Early Childhood Counts: Programming Resources for Early Childhood Care and Development Educating Young Children: Active Learning Practices for Preschool and Child Care Programs excerpt from Educating Young Children (pages 13-41), a curriculum guide from High/Scope Educational Research Foundation, Ypsilanti, Michigan, USA by Mary Hohmann and David P. Weikart

Publication of the High/Scope Press, 1995.

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Copyright © High/Scope Educational Research Foundation 1995. Used with permission. All rights reserved.

Early Childhood Counts: Programming Resources for Early Childhood Care and Development. CD-ROM. The Consultative Group on ECCD. Washington D.C.: World Bank, 1999. A 151.28% Part 1 The Active Learning Approach

B 79.39% C 43%

13 Secure in the knowledge that an adult is available to help if needed, this child solves the problem of how to make a tower taller and develops an “I can do it” feeling about herself.

A 30.63%

B D 35% 46%

C 40%

E 45.7%

(14) appropriate education in diverse settings. In doing Human Development as a so, we have made the following basic assumptions 1 Framework for Education about human growth and development: • Human beings develop capacities in predictable sequences throughout their lives. As people mature, new capabilities emerge. Active he cornerstone of the High/Scope approach to early childhood education • Despite the general predictability of is the belief that active learning is funda- human development, each person displays unique Tmental to the full development of human poten- characteristics from birth, which through everyday tial and that active learning occurs most effective- interactions progressively differentiate into a Learning: ly in settings that provide developmentally appro- unique personality. Learning always occurs in the priate learning opportunities. Therefore, the over- context of each person’s unique characteristics, arching goal of our early childhood work is to abilities, and opportunities. establish a flexible, “open framework,” opera- • There are times during the life cycle tional model that supports developmentally The Way when certain kinds of things are learned best or most efficiently, and there are teaching methods that are more appropriate at certain times in the developmental sequence than at others. Children Given that developmental change is a basic fact of human existence but that each person is also developmentally unique, and that there are optimal times for particular kinds of learning, developmentally appropriate education can be Construct defined by three criteria. An educational experi- ence, procedure, or method—whether adult- or child-initiated—is developmentally appropriate if it . . . Knowledge 1. Exercises and challenges the learner’s capacities as they emerge at a given develop- mental level Knowledge arises 2. Encourages and helps the learner to neither from objects develop a unique pattern of interests, talents, nor the child, but from and goals G 100% interactions between 3. Presents learning experiences when the child and those learners are best able to master, generalize, and objects. retain what they learn and can relate it to previous experiences and future expectations — Jean Piaget

15 “Only knowledge of the order and connection of the stages in the devel- opment of the psychical functions can . . . insure the full meaning and free, yet orderly or law-abiding, exercise of the psychical powers. In a word, education itself is precisely the work of supplying the conditions both the progressives and the cogni- observations: “That ball outside bounces, but this which will enable the psychical functions, as they successively arise, to tive-developmentalists view learning Play-Doh ball doesn’t bounce.” Note that even mature and pass into higher functions in the freest and fullest manner.” as developmental change. The pro- though Karla has adjusted her concept of reality — John Dewey and James A. McLellan, (1964, p. 207) gressive view of learning can be to accommodate new information, the new expla- expressed as “an active change in nation she gives is still incomplete, because devel- patterns of thinking brought about opmental change occurs slowly, in small incre- by experiential problem-solving” ments. It usually takes many experiences for a Furthermore, in the High/Scope (Kohlberg and Mayer 1972, p. 455). Progressives child to acquire a new concept. According to approach, learning is viewed as a social experi- believe that the aim of education should be to developmental psychologist John Flavel (1963), ence involving meaningful interactions among support children’s natural interactions with peo- children “can incorporate only those components children and adults. Since children learn at differ- ple and the environment, because this process of of reality which [their mental] structures can ent rates and have unique interests and experi- interaction stimulates development “through the assimilate without drastic change” (p. 50). ences, they are more likely to reach their full presentation of resolvable but genuine problems potential for growth when they are encouraged or conflicts” (Kohlberg and Mayer 1972, p. 454). to interact and communicate freely with peers Similarly, the cognitive-developmentalists Active Learning—A Complex and adults. These social experiences occur in describe learning as a process in which the child Physical and Mental Process the context of real-life activities that children acts on and interacts with the immediate world have planned and initiated themselves, or within to construct an increasingly elaborate concept The learning process, then, is seen as an inter- adult-initiated experiences that afford ample of reality. Through experience, the child forms action between the goal-oriented actions of the opportunity for children’s choice, leadership, incomplete ideas that may lead to contradictory learner and the environmental realities that and individual expression. conclusions; the process of resolving these con- affect those actions. Children construct their tradictions leads to increasingly more complex own models of reality, which develop over time thinking and learning. For example, Karla, a child in response to new experiences and exposure Learning as Developmental who has noticed that most of the balls in her to other viewpoints. Change experience are round and bounce, observes The High/Scope Curriculum draws extensively on to herself: “My Play- the cognitive-developmental work of Jean Piaget Doh ball is round. It (1969, 1970) and his colleagues, as well as the will bounce.” Through Children as Active Learners further experience, progressive educational philosophy of John Active learning—the direct and immediate experiencing of objects, people, Karla becomes aware Dewey (1963/1938, 1933). Both of these theorists ideas, and events—is a necessary condition for cognitive restructuring and of a contradiction—the believed that human development occurs gradual- hence for development. Put simply, young children learn concepts, form Play-Doh ball is round, ly through a series of ordered, sequential stages. ideas, and create their own symbols or abstractions through self-initiated but sticks to the floor The High/Scope preschool approach is geared to activity—moving, listening, searching, feeling, manipulating. Such activity, when bounced—and children who are functioning in what Piaget calls carried on within a social context in which an alert and sensitive adult is a recognizes the need to the “preoperational” stage of development. The participant-observer, makes it possible for the child to be involved in intrinsi- construct a new way of preoperational period falls between the “sensory- cally interesting experiences that may produce contradictory conclusions and thinking that coordi- motor” period (infants and toddlers) and the a consequent reorganization of the child’s understanding of his or her world. nates her past conclu- “concrete-operational” period (elementary level) In High/Scope centers and classrooms, children are active agents sions with her new in Piaget’s developmental continuum. Moreover, who construct their own knowledge of the world as they transform their ideas and interactions into logical and intuitive sequences of thought and action, work with diverse materials to create personally meaningful experi- 16 Educating Young Children ences and outcomes, and talk about their experiences in their own words. In embracing the view of learning as a find out about the objects. Acting on objects process of developmental change, High/Scope gives children something “real” to think about adopted the term “active learning” to describe the and discuss with others. Through these types central process of the High/Scope Curriculum. of “concrete” experiences with materials and Active learning is defined as learning in which the people, children gradually begin to form abstract child, by acting on objects and interacting with concepts. As Flavel (1963) puts it, “Children people, ideas, and events, constructs new under- perform real actions on materials which form the standing. No one else can have experiences for learning base, actions as concrete and direct as the child or construct knowledge for the child. the materials can be made to allow” (p. 367). Children must do this for themselves. In this book, “active learning” stands ! Reflection on actions for four critical elements: (1) direct action on Action alone is not sufficient for learn- objects, (2) reflection on actions, (3) intrinsic ing. To understand their immediate world, chil- motivation, invention, and generativity, and dren must interact thoughtfully with it. Children’s (4) problem solving. Next, we discuss each of understanding of the world develops as they carry these elements as reflected in the activities of out actions arising from the need to test ideas or preschool children. find answers to questions. A young child who reaches for a ball, for example, is pursuing an ! Direct actions on objects internal question, such as “Hmm . . . wonder Active learning depends on the use of what this thing does?” By acting (grasping, tast- materials—natural and found materials, house- ing, chewing, dropping, pushing, and rolling) and hold objects, toys, equipment, and tools. Active then reflecting on these actions, the child begins learning begins as young children manipulate to answer the question and to construct a per- objects, using their bodies and all their senses to sonal understanding of what balls do. Put another Active learning starts as children manipulate objects—for way, the child’s actions, and reflec- example, maneuvering a mirror to just the right spot for their pretend play. tions on those actions, result in the development of thought and under- standing. Thus, active learning within the child. The child’s personal interests, The Importance of Independent involves both the physical activity of Problem Solving questions, and intentions lead to exploration, interacting with objects to produce experimentation, and the construction of new Experiences in which the preschool child produces some effect effects and the mental activity of knowledge and understanding. Active learners are on the world (in contrast with, say, watching television) are interpreting these effects and fitting questioners and inventors. They generate hypothe- crucial to the development of thought processes, because the the interpretations into a more com- ses—“I wonder how I can get this block that I child’s logic develops from the effort to interpret the informa- plete understanding of the world. want to be my scuba diving air tank to stay on my tion gained through such experiences; interpretation of new back?”—and test them out by using and combin- information modifies the interpretative structures themselves ! Intrinsic motivation, invention, ing materials in a way that makes sense to them. as the child strives for a more logical internal model of reality. and generativity As inventors, children create unique solutions and Therefore, if we want children to become intelligent problem In this perspective, the products: “I tried tying the block on with string, solvers, it seems clear that the best way to do so in preschool impetus to learn clearly arises from and it kept falling off, but the tape made it work.” or child care programs is to give children many opportunities to work on problems of interest to them—that is, problems that arise from their own attempts to comprehend the world. Active Learning 17 While children’s creations may sometimes be Young Children and Adults Think Differently messy, unstable, or unrecognizable to adults, the process by which children think about and Learning to understand the world is a slow and gradual process in which children try to fit new produce these creations is the way they come observations to what they already know or think they understand about reality. As a result, they often to understand their world. It is also important come to unique conclusions, conclusions that, from the standpoint of adult thinking, may be viewed as to recognize that the errors children make errors. Adults interacting with children should recognize that this type of thinking is part of the active (“The string won’t hold the block on”) are as learning process and should accept children’s nonadult reasoning—in time, children’s thinking will important as their successes in providing them become more like adult thinking. Below are some of the ways preschool children think differently with essential information about their original from adults: hypotheses. Thus, active learning is an ongoing, It’s alive! “It’s running after me!” 4-year-old Erin exclaims as she runs away from a trickle inventive process in which children combine of water. Erin is not being silly or cute. She is trying to understand her direct experience. The distinc- materials, experiences, and ideas to produce tion between living and nonliving things is not very clear to young children. They often equate effects that are new to them. Although adults movement with life (“The butter’s running! It’s alive!”) and wonder when dead pets or relatives may take for granted the laws of nature and will be alive again. logic, each child discovers them as if for the first time. Concrete definitions. “I’m beside myself with excitement!” exclaims Mrs. Cantu. “How you do that?” James asks, looking at her curiously.

! Problem solving “Do what?” Mrs. Cantu asks. “You . . . be . . . be . . . beside you. How you do it?” Experiences in which children produce Young children base the meanings of words on their own experiences. To James, “beside” an effect they may or may not anticipate are means “next to.” He is trying to figure out how Mrs. Cantu can be next to herself. crucial to the development of their ability to think and reason. When children encounter real- Blending intuitive and scientific thought. “Look, my magnet catches nails,” Wanda says life problems—unexpected outcomes or barriers to her friend, Topher. to fulfilling their intentions—the process of rec- “We catch nails ‘cause our magnets have strong powers.” onciling the unexpected with what they already “But we can’t catch these sticks. They don’t have powers.” know about the world stimulates learning and Wanda and Topher have constructed their ideas from careful observation (the magnets pick development. For example, Roberto, a child up nails but not sticks) and intuition or fantasy (the magnet “catches” some things because of special pretending to cook soup, tries to cover the pot “powers”). of “soup” (water) with a lid. He expects the lid One thing at a time. Because they generally focus on one thing at a time, young children to cover the pan, but instead it falls into the usually don’t make “both . . . and” statements. For example, when Corey asks his friend Vanessa if soup and water splashes on his hand. Roberto she has any pets, she says she doesn’t. This doesn’t stop Corey from asking her whether she has any knows from experience that the lid is supposed cats (even though cats are included in the larger class of pets). When Vanessa says she doesn’t have to stay on top of the pan, so he decides to place a cat, Corey asks her if she has a dog. Vanessa replies that she does have a dog, and Corey confides several other lids on the pot until he finds one that he has a dog, too. Neither child is aware that Vanessa’s dog is both a dog and a pet. that fits properly and does not fall into the soup. Through repeated experiences like this, he will Judging by appearances. Young children tend to make judgments about “how much” and learn to consider the size of any cover in relation “how many” based on appearances. For example, young children reason that a nickel is more than to the size of an opening. a dime because it is bigger. They might also think that a cup (8 ounces) of juice in a small glass is more than a cup of juice in a bigger glass simply because the smaller glass is fuller.

18 Educating Young Children “If I hold my hands out like this, will I go faster?”—As they play, active learners pose questions and seek answers.

Active learning involves both interacting with objects (using a food mill) and interpreting the effects of one’s actions (thinking about how the apples changed to Children do most of the “work” of active learning while the teacher is a conscious participant-observer. applesauce). Here, as she gets a “haircut,” the teacher jots down an observation to discuss later with her teammate.

Active Learning 19 Adults as Supporters of Active Learners The Adult Given that children learn through their own experiences Role and discoveries, what is the role of adults in the active L learning environment? In the broadest sense, adults are Adults support 63.6% supporters of development, and as such their primary active learning by goal is to encourage active learning on the part of the child. Adults do not tell children what to learn or how to learn it—instead, they empower children to take control of their own learning. In carrying out this role, adults are not only active and participatory but • Organizing environments also observational and reflective; they are conscious participant-observers. Play areas are clearly defined While children interact with materials, people, and stocked with interesting, ideas, and events to construct their own understanding age-appropriate materials. of reality, adults observe and interact with children to discover how each child thinks and reasons. Adults strive to recognize each child’s particular interests and abilities, and to offer the child appropriate support and challenges. This adult role is complex and develops grad- ually as the adult becomes more adept at recognizing and meeting each child’s developmental needs. Basically, adults in High/Scope settings support children by . . . • Organizing environments and routines for active learning • Organizing routines • Establishing a climate for positive social interactions The sequence of the day’s • Encouraging children’s intentional actions, events is care- problem solving, and verbal reflection M 57.14% fully planned. • Observing and interpreting the actions of each Here, the child in terms of the developmental principles teacher uses embodied in the High/Scope key experiences a handmade • Planning experiences that build on the child’s picture book actions and interests to help chil- dren learn It is the major purpose of this book to describe what part of in detail these aspects of the adult’s role; therefore, the routine specific examples of how adults support children comes next. appear throughout the text.

20 Educating Young Children • Establishing a supportive social climate Relationships among adults and children are relaxed and positive.

P 62.3%

N 89%

• Interpreting children’s actions in terms of the High/Scope key experiences Teams meet daily to discuss and interpret observations.

Q 56.5%

O 57.6%

• Planning experiences The adults planned this recall-time activity to build on children’s interests. • Encouraging children’s intentional actions, problem solving, and verbal reflections The adult focuses on the children’s actions and goals. Active Learning 21 High/Scope Preschool Key Experiences

Creative Representation Movement Seriation • Recognizing objects by sight, sound, touch, taste, • Moving in nonlocomotor ways (anchored • Comparing attributes (longer/shorter, and smell movement: bending, twisting, rocking, swinging bigger/smaller) • Imitating actions and sounds one’s arms) • Arranging several things one after another in a • Relating models, pictures, and photographs to real • Moving in locomotor ways (nonanchored series or pattern and describing the relationships places and things movement: running, jumping, hopping, skipping, (big/bigger/biggest, red/blue/red/blue) marching, climbing) • Pretending and role playing • Fitting one ordered set of objects to another • Moving with objects through trial and error (small cup–small • Making models out of clay, blocks, and other saucer/medium cup–medium saucer/big cup–big materials • Expressing creativity in movement saucer) • Drawing and painting • Describing movement Number Language and Literacy • Acting upon movement directions • Comparing the number of things in two sets to • Feeling and expressing steady beat • Talking with others about personally meaningful determine “more,” “fewer,” “same number” experiences • Moving in sequences to a common beat • Arranging two sets of objects in one-to-one • Describing objects, events, and relations Music correspondence • Having fun with language: listening to stories and • Moving to music • Counting objects poems, making up stories and rhymes • Exploring and identifying sounds • Writing in various ways: drawing, scribbling, Space letterlike forms, invented spelling, conventional • Exploring the singing voice • Filling and emptying forms • Developing melody • Fitting things together and taking them apart • Reading in various ways: reading storybooks, • Singing songs • Changing the shape and arrangement of objects signs and symbols, one’s own writing • Playing simple musical instruments (wrapping, twisting, stretching, stacking, • Dictating stories enclosing) Classification Initiative and Social Relations • Observing people, places, and things from • Exploring and describing similarities, differences, different spatial viewpoints • Making and expressing choices, plans, and and the attributes of things decisions • Experiencing and describing positions, directions, • Distinguishing and describing shapes and distances in the play space, building, and • Solving problems encountered in play • Sorting and matching neighborhood • Taking care of one’s own needs • Using and describing something in several ways • Interpreting spatial relations in drawings, pictures, • Expressing feelings in words • Holding more than one attribute in mind at a time and photographs • Participating in group routines • Distinguishing between “some” and “all” Time • Being sensitive to the feelings, interests, and needs of others • Describing characteristics something does not • Starting and stopping an action on signal possess or what class it does not belong to • Building relationships with children and adults • Experiencing and describing rates of movement • Creating and experiencing collaborative play • Experiencing and comparing time intervals • Dealing with social conflict • Anticipating, remembering, and describing sequences of events

22 Educating Young Children Piaget and Dewey on the “The educator is responsible for a knowledge of Adult’s Role individuals and for a knowledge of subject-matter that will enable activities to be selected which Jean Piaget: lend themselves to social organization in which The High/Scope Key “In our view, the role of the teacher remains all individuals have an opportunity to contribute essential but very difficult to gauge: it consists something, and in which the activities in which all Experiences—A Framework for essentially in arousing the child’s curiosity and in participate are the chief carrier of control . . . Understanding Active Learning stimulating the child’s research. It accomplishes “When education is based upon experi- this by encouraging the child to set his or her ence and educative experience is seen to be a social If a set of beliefs about how children learn and own problems, and not by thrusting problems process . . . the teacher loses the position of external how adults support learning form the process upon the child or dictating solutions. Above all, boss or dictator but takes on that of leader of group of the High/Scope approach, then the content is the adult must continually find fresh ways to activities.” provided by the High/Scope key experiences. The stimulate the child’s activity and be prepared to —-John Dewey (1933, pp. 56, 59, 71) preschool key experiences are a series of state- vary his or her approach as the child raises new ments describing the social, cognitive, and physi- questions or imagines new solutions. In particu- cal development of children from the ages of 21 –5 2 lar, when these solutions are false or incomplete, years. Each statement highlights an active learn- the role of the teacher will consist primarily in ing experience that is essential for the develop- devising counter examples or control experi- ment of the fundamental abilities that emerge ments so that the child will be during early childhood. These experiences are not able to correct his or her own a set of specific topics and learning objectives; errors and find fresh solutions instead, they are experiences that young children through direct actions.” encounter repeatedly in the natural course of their —-Jean Piaget, quoted in Banet daily lives. Together, the key experiences define (1976, p. 7) the kinds of knowledge young children are John Dewey: acquiring as they interact with materials, people, “[The educator’s] problem ideas, and events. is to protect the spirit of Since young children readily engage in inquiry, to keep it from the High/Scope key experiences, the role of adults becoming blasé from over- is to create an environment in which these devel- excitement, wooden from opmentally important experiences can occur and routine, fossilized through then to recognize, support, and build on them dogmatic instruction, or dis- when they do. The creation of an environment sipated by random exercise rich with key experiences, and the delivery of upon trivial things.” appropriate adult support, are critical elements in —-John Dewey (1933, p. 34) educating young children. The key experiences are organized around these topics: creative repre- sentation; language and literacy; initiative and Adults use the High/Scope key experiences for child development social relations; movement; music; classification; as a window for understanding seriation; number; space; and time. They are dis- children’s behavior. The key cussed in detail in Part 3 of this book. experience arranging several things one after another in a series or pattern helps adults interpret this child’s actions.

Active Learning 23 Craig: Hey, Jeff. You didn’t clean up. What Happens in an What Children Do in the Active Jeff: I’m still paintin’. I need some green. Active Learning Setting Learning Setting Craig: I’m still paintin’, too, and I need all the colors. o far in this chapter we have outlined the ! Children initiate activities that grow from Vanessa: Look! Look! Holes! I did it! personal interests and intentions. Sperspective on learning that underlies the Active learners find plenty of things to do High/Scope Curriculum. We have introduced How can we tell when children are truly and often talk about what they intend to do. At first the concept of “active learning” and have briefly engaged in active learning? One of the defining glance, adults who are expecting to see quiet groups described the adult’s role in terms of supporting characteristics of active learners is that they are of children doing the same thing at the same time the active learning process. The next section focused on their own actions and thoughts. At may view an active learning setting as disorganized. illustrates how an active learning approach such the art table, Jeff goes over to the easel to get But adults who understand the importance of sup- as High/Scope’s is implemented in classrooms, the green paint; Vanessa stands up to press her porting active learners realize that a child’s internal centers, or homes. We describe what children elbows into her Play-Doh; Craig places his pic- motivation creates an effective organizing force both typically do in active learning settings, what ture on the floor to have more room to work within the child and in the classroom or center. For adults do, how adults and children interact, and on it. These actions evoke discussion: example, if a child needs green paint, a smock, some of the short- and long-range benefits—for both adults and children—of participating in an active learning program.

Active learners are focused on their own actions and thoughts.

24 Educating Young Children another block, or a friend to help, he or she can choices that children learn more about what inter- generally meet the need independently because ests them, what questions to answer, what contra- an active learning environment supports this dictions to resolve, and what explanations to type of decision making. Because children in accept. Because adults in active learning settings active learning settings make choices based on understand the important role that children’s their own interests and questions, and then have choices play in learning, they strive to incorporate time to follow through on their plans, they are an element of choice in all of children’s activities, intensely involved with people and materials and even those—such as washing one’s hands or zipping freely share their ideas, findings, and observa- one’s coat—that many adults might see as inciden- tions. With appropriate adult support they thus tal to the “real program.” Children, after all, do become active agents of their own learning rather not make distinctions between the regular program than passive recipients of adult-directed learning. and incidental events. They approach most situa- tions with a desire for active involvement. By mak- ! Children choose materials and decide what to ing choices available in all parts of a program, not do with them. just during “free play” or at “free-choice” times, One of the hallmarks of programs based adults increase children’s active involvement and on active learning is the many opportunities they thus broaden their opportunities to learn. provide for children to make choices. Young chil- dren are quite able and eager to choose materials ! Children explore materials actively with all and decide how to use them. Many materials are their senses. new to young children, so they often do not use The active learning process involves all the materials according to their intended function. the senses. A young child learns what an object is Instead, children are inventive—manipulating the by experimenting with it—holding, squeezing, materials according to their own interests and abil- climbing on, crawling under, dropping, poking, ities. One child might use tape, for example, to fas- smelling, and tasting it; viewing it from many ten pieces of paper together, while another might When children are free to make their own choices, they angles; and listening to the sounds it makes. take the tape outside and use it for fastening acorns, often use materials in unexpected, creative ways—like When children explore an object and dis- painting with four brushes at once! flower petals, sticks, and stones together. Consider a cover its attributes, they begin to understand how group of children working with similar materials— the different parts function and fit together, how paper, glue, yarn, and paper-towel tubes—at an art • Katie, spreading glue on her paper, the object “works,” and what the object is really table. It is likely that each child will choose to do watches Dan. “No, no,” she tells Dan when he like rather than how it appears. When children something different with the materials: tries to roll his tube and string on her gluey paper. discover that the outside part of a pineapple is hard and prickly while the inside part is sweet and • Della cuts a piece of paper into little • “I’m gonna make a long spying thing,” juicy, they are beginning to understand that an bits, which she puts inside a paper-towel tube. announces Joey, as he cuts holes in two paper- object that looks forbidding may taste good. Even “Still need more,” she says, getting up to peer towel tubes and ties them together. if they are told this, they still do not learn it unless down into the tube to see how full it is. • Kim Wan cuts a tube into rings and they make their own observations and discoveries. • Dan wraps yarn around his paper-towel glues the rings in a row on his paper. Through exploration, children answer tube and then puts glue on top of the yarn “to The freedom to make choices like these is their own questions and satisfy their curiosity. In make the string stick.” essential to active learning because it is by making active learning settings, adults respect children’s

Active Learning 25 Choices for children are a part of all active learning experiences. Here, a child shares his idea for the next verse of a song in a music activity.

teddy bear?” “Add a wooden block to the cardboard block tower?” “Pour sand from the milk jug into the strainer?” Two-year-old Barnie, for example, is not yet able to look at two cardboard boxes and tell which one is bigger, wider, deeper, or taller. To gain a sense of their rel- ative proportions, he has to work with the boxes, fitting them togeth- er, stacking them, getting into them, standing them next to each other. desire to explore, recognizing that Adults in active learning settings give exploration is one of the most children like Barnie the time and space they need important ways young children learn.

! Children discover relationships Discovering How Objects through direct experience with Relate to Each Other objects. As children become famil- As they explore objects, children learn about iar with the objects around them relationships—that one box fits inside another, and continue to experiment with that juice can overflow a cup, that one block them, they become interested in can be placed on top of another, that a truck putting them together. In this way, fits inside a hollow block, that one tower is children discover for themselves taller than another, that one truck goes faster what objects are like in relation to than another. Simple discoveries such as these other objects and how objects work are the foundations for children’s understand- together. Children learn about rela- ing of number, logic, space, and time concepts. tionships between things by finding Adults need to stand back and let children out the answers to their own ques- discover such relationships for themselves. tions, such as, “What happens when This takes patience and an understanding of you put a long necklace on the children’s developmental needs: Bonnie is fitting together large Lego blocks. One of the pieces is upside-down, so This parent understands that active learn- it will not fit on the one below it. As Mr. Bloom ing means exploring with all the senses: reaches over to help her, Bonnie pushes his looking at an icicle up close, touching it, hand away. “I do it. I do it,” she insists. After even tasting it. considerable trial and error, she manages to fit the Lego block on top of the one below and then reaches for another block. 26 Educating Young Children to discover relationships on their own. They resist ! Children use age-appropriate tools and ! Children use their large muscles. the temptation to help children do something equipment. Active learning for a preschooler means “right” or to show children what to do, knowing Opportunities to use tools and equip- learning with the whole body. Children are eager that this can deprive children of valuable oppor- ment designed for specific purposes are abundant to stretch their physical strengths and capacities. tunities for learning and discovery. Children need in the active learning setting. By age 3, children They love to climb on top of blocks; move chairs time to work at their own pace with materials in can coordinate two or more actions and thus are and tables; lift up their friends; roll across the order to discover for themselves the relationships capable of using a wide range of tools and equip- floor; mash clay with their elbows; turn around between things. ment. These include both equipment designed for until they are dizzy; run, hop, jump, push, crawl, children—wheeled toys, climbers, swings—and shout, whisper, sing, wiggle, throw, pound, kick, ! Children transform and combine materials. such adult items as cameras, eggbeaters, food climb, twist. Such motions are an undeniable Changing the consistency, shape, or grinders, and staplers. As children use such simple part of their youthful nature. Expecting young color of a material is another way children machines, they are developing a range of move- children not to move is like expecting them not work with materials in the active learning set- ment and coordination skills. Consider the to breathe. Therefore, in the active learning envi- ting. Consider Ahmed, who is playing in the actions involved in riding a tricycle: the child ronment adults provide space and time for chil- sandbox. As he presses down on the sand to must simultaneously grasp the handlebars, turn dren to engage in activities that exercise the large make a level panful, the sand becomes compact- them to steer, and pedal. Similarly, when hammer- ed and will no longer pour. When Ahmed adds ing, the child must grasp the hammer, steady the some water to his pan of sand, he notices that nail, aim, and pound. As they work with tools the hard, dry, compacted sand has turned into and equipment, children are developing skills and Preschoolers’ Typical a soupy liquid. As Ahmed molds the wet sand, dispositions that will enable them to do more the smooth, flat surface becomes a series of things on their own and to solve more complex Transformations mounds and craters. problems. Mixing paints Clearly, opportunities for problem solv- Sand play is just one of countless activi- Adding food coloring to water ties in which young children manipulate, trans- ing are plentiful when children work with tools: form, and combine materials. As children engage one child searches for a nail that is long enough Blowing bubbles in this type of activity, they are learning about the to connect two pieces of wood; another tries to Wringing out a wet sponge less obvious, but essential, properties of materials. find a piece of wood that is the right size to form Making a paper chain A child learns, for example, that the quantity of one side of a birdhouse. Children also experience clay remains the same, whether it is clumped cause-and-effect relationships when using tools— Folding a doll blanket together in a ball or flattened out in a thin layer. sawing fast makes lots of sawdust and takes more Cracking open nuts Children are also learning about cause-and-effect effort; turning the handle of the eggbeater faster Sawing wood relationships. For example, a child who ties a makes more bubbles. Drilling holes knot at the end of a string (cause) learns that this Initially, just using a tool may be more action keeps the beads on the string (effect). By important to the child than its intended function. Shaking a tambourine providing materials that can take many forms For example, turning a vacuum cleaner on and Fitting oneself into a doll cradle and by valuing children’s efforts to transform off, pushing and pulling it, steering it, managing Printing a mask created at the computer and combine the materials, adults in active learn- the cord, and fitting the machine under a table ing settings are encouraging these kinds of impor- may be more important to a youthful vacuumer Rolling a Play-Doh ball into a long coil tant discoveries. than actually cleaning the carpet. Putting on a wig Twisting wire around a stick

Active Learning 27 The Essentials of Discovery For the young child, access to materials, freedom to manipulate, transform, and combine them in his or muscles and also provide lots of things for chil- using the large muscles are vital manipulative her own way, and time to do so are the essentials of dren to push, throw, lift, kick, and carry. processes. Through such daily opportunities the process of discovery. Adults can provide these Exploring materials, discovering rela- children gain a basic knowledge of the physical essentials. tionships, transforming and combining materials, world—what it is made of, how it works, and the acquiring skills with tools and equipment, and effect their actions have upon it.

! Children talk about their experiences. In active learning settings, children talk about what they are doing (or have just done) throughout the day. Children are encouraged to set the agenda in conversations with adults, and as a result, what the child says often takes the adult by surprise. Listen to Jerry talking to Mrs. Gibbs about their field trip to a farm: “I left my lunch on the bus an’ I had to share some of Toni’s. His sandwich was flat. This flat! He sat on it ’cause his dad was late. Boy, was his dad mad, so Toni didn’t tell him. It was in the bag, so it was okay.” Clearly, Mrs. Gibbs did not plan a trip to the farm so Jerry could have an experience with a flat sandwich. She thought he might talk about the goat he milked or the chicken feathers he col- lected, and she was mildly surprised that Jerry was so captivated by Toni’s flat sandwich. Paula, on the other hand, describes the egg she found in the hayloft: “It was way down in there. It didn’t break. The other one did.” Whether children talk about sandwiches or eggs, however, the process of putting actions into words is the same. But—con- scientious adults might ask—who learned more, Jerry or Paula? Each child was particularly inter- ested in a different aspect of the trip. Perhaps Paula learned more about eggs and hay while

Working with snow at the water table helps children see how a common material can be molded, reshaped, and transformed.

28 Educating Young Children Jerry learned more about what happens when one times an adult tells Melissa that horses and cows sits on a sandwich. What we can say with assur- are animals, until she develops the capacity to ance is that both children were involved in memo- understand class inclusion, to her “a horse is a rable experiences that caused them some surprise, horse is a horse.” Period. Max sees a car with two both had the opportunity to consciously reflect on wheels. Since he is not yet able to imagine another their findings, and both were free to describe spatial perspective, he thinks his father is joking these reflections in their own words. when he explains to Max that the other two When children are free to converse about wheels are on the other side of the car. When personally meaningful experiences, they use lan- Max looks on the “other side,” he finds another guage to deal with ideas and problems that are picture, not the other side of the car. According to real and important to them. As the children com- Melissa’s and Max’s best reasoning, their views municate their thoughts through language and and perceptions are correct. They need the oppor- listen to one another’s comments, they learn that tunity to share their observations, so talking their personal way of speaking is effective and about what they think and see becomes a natural respected. In the active learning setting, where chil- part of their lives. As they mature and experience dren’s language reflects their personal perceptions, new contradictions, their thinking will develop thoughts, and concerns, each child’s voice is heard. along with their self-confidence, and their obser- vations will become increasingly more logical and ! Children talk about what they are doing in realistic. In the meantime, they are developing the their own words. habit of talking about what they understand and What children say in the active learning what is important to them. setting reflects their own experiences and under- standing and is often characterized by a logic that differs from adult thinking: What Adults Do in the Active • “I didn’t put any animals in my barn,” Learning Setting Melissa says about a farm she made with blocks. ! Adults provide a variety of materials for “Just horses and cows.” children to work with. • “That car can’t go,” Max giggles, Observers new to active learning settings pointing to a side-view picture of a car in a story- may be surprised by the wide range of materials book. “It’s got only two wheels!” “The other two that are available to children. Adults provide wheels are on the other side,” his dad points out. such a variety of materials to assure that there “No they’re not!” Max exclaims, as he turns the are plentiful opportunities for children to make page to look. choices and manipulate materials—key aspects of Why should an adult encourage children the active learning process. Materials may include to say things in their own words when what they any familiar or unfamiliar objects of interest to say is often incorrect? Because young children like young children, except for things that are clearly Melissa and Max are using the best reasoning Using the large muscles is a key component dangerous (metal cans with sharp edges) or too powers at their disposal. No matter how many of active learning. difficult for this age group (a Monopoly game). In

Active Learning 29 Chapter 5 we describe specific materials and the found materials like cardboard boxes and toilet- play and learning they support, but following are paper tubes appeal to children because they can Common Materials in some general types of materials that are typically be used in many different ways for many different offered to stimulate young children’s active learning: purposes. And they appeal to adults because they Active Learning are easily accessible, plentiful, and often free. • Practical everyday objects useful to Settings adults. Children enjoy using the same things that • Tools. Tools are important to children the important people in their lives use—a lunch for the same reason they are important to box like dad’s, hair curlers like big sister’s, earrings adults—they help “get the job done.” Therefore, like mom’s, shaving cream like grandpa’s. provide real tools—scissors, hole punches, con- struction tools like hammers and screwdrivers. (It • Natural and found materials. Natural is important that tools be in good condition and materials like shells, acorns, and pinecones and that safety procedures be followed consistently by both children and adults.) • Messy, sticky, gooey, Z drippy, squishy materials. Some Materials for Active Learning 43% Touchable materials like sand, It is important to stock your classroom, center, or home with a wide variety of water, paste, paint, and Play- materials of interest to young children. The materials listed here are just a few Doh appeal strongly to many examples of the kinds of materials that will support active learning experi- children because of the interest- ences. Please refer to Chapter 5 for more details on selecting materials for an ing sensory experiences they active learning environment. provide. Practical Everyday Objects • Heavy, large Pots and pans, eggbeaters, food grinders, mail, hammers, nails, staplers, materials. Children use their pieces of wood, sheets, tires, boxes, books, paper whole bodies, exercise their • Practical everyday objects muscles, and gain a sense of Natural and Found Materials useful to adults their physical capacities when Stones, shells, leaves, sand, carpet scraps, paper-towel tubes, envelopes using large wooden blocks, Tools shovels, wheeled toys, and Brooms, dustpans, mops, buckets, sponges; hammers, saws, hand drills, vices, other sturdy, heavy materials. nails, screws; staplers, hole punches, scissors, paper clips; car jacks, bicycle • Easy-to-handle pumps; shovels, hoes, trowels, wheelbarrows, hoses, watering cans materials. Materials that fit Messy Materials in their hands—buttons, toy AA Water, soap bubbles, paste, dough, glue, paint figures, Lego blocks, and so 36.67% forth—give children a sense of Heavy, Large Materials control because they can use Boxes, tree stumps, wagons, shovels, piles of dirt, wooden planks, climbing such small objects successfully structures, large blocks without adult assistance. Easy-to-Handle Materials Blocks, beads, buttons, dry beans or pasta, toy cars, stuffed animals

30 Educating Young Children DD EE BB 32% 54.4% 50%

• Tools • Messy, sticky, gooey, dripping, squishy materials • Natural and found materials

CC 32% GG 42% FF 60%

• Heavy, large materials • Easy-to-handle materials

Active Learning 31 Encouraging Independence

Helping children learn to help themselves is one of the most important Outside time is usually the segment To ascertain the intentions behind chil- ways adults can be of service to young children. of the day allotted for children to dren’s actions, adults watch what children do play outside with swings, wheeled with materials without preconceptions, because toys, outdoor art materials, materi- children often use materials in unexpected ways. als from nature, and so forth. In the detailed example that ends this chapter, ! Adults provide space and time for children By choosing materials, planning the 3-year-old Callie is deeply involved in labeling to use materials. arrangement of space, and offering a consistent envelopes with people’s initials and then sealing To take full advantage of the materials in daily routine, adults are able to set the stage them. Rather than assume Callie will use the active learning setting, children need an orga- for children’s active learning. Once the stage is envelopes in the conventional way—enclosing nized environment. Two key aspects of the adult’s set, adults continue to be active and involved— something in them before sealing them—the role in the active learning setting, therefore, are to observing children and supporting their initiatives adult observes Callie closely to discern her inten- arrange and equip play areas and to plan a daily throughout the day. tion, then encourages her to use the envelopes routine. The specifics of planning the environment her way. and routine are covered in detail in later chapters, ! Adults seek out children’s intentions. In addition to seeking out children’s but a few key elements of the environment and In active learning settings, adults believe intentions through observation, adults also ask routine are introduced here. that understanding children’s intentions and children about their intentions. This gives chil- First, adults divide the environment into encouraging children to follow through on them dren the opportunity to put their intentions into distinct spaces organized around specific kinds is essential to the learning process. By seeking out words and reflect on them. For example, an adult of experiences, for example, house, art, block, children’s intentions, adults strengthen children’s sees Scott sitting on the floor and sanding wood toy, and sand and water areas. Each space is sense of initiative and control. scraps, but she cannot tell whether Scott is sand- stocked with abundant materials related to that Adults are careful to acknowledge chil- ing for its own sake or for some other purpose type of play. dren’s choices and actions. This lets children know unless she talks with him. She sits down next to Second, adults plan a consistent daily that what they are doing is valued. Adults often Scott and picks up several wood scraps he has routine so children have opportunities for many let themselves be guided by the child’s example, sanded. Then she makes this observation: different kinds of interactions with people and thereby demonstrating the importance they place Adult: You’ve been doing a lot of work, Scott. materials. Plan-work-recall time is a lengthy seg- on children’s intentions. For example, Stony is ment of the day allotted for children to work crawling, so Mrs. Lewis crawls beside him. When Scott: Yep . . . sanding. . . it’s my job. throughout the classroom or center with materials Stony stops, Mrs. Lewis stops. When he crawls Adult: Oh, sanding is your job. of their own choosing. Small-group time is the fast, she crawls fast to keep up with him. Stony Scott: (Continues sanding) I sand these (tosses segment of the day in which children work in laughs with delight at the game he has created, sanded piece in a bucket). Then I put ’em here, groups of six to eight in one location with similar and Mrs. Lewis laughs right along with him. in the bucket. Billy’s the wrapper. He’s not here sets of materials. (Even though the adult chooses Similarly, it is common for adults in right now. a group of materials for children to use at small- active learning settings to use materials in the group time, children are free to make choices same ways children are using them—stacking Adult: Oh, you sand and Billy wraps. among the materials provided, to add materials, blocks, flattening Play-Doh, packing sand. In Scott: But he’s getting more tape. and to use the materials in individual ways.) this way they are nonverbally communicating Large-group time is a segment of the day in which to children that their activities are important, For more information on conversing with chil- the whole group comes together for songs, move- as well as offering opportunities for children to dren about their intentions and plans, see the ment activities, and other group experiences. make thought-provoking comparisons. discussion of planning with children in Chapter 6.

32 Educating Young Children ! Adults listen for and encourage children’s Kurt: (Laughs) But my daddy’s truck is . . . big . . . thinking. too big for this room . . . . It wouldn’t even fit in Children’s reflections on their actions the door! are a fundamental part of the learning process. Mrs. Foster: No, it wouldn’t fit in the door. Listening for and encouraging each child’s partic- Kurt: The doors are big enough for . . . for . . . ular way of thinking strengthens the child’s this one! (Drives truck loaded with blocks to the emerging thinking and reasoning abilities. Adults door and then to the block shelf.) listen to children as they work and play so they can understand from their spontaneous com- Strategies for conversing with children are pre- ments how they are thinking about what they sented throughout this book. In particular, see the are doing. Markie, for example, chants, “One section in Chapter 7 on conversing with children at for you . . . one for you . . . one for you” as he work time. puts a block on each opening of his tower. His As noted earlier, adults in active learning chant indicates that he is thinking out loud about settings understand that encouraging children’s matching blocks and openings in one-to-one thinking means accepting children’s answers and correspondence. explanations—even when they are “wrong.” Another way adults encourage children Because children’s thinking and reasoning skills are to reflect is to converse with children about what still developing, the conclusions children reach are they are doing and thinking. In programs based often faulty by adult standards. However, if adults on the High/Scope Curriculum, relaxed conversa- continually correct children, they encourage chil- tion between adults and children occurs through- dren to keep their thoughts to themselves. On the out the day. As they converse with children, other hand, by accepting children’s conclusions, adults focus on the child’s actions rather than adults encourage children to test their ideas. For introduce unrelated topics. Instead of lecturing example, consider Karla again, the child who made children or asking a lot of questions, adults make a Play-Doh ball and expected it to bounce. Karla frequent comments that repeat, amplify, and build finally concluded that the ball would not bounce on what the child says. In the course of these because it was not round enough. The teacher accepted this conclusion, and Karla made another conversations, adults pause frequently to give Markie is thinking out loud as he puts a block in each “very round” ball to test her idea. Many very children ample time to think and gather their opening of his tower in one-to-one correspondence. “One thoughts into words. Note, for example, how for you . . . One for you,” he chants. round Play-Doh balls later, Karla finally observed, Mrs. Foster encourages Kurt’s thinking in this “This Play-Doh is too squishy to bounce.” Again, conversational exchange: the adult accepted Karla’s idea. By accepting each Mrs. Foster: All the way to the block shelf? new hypothesis Karla offered, the adult encour- Kurt: I like that music. It’s real fast. aged Karla’s further reflection and testing: Kurt: Yep. Here I go, just like my daddy. (Drives Mrs. Foster: I think it’s helping us put these off to block shelf, unloads blocks, returns for Teacher: It is squishy. Can you think of some way blocks away real fast. more.) to change that? Kurt: I’m gonna put them on this truck and go Mrs. Foster: I saw your daddy’s truck when he Karla: Well . . . If I leaved it. Leaved it out . . . ’til really fast. brought you this morning. tomorrow!

Active Learning 33 Give Children Time to Solve Problems Themselves Mr. Mulla saw that Chad and Anil were having trouble cutting the long pieces of masking tape they needed for a box structure, because the tape kept getting stuck to itself. Although he could have come to their aid, Mr. Mulla waited while the boys came up with a number of ideas on their own. When one did not work, they sim- ply tried something else. Finally, Chad taped one end of the tape to the table edge and held it there while Anil pulled the tape out as long as they needed it. Anil then cut the tape, and each boy held on to an end until they could attach it to their box structure in the place they wanted it. While it took quite a while for the boys to solve this problem, their solution worked, and in the process of solving the problem, they discovered something about the properties of tape. The boys felt good about their idea, especially when other children began to notice and copy it.

do these things for themselves, adults allow chil- dren to think of and practice ways of solving the everyday problems they encounter. In an active learning environment, where Adults encourage children to talk about their thinking by listening to and accepting what they say rather than by correcting children are constantly involved with materials children or asking many questions. and are encouraged to do things for themselves, spills and messes are inevitable and are actually Teacher: If you left the ball out of the can? the problems they encounter offers them more important opportunities for learning. Dallas, for example, finds out what happens when he keeps Karla: Yeah! It would get hard! learning opportunities than doing things for them or attempting to provide a problem-free environ- pouring juice past the top of his cup. Juice gets Teacher: Would it bounce if it were hard? ment. Therefore, they stand by patiently and wait on the table, the chair, the floor. To clean it up Karla: Yeah! Then it would bounce. Leave it while children take care of things independently— he has to get enough towels to soak up all the right here ’til tomorrow. Okay? zipping a jacket, fastening a buckle, stirring juice, liquid. He also has to figure out a way to get the wiping up spills, moving the waste can, fitting the juice-soaked towels to the sink. In the active ! Adults encourage children to do things for tricycle through the door, or finding a board that learning setting, adults show understanding of themselves. spans the space between two blocks. Adults can such mishaps because they view them as oppor- Adults in active learning settings are guid- do most such things far more easily and efficiently tunities for children to gain the satisfaction of ed by a belief that encouraging children to solve than children can, but by waiting for children to solving their own problems.

34 Educating Young Children The adult watches patiently as this child tears the paper off the pad without any help, knowing this will bolster the child’s confidence in her ability to solve problems.

ing materials, activities, and playmates. Adults are active in supporting and participating in the learning experiences initiated by children as well as in planning group experiences and setting them in motion. Both children and adults take initiative and respond to one another’s initia- tives, building on one another’s ideas, sugges- tions, and actions. These reciprocal give-and- take relationships are what drive both teaching and learning.

! Adults and children form partnerships. In active learning settings, adults and children form partnerships. Whether joining in a child’s play, working with a child to solve a problem, or conversing with a child about his Another way adults encourage children Mr. Wills: That’s exactly what you did. What or her experiences, the adult relates to the child to solve their own problems is to refer children to happened when you pushed that button? as a partner, seeking out the child’s intentions one another for ideas, assistance, and conversa- and helping the child carry out and expand Tess: It came out! (She pushes the print key and tion so children come to rely on one another, upon his or her intended activity. Sita, for ex- watches the printer print out her mask.) rather than always turning to adults for assis- ample, is rolling tennis balls under a chair. Mr. tance. For example, when Tess cannot remember Providing a variety of materials, planning Bloom stretches out on his stomach on the other how to print out the mask she just made on her the play space and routine, seeking out children’s side of the chair, holding a tennis ball. “Wait,” computer screen, Mr. Wills suggests that she ask intentions, listening for and encouraging chil- Sita instructs. “They have to go here,” she says, Mia (another child who had just printed out a dren’s thinking, and encouraging children to do indicating a path under the chair, “not out mask) to show her how to do it. things for themselves are key elements of the there.” “Oh, in here,” responds Mr. Bloom, Adults in active learning settings also adult’s role in active learning programs. More of rolling his ball along the path indicated by Sita. encourage children to ask and answer their own these types of strategies are provided throughout The reciprocal give-and-take of a part- questions. Generally, if a child knows enough to this book. nership relationship is more supportive of chil- ask a particular question, he or she knows enough dren’s development than its alternatives—in to have some idea of an answer. For example, which the adult assumes either a dominant or a following the incident with Tess and Mia, above, How Adults and Children Interact passive role by directing, lecturing, diverting, or Tess came to Mr. Wills the next day with the same in the Active Learning Setting simply watching or ignoring the child’s work and problem. Here is how Mr. Wills handled it: play. To form partnerships with children, adults ! Children and adults are active and interactive. in active learning settings position themselves at Mr. Wills: What did you do yesterday when Mia the children’s physical level, follow children’s helped you? In an active learning environment, both children and adults act, think, and solve problems ideas and interests, and converse with children in Tess: Pushed this (points to the print key). throughout the day. Children are active in choos- a give-and-take style.

Active Learning 35 By using these strategies to form a part- children’s need to be active, they become involved nership with Sita, Mr. Bloom is letting her know in supporting and extending children’s self-initiated that what she is doing is valued and accepted, and activities rather than trying to control children’s that he will be there to provide support as she behavior. For example, when adults expect chil- expands on her explorations. dren to talk about their choices and decisions, children who speak freely and express their inten- ! Children and adults invent and discover. tions are not viewed as “disruptive.” When chil- Active learning is a process that unfolds, dren are free to decide how to use materials, not a set of prescribed directives to be followed. adults are as willing to support the child who uses In the active learning setting, children and adults a material in an exploratory way (smearing paste invent, explore, and make unexpected discoveries. on paper and arms, touching it, and smelling it) as Although adults have set up the environment to they are to support the child who uses the materi- support children’s interests and activities, they als in the expected way (using paste to fasten cannot predict with accuracy what children will pieces of paper together in the course of making do or say or how they themselves will respond. something). When adults eliminate long periods Mr. Garcia, for example, is very pleased that he of waiting and listening in favor of active learning has finally been able to add a color printer to the experiences, children direct their energies toward computer system his preschoolers are using. He working with the materials they have selected expects the children to print out the masks they rather than engaging in disruptive behavior. are making on the computer screen in many dif- By accepting children’s exploratory ferent colors. Instead, they use the computer and behaviors as normal and desirable, rather than printer exactly as they often use the easel—filling attempting to dispute or eliminate them, adults the whole piece of paper (computer screen) with one color. “Of course,” Mr. Garcia realizes upon seeing the children excitedly clutching their pieces of paper filled with one color, “why didn’t I think A “Constructive” Learning of that!” In the active learning setting, children Process and adults share the surprises and pleasures of teaching and learning. Active learning is the process through which children construct an understanding of things that interest them. For example, while most The Effects of Active Learning 4-year-olds are not yet able to construct an understanding of calculus because it involves ! Choices for children provide an alternative to abstract mathematical thinking beyond their adult-child conflict. capabilities, they are able to count objects, When children are free to make choices compare amounts, and construct 1-to-1 rela- and decisions, potential adult-child conflicts are tionships—abilities from which their under- often avoided and are replaced with cooperative standing of higher math will eventually evolve. Being a partner in children’s play means following the learning experiences. When adults understand And while most preschoolers are not yet able to child’s lead. read and write, they are enthusiastic about books, stories, their own names, and the process of invented writing.

36 Educating Young Children Denver Project Follows High/Scope Children Into Non–High/Scope Settings The Clayton Foundation in Denver, Colorado, operates a make their own lives and children’s lives more elementary school because they identify them- High/Scope kindergarten program (Clayton Kids) and a High/ enjoyable, less contentious, and more conducive selves as “can-do” people who take care of their Scope after-school program (Clayton Thinkers) for its kinder- to learning. own needs and solve problems. In the best of cir- garten graduates in grades 1–3 in public schools across the cumstances, the elementary school setting will city. In response to the question, “How well do Clayton Kids ! Children and adults develop confidence. also encourage active learning. However, in set- fare once they are in the public school system?” Clayton staff tings that do not, children tend to use their prob- In an active learning setting, children are asked each elementary school for progress reports that includ- lem-solving skills to adapt to the new style of free to pursue their own interests. Adults stock ed teacher comments on the 41 children who had graduated teaching and learning, and continue to function the environment with developmentally appropri- from the Clayton Kids kindergarten program and were cur- as active learners outside of school. Since active ate materials and interact with children to sup- rently enrolled in the Clayton Thinkers after-school program. learners have developed into self-confident deci- port them in pursuing their intentions. Children Clayton staff were able to collect school progress reports and sion makers, they often carry these attributes into are free to make errors as they gain an under- teacher comments on 34 of their 41 enrollees (Dalton 1991). whatever school settings they encounter. standing of their world; adults do not correct They found that the elementary school teachers rated 88 per- Regardless of the setting or form of in- children’s errors, but when appropriate, they cent of the Clayton after-school group as average or above in struction in elementary schools, children continue challenge children’s thinking about what they are standard school subject areas (reading, writing, math, cooper- to learn best by doing, thinking, speaking, and doing so children can begin to construct a more ation, and so forth); 38 percent were rated as average; 29 per- solving problems independently. Therefore, it is complete picture of reality. In this atmosphere, cent, as above average; and 21 percent, as well-above-aver- imperative that early childhood settings support young children develop feelings of competence age. The teachers also commented favorably on the children’s active learning practices. Through their experi- because they receive encouragement and support social and intellectual abilities. For example, consider these ences in such active learning settings, children for their actions, choices, exploratory behaviors, excerpts taken from teacher reports on children’s progress: and emerging thoughts and explanations. Adults develop a strong sense of their own ability to “D. is always willing to help on any project.” feel more competent, too, because they find them- affect and understand their world, a capacity “I appreciate M.’s enthusiasm and creativity.” selves supporting, rather than disputing, more of which will serve them well throughout their lives. “J. is a real hard worker.” children’s actions, and because each day they “T. is one of the best readers in the class.” learn something new about the children in their “W. often sees unique solutions to problems.” group. As one adult put it, “I’m not yelling at the “N. has many good ideas.” children anymore. I’m paying attention to their The Practical Ingredients “E. has made great strides in her skills as a reader, interests instead of trying to get them to sit still of Active Learning writer, and leader this year.” and pay attention to me.” “I’m enjoying watching A. grow and become more o provide a practical frame of reference for responsible and independent.” ! Children draw on early active learning experi- adults interested in implementing programs “C. is a pleasure to have in class.” ences in later school settings. T based on an active learning philosophy, we have “R. is a good group member and a hard worker.” Some adults worry that an “active learn- developed five ingredients of active learning. “S. puts a lot into her assignments.” ing” early childhood setting will put children at a These ingredients capture the essence of the active “V. is spontaneous, enthusiastic, straightforward in disadvantage when they enter elementary school. learning process in summary form. They are easi- her thoughts, and lets everyone know what she is thinking. What happens to active learners when they must ly understood and can be used by adults in any She enjoys learning and asking questions.” remain seated at desks, follow detailed instruc- early childhood setting to evaluate whether an It is apparent from these findings that Clayton’s tions, speak only when permitted to do so, and activity for children is truly a developmentally active learners continue to do well in traditional elementary concentrate on paper-and-pencil tasks? appropriate, active experience and to plan for school settings. (For an account of a prekindergarten program Active learners tend to adjust well to activities that meet these criteria. As we explore based on the High/Scope Curriculum whose children’s suc- cess in kindergarten and third grade has been researched and documented, see Hauser-Cram et al. 1991.) Active Learning 37 the details of the High/Scope educational ap- proach throughout the rest of this book, we will return again and again to the following active learning ingredients: • Materials—There are abundant, age- appropriate materials that the child can use in a variety of ways. Learning grows out of the child’s direct actions on the materials. • Manipulation—The child has opportu- nities to explore, manipulate, combine, and trans- form the materials chosen. • Choice—The child chooses what to do. Since learning results from the child’s attempts to pursue personal interests and goals, the opportunity to choose activities and materials is essential. • Language from the child—The child describes what he or she is doing. Through lan- guage, the child reflects on his or her actions, inte- When the ingredients of active learning—materials, manipulation, choice, language from children, and adult support— grates new experiences into an existing knowl- are present, children are busy and focused. edge base, and seeks the cooperation of others in his or her activities. apply to experiences and activities involving one • Adult support—Adults recognize and child or two children as well as activities for small encourage the child’s reasoning, problem solving, groups and large groups of children. Active learn- Why Children Need to and creativity. ing opportunities are present throughout a for- Make Choices mally structured day as well as in other daily “The intrinsic motivation argument leads to perhaps events, such as trips in a car or visits to a park. the most common-sense rationale for allowing chil- Using the Ingredients of In the High/Scope Curriculum, the ingredients dren to select learning experiences. A child will, Active Learning of active learning guide every experience and like anyone else, learn best what he is interested in activity adults and children engage in during learning. If you allow him to choose, he will select Anyone caring for young children—parents, their time together. what interests him. If he is interested in something, adults involved in home visits, adult teams in Adults implementing the High/Scope he will be an active agent in developing his under- classrooms and child care centers, home child Curriculum use the ingredients of active learning standing rather than a passive consumer of knowl- care providers, grandparents, babysitters—can as a guide to observing children, planning for edge. Piaget’s 50 years of research on children’s use the active learning ingredients to provide children’s experiences, and interacting with chil- thinking has led him to postulate that a child’s developmentally appropriate experiences for dren in any curriculum area. In the following active involvement in learning is at the heart of young children. The active learning ingredients example, we show how this framework is applied the developmental process. ‘The child,’ Piaget says, ‘is the chief architect of his own mental model of the world.’” 38 Educating Young Children —Thomas Likona (1973) in the context of a writing activity undertaken by into letters. In addition, since most of the children language to dominate or control the child’s 3-year-old Callie. We describe how each active have observed that writing is used for important experience: learning ingredient shapes the general decisions purposes in the world around them—for making Callie was very quiet as she worked, but adults make in preparing for children’s writing shopping lists, taking restaurant orders, letter- when she completed each envelope she would give experiences as well as their specific decisions writing, and so forth—the adults expect that it to someone, saying, “This is for you.” I sat for about how to interact with and support Callie. some children will want to use (or pretend to use) a while at Callie’s table, and soon she gave one to The teachers’ observations of Callie are presented writing for some of these same functions. Callie’s me, saying, “Here, Ann, I made this for you.” in italic type. use of the writing materials has the active, physi- cal quality that we associate with young children’s Adult support. The adults recognize that manipulations; it also shows her growing under- preschoolers are beginning to make a connection An Active Learning Experience: standing of some of the functions of writing: between spoken and written language and to realize that they can write things down for them- Observing and Supporting Callie Callie seemed to be repeating a sequence selves. They understand that children’s writing Materials. The adults in Callie’s class- of actions: starts out as scribbles and drawings, and gradual- room have provided a wide range of materials to Put an envelope in front of herself on ly, through trial and error, emerges as recognizable encourage and support young children’s develop- the table. script. The adults in Callie’s classroom, therefore, ing writing abilities. The materials available encourage children’s early, creative interest in the Picked up the envelope in both hands. include writing tools and materials (crayons, writing process by supporting—without correc- markers, pencils, paints, brushes, stickers, many Licked it thoroughly three or four times. tion—all children’s attempts at writing, whether kinds of paper, envelopes), three-dimensional Pounded the envelope shut with her fist. or not they use conventional forms: materials for letter play and letter-making (letter Turned it over and drew on the front. I sat down at the art table to see what sets, sand, Play-Doh, clay), and a variety of print the children were doing. When Callie gave me an Gave it to someone. materials (favorite storybooks, children’s dictated envelope, I was very surprised to see that what stories, word labels accompanying pictorial labels Choice. In this classroom the children she had drawn on the front were letters. I had no on classroom signs and storage containers, old are free to use any of the writing materials they idea she was interested in letters or could even magazines and catalogs). The availability of a want to during the plan-work-recall segment of make any! She had marked mine with lots of A’s, wide range of writing materials seems to have the the daily routine: and I wanted to recognize her accomplishment so stimulating effect intended by the adults, as Callie I said, “Callie, you made A’s on my envelope!” None of the other children at the art and several other children have chosen to work “That’s your name!” she told me. table were working with envelopes and markers. with some of the writing materials: “That is my name. A’s for Ann,” I (One was drawing, two were working with stick- replied. ers; one was playing with wooden letters.) Work- Callie got out some envelopes and markers. When Callie gave Linda an envelope, ing with the envelopes was obviously Callie’s Manipulation. The adults expect Callie Linda threw it down on the floor saying “That’s choice. and her classmates to manipulate the reading and not how you write my name. It’s L-I-N-D-A.” writing materials in a variety of ways. For exam- Language from the child. As children Linda is 5 and has been writing her ple, children might turn pages, point to and circle work with writing materials, the teachers ob- name and other words for some time. I wanted letters, draw, paint, print, and so on, as they serve them and listen attentively, waiting for to acknowledge both Linda’s skill and Callie’s, explore for themselves the shape and feel of let- the child to initiate conversation about what so I said, “That is the way you spell your name, ters, or they might transform a variety of materials he or she is doing and taking care not to use Linda. Callie spells it a different way.”

Active Learning 39 I also found when I started to open my envelope that Callie stopped me, saying, “No, I Language from the child: The child describes what already did that!” Since I wanted to respect her Essential Ingredients of he or she is doing. intentions, I pressed down the part of the flap I Active Learning: A Summary ___ Children talk about their experiences. had lifted and turned the envelope over so I could Choice: The child chooses what to do. ___ Children talk about what they are doing in see the front again. ___ Children initiate activities that grow from their own words. “Is this what you wanted me to have?” personal interests and intentions. Adult support: Adults recognize and encourage I asked, looking at the front of the envelope. ___ Children choose materials. children’s intentions, reflections, problem “Yep. That’s what I made for you,” ___ Children decide what to do with materials. solving, and creativity. Callie replied, before turning to another envelope Materials: There are abundant materials that ___ Adults form partnerships with children. and beginning the process again. Clearly what children can use in many ways. ___ Put themselves on children’s physical level. was important to Callie was sealing the envelope ___ Children use a variety of materials. ___ Follow children’s ideas and interests. and writing on the outside. She had no intention ___ Practical everyday objects ___ Converse in a give-and-take style. of putting anything inside the envelope. ___ Natural and found materials ___ Adults seek out children’s intentions. ___ Tools ___ Acknowledge children’s choices and actions. ___ Messy, sticky, gooey, drippy, squishy ___ Use materials in the same way children are materials using them. Active Learning: The Foundation ___ Heavy, large materials ___ Watch what children do with materials. of the High/Scope Curriculum ___ Easy-to-handle materials ___ Ask children about their intentions. ___ Children have space to use materials. ___ Adults listen for and encourage children’s In the chapters that follow, the concept of active ___ Children have time to use materials. thinking. learning will continue to guide our discussions. In Manipulation: Adults encourage children to ___ Listen to children as they work and play. particular, the concept of active learning comes manipulate objects freely. ___ Converse with children about what they into play throughout discussions of how adults ___ Children explore actively with all their senses. are doing and thinking. can create a supportive social climate (Chapter 2), ___ Children discover relationships through ___ Focus on children’s actions. work with families (Chapter 3), work as teams to direct experience. ___ Make comments that repeat, amplify, and make the active learning process effective in their ___ Children transform and combine materials. build on what the child says. particular setting with their particular group of ___ Children use age-appropriate tools and ___ Pause frequently to give children time to think and gather their thoughts into words. children (Chapter 4), select and arrange materials equipment. ___ Children use their large muscles. ___ Accept children’s answers and explana- for children to choose and manipulate (Chapter tions even when they are “wrong”. 5), develop the daily routine so children have ___ Adults encourage children to do things for many opportunities to initiate, plan, carry out, themselves. and discuss their actions and ideas (Chapters 6, 7, ___ Stand by patiently and wait while children and 8), and use the High/Scope key experiences take care of things independently. as a framework for interacting with children ___ Show understanding of children’s mishaps. (Chapters 9–19). ___ Refer children to one another for ideas, assistance, and conversation. ___ Encourage children to ask and answer their own questions.

40 Educating Young Children Hohmann, Mary, Bernard Banet, and David P. Weikart. References Related Reading 1979. “Active Learning.” Chap. 5 in Young Children in Action, 129–46. Ypsilanti: High/Scope Press. Banet, Bernard. 1976. “Toward a Developmentally Valid Ayers, William. 1986. “Thinking About Teachers and the Preschool Curriculum.” In The High/Scope Report, Curriculum.” Harvard Educational Review 56, Kolb, D. A. 1984. Experiential Learning: Experience 1975–1976, C. Silverman, ed., 7–12. Ypsilanti, MI: no. 1 (February): 49–51. as a Source of Development. Englewood: High/Scope Press. Prentice-Hall, Inc. Brickman, Nancy A., and Lynn S. Taylor, eds. 1991. Dalton, Joanne. 1991. State of Affairs Report of Clayton “Supporting Active Learning.” Chap. 1 in Supporting Matz, Robert D. 1976. “Operativity and the Cognitive Thinkers. Denver: The Clayton Foundation. Young Learners, 3–60. Ypsilanti: High/Scope Press. Unconscious: A Piagetian Perspective on Thinking and Learning.” In The High/Scope Report, 1975–1976, Dewey, John. 1938. Education and Experience. Reprint. DeVries, Rheta, and Lawrence Kohlberg. 1987. Programs C. Silverman, ed., 32–38. Ypsilanti: High/Scope Press. New York: Macmillan, 1963. of Early Education. New York: Longman. Tompkins, Mark. 1991. “Active Learning: Making It Dewey, John. 1933. How We Think: A Restatement of the Evans, Judith, and Ellen Ilfeld. 1982. Good Beginnings: Happen in Your Program.” In Supporting Young Relation of Reflective Thinking to the Educative Parenting in the Early Years. Ypsilanti: High/Scope Learners, Nancy A. Brickman and Lynn S. Taylor, Process. Boston: Heath. Press. eds., 5–13. Ypsilanti: High/Scope Press. Dewey, John, and James McLellan. 1964. “What Psych- Fabricius, William. 1979. “Piaget’s Theory of Knowledge— Weikart, David P., Charles Hohmann, and Ray Rhine. ology Can Do for the Teacher.” In John Dewey on Its Philosophical Context.” In The High/Scope 1981. “High/Scope Cognitively Oriented Curriculum Education: Selected Writings, Reginald D. Archam- Report, 1979, C. Silverman, ed., 4–13. Ypsilanti: Model.” In Making Schools More Effective, Ray bault, ed., 195–211. New York: Random House. High/Scope Press. Rhine, ed., 201–19. New York: Academic Press. Flavel, John H. 1963. The Developmental Psychology of Forman, George. 1992. “The Constructivist Perspective.” Wood, David, Linnet McMahon, and Yvonne Cranstoun. Jean Piaget. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand Company. In Approaches to Early Childhood Education, 2nd 1980. Working With Under Fives. Ypsilanti: ed., Jaipaul L. Roopnarine and James E. Johnson, Hauser-Cram, Penny, Donald E. Pierson, Deborah High/Scope Press. eds., 137–55. Columbus, OH: Merrill. Klein Walker, and Terrence Tivnan. 1991. Early Education in the Public Schools: Lessons From a Forman, George E., and Catherine Twomey Fosnot. 1982. Comprehensive Birth-to-Kindergarten Program. “The Use of Piaget’s Constructivism in Early Child- San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. hood Education Programs.” In Handbook of Research in Early Childhood Education, Bernard Related Media Kohlberg, Lawrence, and Rochelle Mayer. 1972. “Devel- Spodek, ed., 185–211. New York: Macmillan. opment as the Aim of Education.” Harvard The following materials are available from the High/Scope Educational Review 42, no. 4 (November): 449–96. Forman, George, and David Kuschner. 1983. The Child’s Press, 600 N. River St., Ypsilanti, MI, 48198-2898: Construction of Knowledge. Washington, DC: NAEYC. Likona, Thomas. 1973. “The Psychology of Choice for more information, call 1 800-40-PRESS. Learning.” In Open Education: Increasing Alter- Gelman, Rochel. 1978. “Cognitive Development.” Annual High/Scope K–3 Curriculum Series: Active Learning. 1991. natives for Teachers and Children, Thomas Likona, Review of Psychology 29: 297–332. Color videotape, 17 min. Ruth Nickse, David Young, and Jessie Adams, eds. Ginsburg, Herbert, and Sylvia Opper. 1979. Piaget’s Courtland: Open Education Foundation, State Supporting Children’s Active Learning. 1989. Color video- Theory of Intellectual Development. Englewood, NJ: University of New York. tape, 13 min. Prentice-Hall, Inc. Piaget, Jean. 1970. “Piaget’s Theory.” In Carmichael’s Hohmann, Charles, and Warren Buckleitner. 1991. Intro- Manual of Child Psychology, 3rd ed., Vol. 1, Paul H. duction to the High/Scope K–3 Curriculum. Draft ed. Mussen, ed., 703–32. New York: John Wiley & Sons. Ypsilanti: High/Scope Press. Piaget, Jean, and Bärbel Inhelder. 1969. The Psychology of Hohmann, Charles, Barbara Carmody, and Chica the Child. New York: Basic Books. (Originally pub- McCabe-Branz. 1995. High/Scope Buyer’s Guide lished in French as La Psychologie de L’Enfant. Paris: to Children’s Software. Ypsilanti: High/Scope Press. Presses Universitaires de France, 1966.) Hohmann, Mary. 1983. A Study Guide to Young Children in Action. Ypsilanti: High/Scope Press.

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