national strategy is participatory ministries, working group on likely conservation of its natural assessment of governorates, and Enforcement supported by biosystematics to external heritage. Most important are current private sector of Policies, effective legislation improve cooperation sources of Law 48 (1982) for the biodiversity and NGOs, funding are Legislation and Protection of the River Nile and institutional on biosystematics legislations and . Regulations on and Water Channels, Law No. frameworks to Facilitate regulatory IUCN, Legal Biodiversity Issues. 124 (1983) for Fishing, improve its bioprospecting and framework for Specialists, Aquatics and Regulating Fish enforcement biotrade activities in meeting the goals coast Farms, Law 102/1983 as the of the CBD, Enhance national accordance with guards, legal framework for the sustainable use capacity in legislation police, declaration and management and management biosystematics to Training programs military, of protected areas (followed of biological for different target local

157 by the declaration of Ras provide support to groups e.g. coast resources judges, Mohammed in South Sinai as biodiversity guards, police, completed, and sheiks and the first protected area in conservation military, and judges. legislative gaps WB, Egypt), Law 124 /1983 for the identified. UNDP, management Programs regulation and management of UNEP development, fisheries, Law 101 / 1985 to Enhance institutional Preparation of implementation and secure a suitable source of capacity to policies, legislation monitoring. funding for protected areas, implement and and regulation for protected areas. Law 4 / 1994 on environment enforce the national Public and target protection which constituted a biosafety framework group oriented Legislations, supportive national legislation Develop and awareness programs regulations and helping to fulfill Egyptian on legal and policy guidelines on agro- strengthen existing obligations under the issues. chemicals import, Convention on Biological legislation to protect plant quaranti, water Inter-agency Diversity and regulating cultivated plants and and harvesting, and consultations and hunting of wild animals and domesticated protected areas task force prohibiting the destruction of prepared and animals (workshops and their natural habitats. Most Ppolicies, legislation, enforced. recently the new constitution seminars). regulations and Development and (the 2013 constitution, which Legislation guidelines on critical implementation of will be subject for referendum Development and habitats, resource by-laws and on 14-15 January 2014) has enforcement species, fisheries, guidelines for clearly stated under sections plankton, and rare or approved legal 45 and 46 that the State is threatened species documents, obliged to maintain protected An overall review reviewed, updated and drafted, endorsed areas and protect threatened and assessment of enforced. and in place. and endangered species, mandates and provide the humane treatment Compilation, review, management A nationwide of animals and promote wise assessment and responsibility over management and and sustainable utilization of development Laws, biological resources coordination natural resources. In order to policies and developed, the mechanism, such strengthen the environmental regulations. adequacy of as an “Interagency mandates and structure and management Based on results of the implementation management process, the powers and duties assessment, existing task force” for responsibility for inspection, enforcement, biodiversity laws, by- biodiversity identified and and environmental assessment laws, norms, standards conservation with clarified in harmony of the EEAA was increased and regulations appropriate role of with EPL; and the Nature Conservation reformulated, enacted NGOs, private Sector (NCS) was established. appropriate sector and local

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NCS liaises and coordinates and enforced. institutional and community activities with all sectors and organizational created and Recommended departments of EEAA as well structure is functional. policies, legislation as with other relevant established, and and regulations to Legal experts and national, regional and strengthened. legalize and guide relevant international institutions. protected areas National and local governmental and The main goal of the current management and training to meet non-governmental project is to ensure enough development CBD and other Rio staff conversant and effective policy, completed. Conventions with the policies, legislation and regulations and laws and rules for Policy harmonization support systems are in place commitments for the conservation and enforced for the government, non- and sustainable management and sustainable government, local use of use of biodiversity and for the administrators and biodiversity, preservation and rehabilitation other partners natural resources of the environment. The and environment objectives of the current in Egypt are proposal are recognition and designated review of existing policies, legislation and regulations for EIAs and biodiversity, related natural recommended resources and environmental mitigation issues and development of measure have required supplementary been implemented policies, laws and regulations in major sector to fill gaps, build the developments. capacities and institutional structures and support systems to coordinate, integrate, implement and enforce biodiversity, natural resource and environmental policies, laws, regulations and by-laws, extend, enforce and follow up EIA including recommended mitigation measures in priority sectors, such as infrastructure and industry,

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tourism and urban development, waste management and water treatment. International Egypt is party to many Identify the Establish the Monitoring, EEAA, Line 12 20 Conventions conventions and agreements requirements to necessary assessment and Ministries having provisions for the framework along other initiatives as Compliance insure effective conservation of biodiversity, compliance of with the necessary mandated under the such as to the Convention international and legislation, policies conventions. Relative to the Preservation of and other Fauna and Flora in their regional mechanisms to Natural State, African agreements in comply with Convention on the Egypt. convention Conservation of Nature and provisions. Natural Resources, Establish or Convention on International strengthen the Trade in Endangered Species necessary of Wild Fauna and Flora, institutions to Convention on the implement the Conservation of Migratory conventions. Species of Wild Animals, Convention on Wetlands of Conduct training to International Importance improve convention Especially as Waterfowl compliance. Habitat (also known as the Ramsar), United Nations Develop and Convention on the Law of the implement Sea, Convention on education and Biological Diversity and its public awareness biosafety and access and activities to benefit sharing protocols, encourage support United Nations Framework for and compliance Convention on Climate of the agreements. Change, United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification, Convention for the Protection of the Mediterranean Sea against

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Pollution, Protocol for the Protection of the Mediterranean Sea against Pollution from Land-Based Sources, Protocol Concerning Mediterranean Specially Protected Areas. To date, there has been deficient compliance of the provisions of the conventions in Egypt. For most agreements, the country has yet to establish the essential framework to implement the conventions on a sustainable basis. Furthermore, fulfillment has been weighed down by the low awareness of the conventions and their importance in Egypt. The current proposal aims at establishing the necessary institutions, legislation and other mechanisms to comply with Egypt’s international and regional obligations dictated by the conventions to which it is signatory. The current project will be primarily implemented at the national levels and as needed at the Governorate and local levels. NBSAP Article 6 of the CBD on Develop and realize Develop national Be the focal point EEAA, Line 15 25 Implementation “General Measures for a comprehensive strategies, plans or for managing the Ministries Conservation and Sustainable programmes for the national network of resource Use” states that each Party conservation and nature reserves (of mobilization strategy shall in accordance with its sustainable use of all categories), particular conditions and for implementation biological diversity. Be the parent body

161 capabilities to NBSAP targets. of NBSAP This has come to be of the national In 1998, Egypt prepared an Integrate, as far as the principal biodiversity unit NBSAP spanning the years possible and as instrument for the (NBU) that carries 1998 to 2017 through a wide appropriate, the implementation of out inventories of consultative process. In 2014, conservation and the Convention at the Egyptian Egypt, as a Party to the CBD, sustainable use of national level and to biodiversity together has revised its NBSAP in line biological diversity be known as with surveys of with the new CBD Strategic into relevant sectoral NBSAPs. habitat types Plan for Biodiversity 2011– or cross-sectoral (nomination of 2030, through another wide plans, programmes Conduct a survey nature reserves) and participatory process. A 15 or policies. (such as Biodiversity species diversity member National Biodiversity Barometer) of (feeding referral Committee representing Foster international targeted stakeholders collection and various stakeholders and six cooperation and to assess levels of biodiversity data), working groups, assisted by opportunities for national and international available of Be the institution for information consultants, working in understanding of providing technical thematic and cross-cutting exchange in the field biodiversity 2014 assistance and support to provincial areas have been established to of biodiversity at the and 2019 affiliates of the guide the update of the regional and Updating the NBSAP. After initial Egyptian Natural international level National Biodiversity stocktaking and appraisal of History Museum, for mutual benefit Strategy and Action Egyptian Gene the current status of national Promote biodiversity and the Plan Bank, National underlying causes of international Strengthen capacity Captive Breeding biodiversity loss, 6 strategic cooperation and an institutional Centre, goals were identified to networking to frameworks so that Be the institution for address the decline in enhance they are equipped to providing technical biodiversity and achieving the communication of implement and assistance and Aichi Targets. In addition, the the values of support to the NBSAP sets clear national enforce the biodiversity biodiversity biodiversity targets and provisions of the education network conservation and priorities and aims for the Biosafety Act. of Science Gardens integration of biodiversity sustainable use Increase the and Education Field concerns into relevant sectors Introduce sustainability of Stations, and contributing towards the environmental taxes income generated by Be the focal point achievement the global and levies and conservancies for managing the biodiversity agenda and the market-based Millennium Development Strengthen the enforcement of

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Goals (MDGs)..The draft instruments as part capacity and staff of national laws NBSAP 2011-2030 has the of an Environmental EEAA. concerned with following strategic goals and Fiscal Reform Strengthen protection of targets Framework cooperation with biodiversity, and the neighboring national focal point Increase community countries and for ensuring support to enhance international compliance with livelihood options organizations on key requirements of through biodiversity- research areas such international based based as ecosystem services conventions enterprises and value added concerned with Mainstream Undertake conservation of biodiversity and assessment study on biodiversity. ecosystem services existing positive, valuations into negative and national accounting potential incentives and regional plans and budgeting Broaden and apply processes funding sources, for the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity for maximum effectiveness Strengthen infrastructure and capacity of key stakeholders. Monitor and manage the risks associated with the handling transport, use, transfer and release of living

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modified organisms Establish a rigorous and effective EIA process backed up by improved monitoring and enforcement of environmental management plans

Package and sell the economic case for the importance of biodiversity to key decision-makers in an easy-to- understand format

Partnerships and Private sector empowerment- Partnership in Partnership in Direct contribution EEAA and line 10 26 Initiatives to conserved areas are cooperative projects promoting the by a business ministries. enhance increasingly recognized as Partnerships with purposes and partner. legitimate and powerful tools activities of NCS. cooperation with private sector Indirect contribution for biodiversity conservation organizations should Reliability with NCS by a business partner Private Sector and sustainable use. In Egypt, be aimed at objectives. through the none of the existing protected removing obstacles establishment of a areas is being managed by Specific, time- to biodiversity; charitable private sectors. Although their limited, and organization or role in safeguarding Costs/value. achievable results foundation biodiversity remains a Financial viability . and outputs (linked challenge to real progress. Enhance synergies to the relevant NCS The potential partner The objectives of the with other NCS instrument, if organization’s corporation with private The use of the Name applicable). reputation (e.g. by sector should be articulated obtaining and Emblem might Defined duties on clearly. It include the information about be authorized for the both sides (aimed at improvement of the their previous following purposes achieving the environmental impact of the performance from support the purposes, results). private sector, awareness independent

164 rising of the value of PAs and policies and Defined contribution sources). the creation of support for the activities of NCS; requirements on both conservation of biodiversity assist in the raising sides (e.g. cash or Risk or negative through improved local and of funds for NCS and services). aspects, both in the national investments, clear assist in the raising short and long-term, delineation of responsibilities of funds for entities Defined indicators associated with each for monitoring and candidate and roles, no unfair that are not part of advantage, transparency: NCS, but which are measuring organization. Cooperation with the business established to performances NCS focal point community sector must be achieve the purposes Evaluate the should be appointed transparent. Information on and policies of NCS. collaborating to manage the nature and scope of With apt written organization’s partnerships with the cooperative preparations approval, and subject activities globally, private sector. should be available on the to appropriate including activities The focal point NCS website and to the public conditions on the which are unrelated should carry out the at large. Appointing a time, manner and to the partnership, in function envisaged responsible individual within scope of such use, order to avoid in paragraph. 19 of the organization to oversee the use of NCS potential the “Guidelines on the activities relating to NCS emblem might be embarrassment of Cooperation and to report to their exclusively NCS through the between the management. NCS will authorized to a association with the Ministry of endeavor to engage with limited number of partnering Environment and the partners, which have an business entities in organization; Business environmental corporate connection with the responsibility program promotion of a Ensure an Report the results of developed and implemented. special event or appropriate level of such partnerships to initiative, including administration that is the NCS Board, as

fund-raising for such commensurate with appropriate, where a event or initiative. the scope of the dispute arises and partnership. could not be The approval of NCS Use of NCS name avoided, the will be obtained for and emblem: The reputation and long- the use of the Name use of NCS name term interests of and Emblem of the and emblem shall be NCS should be Ministry of limited to official treated with the Environment purposes. highest priority, in Recognizing the spite of a possible evolving new loss of immediate or relationship with the short-term benefits

165 business community, and once the the following sets out partnership has general principles on come to an end, the the use of the name agreement should be and emblem of NCS terminated with (“Name and legal effect and a Emblem”) by the final report on the business community partnership should in the context of be prepared. partnerships with the private sector: In principle, and subject to the appropriate terms and conditions, a business entity might be authorized to use the Name and Emblem on a non- exclusive basis. The use of the Name and Emblem must be expressly approved in advance in writing and upon such terms and conditions as might be specified. The use of the Name and Emblem by a business entity might be authorized, even if it involves the making of profit, so long as the principal purpose and activities of NCS, including the raising of funds

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for NCS, and the generation of profit by the business entity is only incidental. Ecosystem services are the Natural resources The Economics of Economic and non- Natural capital EEAA, 10 22 setting and processes that (such as food, timber Ministry of

Ecosystems and maintain human being life economic benefits should be well and water) and economics, Biodiversity in throughout ecosystems and we get from these represented within functioning natural Ministry of Egypt: the Need for their species. The conception services enables the economic systems (such as planning of ecosystem services healthy, fertile soils; a Road map decision-makers to accounting system involves the release, clean water and air; exercise judgment and increasingly provision, establishment, and a regulated safeguarding or safeguarding about how we use depleted and under climate) are vital of a group of goods and our environment. threat support services for services that people perceive. our wellbeing and They are becoming Ecosystem are Natural capital security, and are increasingly integrated into capital assets, if requires investment, themselves sustained the way societies view and by biodiversity appreciated nature and the properly managed; maintenance, and environment. The biotic they will yield a flow good management if Importance of ecosystem services component of natural capital of vital services it is to contribute is widely is defined as ecosystem fully to increasing capital. The Millennium Ecosystems have appreciated only output and upon their loss Ecosystem Assessment value in terms of the prosperity. classified global conservation of SEEA values are not environmental services into readily captured in options (such as Now have four categories; regulating, markets, so we don’t provisioning, cultural, and genetic diversity for internationally really know how supporting services. The future use). agreed methodology much they ecosystem services support for natural capital contribute to the human welfare in direct and Relative to other economy and accounting at the indirect ways as component of forms of capital, livelihoods. national level – the total economic value of the ecosystems are globe. Ecosystem services are System of poorly understood, derived from the so-called Environmental- natural capital – the goods and scarcely monitored, Economic services that ecosystems and (in many cases) provide for humans and undergoing rapid Accounting (SEEA).

167 societies and this has an degradation and Natural capital economic value that is largely depletion includes, first of all, unaccounted for. Many the resources that we people in rural areas depend Natural capital and easily recognize and on protected area, pastures, the services are wetlands and marine areas for measure such as fundamental to the their livelihoods. Protected minerals and energy, areas, when carefully wellbeing of our forest timber, designed and managed, can businesses and agricultural land, contribute to poverty society. reduction and sustainable fisheries and water. It development goals. The Natural capital also includes provisioning services (food, accounting is a tool ecosystems fuel, fresh water and herbal that could help medicines) of protected areas producing services measure and manage have direct use and value to that are often the full extent of a rural communities. The ‘invisible’ to most benefits of protected areas country’s natural extend spatially far beyond assets people such as air their boundaries. In order to and water filtration, support and augment these flood protection, benefits, consideration of carbon storage, protected areas must be incorporated into wider pollination for crops, sustainable development and and habitat for economic strategies. Their fisheries and wildlife. benefits and values need to be recognized and showcased. The protected areas in Egypt (30, representing 15 % of the Egyptian territory) provide services with a preliminary value of 20 billion LE /Year, mostly from tourism and fisheries. Ingoing studies are exploring values from water, agriculture and mineral resources.

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Mainstreaming Biodiversity conservation is High level sector, Improved EEAA, Line Identification and 12 32 biodiversity still viewed as environmental development and consideration of Ministries analysis of relevant concerns into issue and biodiversity was not social policies , stakeholder’s and effectively integrated into constitutions and productive sectors policy documents right holder’s national development statements of conc erns. planning and policy-making national vision and did not receive priority include biodiversity All documents attention in the face of considerations and Improved domestic competing needs. The main vice versa should be engaged resource challenges to integration are with a wide range of mobilization for lack of awareness of the Inclusion of stakeholders , NDO’s poverty-biodiversity Potential impacts of investments or biodiversity-poverty and governmental biodiversity loss for linkages in recognition of ecosystem services and for development departments potential trade-off in people. Much remains to be sector investments reduction strategies Describe the ultimate done to understand and and in biodiversity such as mining forecast the likely strategies vision for Key pattern and socioeconomic impacts of biodiversity biodiversity loss at the local processes of Evidence of public- mainstreaming and national levels. production, private sector Implementation of the consumption and resources Build up political and NBSAP should not be the sole waste treatment in mobilization, institution context for responsibility of the Ministry sectors and locations inclusion of of Environment but of all biodiversity are by biodiversity development- stakeholder governmental mainstreaming and poverty biodiversity linkages institutions. considerations in national public Collect the current The exceptions to this being and sector budgets , state of knowledge the tourism sector where inclusion of biodiversity has been seen for ecosystem services about the interaction some time now as an in national between biodiversity important resource critical for accounting systems and poverty the continued growth and diversification of the tourism Describe attempts industry in the country. Also Strengthened that have been made in the agriculture sector, capacity within to integrate where biodiversity has direct biodiversity-related implication for this important institutions to biodiversity economic sector and where understand conservation and

169 the Ministry of Agriculture development and poverty alleviation. regulates the import and economic process export of wildlife. The and interact in a National Land Use Map conservative manner, acknowledges the existing and valuation of future PA boundaries and this economic does have some weight in importance of influencing some of the land biodiversity and use plans. The Ministry of ecosystem services Foreign Affairs plays a role in in the economic managing the protocol aspects outcomes undertaken of international agreements and used in decision related to biodiversity in making coordination with the NCS/EEAA. In other sectors Improved biodiversity concerns are productivity and seldom integrated in the sustainability of use planning phase, but rather in a of biodiversity assets precautionary reactive fashion on which the poor in order to avoid negative depend, protection impacts. The EIA/ ESIA and management of process has been a critical instrument to integrate targeted species biodiversity concerns in the populations development agenda in Egypt. Protected areas have been the main vehicle for mainstreaming of biodiversity and the Environmental Impact Assessment process has become the main systemic tool for managing risks to biodiversity. Now most of the biodiversity conservation agenda have been addressed by the NCS/EEAA, with modest success in mainstreaming

170 biodiversity concerns into productive sectors in the country, most importantly in the tourism and agricultural sectors (the two sectors with the most natural affinity with biodiversity). Strategies were approved for wetlands (2005), ecotourism (2006) and the maintenance of natural habitats (2007) involving various institutions, such as the National Commission for Sustainability, the National Committee for the Integrated Management of Coastal Areas, the National Committee on Climate Change and the National Committee on Wetlands and Sub-Humid Areas, with a view to aligning political strategies and work plans. As well, programs have been introduced for enhancing the effectiveness of relevant government agencies, as have studies on the need for new institutions at the central and local government levels. Biodiversity is regularly being taken into consideration in most of the major development projects subjected to the EIA process. This has proven to be a critical tool in managing impacts on biodiversity

171 resources outside the PAs network, where there still is a need for legislation that regulates their use. It is also obvious that environmental aspect is maintained and considered in most of national action plans of different sectors; a responsible about environment is found in each ministry in addition to an environmental department in every governorate. The NBSAP to 2030 provides a national framework for implementing the three objectives of the Convention and a significant contribution towards the global biodiversity agenda and integration of biodiversity concerns into relevant sectors and sets clear national priorities. i) Actions planned to achieve the2030 national targets: ii) The contributions of the NBSAP to the achievement of CBD Strategic Plan for Biodiversity and the Aichi Targets 2011-2020 are described in Section of the report. iii) National 2030 biodiversity targets set for integration of biodiversity considerations into broader national plans,

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programmes and policies, economic and social sectors and levels of government. Programs for mobilizing financial resources from national and international sources have been launched in support of projects favoring biodiversity conservation. Financing the Egypt has not received Raise adequate Assess baseline level Develop new and EEAA, Line 15 42 Implementation of technologies to allow for funding to facilitate of financial resources revise existing Ministries effective implementation of the NBSAP communication and made available for market-based its commitments under the (strategy for dissemination of biodiversity environmental CBD.. However, GEF, EU, resource USAID, Italian Cooperation NBSAP2 management revenue streams for mobilization for and other funding sources Budget for activities sustainable the implementation provided financial support for of biodiversity and financing of of the NBSAP) the implementation of Egypt’s incorporate in annual biodiversity obligations to the CBD. The budget of priorities national government provided organization Integrate the costs of ample counterpart and in kind implementation of contribution. NBSAP2 into the national budget and lobby for increased annual Contributions Towards Progress in moving Economic Accounts EEAA, 10 25 The SEEA framework is a Motivation for Establishing SEEA toward (SEEA). Ministry of, multipurpose conceptual ecosystem The likely for Ecosystem implementation Universities, framework for understanding accounting comes NGOs, and external Accounting in should be faster. the interactions between the from a wide range of local sources of Egypt Adoption by the UN communities, funding are economy and the emerging demands Statistical UNESCO – environment, and for for integrating Commission of the FAO, Japan describing stocks and changes System for information on aid (Natural in stocks of environmental Environment. environmental History

173 assets. It puts statistics on the SEEA provides an sustainability and Museum) environment and its internationally human well-being and GEF relationship to the economy at agreed method, on Better understanding the core of official statistics. par with the current of what ecosystems The SEEA provides System for National provide in terms of information related to a broad Accounts (SNA), to account for material both market and non- spectrum of environmental natural resources like market goods and and economic issues minerals, timber, and services and what including, in particular, the fisheries attributes of assessment of trends in the ecosystems are use and availability of natural crucial for resources, the extent of maintaining these emissions and discharges to flows of value to the environment resulting society. from economic activity, and the amount of economic activity undertaken for environmental purposes. Only few studies have been conducted to estimate the ecosystem services in Egypt due to high cost of economic valuation and lack of national expertise in this field. Ras Mohamed National Park coral reef economic values were calculated in terms of the recreational benefits that were thought to be the most important to the different stakeholders. Coral reef

174 tourism in South Sinai is the pillar of the local economy. By using the travel cost method, the total recreational benefit was estimated to be above US$ 1.1 billion per year. Reef-related tourism expenditures in Egypt parks alone estimated at US$ 470 million per year, and reef- associated fishery US$40,428,000 at year 2000(Cesar, 2003). Total Economic Value (TEV) of the mangroves at Ras Mohammed estimated at US$ 182,000/year (US$ 91,000/ha/yr), and for the figure could be as high as US$ 1,290,000/year (US$ 24,000/ha/yr). Most other mangroves are likely to have a value in the order of US$ 13,000/ha/yr for fisheries and perhaps in the order of US$ 13,000/ha/yr for non-use values. The current proposal aims at evaluating the economic value for ecosystems services in Egypt

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9. REFERENCES . Egypt’s 5 th national report (2014) add

Abdel-Azeem, A. M. and Salem, F.M. (2013) How many species of fungi are there in Egypt? Fifth National Report, Rio Convention. Attalla, T., Hanafy, M. and Aamer, M. (2012) Diving Impact on the Coral Reefs in Red Sea, Egypt Marine Science Department, Faculty of Science, Suez Canal University, 41552 Ismailia, Egypt El-Sadek I., Mancini1 A., Hanafy M., and Girondot M. (2013) Green Turtle Nesting Activities on Zabargad Island, A Major Bookery in the Southern Egyptian Red Sea. Report of a research project funded by Hurghada Environmental Protection and Conservation Association (HEPCA), Hurghada, Egypt and Rufford Small Grants, Boomerage for Earth Conservation andIdeaWild. El-Tantawy N. (2012) Economic Impact of Lake Edku Pollution. International Conference on Applied Life Sciences, , September 10-12, 2012 Furby, K., Bouwmeester, and Berumen, M. (2012) Susceptibility of central Red Sea corals during a major bleaching event. DOI 10.1007/s00338-012-0998-5 Received: 18 April 2012 / Accepted: 11 December 2012 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013 Gamil, H. and El-Karyony. L. (1994) Phosphorus, Nitrogen, Loading and trend of fish catch as index of Lake Mariot Eutrophication. Garfd (2012) General Authority for Fish Resources Development, Annual Report Halmy M. W., Gessler P.E., Hicke J., Heneidy S. Z. (2013) Implications of human induced changes on the distribution of important plant species in the northwestern coastal desert of Egypt. In proceeding of workshop on Global Climate Change Biodiversity and Sustainability: Challenges and Opportunities, University of Idaho, USA, March 2013. Hassan M.M.A., Abu Zaid M. and Hanafy M.H. (2002) Status of coral reefs in the Red See - Gulf of Aden. In C.R. Wilkinson (ed.), Status of coral reefs of the world, 2002, GCRMN Report, Australian Institute of Marine Science, Townsville, Chapter 2, pp 45-52. Hudgson, G., Hill J., Keene W., Maun L., Mealy J., Libeler J., Schuman C. and Torres R. (2006) A Guide to Reef Check. Coral Reef Monitoring, Reef Check Foundation, Pacific Palisades, California, USA. IUCN/UNEP (1985) State of the Reefs – Indian Ocean Kotb M.M.A., Abu Zaid M. and Hanafy M.H. (2001) Overall evaluation of the coral reefs status along the Egyptian Red Sea Coast. Biologia Marina Mediterranea 8 (1): 15-32. MA (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment) 2005. Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Synthesis. Island Press, Washington, DC. Mangrove Monitoring Program: Re-evaluation of certain sites around Hurghada, Safaga and Qussier 2005 2011 (2013) A Report by T. M. Attalla, Red Sea Marine Park Rangers Team, NCS/EEAA. Mapping Mangroves (2012). Tropical Forest Update ITTO 21:13. Regional Organization for the Conservation of the Environment of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden (PERSGA) 2010

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Sadek, S. (2012) Aquaculture site selection and carrying capacity estimates for inland and coastal aquaculture in the Arab Republic of Egypt. In L.G. Ross, T.C. Telfer, L. Falconer, D. Soto, & J. Aguilar-Manjarrez, eds. Site selection and carrying capacities for inland and coastal aquaculture. FAO/Institute of Aquaculture, University of Stirling, Expert Workshop, 6–8 December 2010. Stirling, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Proceedings No. 21. Rome, FAO, 183–196 pp. Sarant L. (2012) Nature middle east.2012.163; Published online 22 November 2012, Scores of endangered turtles killed in Egypt. Shaltout K. H. and Eid E. M. (2010) Important Plant Areas in Egypt with Emphasis on the Mediterranean Region. Report of a workshop hosted at with the technical and financial support from the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), Plant life and Agence Franciase de Development (AFD). Shaltout K.M., El-Hennawy M., Nafeaa A., Abo-Bakr S., Ghazaly O., Eid E. and Fouda M. (2009) National Progress Towards Targets of the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation, Egyptian Environmental Affairs Authority. Shawky, A. and De Maddalena, A. (2013) Human impact on the presence of sharks at diving sites of the southern Red sea, Egypt. barriera Triaenodon obesus (5), pesce martello smerlato Sphyrna lewini (87). La. Boll. Mus. St. Nat. Venezia, 64: 51-62 (2013) Soliman, A. A. (2005) Status of Biodiversity in Protected Area. Report submitted to Nature Conservation Sector. 25 pp State of the Environment Report 2007 Yahia M. (2014) Why sea turtles die in Lake Bardawil Nature Middle East 58; Published online 9 March 2014.

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Annex

IMPORTANT PLANT AREAS IN EGYPT With Emphasis on the Mediterranean Region

K. H. Shaltout & E. M. Eid Department - Faculty of Science - University - Egypt Botany Department - Faculty of Science - Kafr- El-Sheikh University - Egypt

April 2010

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National threatened species

Species Status IPA Abutilon bidentatum A. Rich. Vulnerable Halayeb Triangle Acacia asak (Forssk.) Willd. Rare Halayeb Triangle Acacia etbaica Schweinf. Vulnerable Wadi El Gemal, Halayeb Triangle Acacia mellifera (Vahl) Benth. Endangered Halayeb Triangle Acacia oerfota (Forssk.) Schweinf. Rare Halayeb Triangle Acacia pachyceras var. najadensis Vulnerable Saint Katherine (Chaudhary) Boulos Acacia seyal Delile Ra re Saluga and Ghazal Actiniopteris semiflabellata Pic. Serm. Rare Halayeb Triangle Aethionema carneum (Banks & Sol.) Fedtsch. Rare Saint Katherine Ajuga chamaepitys (L.) Schreb. Rare Saint Katherine Alkanna strigosa Boiss. & Hohen. Rare Saint Katherine Allium crameri Asch. & Boiss. Rare Saint Katherine Allium sinaiticum Boiss. Endangered Saint Katherine Althaea ludwigii L. Indeterminate Omayed Alyssum marginatum Steud. ex Boiss. Rare Saint Katherine Anabasis syriaca Iljin Vulnerable Saint Katherine Anastatica hierochuntica L. Endangered Saint Katherine, Wadi El Gemal Aneilema aequinoctiale (P. Beauv.) Kunth Indeterminate Halayeb Triangle Anogramma leptophylla (L.) Link Rare Halayeb Triangle Anthemis microsperma Boiss. & Kotschy Rare Western Mediterranean coastal dunes Anticharis linearis (Benth.) Hochst. ex Asch. Vulnerable Saint Katherine, Halayeb Triangle Arabidopsis kneuckeri (Bornm.) O.E. Schulz Endangered Saint Katherine Arabis verna (L.) R. Br. Rare Saint Katherine AsperugoprocumbensL. Rare Saint Katherine Asplenium ceterach L. Rare Saint Katherine Astomaea seselifolium DC. Coll -Mém. Rare North Sinai Mountains Astragalus caprinus L. Rare Omayed Astragalus intercedens Sam. ex Rech.f. Indeterminate Saint Katherine Astragalus sanctus Boiss. Rare Saint Katherine Astragalus sparsus Decne. Rare Saint Katherine Astrgalus echinus DC. Rare Saint Katherine Asyneuma rigidum (Willd.) Grossh. Endangered Saint Katherine Atractylis aristata Batt. Rare Saint Katherine Atractylis carduus var. Täckh. & Rare Western Mediterranean coastal Boulos dunes Atraphaxis spinosa L. Vulnerable Saint Katherine 8 5

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Avicennia marina (Forssk.) Vierh. Vulnerable Nabq, Hurghada, Wadi El Gemal Ballota saxatilis C. Persl Vulnerable Saint Katherine Barle ria acanthoides Vahl Vulnerable Halayeb Triangle Bellevalia sessiliflora (Viv.) Kunth Rare Sallum Area Blainvillea acmella (L.) Philipson Rare Halayeb Triangle Bolanthus hirsutus (Labill.) Barkoudah Indeterminate Saint Katherine Boscia angustifolia A. Rich. Endangered Halayeb Triangle Boscia senegalensis Poir. Endangered Halayeb Triangle Brandella erythraea (Brand) R.R. Mill Endangered Halayeb Triangle Bryonia syriaca Boiss. Endangered Saint Katherine falcatum subsp. exaltatum var. Rare Saint Katherine lineari folium (DC.) H. Wolff Bupleurum nanum Poir. Rare Omayed Cadabafarinosa Forssk. Rare Halayeb Triangle Cadaba glandulosa Forssk. Vulnerable Halayeb Triangle Ca Ja6a rotundifolia Forssk. Endangered Halayeb Triangle Callipeltis cucularis (L.) Steven Rare Wadi El Gemal, Saint Katherine Caralluma acutangula (Decne.) N.E. Br. Indeterminate Halayeb Triangle Caralluma edulis (Edgew.) Benth. & Hook.f. Rare Halayeb Triangle mareoticus (Delile) Hanelt Rare Omayed Car ma spinarum L. Endangered Halayeb Triangle glaucus M. Bieb. Rare Omayed, Sallum Area Carthamus nitidus Boiss. Rare Halayeb Triangle Centaurea alexandrina Delile Rare Omayed, Western Mediterranean coastal dunes Centaurea glomerata Vahl Rare Western Mediterranean coastal dunes Ceratonia siliqua L. Endangered Saint Katherine Cheilanthes coriacea Decne. Rare Halayeb Triangle Cheilanthes pteridioides (Reichard) C. Chr. Rare Saint Katherine Chlamydophora tridentata (Delile) Ehrenb. ex Rare Lake Mariut Less. Chrozophora brocchiana Vis. Vulnerable Halayeb Triangle CMM quadrangularis L. Rare Halayeb Triangle Cfeo we droserifolia (Forssk.) Delile Indeterminate Saint Katherine, Nabq, Wadi El Gemal, Wadi Allaqi Clerodendrum acerbianum (Vis.) Benth. & Rare Lake Burullus Hook.f. Coccinia abyssinica (Lam.) Cogn. Endangered Halayeb Triangle Coccinia grandis (L.) Voigt Indeterminate Halayeb Triangle Colutea istria Mill. Rare Saint Katherine Cometes surattensis L. Indeterminate Saint Katherine, Halayeb

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Triang le Commelinaforsskaolii Vahl Rare Halayeb Triangle Commiphora gileadensis (L.) C. Chr. Rare Halayeb Triangle Commiphora quadricincta Schweinf. Rare Halayeb Triangle Convolvulus palaestinus Boiss. Rare Saint Katherine Corallocarpus schimperi (Naudin) H ookf. Rare Halayeb Triangle Cordia sinensis Lam. Vulnerable Halayeb Triangle Cornulaca ehrenbergii Asch. Extinct Saint Katherine Cotoneaster orbicularis Schltdl. Vulnerable Saint Katherine Cotula anthemoides L. Rare Western Mediterranean coastal dunes Crataegus x sinaica Boiss. Vulnerable Saint Katherine Crotalaria impressa Nees ex Walp. Rare Halayeb Triangle Cucumis dipsacus Ehrenb. ex Spach Rare Halayeb Triangle Cucumis pustulatus Hook.f. Rare Halayeb Triangle Cuscuta chinensis Lam. Vulnerable Ha layeb Triangle Cyanotis barbata D. Don Endangered Halayeb Triangle Cynomorium coccineum L. Rare Lake Burullus, Western Mediterranean coastal dunes Cyperus bulbosus Vahl Vulnerable Halayeb Triangle Daucus syrticus Murb. Rare Lake Burullus, Omayed Delon ix elata (L.) Gamble Rare Halayeb Triangle Dianthus sinaicus Boiss. Rare Saint Katherine Diceratella elliptica (DC.) Jonsell Vulnerable Halayeb Triangle Dicoma tomentosa Cass. Rare Halayeb Triangle Diplocyclos palmatus (L.) C. Jeffrey Rare Halayeb Tria ngle Dipterygium glaucum Decne. Indeterminate Wadi Allaqi, Halayeb Triangle Dodenaea viscosa (L.) Jacq. Rare Halayeb Triangle, Saint Katherine Dracaena ombet Kotschy & Peyr. Endangered Halayeb Triangle £6 e«w s armitagei Schweinf. &Taub. Rare Omayed Ech inops macrochaetus Fresen. Rare Saint Katherine Elymus farctus (Viv.) Runem. ex Melderis Rare Omayed Enicostema axillare (Lam.) Raynal Rare Halayeb Triangle Ephedrapachyclada Boiss. Endangered Saint Katherine Epipactis veratrifolia Boiss. & Hohen. Inde terminate Saint Katherine Equisetum ramosissimum Desf. Rare Saint Katherine Erod /w^ arborescens (Desf.) Willd. Indeterminate Saint Katherine Euclea racemosa Murray Rare Halayeb Triangle Euphorbia hierosolymitana Boiss. Rare Saint Katherine Euphorbia p aralias L. Omayed Euphorbia polyacantha Boiss. Indeterminate Halayeb Triangle Evolvulus nummularius (L.) L. Endangered Halayeb Triangle Fagonia tenuifolia Steud. & Hochst. ex Boiss. Rare Halayeb Triangle 8 7

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Ferula sinaica Boiss. Endangered Saint Kath erine Fibigia clypeata (L.) Medik. Indeterminate Saint Katherine Ficus carica L. Endangered Saint Katherine Filago prolifera Pomel Rare Halayeb Triangle Flueggea virosa (Willd.) Voigt Rare Halayeb Triangle Fumana arabica (L.) Spach Endangered North Si nai Mountains Galium ceratopodum Boiss. Indeterminate Saint Katherine Galium mollugo L. Rare Halayeb Triangle Geranium trilophum Boiss. Indeterminate Halayeb Triangle Glaucium arabicum Fresen. Rare Saint Katherine Glossonema boveanum (Decne.) Decne. Rare Nabq, Wadi El Gemal Glossonema boveanum subsp. boveanum Rare Saint Katherine, Halayeb Decne. Triangle Gomphocarpus sinaicus Boiss. Vulnerable Saint Katherine Grew /a v /7/ osa Willd. Extinct Halayeb Triangle Halopyrum mucronatum (L.) Stapf Rare Halaye b Triangle Haloxylon persicum Bunge Endangered Saint Katherine Helianthemum sancti-antonii Schweinf. ex Endangered Saint Katherine Boiss. Heliotropium aegyptiacum Lehm. Rare Halayeb Triangle Holosteum umbellatum subsp. glutinosum (M. Vulnerable Saint Katherine Bieb.) Nyman Hyoscyamus pusillus L. Rare Saint Katherine, Nabq //Z oga j/w ca fa subsp. elbaensis Chartek Endangered Halayeb Triangle Indigofera argentea Burm.f. Vulnerable Wadi Allaqi, Halayeb Triangle Indigofera coerulea Roxb. Rare Halayeb Tria ngle Indigofera spiniflora Boiss. Rare Halayeb Triangle Indigofera tritoides Baker Indeterminate Halayeb Triangle 7/xwn oea o fo cwra (L.) Ker Gawl. Rare Halayeb Triangle Ixiolirion tataricum (Pall.) Herb. Indeterminate Saint Katherine Jacquemontia tamni folia (L.) Gnseb. Indeterminate Halayeb Triangle Jasminumfluminense Veil. Rare Halayeb Triangle Jasminum grandiflorum subsp. floribundum Rare Halayeb Triangle (R. Br. ex Fresen.) P.S. Green Jatropha glauca Vahl Rare Halayeb Triangle Jwrc cws 6I// O/J/I/J L. Rare Lake Manzala, Lake Burullus JuncuspunctoriusL.1 Rare Saint Katherine JuniperusphoeniceaL. Endangered North Sinai Mountains Justicia ladonoides Lam. Rare Halayeb Triangle Kedrostis gijef (J.F. Gmel.) C. Jeffrey Rare Halayeb Triangle Kickxia gr acilis D. A. Sutton Vulnerable Halayeb Triangle AT/dcd a macilenta (Decne.) Damn Rare Saint Katherine Lactuca undulate Ledeb. Rare Saint Katherine Lallemantia royleana (Benth.) Benth. Endangered Saint Katherine 8 8

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Lantana viburnoides (Forssk.) Vahl Rar e Halayeb Triangle Lappula sinaica (DC.) Asch. & Schweinf. Rare Saint Katherine Leucas inflata Benth. Extinct Saint Katherine Leucas neuflizeana Courbai Indeterminate Halayeb Triangle Linaria tenuis (Viv.) Spreng. Vulnerable Saint Katherine Linum pube scens Banks &Sol. Indeterminate Saint Katherine Lobularia arabica (Boiss.) Muschl. Rare Lake Bardawil, Lake Manzala, Lake Burullus, Omayed Maerua crassifolia Forssk. Rare Wadi El Gemal, Wadi Allaqi, Halayeb Triangle Maerua oblongifolia (Forssk.) A. Rich . Indeterminate Halayeb Triangle Malcolmia crenulata (DC.) Boiss. Indeterminate Saint Katherine Mannia androgyna (L.) A. Evans Rare hepatics Halayeb Triangle Matthiola arabica Boiss. Vulnerable Saint Katherine Maytenus senegalensis (Lam.) Excell Vulner able Halayeb Triangle Medicago hypogaea E. Small Indeterminate Saint Katherine Melhania denhamii R.Br. Vulnerable Halayeb Triangle Melicapersica Kunth Rare Saint Katherine Merremia aegyptia (L.) Urb. Rare Halayeb Triangle Mimosa pigra L. Rare Saluga and Ghazal, Halayeb Triangle Monsonia senegalensis Guill. & Perr. Rare Halayeb Triangle Morettia parviflora Boiss. Indeterminate Saint Katherine Moringaperegrina (Forssk.) Fion Vulnerable Wadi El Gemal, Saint Katherine Muscari salah-eidii (Täckh. & Boulos) Hosni Probably Saint Katherine extinct Nasturtiopsis coronopifolia (Desf.) Boiss. Rare Western Mediterranean coastal dunes M? «ea ventricosa (Sm.) Gnseb. Rare Saint Katherine Notoceras bicorne (Alton) Amo Rare Saint Katherine Nymphaea caerulea Savig ny Endangered Lake Manzala Nymphaea lotus L. Endangered Lake Manzala, Lake Edku Ocimumforsskaolii Benth. Endangered Halayeb Triangle Ogastemma pusillum (Coss. & Durand ex Indeterminate Saint Katherine Bonnet & Barratte) Brummitt O/ea europaea L. Vulner able Halayeb Triangle Olea europaea var. sylvestris (Mill.) Lehr Vulnerable Wadi El -Rayan Onopordum alexandrinum Boiss. Rare Western Mediterranean coastal dunes Onopordum ambiguum Fresen. Vulnerable Saint Katherine Onychium divaricatum (Poir.) Alston Rare Halayeb Triangle Ophioglossum polyphyllum A. Braun Rare Halayeb Triangle Origanum isthmicum Danin Endangered North Sinai Mountains 8 9

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Origanum syriacum subsp. sinaicum (Boiss.) Rare Saint Katherine Greuter & Burdet Orobanche ramosa var. ramosa L. Rare (IUCN) Wadi Allaqi Orthosiphon pallidus Royle ex Benth. Rare Halayeb Triangle Oryzopsis holciformis (M. Bieb.) Hack. Rare Saint Katherine Otostegiafruticosa (Forssk.) Penz. Indeterminate Saint Katherine Oxalis anthelmintica A. Rich. Rare Halayeb T riangle Oxygonum sinuatum (Meisn.) Dammer Rare Halayeb Triangle Paracaryum bungei (Boiss.) Brand Rare Saint Katherine Paracaryum rugulosum (DC.) Boiss. Rare Saint Katherine Parietaria debilis G. Forster Rare Halayeb Triangle Pavonia kotschyi Hochst. e x Webb Endangered Halayeb Triangle Pedalium murex L. Indeterminate Halayeb Triangle Pegolettia senegalensis Cass. Rare Saint Katherine, Halayeb Triangle Peristrophe paniculata (Forssk.) Brummitt Vulnerable Halayeb Triangle Phagnalon nitidum Fresen. Rar e Saint Katherine Phyllanthus reticulatus Poir. Indeterminate Halayeb Triangle ftOT longirostris Sch. Bip. Rare Saint Katherine Plagiochasma rupstre (J. R. Frost & G. Forst) Rare hepatics Halayeb Triangle Steph. Plantago sinaica (Barn.) Decne. Rare Sai nt Katherine Pleurostelma schimperi (Vatke) Liede Endangered Halayeb Triangle Plicosepalus curviflorus (Benth. ex Oliv.) Vulnerable Halayeb Triangle Tiegh. Plumbago zeylanica L. Rare Halayeb Triangle Poa M/aw ca Steud. Vulnerable Saint Katherine Polyga la irregularis Boiss. Rare Halayeb Triangle Pnva adhaerens (Forssk.) Chiov. Indeterminate Halayeb Triangle Psilotrichum gnaphalobryum (Hochst.) Rare Halayeb Triangle Schinz Pulicaria petiolaris Jaub. & Spach Indeterminate Halayeb Triangle Pupalia lappacea var. velutina (Moq.) Hook Rare Halayeb Triangle f. Ranunculus asiaticus L. Rare Saint Katherine Rhamnus dispermus Boiss. Rare Saint Katherine Rhus abyssinica Hochst. ex Oliv. Rare Halayeb Triangle Rhus tripartita (Ucria) Grande Vulnerable Saint Katherine, Wadi El Gemal, Halayeb Triangle ftfcc/ a congoana Steph. Rare hepatics Halayeb Triangle Ricotia lunaria (L.) DC. Rare Saint Katherine Ridolfia segetum (L.) Moris. Indeterminate Saint Katherine Robeshia schimperi (Boiss.) O.E. Schulz Endangered Saint Katherine Rosularia lineata (Boiss.) A.Berger Rare North Sinai Mountains

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Rubia tenuifolia D’Urv. Endangered North Sinai Mountains Rubus sanctus Schreb. Indeterminate Saint Katherine Ruellia patula Jacq. Rare Halayeb Triangle Sageretia thea (Osbe ck) M.C. Johnston Endangered Saint Katherine Salsola tetragona Delile Endangered Lake Bardawil, Western Mediterranean coastal dunes SalvadorapersicaL. Vulnerable Nabq, Wadi El Gemal Schimpera arabica Hochst. & Steud. ex Endl. Rare Saint Katherine Scill a hanburyi Baker Indeterminate Saint Katherine Sclerocephalus arabicus Boiss. Vulnerable Saint Katherine, Halayeb Triangle Scorzonera drarii Täckh. Probably Saint Katherine extinct Scorzonera mollis M. Bieb. Endangered Saint Katherine Scorzonera schwei nfurthii Boiss. Endangered Saint Katherine Scrophularia sinaica Benth. Vulnerable Saint Katherine &ddera ara fo ca (Forssk.) Choisy Endangered Halayeb Triangle &J

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Triumfetta flavescens Hochst. ex A. Rich. Rare Halayeb Triangle Tulipa stylosa Stapf Endange red Saint Katherine Umbilicus botryoides Hochst. ex A. Rich. Rare Halayeb Triangle Umbilicus rupestris (Salisb.) Dandy Rare Saint Katherine Vahlia digyna (Retz.) Kuntze Indeterminate Saluga and Ghazal Verbascum decaisneanum Kuntze Endangered Saint Kath erine Verbascum letourneuxii Asch. & Schweinf. Rare Omayed, Western Mediterranean coastal dunes Verbascum sinaiticum Benth. Rare Saint Katherine Veronica campylopoda Boiss. Rare Saint Katherine Veronica kaiseri Täckh. Probably Saint Katherine extinct Viola cinerea Boiss. Endangered Halayeb Triangle Volutaria sinaica (DC.) Wagentiz Indeterminate Saint Katherine, Halayeb Triangle Vulpia myuros (L.) C.C. Gmel. Rare Saint Katherine Waltheria indica L. Indeterminate Halayeb Triangle Zehneria anomala C. Jeffrey Indeterminate Halayeb Triangle Zilla spinosa subsp. biparmata (O.E. Schulz) Vulnerable Wadi Allaqi, Nabq, Wadi El Maire & Weiller Gemal purpurea Fresen. Vulnerable Saint Katherine Zosima absinthifolia (Vent.) Link Rare Saint Katherine Zygophyllum album L.f. var. album Rare Western Mediterranean coastal dunes Zygophyllum coccineum L. Indeterminate Western Mediterranean coastal dunes, Nabq, Hurghada, Wadi El Gemal

Endemic species

Species Status IPA Allium crameri Asch. & Boiss. Rare Sai nt Katherine Anarrhinum pubescens Fresen. Endangered Saint Katherine Anthemis microsperma Boiss. & Kotschy Rare Western Mediterranean coastal dunes, Saint Katherine Astragalus camelorum Barbey Endangered Lake Bardawil, Saint Katherine Astragalus fresen ii Decne. Endangered Saint Katherine Atractylis carduus var. marmarica Täckh. & Rare Western Mediterranean Boulos coastal dunes Ballota kaiseri Täckh. Endangered Saint Katherine Bellevalia salah -eidii Täckh. & Boulos Endangered Lake Bardawil Biscutella didyma var . elbensis (Chartek) El Endangered Halayeb Triangle Naggar Brassica deserti Danin & Hedge Endangered Saint Katherine Bromus aegyptiacus Tausch Lake Manzala, Lake Mariut Bufonia multiceps Decne. Endangered Saint Katherine Colchicum cornigerum (Schweinf. ex Endangered Saint Katherine Sickenb.) T äckh. & Drar Da wcws jyrt fa/j Murb. Rare Omayed Elymus farctus (Viv.) Runem. ex Melderis Rare Omayed

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Epipactis veratrifolia Boiss. & Hohen. Indeterminate Saint Katherine Unique orchid in Egypt Euphor bia obovata Decne. Rare Saint Katherine Grimmia anodon Bruch & Schimp . var. Endemic Saint Katherine sinaitica Renauld & Cardot mosses Hyoscyamus boveanus (Dunal) Asch. & Saint Katherine Schweinf. //Z oga j/w ca fa subsp . elbaensis Chartek Endangered Halay eb Triangle LK/H/KM digitatus Forssk Endangered Wadi Allaqi Micromeria serbaliana Danin & Hedge Endangered Saint Katherine Muscari salah-eidii (Täckh. & Boulos) Hosni Probably Saint Katherine extinct Najaspectinata (Parl.) Magn. Saint Katherine Origanum syriacum subsp. sinaicum (Boiss.) Rare Saint Katherine Greuter & Burdet Pancratium arabicum Sickenb. Endangered Western Mediterranean coastal dunes Phagnalon nitidum Fresen. Rare Saint Katherine Phlomis aurea Decne. Endangered Saint Katherine Plant ago sinaica (Barn.) Decne. Rare Saint Katherine Polygala sinaica var. «/j a/ca Botsch. Rare Saint Katherine Primula boveana Decne. ex Duby Endangered Saint Katherine Pterocephalus arabicus Boiss. Endangered Saint Katherine Rorippa integrifolia Boulos En dangered Saint Katherine Rosa arabica Cr ép. Endangered Saint Katherine Scorzonera drarii Täckh. Probably Saint Katherine extinct Silene leucophylla Boiss. Endangered Saint Katherine Silene odontopetala Fenzl Saint Katherine Silene oreosinaica Chowdhu ri Endangered Saint Katherine Silene schimperiana Boiss. Endangered Saint Katherine Sinapis allionii Jacq. Endangered Lake Burullus, Lake Mariut Solanum nigrum var. elbaensis Täckh. & Probably Halayeb Triangle Boulos extinct Sonchus macrocarpus Boulos & C. Jeffrey Rare Lake Burullus Tortula kneuckeri Broth. & Geh. Endemic Saint Katherine mosses Veronica kaiseri Täckh. Probably Saint Katherine extinct Vicia sinaica Boulos Indeterminate Saint Katherine Zygophyllum album L.f. var. album Rare Western Me diterranean coastal dunes

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Mediterranean endemic species Species Status IPA Ajuga iva (L.) Schreb. Western Mediterranean coastal dunes, Sallum Area Alkanna lehmanii (Tin.) A. DC. Western Mediterranean coastal dunes Allium myrianthum Boiss. Sallum Area arenaria (L.) Link Omayed, Western Mediterranean coastal dunes, Sallum Area Anacyclus monanthos subsp. monanthos (L.) Western Mediterranean Thell. coastal dunes, Sallum Area Arisarum vulgare Targ. Tozz. Lake Mari ut, Omayed, Sallum Area Asphodelus aestivus Brot. Western Mediterranean coastal dunes Astragalus boeticus L Lake Bardawil, Lake Burullus, Omayed, Sallum Area Atractylis cancellata L. Omayed Brassica nigra (L.) Koch Lake Manzala, Lake Burullus Bromus aegyptiacus Tausch Lake Manzala, Lake Mariut Bromus diandrus Roth Lake Manzala, Lake Burullus, Lake Mariut Bupleurum nodiflorum Sm . Omayed Carduncellus mareoticus (Delile) Hanelt Lake Mariut Carex extensa Good Lake Manzala, La ke Burullus Carthamus lanatus L. Omayed Centaurea pumilio L. Lake Burullus, Omayed, Western Mediterranean coastal dunes Crucianella maritima L. Western Mediterranean coastal dunes Cyperus conglomeratus Rottb. Lake Bardawil, Lake Burullus Daucus litoralis var. forsskaolii Boiss. Western Mediterranean coastal dunes Daucus littoralis var. littoralis Sm. Lake Bardawil Daucus syrticus Murb. Rare Lake Burullus, Omayed, Western Mediterranean coastal dunes Echinops spinosus L. Western Mediterranean

189

coastal dunes Echium angustifolium Mill. Lake Bardawil, Lake Mariut Echium angustifolium subsp. angustifolium Mill. Western Mediterranean coastal dunes, Sallum Area Echium angustifolium subsp. sericeum (Vahl) Omayed, Western Klotz Mediterranean coastal dunes, Sallum Area Echium rubrum Forssk. Sallum Area Elymus farctus (Viv.) Runem. ex Melderis Lake Burullus, Lake Mariut, Omayed, Western Mediterranean coastal dunes Enarthrocarpus lyratus (Forssk .) DC. Lake Mariut, Western Mediterranean coastal dunes, Sallum Area Enarthrocarpus pterocarpus (Pers.) DC. Sallum Area Erodium chium (L.) Willd. Sallum Area Erodium gruinum (L.) L'Her Lake Mariut Erodium laciniatum (Cav.) Willd. Lake Bardaw il, Lake Burullus Erucaria hispanica (L.) Druce Lake Bardawil, Lake Mariut Euphorbia hierosolymitana Boiss. Rare Omayed Fagonia cretica L. Lake Mariut Fumaria judaica Boiss. Lake Mariut Gagea fibrosa (Desf.)Schult. & Beauverd Endangered Omayed Glebionis coronaria (L.) Tzvelev Lake Burullus, Western Mediterranean coastal dunes Hymenocarpos circinnatus (L.) Savi Western Mediterranean coastal dunes Hyoscyamus muticus L. Lake Mariut radiata subsp. graeca Halácsy Sallum Area Hy oseris scabra L. Omayed, Sallum Area Lathyrus marmoratus Boiss. & Blanche Lake Burullus, Omayed, Western Mediterranean coastal dunes Leontodon tuberosus L. Western Mediterranean coastal dunes monopetalum (L.) Boiss. Lake Bardaw il, Lake Burullus, Lake Mariut, Omayed, Western Mediterranean coastal dunes, Sallum Area Limonium narbonese Mill. Sallum Area Limonium pruinosum (L.) Chaz. Lake Bardawil, Lake Manzala, Lake Burullus

190

Limonium sinuatum subsp. sin uatum (L.) Mill. Sallum Area Limonium sinuatum subsp. bonduellei (Lestib.) Sallum Area Sauvage & Vindt Lobularia maritima (L.) Desv. Western Mediterranean coastal dunes Lotus creticus L. Omayed, Western Mediterranean coastal dunes, Sallum Area Lotus polyphyllos E.D. Clarke Omayed, Western Mediterranean coastal dunes, Sallum Area Lycium europaeum L. Omayed, Western Mediterranean coastal dunes Lycium schweinfurthii Dammer Lake Burullus Lycium schweinfurthii var. schweinfurth ii Western Mediterranean Dammer coastal dunes Muscari bicolor Boiss. Lake Bardawil Nicotiana glauca R. C. Graham Western Mediterranean coastal dunes Pancratium maritimum L. Lake Bardawil, Lake Burullus, Omayed, Western Mediterranean coastal dunes, Sallum Area Paronychia argentea Lam. Lake Bardawil, Western Mediterranean coastal dunes Paronychia capitata (L.) Lam. Western Mediterranean coastal dunes Phagnalon rupestre (L.) DC. Western Mediterranean coastal dunes Phlomis f loccosa D. Don Omayed Plantago crassifolia Forssk. Lake Manzala, Lake Burullus, Western Mediterranean coastal dunes Plantago squarrosa Murray Lake Burullus, Western Mediterranean coastal dunes Prasium majus L. Vulnerable Omayed Salsola tetr agona Delile Endangered Omayed Scabiosa eremophila Boiss. Rare (IUCN) Omayed Silene colorata var. colorata Poir. Sallum Area Silene rubella L. Lake Burullus, Lake Mariut, Western Mediterranean coastal dunes Silene succulenta Forssk. Lake Burul lus, Omayed, Western Mediterranean coastal dunes, Sallum Area

191

coastal dunes Echium angustifolium Mill. Lake Bardawil, Lake Mariut Echium angustifolium subsp. angustifolium Mill. Western Mediterranean coastal dunes, Sallum Area Echium angustifolium subsp. sericeum (Vahl) Omayed, Western Klotz Mediterranean coastal dunes, Sallum Area Echium rubrum Forssk. Sallum Area

Elymus farctus (Viv.) Runem. ex Melderis Lake Burullus, Lake Mariut, Omayed, Western Mediterranean coastal dunes Enarthrocarpus lyratus (Forssk.) DC. Lake Mariut, Western Mediterranean coastal dunes, Sallum Area Enarthrocarpus pterocarpus (Pers.) DC. Sallum Area Erodium chium (L.) Willd. Sallum Area Erodium gruinum (L.) L'Her Lake Mariut Erodium laciniatum (Cav.) Willd. Lake Bardawil, Lake Burullus Erucaria hispanica (L.) Druce Lake Bardawil, Lake Mariut Euphorbia hierosolymitana Boiss. Rare Omayed Fagonia cretica L. Lake Mariut Fumariajudaica Boiss. Lake Mariut Gageafibrosa (Desf.)Schult. & Beauverd Endangered Omayed Glebionis coronaria (L.) Tzvelev Lake Burullus, Western Mediterranean coastal dunes Hymenocarpos circinnatus (L.) Savi Western Mediterranean coastal dunes Hyoscyamus muticus L. Lake Mariut Hyoseris radiata subsp. graeca Hal ácsy Sallum Area Hyoseris scabra L. Omayed, Sallum Area Lathyrus marmoratus Boiss. & Blanche Lake Burullus, Omayed, Western Mediterranean coastal dunes Leontodon tuberosus L. Western Mediterranean coastal dunes Limoniastrum monopetalum (L.) Boiss. Lake Bardawil, Lake Burullus, Lake Mariut, Omayed, Western Mediterranean coastal dunes, Sallum Area Limonium narbonese Mill. Sallum Area Limonium pruinosum (L.) Chaz. Lake Bardawil, Lake Manzala, Lake Burullus

192

Limonium sinuatum subsp. sinuatum (L.) Mill. Sallum Are a Limonium sinuatum subsp. bonduellei (Lestib.) Sallum Area Sauvage & Vindt Lobularia maritima (L.) Desv. Western Mediterranean coastal dunes Lotus creticus L. Omayed, Western Mediterranean coastal dunes, Sallum Area Lotus polyphyllos E.D. Clarke Omayed, Western Mediterranean coastal dunes, Sallum Area Lycium europaeum L. Omayed, Western Mediterranean coastal dunes Lycium schweinfiirthii Dammer Lake Burullus Lycium schweinfiirthii var. schweinfiirthii Western Mediterranean Dammer coastal dunes Muscari bicolor Boiss. Lake Bardawil Nicotiana glauca R. C. Graham Western Mediterranean coastal dunes Pancratium maritimum L. Lake Bardawil, Lake Burullus, Omayed, Western Mediterranean coastal dunes, Sallum Area Paronychia argentea Lam. Lake Bardawil, Western Mediterranean coastal dunes Paronychia capitata (L.) Lam. Western Mediterranean coastal dunes Phagnalon rupestre (L.) DC. Western Mediterranean coastal dunes Phlomis floccosa D. Don Omayed Plantago crassifolia Forssk. Lake Manzala, Lake Burullus, Western Mediterranean coastal dunes Plantago squarrosa Murray Lake Burullus, Western Mediterranean coastal dunes Prasium majus L. Vulnerable Omayed &z/ so /a tetragona Delile Endangered Omayed Scabiosa eremophila Boiss. Rare (IUCN) Omayed &7 e«e co /orata var. co /orata Poir. Sallum Area Silene rubella L. Lake Burullus, Lake Mariut, Western Mediterranean coastal dunes &7 e«e succulenta Forssk. Lake Burullus, Omayed, Western Mediterranean coastal dunes, Sallum Area

193

Solarium elaeagnifolium Cav. Lake Bardawil Sonchus bulbosus (L.) N. Kilian & Greuter Western Mediterranean coastal dunes Sporoboluspungens (Schreb.) Kunth Omayed, Western Mediterranean coastal dunes Suaeda pruinosa Lange Western Mediterranean coasta l dunes, Sallum Area Thesium humile var. humile Vahl Sallum Area Trigonella maritima Poir. Lake Mariut

List of national threatened habitats.

IPA National threatened habitat Is this habitat also threatened across the whole Mediterranean Lake Bardawil, Lake Manzala, Marine Sand bar Yes Lake Burullus Lake Manzala Coastal salt marshes Yes

Lake Manzala, Lake Burullus, Reed swamps: Phragmites australis Yes Lake Mariut (Cav.) Trin. ex Steud.

Lake Burullus Sand formations Don't know

Lake Burullus Lake islets Don't know

Lake Edku, Lake Mariut Mediterranean wetland Yes

Omayed Non-saline depressions Yes

Omayed Rocky ridges and plateau Yes

Omayed Dry salt marshes Don't know

Omayed, Western Coastal sand dunes Yes Mediterranean coastal dunes Moghra Oasis Inland reed swamps Don't know

Moghra Oasis Gravel desert Yes

Moghra Oasis Sand hammocks Don't know

Sallum Area Inland sand plains Yes

Sallum Area, Saint Katherine, Wadis (i.e. desert valleys) Yes Halayeb Triangle Wadi El-Rayan Uninhabited Saharan oasis Don’t' know

Wadi El-Rayan Limestone escarpments Don’t' know

Wadi El-Rayan Inland wetland Don’t' know

Nabq, Hurghada Mangrove swamps No Hurghada Red Sea coastal plain No

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Hurghada, Wadi El Gemal, Downstream parts of the wadis (i.e. Yes Wadi Allaqi desert valleys)

Wadi El Gemal Coastal marshes Yes

Lake Nasser Khors (i.e. side branches of the lake) No

Saluga and Ghazal Nile Islands No

Halayeb Triangle Sandy plains No

195