DOCUMENT RESUME ED 338 389 PS 019 967 AUTHOR Page, Marilyn TITLE Active Learning: Historical and Contemporary PerspectiVes. PUB DATE 10 May 90 NOTE 112p.; Doctoral paper, University of Massachusetts. PUB TYPE Dissertations/Theses - Undetermined (040) EDRS PRICE MF01/PC05 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS *Cognitive Development; Cooperative Learning; Discovery Learning; Early Childhood Education; Educational Philosophy; *Educational Practices; *Educational Theories; Elementary Education; Experiential Learning; *Nontraditional Education; Problem Solving; Progressive Education; *School Role; Teacher Role IDErTIFIERS *Active Learning; Dewey (John); Foxfire; Rousseau (Jean Jacques) ABSTRACT The purposes of the first two parts of this literature review are to clarify the concept of active learning and discuss the use and value of active learning models. In Part I, the perspectives of five historical proponents of active learning, Rousseau, Pestalozzi, Dewey, Kilpatrick, and Piaget, are di3cussed. The views of four contemporary proponents, Bruner, Wigginton, Freire, and Sharan, are also considered. The ideas of these proponents show four common themes:(1) rejection of traditional teaching methods; (2) belief in the cognitive learning paradigm; (3) faith in the ability of students; and (4) belief in the importance of the relationship of school to society. In Part II, four major active learning movements are examined. These are the histor:Ical movements of progressive education and activity, and the contemporary movements of discovery/inquiry and cooperative learning. Part III analyzes the perspectiveS and movements discussed in Parts I and II. Topics include:(1) a definition of active learning;(2) the cognitive learning paradigm; (3) the roles of teachers and students;(4) the relationship between education and society; and (5) research on active learning. In Part IV, conclusions about the history and future of active learning are drawn. A bibliography containingmore than 110 items is included. (Author/BC) *********************************************************************** Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that Gan be made from the original document. ******************************************************** ***** ********** U tDEPARTMENT Of EDUCATION Otl.e.or Educational Reatarctl and Improvement EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION NTFR (ERIQ docurlent Ms I,een refuoiduced as received frlm the parwn or organqation ompnating (Minor chivvies Nava poop m5 d. to imwoee raproiduCtiOr% QuettlY Points of view Of PiNntOnS Mated in this doc merit 60 mat NRCISanly toprasent ortoai OE RI posainn or poIrcv Active Learning: Historical and Contemporary Perspectiver, Marilyn Page University of Massachusetts Doctoral Candidate 5/10/90 "PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THIS MATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED BY nrxx--\1/4-ya ?o,y_ To THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC)" BEST COPY AVAILABLE 2. Abstract In this review of the literature, I discuss the concept of active learning in relation to nine Proponents: Rousseau, Pestalozzi, Dewey, Kilpatrick, Piaget, Bruner, Wigginton, Freire and Sharan. The literature shows four common themes among these Proponents: rejection of traditional teaching methods; belief in the cognitive learning paradigm; faithin the ability of the student; and the importance of the relationshipof school to society. I also discuss four major active learning Movements of the 20th Century: the Progressive Education, Activity; Discovery/Inquiry; and Cooperative Learning Movements. I describe the history and major premises of these Movements and discuss related application and research. Active learning means different things to different people and/or different people emphasize aspects of the concept ina different order. There is agreement, however, that students learn best by doing theirown learning in an active way, mentally and/or physically; that by discovering for themselves, students construct theirown knowledge structures;.,.and that learning actively leads toan ability to think critically and to solve problems. The teacher's role in an active learning paradigmis not clear. Proponents agree that there should bea reciprocal relationship between student and teacher and that the teacher should bea guide rather than an information dispenser. However, there are no definitive guidelines for accomplishing this. All Proponents stress the need for discipline, a covert or overt framework, and guidance and evaluation. 3 3. John Dewey appears to have heen and to be the driving force in the active learning models. Every other Proponent, except forRousseau and Pestalozzi who lived before Dewey, basedor base at least Aart of their work on his philosophy and gaveor give him credit for the under pinnings of their own theories and philosophies. His theories and philosophies are also the underpinnings for the fourMovements. There is very little new about active learningexcept for the way modern research can assess outcomes. The names and labels have changed but the basic concept has stayed thesame throughout the 20th Century. 4 4. Futurists (Benjamin, 1989; Toffler, 1970, 1974, 1980)argue that because society and knowledgeare changing so rapidly, the traditional educational system in which the teacherdispenses packaged knowledgeto the students is, to paraphrase Mauhan,looking through a rear view mirror; it is inadequate andinappropriate for the present and future needs of students. Willoughby (in Parker, 1983)claims the system produces students whoare slightly better at skills thatwere "of questionable value in the nineteenth Century and will be of littlevalue in the twenty-first Century" (p. 2). The futurists advocatean active learning educational program in which students participatenot only in determining their own learning tasks, but in discovering,constructing and/or creating theirown learning. Active learning is nota new concept. It is, however,a concept that is, more often than not, misunderstood, overused andabused. There is neither a comprehensivebody of researchnor a consolidated discussion on active learning in the literature.A major problem is definition. Eliot Wigginton (1989) ofFoxfire fame describes theconcept of active learning and related issuesas a minefield. That minefield is littered with the debris of (among others) discovery,experiential, student- centered and cooperative learning; the project method;democratic education; learning by doing; andprogressive education. What is active learning? What are the origins,underpinnings, applications, purposes, philosophies,theories, andsuccesses and failures of the various forms of active learning? Can active learning makea ;) 5. difference? Together, the purpose of Part I and II isto provide the base from which to: a) answer these questions; b) clarify and definethe concept of active learning; and c) raise questions about, anddiscuss implications for, the use and value (or lack of) ofan active learniag model. In Part I, Historical and Contemporary Perspectives, I discussthe concept of active learning as associated with the followingProponents - Rousseau, Pestalozzi, Dewey, Kilpatrick (historical); Piaget (historicaland contemporary); and Bruner, Freire, Wigginton and Sharan (contemporary). In Part II, Related Educational Movements I examine four major Movements whichfit under the active learning umbrella: the ProgressiveEducation and Activity Movements (historical); and the Discovery/Inquiryand Cooperative Learning Movements (contemporary). The discussion includes relatedapplications and research. Part III, Analysis, is just that an analysis of the issues, forms, and tenets of active learningas defined in Parts I and II; and in Part IV, Conclusions, I discuss questions aboutthe past and questions and impli- cations for the present and future. Besides providing a base for clarificationand discussion of the active learning concept, I hope thispaper will provide a foundation formy dissertation work on the NationalHistory Day Program, which Iconsider a model of active learning, and will helpto fill a gap in the literature. Note: I have capitalized Proponents andMovements throughout thepaper when referring to the Proponentsand Movements mentioned above. Also, I use the masculinepronouns to refer to either maleor female students. f; Part I Historical and ContemporaryPerspectives 'Historical perspectives' refers to the timeperiod from the 18th Century up to the end ofWorld War II. 'Contemporary perspectives'refers to the time frompost World War II to the present. I have divided the time frame in this way partly because I founda shift in emphasis within the foundations ofthe active learning concept, partly becausethe end of World War II marked a change in the relationshipbetween the Federal Government and schoolpolicies and programs, and partly becausethe con- temporary timeline, definedin this way, fits with myown timeline of schooling as a studentand educator. In the literatureI found four themes that werecommon to the Proponents. These themesare: "a) rejection of the traditional teachingmodel; b) an emphasis on thecognitive learning paradigm; e) emphasison the relationship between school andsociety; and 61) belief in the worth andability of the student. Because I discuss the same themes for each Proponent,Part I is repetitious and thereader may prefer to use and think ofthis section as a resource or misplaced appendix ratherthan as a mainpart of the paper. I have kept the sectimon each Proponentseparate, because I want Part I asa reference for myself and want to beable to pickout any