Distribution, Utilization and Management of africana (Hook. f) in Gichugu Division, Kirinyaga District, Central Kenya

Simon Mugwe Weru (BSc. Forestry) N50/5058/2003

A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Environmental Studies (Agroforestry and Rural Development) in the School of Environmental Studies of Kenyatta University

December 2012

DECLARATION

Candidate’s declaration

This thesis is my original work and has not been presented for a degree in any other university or any other award. No part of this thesis may be reproduced without prior permission from the researcher and/or Kenyatta University.

Signed: Date: Simon Mugwe Weru (N50/5058/2003)

Declaration by supervisors

We confirm that the work reported in this thesis was carried out by the candidate under our supervision

Signed: Date: Prof. James B. Kung‟u Associate Professor Department of Environmental Sciences Kenyatta University

Signed: Date: Dr. Samuel C.J. Otor Department of Environmental Sciences Kenyatta University

ii

DEDICATION

This work is dedicated to my beloved wife Jane Njeri for her support and encouragement during the period of this research. To our children, Wanjiru, Wairimu and Wangui. To my parents, John Weru, Marion Wairimu and my elder brother Peter Mburu, for their sacrifice, patience, support and encouragement throughout my education.

iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

My deepest gratitude to my supervisors Professor James B. Kung‟u and Dr. Samuel C. J.

Otor for the overall guidance and advice they provided during the course of this study. I also wish to extend my thanks to ICRAF for allowing me to utilize their library facilities, and to Mr. Paul Njuguna, Ministry of Water and Irrigation, for sharing his views about this study.

I am grateful to the key informants and the 132 farmers in Guama, Nyangeni and

Mikarara sub-locations in Gichugu Division, for being so kind and willing to share their valuable knowledge and above all, finding time to be with me.

I acknowledge the support of the District Forestry Officer Kirinyaga, Mr. Unwa, Forester

Gichugu Division, Mr. Onyango Ndiga, Forester Kathandeini station, Mr. Mwangi and

Mrs. Miriam W. Kamau, Forester Njukiini West. I also extend my gratitude, to the Chiefs and Assistant Chiefs especially Sophia, field assistants, Nahason Gatimu, Sammy

Maringa, Henry Njeru Kibathi, Teresia Wawira Gachoki, Felista Njeru and Susan

Muriithi, for their tireless effort that they provided during the household surveys.

iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS

DECLARATION...... II DEDICATION...... III ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ...... IV LIST OF TABLES ...... VIII LIST OF FIGURES ...... X ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS ...... XI DEFINITION OF TERMS...... XII ABSTRACT ...... 1 CHAPTER 1 ...... 2 INTRODUCTION...... 2 1.1 Background to the Problem ...... 2 1.2 Statement of the Problem ...... 4 1.3. Research questions ...... 5 1.4 Hypotheses of the study ...... 5 1.5 Objectives of the study...... 6 1.6 Justification of the study ...... 6 1.7 Significance of the study ...... 7 CHAPTER 2 ...... 9 LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 9 2.1 Introduction ...... 9 2.2 : The current status ...... 9 2.2.1 ...... 9 2.2.4 Phenology and life cycle of Prunus africana ...... 12 2.2.5 Regeneration of Prunus africana ...... 13 2.2.6 Ecology of Prunus africana ...... 18 2.2.7 Climate and Soils ...... 19 2.2.8 Role of Prunus africana as a resource ...... 20 2.2.9 Management and Conservation Status of Prunus africana ...... 24 CHAPTER ...... 3 ...... 28 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ...... 28 3.1 Description of the Study Site ...... 28 3.1.1 Location and topography ...... 28 3.1.2 Climate and Soils ...... 30 3.1.3 Population ...... 31 3.1.4 Poverty levels ...... 31

v 3.2 Sampling design and data collection...... 32 3.2.1 Sources of data ...... 32 3.2.3 Sampling of households ...... 33 3.2.4 Case study ...... 34 3.2.5 Training of enumerators and data collection ...... 35 3.3 Data collection from District forest office ...... 36 3.4 Data capture and analysis...... 36 CHAPTER 4 ...... 38 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ...... 38 4.1 Overview ...... 38 4.2 Socio-economic characteristics of households ...... 38 4.2.1 Age of the household head ...... 38 4.2.2 Gender of respondents ...... 39 4.2.3 Wealth classes ...... 40 4.2.4 Level of education attained ...... 40 4.3 Farm characteristics ...... 41 4.3.1 Land size ...... 41 4.3.2 Land use ...... 42 4.4 Factors associated with presence of Prunus africana ...... 43 4.4.1 General occurrence of Prunus africana in the agro-ecological zones ...... 43 4.4.2 Age of household head...... 45 4.4.3 Gender of household head ...... 46 4.4.4 Income, size of land and education level ...... 46 4.4.5 Land use ...... 47 4.5.1 Factors influencing number of Prunus africana on farm ...... 48 4.5.2 Age of household head...... 48 4.5.3 Land size ...... 49 4.5.4 Land use ...... 50 4.5.5 Agroforestry practices/systems ...... 52 4.6 Size (DBH and height) and age distribution of Prunus africana in the agro- ecological zones ...... 54 4.7 Uses and benefits of Prunus africana in the agro-ecological zones ...... 57 4.7.1 Use for shade...... 57 4.7.2 Use for fuelwood...... 58 4.7.3 Use for medicine ...... 59 4.7.4 Use for poles ...... 60 4.7.5 Use for timber ...... 60 4.8 Management practices of Prunus africana ...... 62 4.8.1 Methods of Management of Prunus africana by farmers ...... 63 4.8.2 Prunus africana seedling production and management in the study area .... 66 4.8.3 Harvesting of Prunus africana bark ...... 69 4.8.4 Trend in Prunus africana in the agro-ecological zones ...... 71 4.8.5 Means of enhancing Prunus africana conservation...... 72 4.9 Study of other tree species in the study site ...... 73 4.9.1 Wealth and tree distribution in the study area ...... 73

vi 4.10 Constraints associated with Prunus africana growing ...... 75 CHAPTER 5 ...... 77 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 77 5.1 Conclusion ...... 77 5.2 Recommendations ...... 80 REFERENCES ...... 83 APPENDICES ...... 90 Appendix I. Semi-structured interview schedule ...... 90 Appendix II. Interview schedule for Government Officials ...... 95 Appendix III. Farmers tree domestication level in agro-ecological zones ...... 97 Appendix IV. Pooled farmers domestication level in study area...... 98 Appendix V. Prunus africana seedlings return ...... 99 Appendix VI. Means of enhancing Prunus africana conservation ...... 100

vii LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.1: Demographic information of Guama, Nyangeni and Mikarara sub- locations, Gichugu division in Kirinyaga district, central Kenya…………………………………………………………….31 Table 4.1: Age of the household head in the tea, tea/coffee, and coffee zones in Gichugu division, Kirinyaga district, central Kenya………….39 Table 4.2: Gender of respondents in the tea, tea/coffee, and coffee zones in Gichugu division, Kirinyaga district, central Kenya…………….39 Table 4.3: Wealth classes in the tea, tea/coffee, and coffee zones in Gichugu division, Kirinyaga district, central Kenya…………….………...40 Table 4.4: Level of education of household head in the tea, tea/coffee, and coffee zones in Gichugu division, Kirinyaga district, central Kenya…………….…………….…………….…………….……41 Table 4.5: Level of education of household head by agro-ecological zones in Gichugu division, Kirinyaga district, central Kenya…………….41 Table 4.6: Mean land sizes in tea, tea/coffee, and coffee zones in Gichugu division, Kirinyaga district, central Kenya…………….………...42 Table 4.7: Percentage land use in tea, tea/coffee and coffee agro-ecological zones in Gichugu division, Kirinyaga district, central Kenya…...42 Table 4.8: Prunus africana presence by agro-ecological zones in Gichugu division, Kirinyaga district, central Kenya…………….………...44 Table 4.9: Prunus africana occurrence by age class of household head in Gichugu division, Kirinyaga district, central Kenya…………….46 Table 4.10: Occurrence of Prunus africana by gender of household head in Gichugu division, Kirinyaga district, central Kenya…………….46 Table 4.11: Prunus africana presence by agro-ecological zones in Gichugu division, Kirinyaga district, central Kenya…………….………...48 Table 4.12: Prunus africana presence and age of household head in the agro- ecological zones in Gichugu division, Kirinyaga district, central Kenya…………….…………….…………….…………….…….49 Table 4.13: Occurrence of Prunus africana and agroforestry practices/systems in Gichugu division, Kirinyaga district, central Kenya………….52 Table 4.14: Mean number of trees, height, DBH and age distribution in agro- ecological zones in Gichugu division, Kirinyaga district, central Kenya…………….…………….…………….…………….…….56 Table 4.15: Various uses of Prunus africana in Gichugu division, Kirinyaga district, central Kenya…………….…………….…………….….58 Table 4.16: Ranked use of Prunus africana by households in the agro- ecological zones in Gichugu division, Kirinyaga district, central Kenya…………….…………….…………….…………….…….61 Table 4.17: Management practices of Prunus africana in different agro- ecological zones, in Gichugu division, Kirinyaga district, central Kenya…………….…………….…………….…………….……63 Table 4.18: Management of Prunus africana according to Gender, in Gichugu

viii division, Kirinyaga district, central Kenya…………….………..65 Table 4.19: Management of Prunus africana, and level of education, in Gichugu division, Kirinyaga district, central Kenya……………65 Table 4.20: Kianyaga tree nursery, seedlings production for 5 years in Gichugu division, Kirinyaga district, central Kenya…………….……….67 Table 4.21: Source of Prunus africana seedlings in Gichugu division, Kirinyaga district, central Kenya…………….…………….…...67 Table 4.22: Seedling production at Njukiini west Tree nursery in year 2005 in Gichugu division, Kirinyaga district, central Kenya…………...68 Table 4.23: Frequency of collecting the bark by agro-ecological zone in Gichugu division, Kirinyaga district, central Kenya…………...70 Table 4.24: Bark collection in the agro-ecological zones in Gichugu division, Kirinyaga district, central Kenya…………….…………….…...70 Table 4.25: Trend in number of Prunus africana trees in the agro-ecological zones in Gichugu division, Kirinyaga district, central Kenya….71 Table 4.26: Distribution of trees according to wealth in the agro-ecological zones in Gichugu division, Kirinyaga district, central Kenya….74 Table 4.27: Problem affecting the establishment of Prunus africana in Gichugu division, Kirinyaga district, central Kenya…………...75 Table 4.28: Future plans by farmers to establishment of Prunus africana in Gichugu division, Kirinyaga district, central Kenya…………...76

ix LIST OF FIGURES

Fig. 3.1: Map of Kirinyaga District, Central Kenya, showing the study area……………29 Fig. 4.1: Prunus africana (DBH) distribution in the tea zone, Gichugu division, Kirinyaga district, central Kenya…………………………………………………………..54 Fig. 4.2: Prunus africana, DBH distribution in tea/coffee zone, Gichugu division, Kirinyaga district, central Kenya………………………………………………55 Fig. 4.3: Prunus africana, DBH distribution in the coffee zone, Gichugu division, Kirinyaga district, central Kenya………………………………………………56 Fig. 4.4: Management techniques Prunus africana in the agro-ecological zones, in Gichugu division, Kirinyaga district, central Kenya…………………………..62

x ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

ACTS African Centre for Technology Studies ANOVA Analysis of Variance CBD Convention on Biological Diversity CBO Community Based Organization CERUT Centre for the Environment and Rural Development CITES Convention on Trade in Endangered Species DSF Division Service of Forestry DBH Diameter at Breast Height ESDA Energy for Sustainable Development Africa FDA Food and Drug Administration FDGO Forest Department General Order FAO Food and Agricultural Organization ICRAF International Centre for Research in Agroforestry KEFRI Kenya Forestry Research Institute NEMA National Environment Management Authority NGO Non- Governmental Organization RCD Root Collar Diameter SPSS Statistical Package for Social Sciences UNESCO United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization WWF World Wildlife Fund

xi DEFINITION OF TERMS

Allogamy Self-pollination Autogamy Cross pollination Benign prostatic hyperplasia Enlargement of the prostate gland, and consequent difficulty in passing urine in men. Prostate gland hypertrophy Shrinking of the prostate causing pain in passing urine and the inability to empty the bladder. Clinometer An instrument used for measuring the trees‟ total height.

xii ABSTRACT

Prunus africana (Hook. f) Kalkman happens to be among the very important tree species. Its bark is used to treat prostate gland hypertrophy (PGH) and benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH). The increased demand for its medicinal value, together with other uses, has led to the over exploitation of this species in its natural habitat. Its cultivation by small-scale farmers appears to be the only long-term solution for meeting future products needs and its conservation. There is however limited information on its current distribution, use and management on farmers‟ fields as not much research has been carried out. This study was conducted in Gichugu Division of Kirinyaga District in central Kenya to investigate the spread, utilization, management and constraints associated with Prunus africana, with a view to providing guidance for its introduction and domestication in agroforestry practices/systems. Three agro-ecological zones: lower highlands 1, upper midlands 1 and upper midlands 2, with 132 households as the units of investigation were randomly selected. In addition, a case study of 15 households was also randomly selected according to wealth status. Tree diameter at breast height or root color diameter (DBH/RCD) and total height of all trees of these households were measured. The results showed that, 53% of households sampled had Prunus africana, and its distribution was associated with agro-ecological zone (χ2 = 52.1, p = 0.001). There was a significant relationship between the number of Prunus africana trees and land size (r = 0.307, p = 0.01), land under trees (r = 0.361, p = 0.01), and significantly negatively correlated to land under tea (r= -0.312, p = 0.01). Prunus africana was also associated with the agroforestry practices/systems. It is concluded that; that spread of Prunus africana varied according to agro-ecological zone and its distribution was determined by age of household head, land size, land use, tree planting preferences and agroforestry practices. The number of Prunus africana on farms was influenced by socio-economic factors and most of the trees were found planted on the farm boundaries. Farmers used Prunus africana differently, and that the use for fuel wood (57.1%) and medicine (52.9%) are the most important uses. Pruning was found to be the most prevalent management technique and was mainly done to reduce shading of planted food crops. Farmers lacked knowledge in bark harvesting, which was being done unsustainably. Planting of Prunus africana was from wildings that had been natured during crop weeding, and grew from remnants left behind during land clearing for agriculture and settlement. Shading to crops (45.7%), lack of sufficient water for saplings (17.4%) and slow growth (13%) were rated as greatest constraints. On the basis of this study, it is recommended that increased cultivation and domestication of Prunus africana be promoted as this would benefit the welfare of local people, and improve the environment. Suitable niches for Prunus africana domestication exist on farm boundaries, steep slopes, soil conservation structures, and in home compounds. A policy should be enacted to streamline the harvesting and marketing of Prunus africana products to enable farmers‟ realize full benefits. Farmers should also be sensitized with information on best methods for regenerating Prunus africana, sustainable bark harvesting and marketing strategies. Further research is required on growth rates of different provenances and distribution of Prunus africana in the Mt. Kenya forest and also to determine the relation of the surrounding community with the forest resource.

1 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Problem

Prunus africana (Hook. f) Kalkman (formerly, Pygeum africanum Hook. f) in the family,

Rosaceae, is a geographically widespread forest tree species restricted to afromontane forest “islands”, which are generally above 1,000 m in altitude (Cunningham and

Mbenkum, 1993). The tree is also known as the African Cherry or Red Stinkwood and grows up to 30 metres tall and can reach a diameter of 1.5 metres. The bark is thick, and is a light demanding species (CERUT, 1999). It produces a high value, quality hardwood of specific gravity of 0.75 (Brown, 1978). Internationally, Prunus africana bark extracts are being used medicinally to treat prostate gland hypertrophy and benign prostatic hyperplasia that is common in older men. This is eased through the anti-inflammatory effect of Prunus africana extract on prostatic tissue and inhibition of bladder hyperactivity (Cunningham et al., 2002). Traditionally, the tree is used by herbalists, in treatment of prostate problems, as a remedy for stomachache and as an infusion to treat appetite (Dharani, 2002). Prunus africana remedies are currently estimated at US Dollars

220 million annually (Cunningham et al., 2002) and wild populations of Prunus africana are currently the sole source of bark extract.

With rising incidence of prostrate problems, due to an aging population in developed countries and growing confidence in natural medicines, the market for Prunus africana remedies is expected to double or triple in the coming years. Currently, bark harvesting

2 for export mainly to Europe and America occurs from wild populations, which continue to decline, and could be exhausted within 5-10 years (Cunningham et al., 1997).

Destructive bark exploitation has caused serious damage to natural Prunus africana populations. This exploitation is mainly to meet the high volume of export demand, whereby bark exploitation even takes place inside protected forests and national parks.

Over-exploitation has resulted in Prunus africana being placed under Appendix II of

Convention on Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), which allows for regulated trade under permit. Cameroon has been the worlds‟ largest exporter of Prunus africana bark, and in year 2007, following 15 years of intense harvesting, commenced a self-imposed moratorium on bark export. This was after the European Union trade suspension of

Prunus africana bark (Ingram, 2010). Over-exploitation not only threatens the future source of the pharmaceutical product, but also has implications for ecosystems.

Declassification of forested areas for agricultural use is also resulting to Prunus africana depletion. In addition, bark supplies for export and traditional extraction by herbalists could be affected by competing uses such as timber and fuel wood. A growing demand could thus be placed on fewer resources, hence threatening those Prunus africana trees within conservation areas. Cultivation of Prunus africana by small-scale farmers in agroforestry system appears to be the only long-term solution for meeting future bark demand and conserving afromontane forests like Mt. Kenya.

Agroforestry is a dynamic, ecologically based, natural resources management system that, through the integration of trees on-farms and in the landscape, diversifies and

3 sustains production for increased social, economic and environmental benefits. This not only conserves threatened species but also earns a livelihood to the farmers.

Prunus africana products have a great potential for improving farmers‟ livelihood because they have a marketable value and have the potential of expanding rural economies, through export of dried bark, providing alternative to conventional medicine, providing rural employment opportunities and providing raw materials for small-scale industries. In addition, increased diversity of products on-farm can buffer environmental and economic changes. For example, between 1992 and 1997, Mt. Kenya forest provided

US Dollars 212 per household in a year to forest-adjacent households (Emerton and

Karanja, 2001). Cultivation of endangered Prunus africana on the farms could, therefore, benefit the farmers and take pressure off its natural resource base, thereby promoting the conservation of natural stand, and other interdependent forest taxa, which include birds and mammals that feed on the (Cunningham, 1994). However, information on the current use, distribution and management of Prunus africana by farmers is lacking as limited studies have been carried out.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Many conservation and agroforestry projects, which aim at reducing pressure on natural forests by non-exploitation of natural resources and by planting trees on farmlands, eventually fail as a result of inadequate address of associated social economic benefits.

Prunus africana is a valuable medicinal tree not only locally but worldwide, that is facing extinction due to over extraction, poor protection and management. This is made worse

4 by the fact that current spread, use, management and conservation of the species both in the forest and on the farmers land are not well known.

The aim of this study therefore, is to investigate the current distribution of Prunus africana and its social and economic attributes to the rural community in Gichugu

Division of Kirinyaga District. It is envisaged that output of this study will provide guidelines for its cultivation and strategies for management and conservation.

1.3. Research questions

To achieve its objectives, the study was guided by the following research questions,

1. What is the current status of Prunus africana growing by farmers in different agro-ecological zones in Gichugu Division Kirinyaga District?

2. What are the uses and benefits of Prunus africana in Gichugu Division Kirinyaga District?

3. What are the management practices employed on Prunus africana by farmers in Gichugu Division, Kirinyaga District?

4. What are the socio-economic factors associated with the presence or absence of Prunus africana on farms?

1.4 Hypotheses of the study

1. Farmers in the tea zone grow more Prunus africana than farmers in the coffee zone in Gichugu Division Kirinyaga District.

2. Most farmers use Prunus africana for medicinal purposes in Gichugu Division Kirinyaga District.

3. Pruning is the management practice preferred by the majority of farmers in Gichugu Division Kirinyaga District.

4. Socio-economic factors of households influence the number of Prunus africana on farms in Gichugu division Kirinyaga District.

5

1.5 Objectives of the study

The main objective of this study was to assess the distribution, utilization and

management of Prunus africana in Gichugu Division of Kirinyaga District.

Specifically, the research objectives were to:

1. Determine the current spread of Prunus africana on farms in different agro- ecological zones of Gichugu Division.

2. Assess the current uses and benefits of Prunus africana.

3. Evaluate the management techniques of Prunus africana by farmers and any constraints associated with its management.

4. Determine the socio-economic factors influencing the presence or absence of Prunus africana on the farms.

1.6 Justification of the study

Natural populations of Prunus africana are being destroyed due to land clearance and for its medicinal products hence depleting the genetic base. There is high demand for Prunus africana products in the world market. This is because of their use in Europe and North

America in modern treatment of prostate enlargement, which affects most men over the age of 50 years (ICRAF, 2000). The future economic market for the Prunus africana medicine is ensured by the difficulty of artificial synthesis. This is due to the bark‟s synergistic chemical composition whose medicinal activity is not completely understood and natural production offers the only source of the medicine (Achoudong, 1995). As the world population ages the demand for treatment of prostate problems is likely to increase.

Currently, limited inventory of the Prunus africana resources exists in the country. Main exporter (Jonathan Leaky) and others are concerned that collection of Prunus africana

6 products will become restricted or exhausted. Regardless of ensuring good management of the Prunus africana resource, there is currently no minimum size for exploitation, and even young trees are stripped for their bark. There is also complete debarking of mature trees, thus reducing chances of survival of the tree for subsequent exploitation. Debarking the roots of trees and cutting down of whole trees is also common. When tree felling permits are issued, there is no harvesting control implemented. This results to over- harvesting of Prunus africana. Domestication could be a solution, hence the need for its increased cultivation in agroforestry systems. There is need therefore, for sustainable harvesting from wild sources, which should be complimented by promotion of cultivation of Prunus africana on farms. This however should be examined based on sound research on the socio-economic feasibility and the ecological impacts of cultivation efforts. The level of awareness of the conservation implications of the trade in Prunus africana need to be determined also. There is therefore the need for a study on social economic of

Prunus africana on farm in order to investigate, the potential for cultivation as a sustained source of bark, a source of revenue and income to farmers and its impact on reduction in forest destruction.

1.7 Significance of the study

Information from this study will come up with factors influencing the presence of Prunus africana its uses, benefits, management and constraints faced by farmers in the tea, tea/coffee and coffee agro-ecological zones. This information would help policy makers make informed and wise decisions on appropriate management of the Prunus africana resource. For example on ways of enhancing involvement of the local population and other farmers with similar conditions in growing and managing Prunus africana on their

7 farms. In time, this could reduce the impact of over-exploitation of forests, provide an alternative source of income to farmers as well as conserve the germplasm.

8 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

Mt. Kenya forest is perhaps the most abused of Kenya‟s forests in terms of resource use notwithstanding its national importance as a water reservoir, and as an important biodiversity area harbouring endemic, endangered, rare and unique flora and fauna

(Ministry of Finance and Planning, 2002). The forest resource in Mt. Kenya is facing over- exploitation and depletion. Partly this is due to the rapid population increase, demand for forest products, and easy accessibility of the forest. Increase in demand for land for growing food crops has led to permanent loss of forestland through excisions and encroachment. During the period 1992-1997, and using the 1996 prices, Mt. Kenya forest brought an estimated US$212 per household in a year to forest adjacent households and a watershed catchment‟s protection value of US$20.4million per year (Emerton and

Karanja, 2001). However, bioprospecting is leading to massive degradation of species of high medicinal value like Prunus africana.

2.2 Prunus africana: The current status

2.2.1 Taxonomy

Prunus africana (Hook f.) Kalk, also known as Pygeum africanum (Hook f.), and commonly known as red stinkwood, is native to the afromontane forests of Africa

(Cunningham and Mbenkum 1993; Walter and Rakotonirina, 1995). The medicinal value of its bark for the treatment of disorders of the prostate gland was recognized more than

9 20 years ago, when commercial harvesting of the species from natural populations in

Cameroon and Madagascar began (Gachie, 2003).

The genus Prunus is in the family although in some accounts, such as Troupin

(1982), the sub-tribe Amygdaloideae (Prunoideae) that contains Prunus is elevated to the rank of family as the Amygdalaceae. Prunus africana and are the only

African species in the genus Prunus and are wild relatives of plums (Prunus domestica), cherries (P. avium), peaches (P. persica), almonds (P. dulcis) and apricots (P. americana).

Dharani (2002) indicates that in the family Rosaceae, there are about 3200 species. in this family are perennial and include trees, shrubs and herbs. According to Noad and

Birnie (1990), the family also includes many ornamental trees and shrubs, notably in the genus Prunus. There are more than 200 species in the genus Prunus (ICRAF, 2000), and

Prunus is the only genus native in Africa. The species has many vernacular names despite its narrow geographical range (Table 2.1).

Table 2.1 Local names for Prunus africana

Name Language Country Muiri Kikuyu Kenya Mweria Meru Kenya Kwarh Muanenguba Cameroon Tenduet Keiyo Kenya Olkoijuk Maasai Kenya Bihasa Bubi Equatorial Guinea Kiburabura Kiswahili Kenya Mwiritsa Luhya Kenya Saripaiso Bealanana Madagascar Omoiri Kisii Kenya Sources: Mwando and Bo Tengnas (2005), WWF and IUCN (1999), Dale and Greenway,

(1961)

10

2.2.2 Tree description

Prunus africana is an evergreen tree, growing up to 25 m high or more, that occurs in moist evergreen forest, in riverine areas (often in remnants) and on margins, at altitudes of 1500-2300m. Mwando and Bo Tengnas (2005) reported that, in forests the dense foliage is open, the branches often pendulous, small buttresses occasionally present, but in grassland the tree is more stunted. Diameter reaches 0.9 m to 1 m in large old trees, in

Kenya (Dale, 1936) but individuals as large as 1.1 m and 1.5 m DBH were recorded from

Mt. Elgon lower afromontane forest (Kenya) and Malawi respectively by Hitimana

(2000), Chapman and White (1970).

The bark is rough, dark, scaling irregularly, branches corky. In young trees, there are longitudinal fissures but on the older individuals, where the bark is approximately 1.5 cm thick, there tends to be coarse exfoliating scales (Hamilton, 1981). Beneath the bark is a whitish or very pale pink phellogen (Eggeling and Dale, 1951). The blaze is soft and fibrous beneath the bark, pale red to red-brown in colour but darkening with exposure and smelling strongly of cyanide. The branchlets are dotted with breathing pores. are leathery, glossy dark green above, oval to 10 cm, margin with shallow rounded teeth, stalk typically pink to redish brown, to 2 cm.

Crushed leaves have bitter almond smell. are in form of sprays on stalks and about 8 cm long, very small, fragrant, green-white. Noad and Birnie (1990), point out that the flowers are insect pollinated, which is a characteristic of the rose family (Rosaceae)

11 and has numerous . The is rounded, and about 1cm, dark red to purple-black and often bi-lobed, containing one seed and topped by a persistent style. The seeds are known to be recalcitrant, i.e., they lose their viability quickly during storage (ICRAF,

2000). Sunderland and Nkefor (1997) point out that dispersal of seeds from the parent tree was negligible and the majority of fruits fall within the crown line. Heavy seeding occurs in 2 years (Ewusi et al., 1992) and natural regeneration in the natural forest is prolific where there is good lighting and sparse undergrowth. According to ICRAF

(1998) observations on the forest floor, one or two months after fruit maturity, reveal high level of germination with thousands of seedlings (wildings) under trees that produce fruits. Wildings are shade intolerant and most die unless habitat disturbance occurs.

Wildings do not transplant well thus do not contribute significantly to regeneration of the species.

2.2.3 Uses of Prunus africana

Uses of Prunus africana include timber for furniture, lorry bodies, bridges and flooring, tool handles, poles, fuel, house building, and the bark serves as a treatment of prostate problems ( Cunningham et al,1993). Currently 1m3 of Prunus africana fetches on average, Ksh.5,149 (Forest Department, 2005; Dharani, 2002). Mwando and Bo Tengnas

(2005), add that, Prunus africana is also used for, charcoal, medicine (leaves, bark), bee forage, shade, ornamental, mulch, green manure, windbreak and veterinary medicine.

2.2.4 Phenology and life cycle of Prunus africana

Prunus africana, according to Simons et al. (1998), begins flowering at an age of between 15-20 years, and from field observations on Mount Cameroon, flowering period

12 is from October to January. Fruiting continues until late March (Sunderland and Nkefor,

1997). In Kakamega forest, flowering occurs between November to February and sporadic flowering all year round can be found (ICRAF, 2000). Phenological differences have been suggested to occur between populations. Fruiting is sporadic, and intensity of fruit set is said to vary from year to year. Early fruiting seems to occur on individuals that have recently been subjected to bark removal. The sporadic (and poorly known) nature of fruit production has significant implications for cultivation potential (Pouakouyou, 1995)

2.2.5 Regeneration of Prunus africana

Natural regeneration

A study of natural regeneration made on Mount Cameroon found that, Prunus africana was most abundant on disturbed sites (Eben- Ebai et al., 1992). The species is a light demander and regeneration (up to 50 seedlings per square metre) is best in disturbed sites or forest gaps, so it should establish well in agroforestry situations (Ewusi et al., 1996).

However natural populations showed unusual size class distributions, suggesting that regeneration has been episodic (ICRAF, 1997). This was due to problems with longer- term establishment of young seedlings and selective bark extraction. Cunningham et al.,

(1998) suggest that, this could also be due to forest disturbance. The species is light demanding and is often associated with the forest edge. It would probably grow as an early secondary species (Geldenhuys, 1981). Since its populations are diminishing rapidly, there is need to initiate optimum conservation strategies both in-situ and ex-situ.

This requires a detailed knowledge of its reproductive biology. Few studies on the reproductive biology of Prunus africana have been conducted and it is assumed to be

13 predominantly out-crossing and pollinated by insects or birds, in common with other

Prunus species (Dawson and Powel, 1999).

Flowering and seed set is cyclic with prolific flowering occurring at 2 to 3 year intervals.

Large variation in the timing of fruiting within years is common. This variation and the inability of drying and storing seed for long a period result in a shortage of planting material. According to Were et al (2001), flowering occurred from January to April with peak flowering occurring between February and mid March and continued, August to

December. Different trees flowered and fruited at different times. This phenological condition was observed throughout the year at different sites. Branches that were not shielded by other branches or trees flowered more and had a higher fruit set than those that were shielded.

Fruits and flowers, are predated by the speckled mouse bird (Colius striatus), the olive- breasted mountane greenbul (Andropadus nigriceps Kikuyuensis). Three species of monkey (blue, red-tailed and colubus) found in Kakamega feed on young leaves and fruits of Prunus africana, and are largely responsible for its dispersal (Were et al., 2001).

A high proportion of fallen fruit remains close to the parent tree and germinates there, even if the shade is heavy. Since Prunus africana is a light demanding species, it does not maintain a large seedling bank in the forest understory as reported by Ndam, (1999), and most or all such seedling die while still small. A 32% regeneration survival rate was reported in Cameroon by Ingarm, (2010). Light is a significant factor for seedling growth. The breeding behaviour of Prunus africana, according to Were et al. (2001), is

14 allogamy, and that autogamy where a vector must be present, is also possible. Cross- pollination could be the source of vigour of resultant seeds. The seeds produced through inbreeding (resulting in a less vigourous than out crossed sibling from the same parent) could explain the high fruit abortion and death rates of the seedlings in the forest.

This self-compatibility and out-crossing behaviour may help to explain lack of any substantial genetic deterioration.

Artificial regeneration of Prunus africana

The domestication of Prunus africana rests on the high current levels of demand for its products, primarily bark, and timber, levels that cannot be met long-term from wild populations. With natural bark stocks dwindling in Cameroon and Madagascar, which are the major suppliers to the international trade, to continue harvesting from wild populations at existing rates, will not be sustainable. Domestication of Prunus africana, thus has an important role in ensuring its sustainable and beneficial exploitation while significantly reducing the threat of depletion and extinction of wild populations (Were et al., 2000).

According to ICRAF (1997), Prunus africana should be relatively easy to establish as natural regeneration suggests. However, a constraint to the domestication of Prunus africana is the availability of viable seed in sufficient quantities (Were et al, 2000).

Seeds must be from fruit collected at the correct stage of maturation and depulped prior to sowing or storage (Schaefer, 1990; Were and Munjuga, 1998). Were and Munjuga

(1998) compared the germination of Kenyan (Kibujoi) seed from green, purple/green and purple fruits, with and without pulp in each case. The highest germination (72%) was

15 attained with seed dried to 15% moisture content extracted from purple (ripe) fruit and this treatment also led to the highest viability after storage at 50c for one year.

In terms of seedling growth, light was observed to be a significant factor in Cameroon.

Under 70% shade, seedling became weak and pale whereas at 40% shade normal internode length was found (Sunderland and Nkefor, 1997). One consequence of greater shading was that specimens were more susceptible to pest and disease attack.

Ndeti (1999) and Tchoundjeu et al., (1999a, 1999b), indicate that vegetative propagation through cuttings from juvenile plants of Prunus africana has been achieved with varying degrees of success in Kenya, Madagascar and Cameroon. Rooting success in an experiment at Mbalmayo, Cameroon, was higher (84%) with a sawdust medium than with sand (68%) or a 1:1 mix of the two (78%). Air-layering of Prunus africana is also possible and experimental work in Kenya has indicated that success is influenced by substrate although not by the application of indole butylic acid. In Cameroon, with a peat- based substrate, 80% of air-layered shoots 1-2 cm diameter on mature trees had produced roots after five weeks and most survived after transfer to the nursery as independent plants (Were et al., 2000).

Prunus africana plantations in the country comprise about 628ha (e.g. in Meru, Ragati,

South Nandi, Kakamega and Kapsabet), with a recent planting of 16.2 ha in Nyeri Hill forest in 1992.The first attempt of Prunus africana planting was done at Ngong, (0.4 ha) in 1913 as a timber stand (Were et al., 2000). On-farm planting initiatives have been done in Cameroon, and an estimated 3,250 farmers were involved (Cunningham, 1995).

Constraints in on-farm planting, according to Simons et al. (1998), were identified as

16 irregular seed availability that led to reduction of on-farm tree planting expansion, long- term seed storage difficulties, and the relatively late age (15-20 years) at which seed production begins. ICRAF (2000) reported fungi and insects infecting the tree‟s fruits on the ground, defoliators of the order Lepidoptera and at low altitudes attack on developing leaf buds by aphids. Moist conditions encourage infestation of powdery mildew and stem borers, whose presence is indicated by resin exuded through small-bore holes. This has been recorded in Cameroon. Other constraints as reported by Were et al. (2001), were smut in the twigs and leaves of some trees especially those shielded by other trees. There were also green tree bugs on the stalks suspected to suck sap from the flower stalks. Mistle-toe on branches in a plantation in Malava forest, had been noted which killed the affected branches.

In a Prunus africana trial at Kakamega, mean height of 1.13 m after 15 months growth was attained, with the tallest tree in the trial being 3.38 m in height. Mean height values among the 20 genetic families represented ranged from 0.92 m to 1.43 m (Were et al.,

2000). The economic feasibility of different planting systems for Prunus africana cultivation, such as enrichment planting, small-scale farming and large plantation, have been investigated in Cameroon by Cunningham et al. (1997). Prunus africana bark production and growth rates were examined in planted stands in Cameroon (in plantations and agroforestry systems). Data indicated the expected correlations between bark thickness, diameter at breast height (DBH) and tree height. Prunus africana showed rapid growth, reaching 14 m high and 37 cm DBH in 18 years.

17 Cunningham et al. (2002), in regard to comparison between the flow of costs and benefits from small scale production of Prunus africana and Eucalyptus camaldulensis, indicated that E. camadulensis cultivation is 30% more profitable than P. africana production.

Although the net present value for eucalyptus exceeded that of Prunus africana, there are reasons why farmers might rather invest in Prunus africana instead of, or in addition to, eucalyptus, apparently because Prunus africana has added local medicinal benefits, allows diversification in revenue production, as well as the production of higher quality timber than eucalyptus. As a relatively fast growing indigenous tree, Prunus africana also has great potential for reafforestation and integration in agroforestry systems, deforested areas around forest remnants in Cameroon, Madagascar, Kenya, Uganda and Zaire.

Several recent reports have drawn attention to conservation problems in these countries and suggested cultivation as a possible solution in order to take harvesting off wild stocks

(Cunningham et al., 2002)

2.2.6 Ecology of Prunus africana

Habitat

Prunus africana is a highland forest tree that grows in the humid and semi-humid highlands and humid midlands. It occurs in sub-Saharan Africa. It‟s native to Southern,

Central, Eastern and Western African countries as well as the islands of Sao Tome et

Principe and Madagascar. In Kenya it grows on the slopes of Mount Kenya, Mount

Elgon, the Aberdares range, Cherangani hills, Tugen hills, Chyulu hills, Nyiro hills

(Marsabit), Taita hills, Mau range, Timboroa, Nandi and Kakamega forests. The species requires lots of light and growth in forest gaps (ICRAF, 2000; Albrecht (ed), 1993).

According to Hall et al.(2000) Prunus africana occurs in forests transitional between

18 lowland and afromontane (where its occurrence tend to be sparse) and in a range of afromontane forest types, from those dominated by a mix of broad-leaved species, to those dominated by conifers.

Elevation

The elevation at which Prunus africana may be found given by different authors differs.

Noad and Birnie (1990), indicate that the tree can grow above 1,500 m asl. Dharani

(2002) suggests altitudes of 1500-2300 m above sea level. According to Dale and

Greenway (1961), Prunus africana is common in highland forests above 1,524 m.

However, ICRAF (2000) reports that the species has an elevation limit of 900-3400 m.

The elevation, at which Prunus africana occurs, is therefore highly variable, but broadly correlated with latitude. As latitude decreases towards the equatorial regions, there is a general tendency for increases to occur in the minimum and maximum elevations of occurrence, and thus in the range between them, per degree of latitude. The species is limited in areas of high elevations where frost days arise in more than three months, suggesting it can withstand mild or infrequent frost, but not severe or prolonged one (Hall et al., 2000)

2.2.7 Climate and Soils

Noad and Birnie (1990), report that, the tree is now fairly uncommon. It occurs in areas which have volcanic soils and cooler highland climate. ICRAF (2000) indicates the mean annual rainfall of 890-1400 mm, and agroclimatic zones 1-III (Mwando and Bo Tengnas,

2005). Dale and Greenway (1961) refer to rainfall in excess of 1016 mm. Achoudong

19 (1995) asserts that the species prefers temperatures of 18-260c and rainfall of 2000 mm.

In essence, Prunus africana is restricted to those parts of Africa that experience temperate climatic conditions and with moisture supply (rainfall and/or cloud cover) sufficient to meet the environmental demand during the growing season. It is high temperature and / or insufficient rainfall during the warmest months of the year that limits

Prunus africana to the afromontane regions of Africa (Hall et al, 2000).

Soils associated with the vegetation (afromontane rain forest and undifferentiated afromontane forest) containing Prunus africana have been described as humic cambisols and humic nitisols (Hall et al., 2000). These areas are suitable for agriculture due to their rich soils and cool climate, factors that have resulted in dense human populations, with clearing of trees for farming purposes.

2.2.8 Role of Prunus africana as a resource

Prunus africana is being widely utilized as a multipurpose resource, supplying products throughout the year. Timber, the main product is heavy, hard, durable, close, and straight grained, strong, red-brown, planes well, takes a high polish, but splits and twists. It is used for heavy construction work, furniture, flooring, turnery, moldings, poles and mortars. Liquid extracts from the bark are used in the treatment of prostate disorders.

Leaves are used as an inhalant for fever or are drunk as an infusion to improve appetite.

Water is added to pounded bark, and the red liquid is used as a remedy for stomach- ache.

Bark extract may be used as a purgative for cattle. Various communities have traditionally harvested the bark, mainly for medicinal purposes. But lately, there has been

20 an increase in the practice as the bark has fetched high demand on international trade as a remedy against prostate disorders. In Kenya, bark is obtained from forests cleared for agriculture and tea plantations where the trees are completely stripped. The main areas of collection are the Mau, Kakamega, Aberdares, Mt. Kenya, South Nandi, Karura and

Ngong forests (Cunningham et al., 1997).

Prunus africana can be grown along contour ridges and terraces to control erosion, as shade or shelter, as it provides useful shade and acts as a windbreak. It could also be used as mulch and green manure to improve the soil. As it makes an attractive garden shade tree it can be used as ornamental (ICRAF, 2000). As forests area decreases and, damages caused by destructive bark removal and felling of Prunus africana increases, Prunus africana become more threatened. Cunningham and Mbenkum (1993), report that Prunus africana is threatened by unsustainable demand for its bark from Western pharmaceutical companies. The bark is only mature when the tree is about 12 years old, but the demand is so high that, even younger trees are debarked. They add that, ring barking in conserved forests and consequent development of canopy gaps (which change forest structure can lead to influx of invasive exotic species) is of concern in forest habitat conservation. The recovery of Prunus africana trees after debarking varies substantially according to Ndam et al. (2008). Tree mortality in drier areas is higher even after „normal‟ debarking as compared to wetter areas.

Use of Medicinal plants such as Prunus africana, has changed from being a purely specialist activity of traditional medical practitioners to one involving an informal sector

21 group of medicinal plant gatherers. Unlike the rural herbalists who gather medicinal plant material in small quantities, the prime motivation of the commercial gatherers is an economic one. This results in disregard for traditional conservation practices where they exist and an opportunistic scramble for the last bag of bark. High rates of unemployment and low levels of formal education (and therefore a low chance of access to the formal job market) have given rise to a flood of popular medicinal plant material like Prunus africana to supply the urban demand, keeping prices low and volumes high. To make a living, commercial Prunus africana gatherers therefore “mine” rather than manage these resources. The aim is earning money and not resource management. If cultivation of tree species is to be a viable proposition or an income-generating activity, the flood of cheap bark/roots “mined” from wild stocks should be reduced through better protection of conserved forests in order to bring prices to a realistic level. Alternatively, wild populations will have to decline further before cultivation becomes a viable option

(Cunningham and Mbenkum, 1993). According to Cunningham et al. (1997), there has been an increase in Prunus africana barks export from Kenya since 1993, with the highest increase in 1996 (Fig. 2.1).Significant exports were also made in 1990 and 1992, while in 1991, no bark exports were recorded.

22 400 350 300 250 200 150

100 Tonnes Tonnes of bark 50 0 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 year

Figure 2.1: Histogram showing quantities of unprocessed bark exported from Kenya over the period 1990-1996. Source: Cunningham et al. (1997).

There is a problem to manage successfully Prunus africana in natural forests due to its occurrence in low density, averaging >20 cm diameter at breast height (DBH) of

5.5trees/ha, with many populations in remote, and inaccessible locations (Eben- Ebai et al., 1992). Though several reports have drawn attention to conservation problems of

Prunus africana, the species is a relatively fast growing indigenous tree, which has a great potential for reafforestation and agroforestry systems in deforested areas and farmlands respectively (ICRAF, 2000).

On-farm cultivation of Prunus africana will reduce pressure on wild populations, as harvesting pressure will be significantly reduced with alternative supply coming from cultivated sources. The benefits will not only be confined to individual taxa, but also through the maintenance of ecological integrity as the felling of Prunus africana causes large and discontinuous gaps in the forest, thus severely affecting dynamic processes.

23 2.2.9 Management and Conservation Status of Prunus africana

The high profits and the difficulty of finding Prunus africana trees lead harvesters to cut down increasingly smaller trees in order to get as much bark as possible.

With appropriate management, the value of Prunus africana could increase so that its sustainable use and conservation would become more economically valuable than its destruction (Sunderland et al., 1997). There has been a major weakness in the licensing system, whereby an exploiter is allocated a certain tonnage to exploit without specifying the region from which to carry out the exploitation (Njie, 2004). Complete debarking of mature trees, debarking of roots, cutting down of whole trees to remove the bark and debarking of young immature trees, is common place. To ensure sustainability of Prunus africana harvesting, the ecological sound harvesting involving the removal of bark in strips from 1.3m above ground level to the first branch is advocated. Once a tree has been harvested, this can only be done again after 5 years when the part of tree earlier harvested has been filled with bark. During the second harvest, only the two other strips that were not previously harvested are removed (Tieguhong and Ousseynou, 2006). Bark removal induces early flowering. Mean bark yield per tree is 55 kg, ranging from 34 to 74 kg.

Cambium damage to the tree during bark harvesting, lessens the capacity for bark regeneration and leading to significant individual and population senescence and crown die-back. Scrapping of the bark other than cutting using a cutlass/panga and stripping removes the cambial layer entirely and prevents immediate recovery of the tree

(Sunderland et al., 1999). For success, therefore, there is the need to have a well-defined management structure, where stakeholders are linked with a well-developed monitoring and control system for Prunus africana exploitation.

24

Policies and regulatory frameworks aimed at conserving Prunus africana exist. The tree has been designated as a vulnerable species by the World Conservation Monitoring

Centre and as a conservation priority by FAO panel of experts on Forest Genetic

Resources (FAO, 1996). Prunus africana remained a priority species for conservation, despite the full Africa list being revised and reduced from about 80 indigenous species to only 13. Other international regulations affecting Prunus africana trade and exploitation include the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), the European Union Regulations on Import of Medicinal Plants and the USA and Canada Food and Drug Administration

(FDA) regulations (Hall et al., 2000).

Prunus africana was officially added to Appendix II of the Convention on International

Trade in Endangered Species of wild flora and fauna (CITES) in 1995 (Cunningham et al., 1997). This means that the species is not necessarily threatened with extinction, but may become so unless trade involving it is subjected to strict regulation. The convention helps to regulate the sustainable exploitation of natural products in source countries, their export, and their entry into external markets. With 124 members, the convention has a high capacity to conserve Prunus africana.

According to Cunningham et al. (1997), an export permit is required for Prunus africana products to be traded on the international market. This permit can be granted only after being approved by both the designated scientific and management authorities from the country of origin. Also, the import of any natural product of Prunus africana requires the prior presentation of either an export permit or re-export certificate. Most Prunus

25 africana source countries have management and scientific authorities (Cunningham et al.,

1997). However, their operation and mandate are not always in compliance with the

CITES convention. In Kenya, the Kenya Wildlife Service is both the management and scientific authority for plants and animals, while the regulation of exploitation and export legislation for trees and forest products is under Forestry Department. On the other hand, the National Environment Management Authority (NEMA) is mandated to exercise general supervision and coordination over all matters relating to the environment, it is the principle instrument of government in the implementation of all environmental policies.

There are also local institutions and practices that lead to conservation of forests, which are seen as traditional laws. These include the designation of some forest sites as „sacred forests‟ in which access is reserved to selected members of the community and exploitation is forbidden. These sacred groves/forests form in situ conservation, as found in Embu and Meru districts (Jaenicke et al. 2000). They also include traditions protecting certain species or their habitats because the local communities know their importance, which may be medicinal such as Prunus africana. Another way to conserve the tree is through its cultivation, both in plantations and on farms (Gachie, 2003).

Despite this merit, there is a serious constraint for increased cultivation. First, the intermediate nature of seed limits seed availability. Second, although a large tree can yield large quantities of seed, seed yields fluctuate widely between years. Seed shortage is likely to increase in future, as sizes of natural populations of trees diminish. Since the approximate time to the first flowering and fruiting in Prunus africana is 15-20 years.

The establishment of seed stands is an urgent priority, as is the further development and

26 adoption of vegetative propagation practices (Jaenicke et al., 2000). According to

Bodeker et al.(1997) and Schippmann et al.(2005), the relationship between in situ and ex situ conservation of species has implications for local communities, public and private land owners and managers, entire industries and, wild species like Prunus africana.

Identifying conservation benefits and costs of the different production systems should help guide policies as to whether species conservation should take place in nature or the nursery or both.

27 CHAPTER 3

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Description of the Study Site

This chapter discuses the methods which were used to systematically solve the research problems. It includes the methods used to collect data, statistical techniques to establish relationships between the data and the unknowns. Methods which are used to evaluate the accuracy of the results obtained are also discussed, according to Kothari (2004).

3.1.1 Location and topography

Kirinyaga District is located in Central Province. It lies approximately between 0o 1” and

0o 40” South and longitudes 37o and 38o East. Its altitude ranges from 1,480 m to 6,800 m above sea level. It occupies a total area of 1,478 square kilometers, which is 11.2% and

0.3% of central province and Kenya‟s total land area respectively. Gichugu Division is one of Kirinyaga District‟s four Divisions and occupies an area of 229.7 km2 (Ministry of

Finance and Planning, 2002).

The landscape falls in the midland area, and rises from 2000 m to about 4,800 m above sea level, and forms the lower part of the Division. The highland area rises from 4,800 m to 5,200 m above sea level and lies in the upper part of Gichugu Division and the Mt.

Kenya area. A thick indigenous forest with unique type of trees covers Mt. Kenya, whose area is 301.7 km2, of which 21% of its area falls in the district.

This study was conducted in Guama, Nyangeni and Mikarara sub-locations in Gichugu

Division. The choice of the division was due to its neighbouring Mt. Kenya forest and issues relating to conservation of this forest with the involvement of the local community.

28

MAP OF KIRINYAGA DISTRICT SHOWING THE STUDY AREA Some of the farms were located far away and this made us to spend much more time in

data collection than anticipated. This affected our planning. Lack of measuring

equipment and continued monitoring of how data was being collected also delayed the

study.

M T. KE N YA F OR E ST

C EN T R A L-K IR IN Y AG A GIC H U G U

N D IA

N M W E A

W E

Guama, nyangeni and mikarara sub-locations.shp S GUAMA MIKARARA NYANGENI Disolv43.shp

Fig 3.1: Map of Kirinyaga District, Central Kenya, showing the study area (Source,

Department of Resource Survey and Remote Sensing).

29 3.1.2 Climate and Soils

The rainfall pattern is bi-modal with two distinct rainy seasons. The long rains fall between March and June while the short rains are experienced from October through

December. The amount received varies with altitude, but averages 1350 mm per year.

Temperatures in the Division range from a minimum of 50 C in July in the upper zones, to a maximum of 29o C in the lower zones during the month of March.

The volcanic activities in the area led to the formation of humic nitisols which are favourable for crop production that is a source of income and employment to most people in the Division (Ministry of Finance and Planning, 2002).

The study area falls in three agro-ecological zones, namely:

Lower highlands 1. Tea and dairy zone, represented by Guama sub-location.

Altitude1760 - 2130 m. above sea level with an annual mean

0 0 temperature 14.5 C- 17.8 C and rainfall of 1700 - 2150 mm per

year.

Upper midlands 1. Tea and coffee zone, represented by Nyangeni sub-location.

Altitude 1520 - 1820 m. above sea level. Annual mean temperature

0 0 17.5 C -19.3 C and average annual rainfall of 1400 - 1700 mm.

Upper midlands 2. Main coffee zone, represented by Mikarara sub-location.

Altitude 1400-1580 m. above sea level. Annual mean temperature

0 0 of 19.0 C - 20.1 C. with annual average rainfall of 1200 - 1250

mm (Jaetzold and Schmidt, 1983)

30

3.1.3 Population

According to the 2009 census, Gichugu Division, with twenty three sub-locations, had a total population of 124,672 persons, which is expected to grow at an annual growth rate of 1.5%. The population density was 544 persons/ km2.

Table 3.1 Demographic information of Guama, Nyangeni and Mikarara sub- locations, Gichugu division in Kirinyaga district, central Kenya

Sub- Total % No. of % Area % Area Density location pop. Pop H/h H/h km2 km2 persons km2 Mikarara 4,377 3.5 1,246 3.5 9.9 4.3 443 Nyangeni 5,098 4.1 1,497 4.2 10.3 4.5 493

Guama 5,451 4.4 1,579 4.4 8.2 3.6 665

Source: Ministry of State for Planning, National Development and Vision 2030 (2010).

Guama in Karumandi Location is the most densely populated with a population density of 665 persons/ km2 followed by Nyangeni in Ngariama Location with 493 persons/ km2 while Mikarara, in Kabare Location with 443 persons/ km2 is the least populated (Table

3.1 ).

Given the limited employment opportunities resulting from the poor economic situation, retrenchment programmes and the large number of school leavers, pressure on land and forest resources continues to increase (Central Bureau of Statistics, 1994).

3.1.4 Poverty levels

The poverty levels in the Division have been classified by the communities in three levels. The very poor (Ahoi), the average poor (Agiiki), and the well-off (Ehoti). This description is based on access, control and ownership of property. Kirinyaga District is

31 one of the poorest districts in Central province. While absolute poverty in the province stood at 31.4%, Kirinyaga District had 35.6% of its population below the poverty line.

The District accounts for 1.5% to the national poverty. Analysis of hardcore poverty indicates that Kirinyaga District has 20.64% of its population described as hardcore poor.

This implies that nearly one quarter of the people in the District cannot afford food even if they allocate all their income to food expenditure (Ministry of Finance and Planning,

2002).

3.2 Sampling design and data collection

This section deals with the method of selecting units to be observed for the study.

3.2.1 Sources of data

Both secondary and primary data were collected in this study. The secondary data were collected from academic documents on social and geographical conditions of the area.

Aside from books, articles and theses, a variety of government reports provided information describing social, economic, environmental, and development features. The

Central Bureau of Statistics, forestry and agricultural offices as well the local government documentation centre were visited to gather various documents such as maps for the study area. The primary data was collected through farmer interviews and interview of forestry officers.

3.2.2 Sampling of sub-locations

Prior to collecting data, the purpose of the study was discussed with the District Forest

Officer, the Divisional Forest Officer, the Divisional Agricultural Officer, Chief and

Assistant Chiefs in the selected sub-locations in the study area, who provided useful

32 information relevant during sampling. A cluster sampling method was employed in this study. Locations within Gichugu Division were clustered into three groups (Plews, 1979):

a) Those that had most of their land use under tea and bordering the forest (tea

zone), which are, Kirima and Karumandi Locations.

b) Those with tea and coffee (transitional zone), which is, Ngariama Location.

c) Those away from the forest (coffee zone), which are, Kabare, Baragwe and

Njukiini Locations.

One Location was then randomly sampled from each cluster. These were Karumandi, in the tea zone, Ngariama in the transitional zone (coffee and tea zone) and Kabare Location in the coffee zone and the furthest from the forest. Sub-locations within each of the three sampled cluster Locations were then listed and three of them randomly selected. The selected sub-locations were as follows; Guama in Karumandi Location, Nyangeni in

Ngariama location and Mikarara in Kabare Location.

3.2.3 Sampling of households

With the assistance from the village elders and assistant chiefs, a list of households within each sampled sub-location was compiled, and this formed the sampling frame.

This comprised of 195 households in Guama, 298 in Nyangeni and 303 households in

Mikarara. A sample was subsequently selected at random from each of the three sub- locations. This included at least 15% of the total households, thus meeting sampling requirements (Mugenda and Mugenda 2003). Therefore the following numbers of households were obtained in each sub-location;

33 Nyangeni - 45 households (15% of 298)

Mikarara - 45 households (15% of 303)

Guama - 42 households (22% of 195)

This generated a total of 132 households that were targeted in this study and interviewed using a standard questionnaire (Appendix 1).

3.2.4 Case study

Case studies were conducted on 5 farms, in each of the sample sub-locations, making a total of 15 farms. The 5 farms were selected on the basis of wealth classes, as classified by the community. With the help of the chief, all the households were classified into three wealth classes; wealthy, medium and poor. This resulted in 70% of households in medium class, 20% in poor class and 10% in rich class. This was according to the findings by Micheni and Karlsson, (2004) in central part of Kenya. In order to get a representative sample from each of the sub-locations a sample of 5 households was selected using this procedure in each sub-location making a total of 15 households.

70% - 3 Households of medium wealth

20% - 1 Household poor status

10% - 1 Household wealthy

The selection was within the ones randomly picked previously, hence to get the sample, i divided the number of households (45) with the sample households (5) to get 9 therefore, the 1st household was picked then 9 households were omitted and picked the

10th, 20th, 30th and 40th. If the farm did not fall under the criteria required, then the procedure was to go to the next farm and the next until the criteria was met. Detailed measurements of all the trees on the farm were undertaken in the 5 households in each of

34 the 3 agro-ecological zones and recorded in separate sheets that were attached to the main questionnaire. However wherever Prunus africana was found in all the other farms its diameter at breast height and total height were taken.

3.2.5 Training of enumerators and data collection

Six enumerators conversant with the study area and local language (Kikuyu) were trained on how to administer the interviews in the selected sub-locations. Three females and three males were selected in order to ensure balance on gender. A male and a female conducted a household survey of one sub-location. Specific emphasis was put on the right interpretation of questions in the questionnaire (Appendix 1) and on how to use the various field equipment. In each household, only the household head or his representative

(mature person) was interviewed. It was therefore assumed that information collected in the sample, was representative of the views of the household heads in the area.

3.2.6 Conducting the actual interviews

The questionnaire for household survey was first pre-tested. To pre-test the questionnaire, four households were randomly selected in the sub-locations (Raimu and Rwambiti) in the neighbouring Baragwi Location. The purpose of pre-testing was to correct any weaknesses before actual administration of the questionnaire. During the interviews specific in-depth quantitative and qualitative information on socio-economic, management, utilization and conservation of Prunus africana was collected. In addition to interview schedules administered to the farmers a questionnaire was given to the forester and forest assistants (Appendix 2) to fill in. During the farm survey, observational walks were undertaken to get the social and land-use information on

35 housing types, agroforestry practices/systems and tree species planted. This was used to verify and supplement data from the household survey. During the observation walks, photographs were also taken. To measure tree diameter at breast height (DBH), a diameter tape was used, while a veneer caliper was used to measure root collar diameter

(RCD) of seedlings. A clinometer was used to measure the tree total height.

3.3 Data collection from District forest office

Secondary data were collected from the Divisional and District Forest Officers‟ offices on number of tree nurseries in the Division, tree species they were propagating and the inventory of each of the species. Prunus africana seedlings raised in the nurseries was tracked for the past five years.

3.4 Data capture and analysis

Data capture and analysis were done at two levels. At the first level, the data collected through farm surveys were first examined to ensure they were complete and had been consistently filled in. They were then cleaned and entered into the SPSS (Statistical

Package for Social Sciences, 2002) version 11.0 computer software and coded. The different variables that were entered were analyzed to obtain descriptive statistics in the form of frequency tables, charts and figures.

The second level involved Chi-square, ANOVA, and correlation analysis to determine variables that were significantly related, and the strength and direction of relationship with the occurrence of Prunus africana. A chi-square was used to test the significance of relationship between Prunus africana occurrence with land use, agro-ecological zone,

36 age of household head and gender of household head, as well as the relationship between incomes with education level. The ANOVA tested the association between the mean age of the household head with the mean number of Prunus africana, land size and land use in the agro-ecological zones. The correlation between Prunus africana and the age of household head, land size and land use was carried out to determine the strength and direction of the relationship. The variables that had a significant relationship or association were discussed to determine their implications on Prunus africana occurrence, utilization and management. Data collected in the case study and the seedlings in the nurseries were presented in tables and compared.

37 CHAPTER 4

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Overview

This chapter presents the results and discussions of the study. The presentation is done on socio-economic characteristics of the households sampled, on farm characteristics, on the factors associated with presence or absence of Prunus in the selected households, on the size distribution of Prunus africana in the agro-ecological zones, and on the uses, benefits and management practices of Prunus africana within the selected households.

The study of other species found in the agro-ecological zones and the constraints associated with propagating Prunus africana is also dealt with. In this chapter and subsequent ones, Guama, Nyangeni and Mikarara sub-locations will be referred to as the tea, tea/coffee and coffee agro-ecological zones, respectively.

4.2 Socio-economic characteristics of households

This section looks at the aspects of social life as affected by the characteristics and economics of the households.

4.2.1 Age of the household head

In this study, the household heads were grouped into three age classes; 22 - 30 years were classified as young, 31 - 49 years as of middle age and 50 years and above as elderly.

Majority of the household heads, were above 50 years of age (43.2%) (Table 4.1). This could be attributed to age at which land is acquired and migration to towns in search of work by the younger and middle aged household heads, whose numbers declined with age.

38

Table 4.1 Age of the household head in the tea, tea/coffee, and coffee zones in Gichugu division, Kirinyaga district, central Kenya

Age class No. of respondents Percentage of respondents (%) Young 27 20.5 Middle 48 36.3 Elderly 57 43.2 Total 132 100%

4.2.2 Gender of respondents

The majority of the surveyed households were headed by males with over 86% being male- headed in all the zones (Table 4.2), while few households, below 14% were headed by a female head. This was expected as farms are traditionally owned by males who were the household heads. On the other hand, female respondents are traditionally home keepers and managers. Female headed households were those that were run and represented by a widow or single female.

Table 4.2 Gender of respondents in the tea, tea/coffee, and coffee zones in Gichugu division, Kirinyaga district, central Kenya

Zone Males Percentage Females Percentage N=132 (%) (%) Tea 38 90.5 4 9.5 Tea/Coffee 39 86.7 6 13.3 Coffee 38 84.4 7 15.6 Total 115 17

39 4.2.3 Wealth classes

Wealth classes of households were determined based on the type of house which is usually an indicator of wealth in this area (Chief, personal communication). Those respondents who had stone-walled houses were considered as high income (rich). Those with brick- and timber-walled houses were classified as middle income, while those with mud- walled were poor. This kind of classification was used by Micheni and Karlsson,

(2004) in their study of tree distribution along Kabingazi River in Embu district. The tea zone had the highest percentage of rich households (16.7%), followed by the tea/coffee zone

(15.6%) while the coffee zone, had the highest percentage (11.1%) of poor households

(Table 4.3). A possible explanation for this is that tea brought higher returns than coffee which had been affected by falling coffee prices between 1990 and early 2000 in the world market. In all the zones, majority of the farmers were in the middle class.

Table 4.3 Wealth classes in the tea, tea/coffee, and coffee zones in Gichugu division, Kirinyaga district, central Kenya

Zone No. Rich (%) Middle (%) Poor (%) Tea 42 16.7 80.7 2.6 Tea/Coffee 45 15.6 80 4.4 Coffee 45 13.3 75.6 11.1 Total 132 15.2 78.7 6.1

4.2.4 Level of education attained

Most of the household heads in this study had primary level of education (62.9%), with

28% and 9.1% having attained secondary and tertiary levels of education, respectively

(Table 4.4).

40 Table 4.4 Level of education of household head in the tea, tea/coffee, and coffee zones in Gichugu division, Kirinyaga district, central Kenya

Level of education No. of Households Percentage (%) Primary level 83 62.9 Secondary level 37 28 Tertiary level 12 9.1 Total 132 100%

When compared on the basis of agro-ecological zones, differences were observed at the secondary and tertiary levels of education (Table 4.5). This could perhaps be attributed to higher dropout at primary school level in the tea zone to provide labour in tea farms as compared to the tea/coffee and coffee zones. Tea is harvested almost throughout the year and is very laborious. The tea zone had the highest level of tertiary education due to affordability of education resulting from higher earnings from tea as compared to coffee.

Table 4.5 Level of education of household head by agro-ecological zones in Gichugu division, Kirinyaga district, central Kenya

Zone Primary Secondary Tertiary Number % Number % Number % Tea 26 61.9 9 21.4 7 16.7 Tea/Coffee 29 64.4 14 31.1 2 4.4 Coffee 28 62.2 14 31.1 3 6.7 Total 83 62.9 37 28.0 12 9.1

4.3 Farm characteristics

4.3.1 Land size

The mean land size varied among the three zones: between 4.1(1.66ha) in the tea zone;

3.0 acres (1.21 ha) in the tea/coffee zone; and 5.4 acres (2.19 ha) in the coffee zone. The pooled mean land sizes, in the three zones was 4.2 acres (1.7 ha.) (Table 4.6)

41 Table 4.6 Mean land sizes in tea, tea/coffee, and coffee zones in Gichugu division, Kirinyaga district, central Kenya

Zone No. Mean Land Size (acres) Std. Deviation Tea Zone 42 4.1 (1.66ha) 2.7 Tea/Coffee zone 45 3.0 (1.21ha) 2.8 Coffee zone 45 5.4 (2.19ha) 3.2 Total 132 4.2 (1.7ha) 3.1

The coffee zone had a significantly larger land size than the other zones (p=0.039). This could be attributed to land allocation, where drier areas had larger land sizes allocated during colonial period and immediately after independence (District lands officer, personal communication). Therefore the tea and tea/coffee zones had least land sizes because they were most productive per unit land area as compared to the coffee zone. The minimum land size was 0.5 acres in the three zones and the maximum was 10 acres in the

tea zone and 12 and 11.4 acres in the tea/coffee and coffee zone, respectively.

4.3.2 Land use

Coffee and tea were the main cash crops in the study area, and land use depended on the agro-ecological zone. In the tea zone, households had allocated most of their land to tea with 55% of the total land under tea (Table 4.7). Some farms had coffee as well as they were in the tea coffee transitional zone.

Table 4.7 Percentage land under tea, tea/coffee and coffee agro-ecological zones in Gichugu division, Kirinyaga district, central Kenya

Zone Land Use No. Coffee Tea Maize Beans Others % % % % % Tea 42 21.70 55.0 3.44 7.47 12.39 Tea/Coffee 45 29.73 43.71 7.47 12.77 6.32 Coffee 45 11.80 0.0 19.98 23.62 44.6

42

The tea/coffee zone, in Upper Midlands 1, had most land area under tea (43.71%) and coffee (29.73%). The coffee zone, in Upper Midlands 2, had 11.8% of the households land area under coffee, which is against what was expected. The explanation for this small percentage of land under coffee is the decline in coffee prices over the years that have resulted in the uprooting of coffee and its replacement with horticultural crops, such as French beans and tomatoes. The pure coffee zone also lies next to the dry zone where coffee growth is difficult. An interesting trend observed was the increase in percentage allocation of land under beans in the coffee zone, to supplement the low coffee prices.

The maize and bean crops are not suitable in the tea zone and this explains why the area under their coverage increased in the tea/coffee and coffee zones, respectively.

Performance of beans in the tea zone has always been poor. However climatic changes have resulted to their being grown in the zone. The coffee zone had most land under other uses (44.6%). This could be in order to increase chances of earnings if one crop or animal production was affected by e.g. disease.

4.4 Factors associated with presence of Prunus africana

4.4.1 General occurrence of Prunus africana in the agro-ecological zones

The total number of households interviewed was 132, of which 70 (53%) had Prunus africana while 62 (47%) had no Prunus africana on their farms. This is an indication that

Prunus africana is not very widely planted by farmers in this area (Table 4.8). In the tea zone, 92.9% of farmers had Prunus africana and, 53.3% and 16.7% had this tree in tea/coffee zone, and coffee zone respectively. The remnants resulting from forest

43 clearings for agriculture and settlements could be attributed to the high occurrence of

Prunus africana in the tea zone. However, the mean number of Prunus africana by agro- ecological zone was highest in the tea/coffee and coffee zones. This was due to both the presence of remnants in the tea/coffee zone as well as to planting, while in the coffee zone it was mainly due to planting.

Table 4.8 Prunus africana presence by agro-ecological zones in Gichugu division, Kirinyaga district, central Kenya

Zones With Prunus africana Without Prunus africana No. of farmers % Mean no. of trees No. of farmers % Tea 39 92.9 2.1 3 7.1 Tea/Coffee 24 53.3 3.9 21 46.7 Coffee 7 16.6 3.6 38 83.4 Total 70 53 2.9 62 47

Most respondents in the coffee zone (83.4%) had no Prunus africana because this zone is a bit drier and lower in altitude than both the tea and the tea/coffee zones. The minimum and maximum number of Prunus africana trees per household was one and 20, respectively.

The mean number of Prunus africana trees per household in the tea zone was two, and in the tea/coffee, and coffee zone four. There was a significant association between the presence of Prunus africana trees and the agro-ecological zone (χ2 = 52.1, p= 0.001).

These results indicate that Prunus africana is a species of the upper zones, (tea and tea/coffee zones) and its occurrence declined as one moved to the lower altitude areas.

This finding is in agreement with Mwando and Bo Tengnas (2005) who report that

Prunus africana occurs at altitudes of 1500 – 2300 m asl. The sampled households in the

44 tea zone were found to have a total of 83 Prunus africana trees, the tea/coffee transitional zone had 93 and the coffee zone had 25 Prunus africana trees, respectively.

The results indicate that, Prunus africana density was; tea zone, 1.28 trees ha-1, tea- coffee transitional zone, 3.198 trees ha-1 and coffee zone, 1.63 trees ha-1. Similar results for low density of Prunus africana on farms in Kobujoi and Kakamega were obtained by

Gachie (2003). The tea zone was found to have the least Prunus africana trees per unit land area as compared to the tea/coffee transitional zone that had the highest density per land unit area. This could be attributed to the effect of shade on the tea crop by Prunus africana trees and perhaps more planting in the tea/coffee zone. The coffee zone had a lower density of Prunus africana than the tea/coffee transitional zones because the zone is located further from its naturally occurring zone.

4.4.2 Age of household head

To find out whether there was an association between the occurrence of Prunus africana and age of the household head, the age of the household heads were grouped into age classes. Three classes, comprising the young, (17- 30 years) middle age (31-50 years) and elderly (above 50 years) (Table 4.9). There was no significant association between the age classes and occurrence of Prunus africana (χ2 = 3.9, p = 0.14). This implies that age did not influence presence of Prunus africana in this study.

45 Table 4.9 Prunus africana occurrence by age class of household head in Gichugu division, Kirinyaga district, central Kenya

Age Class With Prunus africana Without Prunus africana Total No. % No. % Young 16 59.26 11 40.74 27 Middle 20 41.67 28 58.33 48 Elderly 34 59.65 23 40.35 57

4.4.3 Gender of household head

Results showed that no relationship existed ((χ2 = 0.28, p = 0.39) between gender of household head and occurrence of Prunus africana, and therefore gender in this study was not a factor influencing Prunus africana presence on the farms. When considered by agro-ecological zones, there was also no association.

Table 4.10 Occurrence of Prunus africana by gender of household head in Gichugu division, Kirinyaga district, central Kenya

Gender of with Prunus africana without Prunus africana Total Household head No. % No. % Male 62 53.91 53 46.09 115 Female 8 47.06 9 52.94 17 Total 70 53.03 62 46.97 132

4.4.4 Income, size of land and education level

There was no relationship between income level and the absence or presence of Prunus africana, when each agro-ecological zone was considered separately or when they were combined. No relationship also existed between the size of land held and the presence of

Prunus africana. Therefore income level of the household and the size of land held were not factors associated with presence or absence of Prunus africana.

46 A relationship, however, between level of education attained and the presence of Prunus africana (χ2= 5.22, p= 0.074) existed when the zones were combined. No association was found between level of education and Prunus africana presence when each zone was considered separately. In this case, therefore, the level of education did not influence the presence or absence of Prunus africana in each agro-ecological zone but had an influence generally when the zones were combined.

4.4.5 Land use

Results of correlation analyses when the agro-ecological zones were considered separately showed a positive association between land under tree cover with number of

Prunus africana trees (r = 0.633, p = 0.01) and a negative association between land under tea with the number of Prunus africana trees (r = -0.607, p = 0.01) in the tea/coffee zone.

This means that an increase in land area that had been set aside for tree growing resulted to increased chances of Prunus africana presence. The numbers of Prunus africana trees were negatively correlated with land under tea because of the shading and armillaria mellea effects that are associated with Prunus africana on the tea crop. In the tea zone, the land under coffee and land under beans were positively correlated with the number of

Prunus africana tree (r = 0.492, p = 0.01 and r = 0.528, p = 0.01). These results could be attributed perhaps to the land area available for Prunus africana growing being in the land under coffee and beans, as the tree was unsuitable in the land under tea. This therefore resulted in the number of Prunus africana trees increasing with increase in land under coffee and land under beans. There was a significant association between the number of Prunus africana trees with land under tea (r = -0.447, p = 0.01), land under

47 maize (r = 0.254, p = 0.05), land under trees (r = 0.442, p = 0.01) and land under beans (r

= 0.341, p = 0.01), when the agro-ecological zones were combined.

4.5.1 Factors influencing number of Prunus africana on farm

The survey came up with 70 households with Prunus africana on their farms. The tea zone had most households with Prunus africana (55.7%) and the coffee zone the least

(10%) (Table 4.11). These households are analyzed in this section to determine the factors associated with the species presence. Only variables that showed significant correlation at either 0.01 or 0.05 levels are discussed.

Table 4.11 Prunus africana presence by agro-ecological zones in Gichugu division, Kirinyaga district, central Kenya

Zone Number of trees Percentage (%) Tea 39 55.7 Tea/coffee 24 34.3 Coffee 7 10.0 Total 70 100

4.5.2 Age of household head

The elderly households had significantly (ANOVA, p = 0.000) higher numbers of Prunus africana trees than either the young or the middle aged households. Most Prunus africana trees were found in households owned by elderly people (Table 4.12), than in middle or young households.

48 Table 4.12 Prunus africana presence and age of household head in the agro- ecological zones in Gichugu division, Kirinyaga district, central Kenya

Age of respondent No. Mean number of trees Young 16 1.6 Middle 20 1.5 Elderly 34 3.3 Total 70 2.3

A correlation analysis was conducted to find out the relation between the numbers of

Prunus africana trees on the farm and the age of the household head. Results showed that there was a significant positive correlation(r = 0.368). This implies that, the number of

Prunus africana increased with the age of the household head. This could be attributed to the importance held by the elderly household heads to the Prunus africana trees. It was therefore apparent that, more Prunus africana trees were most likely found in households owned by elderly people. The elderly people probably knew the medicinal benefits of the species and thus retained it or planted on the farms.

4.5.3 Land size

The number of Prunus africana trees were positively correlated with land size in the tea/coffee zone (r = 0.549). This is an indication that households with larger parcels of land had more Prunus africana trees. The difference in occurrence between the tea/coffee zone and the tea and coffee zones could be attributed to mean land sizes. The tea/coffee zone had the least (3.0 acres), and tea zone (4.1 acres) and coffee (5.4 acres. Pooled results (for all zones) showed a significant positive correlation (r = 0.307). This could be attributed to the availability of land for Prunus africana planting on larger land sizes than on smaller ones. It can be concluded therefore that, Prunus africana occurrence increased with increase in land size for all zones.

49

4.5.4 Land use

Land under tea

The correlation between the number of Prunus africana trees with size of land under tea, for the tea/coffee zone was negative (r = -0.573). This suggests that the number of

Prunus africana trees decreased with land under tea. Pooled results for tea and tea/coffee zones also indicated a negative correlation (r = -0.312). Therefore it can be concluded that, the number of Prunus africana trees in the tea and tea/coffee zones decreased with increase in land under tea. Therefore the larger the size of land occupied by tea, the lower was the number of Prunus africana trees. The number of Prunus africana trees declined as one moved from the tea/coffee zone towards the tea zone, where more land was under tea than in the tea/coffee zone.

Land under subsistence crops

Results of correlation analyses showed that the number of Prunus africana trees was negatively correlated (r = -0.650) with land area under subsistence crops in the tea/coffee zone. Therefore land under subsistence crops influenced Prunus africana number negatively in the tea/coffee zone, in that increased land under subsistence crops resulted into low numbers of Prunus africana trees on the farm. Prunus africana, therefore is not a suitable tree for land under crops such as maize and beans which are the main subsistence crops in the study area. Mean land sizes in the tea/coffee zone were low

(3.0acres) as compared to tea zone (4.1 acres) and coffee zone (5.4 acres) and this could have contributed to intensive cultivation of available land resulting to a low number of

50 Prunus africana trees retained on farm in order to reduce competition with subsistence crops. The results in the tea zone were positively correlated (r = 0.337). This perhaps could be attributed to most of the land in the tea zone being set aside for cash crop production (21.7% coffee and 55% tea) Table 4.7 as compared to the tea/coffee zone

(29.73% coffee and 43.71% tea). In the tea zone no other area except the one set aside for subsistence crops was available for Prunus africana planting because of its shading effect to the tea crop and associated diseases. Therefore the number of Prunus africana trees increased with increase in area under subsistence crops.

Land under trees

The correlation between the number of Prunus africana trees and the size of land under trees was positively correlated in the tea/coffee zone (r = 0.642). This suggests that the chances of finding Prunus africana were higher among households that had set land aside for tree growing. Pooled results also revealed a positive correlation (r = 0.361). The study found no relationship between Prunus africana and other tree species planted in the farms, as reported in Pico Basile and Moca (Madagascar), that Prunus africana was closely associated with Sceffleri spp. (Dharani, 2002, Dale and Greenway, 1961). No association was also found between Grevillea robusta and Prunus africana as reported by

Harwood, (1992) as being used as a nurse tree for Prunus africana in Meru District.

Since the land under trees was seen to influence the number of Prunus africana trees, a correlation analyses was done for land under trees with the land size held by the household. Results were found to be correlated for the tea zone (r = 0.485) and tea/coffee zone (r = 0.640). Pooled results of all agro-ecological zones indicated a positive

51 correlation (r = 0.570). These results indicated that, increase in land under trees increased with the size of land held by a respondent. The larger the size of land held, the more land that was set aside for tree growing and this also resulted to an increase in the number of

Prunus africana trees.

4.5.5 Agroforestry practices/systems

There were many niches that were utilized for growing Prunus africana by the farmers

(Table 4.13). The most preferred niche was to plant Prunus africana along boundaries

(87.1%). This agrees with other authors who also found boundaries to be a common niche for planting trees on farm, especially in central Kenya. Tyndall (1996) found 91 % of farmers had some Grevillea robusta trees on the outer boundary. Karlsson et al (2004) also reported similar results with 60 % of the trees having been planted on boundaries, while Wanjiku and Mugwe (2004) reported Grevillea being the most dominant on farm boundaries.

Table 4.13 Occurrence of Prunus africana and agroforestry practices/systems in Gichugu division, Kirinyaga district, central Kenya

Agroforestry practice Agro-ecological zone Tea Tea/Coffee Coffee Total (n=39) (n=24) (n=7) (N=70) Zone Zone Zone Boundary 97.4% 66.7% 100% 87.1% Multipurpose woodlot 10.3% 33.3% 71.1% 24.3% Trees on pastures - 12.5% - 4.3% Plantation crop combination - 47.6% 28.6% 17.1% Home gardens involving 5.1% 4.8% - 4.3% animals Apiculture 15.4% 8.3% 42.9% 15.7% Soil conservation and 10.3% 37.5 42.9 22.9 reclamation Home gardens 2.6% 8.3% 57.1% 10%

52 In this study the, presence of Prunus africana on boundaries could possibly be attributed to farmers‟ preference for nurturing trees on boundaries. Prunus africana trees found growing on the boundaries were left to thrive by the farmers as there was little shading of the crops and no disturbance of the trees during crop weeding therefore, survival rate was higher. In comparison Prunus africana, in the coffee zone was associated more with home gardens (57.1%), apiculture and soil conservation structures (42.9%) than in the tea zone (2.6%, 15.4% and 10.3%) and tea/coffee zone (8.3%, 37.5% and 8.3%) respectively.

This could be attributed to difficulties in growth in the coffee zone hence as a valued tree species, it was planted in the homestead and in the apiary. These sites increased the chance of survival of the trees planted.

There was also variation in Prunus africana presence within the agro-ecological zones, with the coffee zone having a higher percentage in multipurpose woodlots (71.1%) than the tea and tea/coffee zones, 10.3% and 33.3%, respectively. Land sizes were larger in the coffee zone leading to the establishment of improved Eucalyptus species and therefore increasing the chances of Prunus africana occurrence. This corroborated the earlier findings that, land size and land under trees had a positive relationship with

Prunus africana occurrence. Prunus africana was also found scattered in the crop land to reduce competition with crops, planted in compounds to provide shade and beauty and as a source of medicine.

53 4.6 Size (DBH and height) and age distribution of Prunus africana in the agro- ecological zones

Prunus africana DBH distribution in the tea zone

According to Sunderland and Nkefor (1997), a healthy population of any species will display a typical inverted “J-shaped” curve, which represents a high generation in the lower classes, gradually diminishing with increased age and size class through mortality.

Prunus africana distribution in the tea zone followed the J-inverted curve (Figure 4.1).

This distribution was as a result of forest remnants and recent plantings.

The natural forest that neighbours the tea zone was cleared to pave way for tea farms and for settlement. The remnant Prunus africana trees were of very large diameter at breast height (DBH), with a mean DBH of 52.2 cm, thus representing an old population.

However, most trees were young with less than 30 cm DBH. This indicated recent planting of Prunus africana in this agro-ecological zone.

14 12 10 8 6 4 2 Frequency 0 0-30 31-60 61-90 91-120 121-150 151-180 181-210 DBH (cm) classes

Fig 4.1 Prunus africana (DBH) distribution in the tea zone, Gichugu division, Kirinyaga district, central Kenya

54 Prunus africana DBH distribution in the tea/coffee zone

Compared to the tea zone, the tea/coffee zone had a similar Prunus africana population distribution (Fig.4.2) with most trees being of less than 30 cm and 31 – 60 cm DBH classes. This indicated Prunus africana planting in recent times which could be attributed to niches that favoured its recruitment. The mean DBH in the tea/coffee zone was 30.7 cm which indicated a younger population than that of the tea zone.

14 12 10 8 6 4 2

Frequency Frequency 0 0-30 31-60 61-90 91-120 121-150 51-180 181-210 DBH (cm) classes

Fig 4.2 Prunus africana, DBH distribution in tea/coffee zone, Gichugu division, Kirinyaga district, central Kenya

Prunus africana DBH distribution in the coffee zone

In the coffee zone, Prunus africana population had the least mean DBH, of 11.7 cm as compared to the tea and tea/coffee zones (Fig.4.3). This could be attributed to this zone being lower in altitude and drier than the other zones. Also most Prunus africana trees had been planted and were therefore younger and small sized as compared to naturally regenerated ones or as forest remnants as found in the other zones. As one moved from the tea zone towards the lower zones characterized by coffee zone, Prunus africana declined in DBH size classes.

55 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Frequency 0 0-30 31-60 61-90 91-120 121-150 151-180 181-210 DBH (cm) classes

Fig 4.3 Prunus africana, DBH distribution in the coffee zone, Gichugu division, Kirinyaga district, central Kenya

Distribution of Prunus africana by size (DBH and height) and age

The trees with the largest DBH were found in the tea zone and the tallest in the tea/coffee zone (Table 4.14). This can be attributed to the tea and tea/coffee zones being the natural habitat of the Prunus africana species. Trees were left to stand even after land clearing, which agreed with Nkefor et al. (1998) findings that, Prunus africana was found mainly in primary forest but was traditionally allowed to stand when land was cleared for cultivation. The lack of definite spatial (in space/storey) pattern in the distribution of the older trees both in the tea and tea/coffee zones indicated that most Prunus africana regenerated naturally rather than being planted by farmers. This was also cited by

Kamweti (1992) for Grevillea robusta in the coffee zones of Nyeri, Kirinyaga and Embu.

Table 4.14 Mean number of trees, height, DBH and age distribution in agro- ecological zones in Gichugu division, Kirinyaga district, central Kenya

Agro-ecological Mean number of Prunus Mean Mean dbh Mean age zone africana trees height (m) (cm) (years) Tea zone 2.13 12.5 52.2 18.5 Tea/Coffee zone 3.87 29.8 30.7 21.6 Coffee zone 3.57 6.9 11.7 15

56

The mean height distribution by agro-ecological zones indicated that, Prunus africana population in the coffee zone was below 10 metres, in the tea zone it was below 15 metres, while at the tea/coffee zone it was above 25 metres. It was observed that in the tea zone fewer trees were left in tea plantations than those that were left in the tea/coffee zone. This included Prunus africana trees and perhaps this was the contributing factor.

4.7 Uses and benefits of Prunus africana in the agro-ecological zones

The use of tree products such as for timber, medicine and fuelwood is determined by the size of the tree at breast height (DBH) and its height. Prunus africana bark thickness and extract compound yields are dependent on age of the tree as reported by Gachie, (2003).

This section discusses the DBH, height, age and means number of Prunus africana in the different agro-ecological zones.

4.7.1 Use for shade

Households in the tea zone indicated (Table 4.15), they use Prunus africana as shade for their tea (23.1%) and coffee trees (12.5%). However it was not used as shade for coffee in the coffee zone. Pooled results for use of Prunus africana as shade tree were 17.1%.

The low percentage and non-usage of Prunus africana as shade for coffee and tea was due to its associated diseases (Owino, 1992). The reduction of use of Prunus africana trees as shade for coffee and tea crops is due to association of their roots with the root rot fungus, Armillaria mellea, which could attack tea and coffee plants as alternative hosts and reduced productivity of the shaded crop. With the introduction of tea in the area, the farmers were advised to uproot all indigenous trees in tea growing areas. Use as shade for

57 people and animals was also observed in all the agro-ecological zones and some Prunus africana trees had been planted in the household compounds, on pastures and in home gardens involving animals.

Table 4.15 Various uses of Prunus africana in Gichugu division, Kirinyaga district, central Kenya

Utilization of Prunus Agro-ecological zones africana (%) Tea zone Tea/coffee zone Coffee zone Total (n=39) (n=24) (n=7) (N=70) Shade for tea/coffee 23.1 12.5 0 17.1 Fuel wood 59.0 66.0 14.3 57.1 Medicine 66.7 37.5 28.6 52.9 Poles 38.5 12.5 28.6 28.6 Leaves 41.0 12.5 14.3 24.3 Roots 10.3 4.2 28.6 10.0 Income 10.3 8.3 42.9 12.9 Timber 53.8 37.5 85.7 51.4 Bark 69.2 33.3 14.3 51.4

4.7.2 Use for fuelwood

Most of the households (57.1), table 4.15 above, were using Prunus africana as fuelwood than for any other use. Prunus africana was an important fuelwood species in all the three agro-ecological zones. This agrees with Gachie‟s (2003) findings, where he ranked the use of Prunus africana as fuelwood. Cunningham (1995) indicated that Prunus africana was an excellent firewood species because the wood burns for long periods at high intensity. The species was mostly used for fuelwood in the tea/coffee zone at 66%, tea zone at 59% and in the coffee zone at 14.3%. The difference could be attributed to the

DBH classes in the agro-ecological zones. The households used branches from pruning and pollarding for fuelwood while the trunk was used for timber and for bark harvesting.

58 In the coffee zone, Prunus africana had not been well established as compared to the tea and tea/coffee zones, and probably its use as fuelwood was low due to competition with other uses such as for timber and the availability of other fuelwood species. The importance of Prunus africana as a fuelwood species was not expected to decline in the near future, given the national usage of firewood/fuelwood by rural livelihoods at 90%

(Mutimba and Barasa, 2005).

4.7.3 Use for medicine

The use of Prunus africana for medicinal purposes was being practised by 52.9% of the households with the most utilization being in the tea zone with 66.7%, tea/coffee zone,

37.5% and coffee zone at 28.6% households. The difference could be attributed to age and size class distribution of the Prunus africana trees. Medicine was processed from the bark (51.4%) and roots (10%) of the tree by the households. Leaves were also used for medicine as well as for mulch by 24.3% of the households. The bark, roots and leaves were used for treatment of typhoid, malaria, mouth rush, diarrhoea, colds and coughs as well as for treatment of animals especially those having phneumonia. This finding is in agreement with Bii et al. (2010) of the use of Prunus africana as traditional medicine, and for treatment of common fungal and bacterial infections. The use of Prunus africana for treatment of prostate problems in men was not mentioned perhaps out of fear in exposing the weaknesses associated with prostate. Prunus africana bark or leaves were also mixed with Bridelia micrantha for treating various ailments. In order to earn income, households also reported selling the bark to herbalists.

59 Leaves were used as mulch and as green manure and spread on cultivated plots. Most of these practices were however carried out in the tea zone because most of the trees in this zone were mature. Households carried out their own bark harvesting and the method for collection was usually debarking of the trees. Debarking depended on the quantity of bark required and this was done without consideration to the future survival of the tree. Roots were normally dug out and cut next to the tree trunk and then debarked. These results indicate that the species was quite important as a source of medicine that was affordable by the community for various ailments. Its cultivation therefore will meet an already established need.

4.7.4 Use for poles

The use of Prunus africana for poles was highest in the tea zone at 38.5% (table 4.15), coffee zone at 28.6% and tea/coffee zone at 12.5%. This difference could be attributed to the need for poles in the coffee zone for support of horticultural crops and due to cutting to remove shading of tea in the tea zone as compared to the tea/coffee zone. Harvesting of younger trees for withies produced coppices that could later be harvested for poles or left for timber production. Ewusi et al. (1992), indicated that the tree coppices easily and produces vigourous epicomic shoots especially when it snaps.

4.7.5 Use for timber

Utilization of Prunus africana for timber was being done by 51.4% of households (Table

4.15). The use of the tree for timber as a major tree product indicated the importance of the species as a source of high quality hardwood timber. Though the use for bark (51.4%) was the same as for timber, the bark was mainly used as a minor product. The difference

60 in the use for timber in agro-ecological zones could be attributed to DBH class sizes with the highest in the tea zone followed by the tea/coffee zone. Most households in the coffee zone indicated high usage for timber as reason for having Prunus africana on their farms but in this zone the DBH was low. This is an indication that the demand of Prunus africana for timber was high, such that even trees with low DBH were being harvested.

Most of the households used Prunus africana for fuelwood (57.1%), medicine (52.9%), timber and bark respectively (51.4%), (Table 4.16).

Table 4.16 Ranked use of Prunus africana by households in the agro-ecological zones in Gichugu division, Kirinyaga district, central Kenya

Uses Percentage Fuelwood 57.1% Medicine 52.9% Timber 51.4% Bark 51.4% Poles 28.6% Leaves 24.3% Sale of products 12.9%

Mature Prunus africana trees and timber were also sold to earn income (12.9%).

However there was a variation in pricing, ranging from a hundred shilling (100/=) per metre in the tea zone, five hundred shillings (500/=) in tea/coffee zone, for the whole tree, to very high price in the coffee zone. The results are in agreement with the findings of

Ndam and Ewusi (1999), who reported that the bole of Prunus africana was used for timber. High value furniture made from Prunus africana also fetched high prices in the market (personal communication).

To enhance sustainable harvesting of Prunus africana, there is need to conserve the trees that are surviving by increased public awareness and planting more trees.

61 4.8 Management practices of Prunus africana

The major management practice of Prunus africana by the households in the three agro- ecological zones was pruning (74.3%) as indicated by Fig 4.4.

The main reason for pruning was to reduce shading to associated crops and to provide firewood. This was however done in an adhoc manner. The households that were not carrying out any management practices were 12.9% and mostly because the trees were too young, while 10% combined pruning and pollarding and 2.9% combined pruning and coppicing.

80 70 60 50 40 30

Frequency 20 10 0 Prunning Coppicing and Pollarding and None Prunning Prunning

Fig 4.4 Management techniques Prunus africana in the agro-ecological zones, in Gichugu division, Kirinyaga district, central Kenya

Trees were felled and allowed to re-sprout without any thinning to later provide withies as need arose. There was no established management practice that was observed for bark or root harvesting. The harvesting of the bark for use as medicine was done unsustainably, and it was not unusual to find bark panels removed almost all around the

62 tree trunk in the study area. This was contributed by the high demand for the bark and the high cost of conventional medicine. The main source of Prunus africana seedlings was from natural regeneration and seedlings were collected as wildings. This reduced nursery costs in management techniques such as transplanting, watering and weeding. These wildings were natured during crop weeding and farmers were therefore not dependent on tree nurseries for their planting material.

4.8.1 Methods of Management of Prunus africana by farmers

Most farmers were pruning their trees as per the households in different agro-ecological zones (Table 4.17).

Table 4.17 Management practices of Prunus africana in different agro-ecological zones, in Gichugu division, Kirinyaga district, central Kenya

Management of Prunus Agro-ecological zone africana by respondents Tea zone Tea/ Coffee zone Coffee zone (n=39) % (n=24) % (n=7) % Pruning 84.6 75.0 14.3 Pruning and pollarding 10.3 12.5 0.0 Pruning and coppicing 5.1 0.0 0.0 No management practices 0.0 12.5 85.7

Pruning was reported by 84.6% of households in the tea zone, 75% in tea/coffee zone, and 14.3% in the coffee zone. Pruning and pollarding was practiced in both tea and tea/coffee zones as reported by 10.3% and12.5%, of the households, respectively, but not in the coffee zone. The main reason for pruning and pollarding was to reduce shading to crops as well as to get green manure, mulch and fuelwood. In the coffee zone, 85.7% of the households were not carrying out any management practices. The high figures could be attributed to the trees being too young, lack of competition by trees to food crops, as

63 the land sizes were larger in this zone as compared to the tea and tea/coffee zones.

Pruning and coppicing was only done in the tea zone as reported by 5.1% of the respondents. This was for the production of poles and to provide for a well formed trunk for timber.

According to Chavangi et al. (1987), pruning is used primarily to produce knot-free wood and to reduce lateral growth of branches, especially if they overhang crops. Coppice is a vegetative re-growth from stumps of tree trunks that have been cut back to near ground level, while pollarding is the extensive pruning back of the crown of a tree in order to harvest the branches and leaves, and in order to stimulate the re-growth of a new, often better-formed and more productive crown.

There was variation in gender and level of education when the management practices of the species were compared. Male headed households did most pruning (79%), than did their female headed households (50%), however female headed households pruned and pollarded most (25%) as compared to the male headed households (8.1%%), Table 4.18.

This is because pollarding especially to harvest leaves for mulch and medicine did not need any expertise. No management practices were done by 25% of the female headed households as compared to 9.7% of the male headed ones. This could be attributed to the lack of technical knowledge by the female headed households. Pruning and coppicing was a male dominated practice with 3.2%, while none of the female household head carried out the practice.

64 Table 4.18 Management of Prunus africana according to Gender, in Gichugu division, Kirinyaga district, central Kenya

No. Pruning Pruning and Pruning and None (%) % pollarding % coppicing % Male 62 79.0 8.1 3.2 9.7 Female 8 50.0 25.0 - 25.0

Pruning as a management technique increased with level of education attained by the household head. This was because increase in understanding and exposure to improved management practices increased with the level of education attained.

Most households‟ head that had attained tertiary level of education (90%), pruned their trees as compared to those who had attained either secondary (88%) or primary education

(64.4%), Table 4.19. Pruning and pollarding, and pruning and coppicing were most practiced by household heads that had attained primary level of education. This could be due to the primary educated household heads depending more on multiple tree based products like fuelwood for energy and leaves for mulch. Household heads who had attained secondary and tertiary level of education managed their Prunus trees mostly for timber.

Table 4.19 Management of Prunus africana, and level of education, in Gichugu division, Kirinyaga district, central Kenya

No. Pruning Pruning and Pruning and None (%) pollarding (%) coppicing (%) (%) Primary 43 64.4 16.3 4.7 11.6 Secondary 17 88.2 - - 11.8 Tertiary 10 90.0 - - 10.0

65 The management practices such as pruning and pollarding combined with the Prunus africana tree characteristics favoured its cultivation on the farms. This is because the tree grows well in the open and is therefore adapted to intercropping with cereals and other crops (ICRAF, 2000), and therefore domestication is favoured. In order to enhance capacity for Prunus africana management there is need to target households headed by females and also those with primary level of education. The findings of Ingram et al.

(2009 ), that planted Prunus africana (on private land or in plantations) should be recognized as different from „wild‟ prunus, (found in natural forest) and is only harvestable by the owner, upon registration of the trees. This will go a long way in the conservation of the species.

4.8.2 Prunus africana seedling production and management in the study area

In comparison with other species such as Grevillea robusta, Eucalyptus grandis and

Dovyalis caffra, growing of Prunus africana in the nursery had been too low, at only

0.5% in year 2001. In 2005, this had increased to 2.2%, which is an increase by a small margin (Table 4.20). This could be attributed to difficulties in raising the seedlings as seeds could not be stored, the species is slow growing and this made it unattractive to most farmers. Households reported depending on wildings because the species regenerated naturally and therefore seedlings that were raised in the nurseries attracted little attention of the farmers.

66 Table 4.20 Kianyaga tree nursery, seedlings production over 5 years in Gichugu division, Kirinyaga district, central Kenya

Year Number of Prunus Percentage of Seedlings of Total number africana Seedlings Prunus africana other species of seedlings seedlings 2001 84 0.5 % 16,026 16110 2002 185 1.0 % 18,219 18404 2003 200 1.1 % 17,850 18050 2004 200 1.3 % 15,700 15900 2005 400 2.2 % 18,005 18405

Dependence of households on wildlings was 85.5%, from buying 1.45%, from Forestry

Department extension tree nursery at Kianyaga town, 4.35%, and from neighbours, 4.35

%( Table 4.21)

Table 4.21 Source of Prunus africana seedlings in Gichugu division, Kirinyaga district, central Kenya

Source No. of respondents % Natural regeneration 59 85.5 Bought seedlings 1 1.45 Acquired from agriculture tree nursery 1 1.45 Acquired from forestry tree nursery 3 4.35 Acquired from the forest 1 1.45 Acquired from neighbours 3 4.35 Acquired from NGO tree nursery 1 1.45 Total 69 100

Gachie (2003) also reported similar results that farmers depended mostly on wildings in

Kobujoi and Kakamega. During weeding, farmers left trees which they considered important on their farms, which included mostly Grevillea robusta and Prunus africana.

Prunus africana had gained prominence because of being an affordable source of medicine, for the household.

67 In comparison with the Divisional Forestry Extension Department‟s tree nursery at

Kianyaga, a lot of Prunus africana seedlings were raised in Njukiini Forest Station

Department tree nursery and in Community Based Organizations (CBOs) /Private

Nurseries in Njukiini location. However the number of Prunus africana seedlings planted was too low at only 79 (Table 4.22). This can be attributed to farmers highly interested in trees that are compatible with crops.

Table 4.22 Seedling production at Njukiini west Tree nursery in year 2005 in Gichugu division, Kirinyaga district, central Kenya

Type of tree Total number Number of Number of Number of Nursery of seedlings Prunus Prunus Prunus raised africana raised africana africana dead planted Forest 85,685 24,848 79 10,976 Department CBOs/Private 179,989 26,183 - - Source: Njukiini Forest Station records, 2005.

Almost half of the Prunus africana seedlings raised in the nursery dried up (10,976) during year 2005. This could be attributed to the sensitivity of the young seedling to shock during transplanting from seed beds to seedling pots, lack of adequate watering and due to mildew. It was reported that, lifting of the Prunus africana wilding for transplanting required removal when the fruit is still attached to the seedling (forester

Njukiini, personal communication). This increased the survival rate of the seedling. The high numbers of Prunus africana seedlings in these nurseries showed that it was rated highly by the management of Njukiini west tree nursery and the CBOs/Private nurseries in Njukiini location, but this information had not been passed on to the farmers. Another scenario is that most farmers preferred other faster growing species like Grevillea robusta

68 and Eucalyptus spp that brought faster returns. Generally Prunus africana seedlings production in Kirinyaga District was low (Appendix V).

Many Prunus africana seedlings were noted to be growing under mango trees in Njukiini west tree nursery. This was an indication of dispersal of seeds by monkeys and birds that also fed on mango fruits. As long as there was shade and no disturbance of the site, there was prolific regeneration of Prunus africana even underneath the mother tree. This indicated that shade might be necessary in the species initial growth and therefore this information is important in the management of the species. The Forester Kathandeini indicated that, Prunus africana in the forest is found in cool shady sites and along river courses like river Nyamindi. Common species associated with the species in the natural forest included, Croton microstachyus, Cordia abbyssinica, Albizia gummifera and

Newtonnia butchannani.

4.8.3 Harvesting of Prunus africana bark

Collection of Prunus africana bark was concentrated mostly in the tea zone and tea/coffee zones, with the coffee zone reporting only few cases. Most households in the tea zone reported collecting the bark regularly (52.4%) (Table 4.23). Since there were only few Prunus africana trees in the agro-ecological zones, collecting the bark regularly was a threat to the survival of the trees when the destructive bark harvesting method was employed. As observed, the bark had been removed unsystematically using a cutlass/panga.

69 Table 4.23 Frequency of collecting the bark by agro-ecological zone in Gichugu division, Kirinyaga district, central Kenya

Percentage frequency of bark Tea zone Coffee/tea Coffee zone harvesting (n=39) (n=24) (n=7) When sick 2.4 % 6.7 % - Once per year 2.4 % 2.2 % - Every month 52.4 % - 2.2 %

This implied that, with little knowledge of sustainable bark harvesting, the already existing trees in the agro-ecological zones are threatened. In the tea zone, harvesting of the bark was done by all household members (41%), tea/coffee zone mostly by the husband (50%) and coffee zone by all household members and by the buyer (14.3%), respectively (Table 4.24). When harvesting was done by one person it became easy to control and hence the management could be done sustainably. However when the bark was harvested by all the household members and even the buyer, (14.3%) as was in the coffee zone, the likelihood of over-harvesting was enhanced. Raising awareness is therefore necessary to all households and to other stakeholders as well like herbalists.

This would improve the management of the species.

Table 4.24 Bark collection in the agro-ecological zones in Gichugu division, Kirinyaga district, central Kenya

Category of Agro-ecological zone N=70 Collectors Tea zone (n=39) Tea/coffee zone (n=24) Coffee zone (n=7) All household 41% 4.2% 14.3% Members Buyer - - 14.3 Husband 7.7% 50% 14.3 Husband and Male 5.1% - - child Husband and Wife 2.6% - - Labourer - 4.2% - Male child 30.8% 8.3 14.3

70

4.8.4 Trend in Prunus africana in the agro-ecological zones

Except for the coffee zone where the trend in Prunus africana numbers was said to be declining (57.1%), most households in the tea and tea/coffee zones indicated an increasing trend of ( 66.7%) and (41.7%) of the respondents respectively, (Table 4.25). A decline for the coffee zone could be attributed to harvesting of mature Prunus africana for timber and the intensive cultivation of commercially viable crop that do not allow

Prunus africana growing. For the tea and tea/coffee agro-ecological zones, the trend was observed to be increasing.

The reasons could be due to its natural regeneration and to meet the rising demand for

Prunus africana products, such as fuelwood, medicine and timber and also due to the tea and tea/coffee zones being suitable for Prunus africana growing as compared to the coffee zone. This is in agreement with Franzel et al. (2009), who found out that even if

Prunus africana is not as profitable as Eucalyptus spp, farmers do want to grow prunus because it is compatiable with many crops and has multiple uses.

Table 4.25 Trend in number of Prunus africana trees in the agro-ecological zones in Gichugu division, Kirinyaga district, central Kenya

Trend of Prunus Agro-ecological zone africana Tea zone Tea/coffee zone Coffee zone (n=39) (n=24) (n=7) Increasing 66.7% 41.7% 28.6% Decreasing 2.6% 33.3% 57.1% Constant 28.2% 25% -

Lack of moisture was reported by farmers as a cause in the decline of Prunus africana this was most severe in the coffee zone which was much drier. During the focus group

71 discussions it came out clearly that Prunus africana is sensitive to root pruning and seedlings dry up after transplanting. Root pruning was therefore done during the rainy period and for best survival of wildings, transplanting was done with the fruit attached to the roots. This helped in increasing the survival rate of the seedlings. A substantial number of wildings were found growing under mango trees in the lower zones indicating that monkeys and birds also feed on the Prunus africana fruits, which they disperse.

These areas could be targeted as the future sources of Prunus africana planting material.

Flowering was not regular and was dependent on rainfall. Heavy flowering was experienced following a high rainfall season. There was heavy flowering in 2005 because this was preceded by heavy rainfall in 2004. As a result of less rainfall in 2005, it was therefore expected that flowering would be low in 2006 hence decreased seedling production in the nurseries and on farm (forester Njukiini, personal communication).

4.8.5 Means of enhancing Prunus africana conservation

Respondents were in agreement when it came to means of enhancing conservation of

Prunus africana. In the tea zone, 43.6% and the coffee zone, 42.9% of households were in agreement that farmers needed to be educated about the species importance.

Households in the tea/coffee zone (33.3%) differed and said existing Prunus africana needed to be conserved, (Appendix VI). It was therefore deemed necessary to educate the farmers on Prunus africana importance and to conserve the existing trees which would be the source of seeds. This was considered important for the future of Prunus africana domestication.

72 4.9 Study of other tree species in the study site

In the three agro-ecological zones, the coffee zone had the most number of respondents with Grevillea robusta planted (97.8%), followed by the tea/coffee zone (86.7%) and the tea zone (81%) respectively. This could be attributed to the mean land sizes being highest in the coffee zone as compared to tea and the tea/coffee zones. Planting of

Eucalyptus species was also highest in the coffee zone (71.1%); followed by the tea zone

(42.9) and the tea/coffee zone (37.8%) (Appendix III). Most of the species investigated were found growing in the coffee zone, which had larger mean land sizes, while most species were lacking in the tea and tea/coffee zones except the most prevalent ones, like

Grevillea robusta and Eucalyptus ssp. Fruit trees, Macardamia tetraphylla and Persia

Americana, occurred prominently in all of the three agro-ecological zones with Mangifela indica occurring in most households in the coffee zone only (77.8%). Pooled analysis of data collected during the case study showed that most of the households had Grevillea robusta (88.6%), Eucalyptus spp (50.8%), Persia americana (40.2%), Cordia abyssinica

(32.6%) and Macardamia tetraphylla (28.8%). (Appendix IV.)

Species diversity was highest in the coffee zone, and could be attributed to low acreage of land under coffee and the absence of tea plots. The coffee zone and areas falling in similar agro-ecological zones could be the future for Prunus africana domestication.

4.9.1 Wealth and tree distribution in the study area

The middle- income households had the most tree density per unit land area (Table 4.26).

This agrees with Paul Tuwei (personal communication) who found a similar trend when investigating planting of Calliandra callothyrsus in similar agro-ecological zones in

73 Embu District. In the tea zone the poor households had the least tree densities on their farms (2.7trees/acre) and the middle-income respondents had the highest number at 16.9 trees/acre. This could be attributed to the poor households in the tea zone putting most of their land to tea farming. In the tea/coffee zone there was no variation between the poor and the rich households with 5.0 trees/acre and 5.2 trees/acre, respectively. For the coffee zone the gap between the tree densities in the poor households and middle-income households was narrow at 6.0 trees/acre and 7.0trees/acre, respectively. This could be due to availability of land to plant trees as well as the importance of trees in this zone.

Table 4.26 Distribution of trees according to wealth in the agro-ecological zones in Gichugu division, Kirinyaga district, central Kenya

Category No. Of trees Mean Mean DBH Mean Land Tree Per height (m)of (cm) of size (acres) density/acre household trees trees Tea zone

Rich 30 11.4 32.8 8.0 3.8 Mid-income 20.3 8.15 16.0 1.2 16.9 Poor 16 9.5 24.1 6.0 2.7 Mean no. of 22.1 9.7 24.3 5.1 8.1 trees Tea/coffee zone

Rich 13 33.5 26.9 2.5 5.2 Mid-income 26 34.3 27.1 1.8 14.0 Poor 5 43.8 35.8 1.0 5.0 Mean no. of 14.7 37.2 29.9 1.8 8.1 trees Coffee zone

Rich 25 10.3 11.8 5.0 5.0 Mid-income 42 9.7 18.9 6.0 7.0 Poor 55 15.4 22.0 9.0 6.0 Mean no. of 40.7 11.8 17.6 6.7 6.0 trees

74

The trees with the largest DBH were found in the poor households in the tea/coffee and coffee zones and the rich households in the tea zone. This could be attributed to the households reserving the trees for medicine as well as boundary markers and for future use in the rich households.

4.10 Constraints associated with Prunus africana growing

Lack of sufficient water (18.6%) during planting, and slow growth (5.7%) were the main problems, Table 4.27. This was according to the farmers experience in relation to other trees grown. Management problem was reported by 8.6% of the respondents, while 7.1% of the respondents said there was low demand of Prunus africana products and 1.4% said the products fetched low prices. It was also found that 2. 9% of respondents had problems in getting people to do harvesting of the products.

Table 4.27 Problem affecting the establishment of Prunus africana in Gichugu division, Kirinyaga district, central Kenya

Problem Frequency N=70 Percentage Low demand 5 7.1 Management 6 8.6 Low pricing 1 1.4 Slow growth 4 5.7 Lack of seedlings 3 4.3 Lack of sufficient water 13 18.6 Lack of labour 2 2.9 Shading crops 3 4.3 Theft of seedlings 1 1.4

It was proved that 4.3% of the respondents had Prunus africana shading the adjacent crops and lacked seedlings respectively, while 1.4% had their seedlings stolen. Focus group discussions revealed that, powdery mildew, root rot, defoliators and aphids

75 affected Prunus africana seedlings in the nurseries. The effect by the defoliators and powdery mildew was quite high (nursery headman, personal communication). This also agreed with Gachie (2003), that Prunus africana competes with agricultural crops, and that there were lack of seedlings, slow growth and drought problems. Despite this, majority of the farmers in the tea zone (97.4%), tea/coffee zone (66.7%), and coffee zone

(100%) had plans to cultivate Prunus africana trees in the near future, Table 4.28. This agrees with Gachie‟s (2003), findings for Kobujoi and Kakamega.

Table 4.28 Future plans by farmers to establishment of Prunus africana in Gichugu division, Kirinyaga district, central Kenya

Agro-ecological zone Whether planning to plant Prunus africana on their farms N= 70

No. of respondents % Tea 38 97 Tea/Coffee 16 66 Coffee 6 85

76 CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Conclusion

The first objective of this study was to assess the presence of Prunus africana within the tea, tea/coffee and coffee, agro-ecological zones in Gichugu Division. Results showed that, the spread of Prunus africana trees varied according to agro-ecological zone, (χ2 =

52.1, p = 0.00). This agrees with the hypothesis, that farmers in the tea zone grow more

Prunus africana than farmers in the coffee zone and this decreased towards the tea/coffee and coffee zones. This was due to remnants of forest clearings and geographical range of the species which is more suited to higher elevations suitable for tea growing. Though the tea zone had more Prunus africana, it was however interesting to find out that, the number of Prunus africana trees decreased with increase in land under tea. This is because of the species shading effect to tea crop and associated diseases. The distribution of Prunus africana trees was also determined by age of household head, land size, land use, tree planting preferences and agroforestry practices. Farmers who had planted more trees of other species tended to have more Prunus africana trees than farms with less planting. Boundary planting was the most agroforestry practice associated with Prunus africana on the farms. Prunus africana trees found on farms in the agro-ecological zones close to the forest (tea and tea/coffee zone) had higher diameter at breast height (DBH) than farms in the agro-ecological zone that was further away from the forest (coffee zone). This was attributed to the zones near the forest having trees that were remnants of land clearing for agriculture and settlement, which had been left for use as firewood,

77 timber and medicine. On the other hand, trees with small DBH were an indication of younger population consisting of trees that had been recently planted. The results showed that Prunus africana density in the tea, tea/coffee and coffee zones was rather low, at

1.28, 3.198 and 1.63 trees/ acre, respectively.

The second objective of this study was to determine the current uses and benefits of

Prunus africana in the agro-ecological zones. Prunus africana was mainly used for fuelwood, medicine and timber and also sold to generate income. There was a variation in its use among households in the agro-ecological zones, with the lower zone having a high use for timber and the upper zone using it more for fuelwood and medicine. Utilization of Prunus africana for fuelwood, medicine and timber were rated very highly by farmers and benefited in terms of provision of wood high in calorific value and cheap medicine.

Fuelwood was the most used by households with 57.1%, medicine, 52.9% and timber

51.4%. This agrees with the hypothesis that most farmers used Prunus africana, in

Gichugu Division for medicinal purposes.

The third objective sought to evaluate the management techniques of Prunus africana on the farms and examine any constraints associated with its management. Results showed that pruning was the most prevalent management practice, which was mainly done in order to reduce shading to associated crops. This also agrees with the hypothesis.

Pollarding and coppicing were also practised, but at a lower level to provide fuelwood, poles and mulch. Generally, farmers were found to lack knowledge in sustainable bark harvesting. The harvesting involved removing pieces of bark from the stem, sometimes

78 excessively, without regard for future growth of the trees. Planting of Prunus africana was from wildings that had regenerated from old trees that were natured during crop weeding. This was seen to reduce management costs as tending in the nursery was avoided. The constraints associated with growing Prunus africana were, shading to crops

(4.3%), lack of sufficient water to the saplings (18.6%), lack of management skills and slow growth (8.6%) and (5.7%) respectively.

Generally the study showed that Prunus africana trees on farms were few and had mainly regenerated naturally and yet farmers mentioned they greatly benefited from their utilization as fuelwood, timber and medicine. It therefore seems desirable to promote cultivation and domestication of this species in agroforestry system as it would benefit the welfare of local people and the environment. By sustaining the planting of Prunus africana, demand of supplies for use as local medicine for the treatment of various disorders, will be ensured, for even its other uses such as timber and fuelwood.

The fourth objective was to determine the socio-economic factors influencing the presence of Prunus africana. Results indicated that, the age of household head influenced the number of Prunus africana on the farms. The elderly people had more Prunus africana trees than the younger one. Increase in land size resulted to an increase in the number of Prunus africana trees on the farm. The number of Prunus africana trees was also influenced by land under tea. In this case, an increase in area under tea resulted to a decline in the number of Prunus africana trees. Land set aside for tree growing had a positive influence on Prunus africana number by increasing chances of its occurrence.

79 Most Prunus africana trees were found growing in specific sites on the farm such as on boundaries. This agrees with the hypothesis that, socio-economic factors of households influence the number of Prunus africana on farms, in Gichugu Division.

5.2 Recommendations

Due to the important commercial interest of Prunus africana worldwide, this study recommends the following ways that the local population could be involved more, so as to increase its cultivation and utilization on farms, and reduce impacts of over- exploitation of forests, provide an alternative source of income for farmers as well as contribute to conservation of the germplasm:

1. Farmers need to be encouraged and made aware of the financial and

environmental importance of this species that could in future earn them a

substantial income to help improve their income base and livelihood. The study

found out that only 53.03% of households interviewed had Prunus africana on

their farms, while 46.97% were not growing it. Technical advice especially on

management from Government departments, CBOs and NGOs is required as this

was found to be lacking. Kenya Forestry Service, World agroforestry Centre,

Kenya Forestry Research Centre should be in the fore front.

2. Prunus africana should be planted along soil conservation structures, boundaries,

in watershed, homesteads and steep areas. This will control erosion, reduce

competition with crops, act as a windbreak, provide a range of useful

economically valuable products including medicine, timber, fuelwood, poles,

green manure, for bees, aesthetics, leaf mulch and sold cash income.

80 3. Low cost technologies for seed/seedling acquisition and distribution need to be

developed by the Kenya Forestry Research Institute, since artificial regeneration

of Prunus africana through cuttings and air layering produces best results than

using seeds, and matures in a shorter time thus ensuring tree resources are

achieved earlier. This technology needs to be passed on to the farmers.

4. Kenya Forestry Service should enlighten the farmers on better methods of

harvesting the bark in a sustainable way, other than using the current method of

debarking that is detrimental to the tree.

5. There should be a properly developed marketing system for the products, in order

for the farmers to realize the full benefits from agroforestry practices based on

Prunus africana. Kenya Forestry Service, Kenya Forest Research Institute and the

World Agroforestry Centre should assist in the development.

6. Farmers need to be backed by the removal of legal constraints such as permits

when harvesting their Prunus africana products. The Kenya Forestry Service

need to facilitate this.

7. Financial benefit to the farmers could also be met through carbon sequestration by

planting of Prunus africana. This is a good option that might also require the

assistance of international bodies.

8. Further research is required to ascertain the distribution of Prunus africana in the

Mt. Kenya forest and also determine the relation of the surrounding community

with the resources from the forest.

81 9. Further, studies are required on the growth rates of different provenances.

Resulting information will aid in Prunus africana breeding that will favour

production of quality planting material.

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89 APPENDICES

Appendix I

Semi-structured interview schedule for Farmers in Gichugu Division, Kirinyaga District, central Kenya

CODE: …………………. DATE: ………………..

INTERVIEWER NAME: ………………………………………..

DIVISION…………….... LOCATION…………..

SUB-LOCATION……………… VILLAGE……………..

A. FARM CHARACTERIZATION Please tick (√) where necessary 1. Name of respondent………………………… 2. Gender (a) Male (b) Female 3. Age of the respondent……………years 4. Type of residential house (a) Stone (b) Bricks (c) Timber (d) Mud 5. Relationship of the respondent to farm owner: (a) Husband (b) Wife (c) Son (d) Daughter (e) Employee (f) Other (Specify) ………………………. 6. Name of Household head……………………….. 7. Gender of farm owner (a) Male (b) Female 8. Education status of respondent (a) Lower primary (b) Upper Primary (c) Secondary school (d) Tertiary 9. Land parcels (a) Inherited….. (acres) (b) Bought………… (acres) (c)Rented out….. (acres) (d)Rented in………. (acres) 10. What is the total size of all parcels of land………………………. (acres) Land by percentage under (a) crops……. (b) pasture……. (c) trees….. (d) idle…………………… (e) others (specify) ……………………………

B. FARMING, TREE PLANTING AND UTIZATION ACTIVITIES

11. (a) Crops grown on the farm. Type of crop Approximate area by percentage

90 Crops code Maize 1 Beans 2 Coffee 3 Tea 4 Others (specify) 5

b). Tree species planted on the farm

Species Niche No. Uses Planted Height (m) DBH Problems (Where /Natural /RCD planted) regeneration

Species Code Grevillea robusta (Mukima) Gr Prunus africana. (muiri, mwiria) P Cuppressus lusitanica Cl Cordia abyssinica (Muringa) Ca Brindelia micrantha (Mukoigo) Bm Eucalyptus ssp Eu Trichilia roka (Mururi) Tr Vitex keniensis (Muhuru) Vk Macardamia M Others specify

Niches Code External boundary Eb Internal boundary Ib Cropland Cl Inside coffee plot Ic Inside tea plot It Homestead Ho

Uses Code Timber T Poles P Fuel wood Fw

91 Fodder Fo Shade Sh Medicine Med Ornamental Orn Others (specify)

12. Where do you get your tree seedlings from? (a) Forestry nursery (b) Agriculture Dept. nursery (c) NGO‟s nursery (d) CBOs nursery (e) Neighbours (f) Own farm (g) Forest (h) Specify 13. Who decides on where to plant trees in the farm? (a) Husband (b) Wife (c) Female child (d) Male child 14. What agro forestry practices are being practiced? (a) Home gardens (b) Trees in soil conservation and reclamation (c) Apiculture with trees (d) Home gardens involving animals‟ (e) Plantation crop combinations (f) Trees on pastures (g) Multipurpose woodlots (h) Shelterbelts and wind breaks, live hedges (i) Others specify …………………. 15. What tree management practices are being carried out? (a) Pollarding (b) Pruning (c) Coppicing (d) Lopping (e) Others specify.

C. PRUNUS AFRCANA UTILIZATION AND MANAGEMENT

NICHE No. Year when DBH HEIGHT (m) SITE Tree species (where OF TREES planted /RCD DESCRIPTION Associated planted) (slope, slope With (give alignment east or names) west etc.)

16. Where did you get the Prunus africana seedlings for planting in your farm? (a) Forest Dept. nursery. (b) Agriculture dept. nursery. (c) NGOs nursery (d) CBOs nursery (e) Neighbours (f) own farm (g) forest (h) others specify 17. How did you decide on the site where Prunus africana was to be planted in the farm? 18. What are the uses of Prunus africana on your farm? 1…………2………. 3……………4……………5……………..6………………. 19. How many Prunus africana trees do you have in your farm? 20. i). What is the trend in the number of Prunus africana in your farm? (a) Increasing (b) Decreasing? ii). If increasing, what are the reasons? 1……….2…………3…………

92 iii). If decreasing, give reasons? 1……………..2. ……….3. …………. 21. Where is Prunus africana found in your farm? (a) Boundary (b) Compound (c) Scattered within food crops? Coffee? Tea? (d) River line (e) Others Specify. 22. How were the trees established on the farm? (a) Planting (b) Natural Regeneration (c) Others (specify)……….. 23. Is the Prunus africana found or planted in specific places in the farm? 24. Prunus africana utilization.

Part used How is it used At what tree size How often do you What is it used for (cm) collect Leaves Bark Stem Roots Whole tree

Other

25. How are these parts harvested from the tree? (See table above) 26. Who does the harvesting? 27. How old is the tree when harvesting for the products is done? 28. Do you sell any products from Prunus africana? If yes, which part of the tree? (a) Bark……… (b) Leaves……(c) Stem…….. (d) others……. 29. Where are the products sold and who buys them? 30. What is the unit price? 31. What are the management practices of Prunus africana trees in the farm? (a) Pruning (b) Pollarding (c) Coppicing (d) lopping (e) Others specify. 32. What is the trend in demand of Prunus africana products and services? (a) Increasing (b) Decreasing (c) Same. i) If it is increasing, how do you intend to meet the demand in a sustainable way? ii) If decreasing, how do you intend to address the problem? iii) If there is no demand, why is it so? iv) What do you intend to do with your Prunus africana trees in the future? 33. What problems do you experience when growing Prunus africana? (a) Pure stand…………. (b) Intercropped………(c) Mixed in pasture………..(d) Others specify………… 34. What problems do you experience when establishing Prunus africana? i). Nursery ii) Managing iii) harvesting iv). Selling Prunus africana products v). Others specify 35. What are the effects of Prunus africana on adjacent crops? (a) None………. (b) Shade ……… (c) others specify………… 36. Are you planning to plant or add Prunus africana on your farm next year? If Yes, how many? 37. In your opinion what can be done to enhance conservation of Prunus africana?

93 38. Do you get Prunus africana products from the forest? Yes/No 39. If yes what products 1.timber 2.seeds 3.wildlings 4.bark 5. Roots 6.others Specify.

94 Appendix II

An interview schedule for Foresters, Forest assistants and Locational Agriculture Extension Officers in Gichugu division, Kirinyaga district, central Kenya

1. Name of respondent……………………………Location………. 2. Gender Male Female 3. Educational level………… 4. Profession………………. 5. What is the source of Prunus africana tree plantings material? 6. i).Number of tree nurseries in your area 1.forestry Department……….2.agricultural department…………3.Ngos………… 4. CBO‟s………..5.others specify ii).Nursery seedlings return 2005

Type of tree Total No. of No. of Prunus No. of Prunus No. of Prunus nursery seedlings raised in africana seedlings africana seedlings africana seedlings the nursery raised planted that have dried up Forestry dept. Agriculture dept. NGOs Others

iii).Annual seedlings return for the last ten years.

Type of tree Total No. of No. of Prunus No. of Prunus No. of Prunus nursery seedlings raised in africana seedlings africana seedlings africana seedlings the nursery raised planted that have dried up Forestry dept. Agriculture dept. NGO‟s Others

7. Are there any plantations of Prunus africana in your district, if yes 1.What Size……… (Ha) 2. What age……? 8. In the natural forest, what sites is Prunus africana found? 9. In the natural forest, which are the common species associated with Prunus africana? 10. In the natural forest, what is the approximate observed Prunus africana Density? Low, medium, high? 11. What range is Prunus africana found in the forest? 12. What distance from the forest boundary is Prunus africana found (Km)? 13. When does Prunus africana normally flower and fruit (which months) 14. Is this regular, on an annual basis or some other cycle? Explain. 15. What is the status of regeneration of Prunus africana in natural stands?

95 16. Prunus africana/other tree species raised in the nurseries.

Species Age Source of seeds

17. If there is no Prunus africana raised in the nursery, why is this so? (Explain) 18. Do you vegetatively propagate Prunus africana? (Explain if yes) 19. Has any inventory of Prunus africana been undertaken? 20. What management is accorded to natural stands of Prunus africana? And plantation? 21. Major pests and diseases of Prunus africana and other tree species.

PEST Severity (high or low) Control measure

DISEASE

22. What age is Prunus africana when harvested? What DBH? 23. What is Prunus africana trees harvested for? 1. Medicine 2.Timber 3. fuelwood 4. Others specify

24. Where is the harvesting mostly carried out?

25. Who harvests it? Are they licensed Yes/No? 26. How is harvesting done? And what method is used? 27. Is Prunus africana used for any other purpose? 28. What problems do you associate with Prunus africana? 1. Pure stand………. 2. Naturally occurring……………..3. Intercropped…………………… 4. Mixed in pasture………………..5. Others specify……………………. 29. In your opinion, what do you think can be done to enhance sustainable Harvesting of Prunus africana?

96 Appendix III

Farmers tree domestication level in tea, tea/coffee and coffee agro-ecological zones (N=132) in Gichugu division, Kirinyaga district, central Kenya

Tree species % of farmers with cultivated trees Tea Tea/coffee Coffee Grevillea robusta 81 86.7 97.8 Eucalyptus spp 42.9 37.8 71.1 Cordia abyssinica 28.6 15.6 53.3 Macardamia tetraphylla 21.4 28.9 35.6 Cuppressus lucitanica 7.1 13.3 15.6 Bridelia micrantha 7.1 24.4 31.1 Fagara macrophylla 4.8 2.2 - Croton microstachyus 2.4 - 42.2 Pinus patula 2.4 - 8.9 Trichilia roka - 4.4 2.2 Mangifela indica - - 77.8 Cassuarina equestifolia - - 4.4 Calliadra carothyrsus - - 2.2 Morus alba - - 22.2 Azadirachta indica - - 13.3 Warburgia Ugandensis - - 2.2 Caesalpinia volkensii - - 4.4 Croton megalocarpus - - 22.2 Eriobotrya japonica - - 20.0 Vitex keniensis 2.4 26.7 8.9 Persea americana 28.6 22.2 68.9 Markhamia lutea - - 31.1 Acrocarpus flaxinifolia - - 4.4

97 Appendix IV

Pooled, farmers tree domestication level in the study area (N=132), Gichugu division, Kirinyaga district, central Kenya

Tree species % of farmers with cultivated trees

Grevillea robusta 88.6 Eucalyptus spp 50.8 Persea Americana 40.2 Cordia abyssinica 32.6 Macardamia tetraphylla 28.8 Mangifela indica 26.5 Bridelia micrantha 21.2 Croton microstachyus 15.2 Vitex keniensis 12.9 Cuppressus lucitanica 12.1 Markhamia lutea 10.6 Morus alba 7.6 Croton megalocarpus 7.6 Eriobotrya japonica 6.8 Azadirachta indica 4.5 Pinus patula 3.8 Fagara macrophylla 2.3 Cassuarina equestifolia 1.5 Caesalpinia volkensii 1.5 Warburgia Ugandensis 0.8 Calliadra carothyrsus 0.8

98 Appendix V

Prunus africana Seedlings return, Gichugu division, Kirinyaga district, central Kenya

Station Year Number of Remarks seedlings Castle forest station 2005 673 Figures taken before planting, October 2004 - rains 2003 - - 2002 - - 2001 - - Gichugu division 2005 4,980 Figures taken before (Forest extension 2004 3,289 planting, October services division) 2003 3,100 rains 2002 50 2001 250 “

Njukiini west forest 2005 24,848 Figures taken before station 2004 275 planting, October 2003 50 rains 2002 21 2001 - “

99 Appendix VI

Means of enhancing Prunus africana conservation (N=70), Gichugu division, Kirinyaga district, central Kenya

Means Sub location

Guama Nyangeni Mikarara Conserve existing Prunus africana 15.4% 33.3% - Educate people on importance 43.6% 12.5% 42.9% Government to provide seedlings - 4.2% - Management - 25% 14.3% Plant different species - 4.2 - Plant more Prunus africana 20.5% 12.5% 28.6% Replace cut trees 12.8 - - Stop felling Prunus africana and grow more 5.1% - - Use alternatives - 4.2% -

100