Eastern Illinois University The Keep

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1960

A Study of Motivation in Selected Plays of Shakespeare's Plays

Robert Edward Zimmerman Eastern Illinois University

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Recommended Citation Zimmerman, Robert Edward, "A Study of Motivation in Selected Plays of Shakespeare's Plays" (1960). Masters Theses. 4682. https://thekeep.eiu.edu/theses/4682

This Dissertation/Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the Student Theses & Publications at The Keep. It has been accepted for inclusion in Masters Theses by an authorized administrator of The Keep. For more information, please contact [email protected]. A STUDY OF MOTIVATION

IN .SELECTED PUl3iLIC.SPEECHES

OF SHAKESPEARE 1 S PLAYS

A Thesis Presented To East ern Illinois Un i versity Charleston, Illinois

In Partial Fulfillment Of The Re quirements For The Degree n Mast.er of Scie ce in Education Plan A

by

Ro bert Edward Zimmerman -

July, 1960 Approved:

Dr . Steven M. Buck

i

Dr .• Donald F. -Tingle�

Dr. J. Glenn1Ross

.337956 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

INTRODUCTION 0 0 • 0 • • CJ> 0 • • • • • 0 • • • • 0 • 0 1

EXPLANATION OF MOTIVES • • • • • �� e e o o o 0 • • • • • 0 • . ·• . 5

T HE ELIZABETHAN AUDIENCE • ., .. 0 • • • • • • • e • • . .. . • 0 • • 8

SPEECHES IN PLAYS 0 • THE THE • • • & 0 • • 0 0 0 • 0 • • • • 10

CONCLUSION 0 -• • • • 0 • • • • o • • • o o e • 0 .. o • o e • " ...31

B IBL;tOGRAPHY • • • • • • • o • • o·· o • • • o • •e•o�• • • • • 32

APPENDIX • • 0 e ·O ·O 0 .. . 0 • 0 • -� • • • • 0 • 0 • • • • 0 0 • 0 33

iii INTRODUCTION

The aim of this paper is to study selected plays of William

Shakespeare with the idea of revealing the motives . to which his charac- ters appealed in their public speaking situations. One -aspect of the problem was to decide upon categories of human needs, or desires, that would serve as a basis for classifying motives.

Aristotle,· in his Rhetoric and Poetics puts down seven causes of human action. The first thr·ee, chance, nature, compulsion, are said to be involuntary. The next four, habit, reasoning, anger, appetite, are thought of as voluntary. He calls attention.to wealth and power.

Aristotle ·also lists the following emotions and qualities as -possible appeals: pity, fear, spite, calmness, friendship, hatred, shame, indig­ nation, envy, and sexual passion.,1

It is evident, however, that such basic emotions as anger, fear, spite, hatred, shame, envy, and indignation are not the most desirable qualities .to which a speaker can appeal. If this be true, we find

Aristotle's list of emotions to be somewhat top-heavy in terms of unde- sirable states, and with the exception of the reference to wealth and power, could not.be used too effectively where the speaker wishes to appeal to the ''better nature" of his audience in order to move them to action.

1.A'.ristotle, Rhetoric and Poetics, trans., w. Rhys Roberts and Ingram Bywater (New York: Mc;°dern Library, 1958), pp. 249-260. 2

Arthur Edward Phillips , in his book ent itled Effective Speaking, describes seven "impel ling motives11 as usable by speakers. They are:

sel f-preservat ion, property, power , reputat ion, affection, sent iments ,

2 and tastes .

Although Ph illips borrowed from ancient , medieval, and modern

rhetoric , as well as from the psychology of the early twentieth century ,

he unconsciously laid the foundat ion for much of what has since been

written about audience mot ivat ion.

For examp le, James A. Winans , in his Public Speaking, accept s

3 Ph illips' classificat ion of impelling mo tives as springs of human act ion.

Sandford and Yeager, in Principles of Effective Speaking, a widely

used current textbook, suggest a slight modificat ion of Phillips0 list,

as fol lows: self-preservat ion, sex attraction, property, power , reputa-

tion , prot ect ion for others, and sat isfaction of att itudes, interests,

and purposes. 4

· Alan H. Monroe states that there are an infinite number of specific

human want s, but puts down wh at he feels are the primary mot iv es which

influence human beings. Monro e says that beh ind every act , belief, or

emot ion will be found one or more of th ese bas ic desires:

1. Se l f-preservat ion and the desire for phys ical we ll being.

2. Freedom·from external restraint.

3. Preservat ion and increase of self-esteem (ego expans ion).

2 Arthur Edward Ph illips , Effective Speak ing (Chicago: The Newton Company , 1924), pp. 105-119.

3 James A. Winans , Public Speaking (New York: The Century Press Company, 19 17) .

4t.Jilliam Sandford and William Yeager, Princ iples £! Effective Speaking (New York: The Ronald Press Company , 19 50), p. 138. 3

4. Preservation of the human race.

Monroe goes on to say that an appeal to some sentiment, emotion, or desire by which the speaker might set the primary motives into action is called a motive appealo He also lists a number of specific human wants that contain specific desires and sentiments to which he feels appeals are almost universally effect iveo These are, in part, as follows: acquisition and savinge ••co mpanionship •••independence, loyalty •••personal enjoyment. .. . power and authority, pride •••reverence or worship •••sex attraction, and sympathy.5

It is not pro fitable here to extend references to the works of scholars who have studied motivation in connection with public address.

a Suffice to say, an unsatisfied want produces in man a state of nervous- ness or tension which persists un�il the want is satisfied. The notion that wants produce tensions which motivate behavior is known as the , homeostatie theory. In general, the homeostatic theory assumes that men desire to attain and maintain certain biological and social states that arise from innate factors or from learning or from both. Tension is

man produced in when these states are not attained or when, having been attained, they are not maintained. This tension contains the energy for action, and it subsides when the need (desired state) is s_atisfied. 6

Studies of audience motivation show at least two distinct groups of springs of action: (1) emotional attitudes, and (2) individual wants.,

5 Alan H. Monroe, Principles and Types of Speech (Ch icago: Scott, Foresman and Company, 1955), PPo 195-196. 6 wayne c. Minnick, The � of Persuasion (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1957), p. 204. 4

Emotional attitudes depend upon a kind and intensity of feeling whereas individual desires (wants) spring hief y from basic needs social c l and

o desires. lt is with this latter group of m tives -- wants -- that the writer wishes to concern himself .

an wan In effort to settle upon a list of human ts to be used as a criterion for the measuring of the appe ls in public speeches in selec- a ted Shakespearean plays, it was evident that almost any of the before- discussed lists could (in total or in part) be used. ince any list of S I

n e human wants , however, must of ec ssity be incomplete and/or overlapping to some extent, and since basic emotional attitudes such as envy, hate,

an fear, and ger, because they do not represent either personal or social

to wr of desires, are be excluded, the iter settled on the list human

as fu wants set down by Phillips most representative and use l in the present analysis and most adaptable to the classification of public speaking appeals in ?hakespeare's plays. In short, Phillips' list of

"impelling motives" seems best to serve the writer's purpose •. EXPLANATION OF MOTIVES

These universal desires of man, as Phillips classifies them, begin

with what is in his opinion the strongest, self-preservationo Man's concern with self-preservation applies not only to this life, but to the hereaftero The attainment of 11heaven" rather than an eternity in "hell" is the concern of much of the wol'.'ld's population., Manv;s desire for self­

preservation means his desire for a happy prolonged life, free from pain,

disease arid oppression, and from natural dangers such as fire and famine.

A speech, therefore, which aims at convincing the listener that a

certain course of action will result in freedom from these threats is an

7 appeal to the impelling motive of self-preservation.

Second on Phillips' list, although not necessarily second in

strength, is the motive of property. This means the .desire for overt

signs of social status, the "success symbols." All men, Phillips says,

desire land, money, and wealth. The strength of this motive depends on

the character of the particular man. Although the motive is present in

all men, an appeal to the impelling motive of property is especia lly

8 effective on the man in which the motive is the strongest.

"The desire to excell along any line of endeavor," is called the

impelling motive of power. Third on Phillips' list, this is the "desire

7 Phillips, ££.• cit. , p. 106. 8 Ibid. 6

to possess intellectual, moral and phys ical strength ," and is the classification under which nearly all amb itions fall, including desires

for polit ical, social , and commercial supremacy. As with all the motives, except that of self-preservat ion, the strength of the mot ive of power depends on the individual. One person may prefer intellectual prowess , another social or polit ical excellence , and still another phys ical 9 s tr ength .

Reyutation is the impelling mot ive rising from the des ire for good will and favorable opinion of others. Among most persons, this mot ive

is strong. There are men and women who would rather die than los e their reputations. His tory and the Christian religion oft en make saint s of

10 such persons , for example , Washington , Lincoln, and the Roman Ves t als.

Concern for the welfare of other s -- father, mother, sis ter,

s weetheart, any being, human or divine -- is the impetus for the impelling mo t ive of affect ions . Also included in this classification is the

concern for country insofar as this desire is altruistic. The power of

this motive is greatest when it is aroused to act to increase the general 11 good of the loved one.

The imp elling motive of sentiments encompasses the desire to do what is fair, noble , honest� It includes duty, libert y, independence

12 and patriotism cons idered as a moral obligation. The actual power of

these sent iments varies cons iderably with different individuals. In

9 l Ibid., p. 108. Oib id ., p. 109.

1 11 p. . 2 �., 110 Ib id. , p. 111. 7

great hours an entire population will place their liberty above their

· lives, as in the war of the American Revolution. Almost everyone is

susceptible to an appeal to his sense of fairness. The strength of this

motive depends upon circumstances, although it is always present in man.

A speech directed toward this motive is often an urge to test the

strength of the beliefs of his culture, such as liberty, honesty, and

13 justice.

Seventh and last on Phill_ips' list is the motive pf tastes. This

is the desire for the aesthetic, the higher pleasures of the senses:

music, art, literature, drama. It is the love of the sublime and

beautiful. Included in tastes are all the appetites not included in the

_motive of self-preservation. Generally, according to Phillips, the higher

the intelligence, the greater the power of the tastes' motive. A speech

appealing to desires for these aesthetic pleasures will win the follow-

1 1 4 l.ll. g o f sucep- t"bl e persons.

A speaker can, obviously, use more than one of these motives in a

single speech. The art of motivation consists, in fact, of combining

and interweaving these appeals. It is entirely possible for the speaker

to employ all seven of these needs in one speech. Generally, however,

not more than three or four-appeals per speech are used.

- 13 Ibid., p. 112.

14 Ibid., p. 113. THE ELIZABETHAN AUDIENCE

Although human nature has not changed much throughout history, it may prove interesting to note the probable feelings of the Elizabethan audience in terms of motives, incentives, or desires. How well does

Phillips' classification of "impelling motives" apply to audiences in the late sixteenth century? More particularly, what were the feelings of the Elizabethan audiences in regard to the desire for self-preserva­ tion? Most certainly,, they were aeeply concerned with 'it. Life in the late fifteen and sixteen hundreds was at best difficult for the average person. Plague, poor sanitation, crime, wars, and natural disaster were always present. It would seem, therefore, that any appeal made to the desire for self-preservation would be effective.

As in all periods of history, the Elizabethans des ired property.

"Things" were considered necessary to keep persons happy, and money was the medium of exchange. Some persons were successful in amassing for­ tunes, in building huge mansions, and in owning large estates.

Then, too, the desire for power was very conunon at this time, with a throne at stake in many instances. Power, or the struggle for power, was the chief factor behind the long war with Spain during this period.

Also the very organization of the State indicated that power was impor­ tant. Here the Queen is seen as all powerful, followed by the Privy

Council, noblemen, bishops, knights, gentlemen, and Parl iament. All of these people depended on various degrees of power to carry on their work both socially and politically. The idea of power was always before the 9

citizens and many of Shakespeare0s p \ays deal with this struggle both by indiv iduals and by states.

Affections, as described by Phillips, can be applied to the Eliza­ bethan personal desires. Audiences were filled with affection toward their queen, families, and other loved ones just as are all audiences.

As for reputation, we find that the desire was uppermost in many minds. The fact that a system of titles was used indicates the Elizabeth­

u o an 1 s interest in rep tati n . Men worked hard to gain reputation and many of the English nobility began life as connnoners. The countless references

to u Shakespeare makes rep tation are a good indication of its importance.

n m n Turning to the 11impelling motive'!' of se ti e ts as applied to the

Elizabethan audience, we can point to the religious sentiments and to patriotism displayed by the people. The people built many churches

ou throughout the c ntry and fought in numerous battles for patriotic reasons. These people could be moved by an appeal to their sentiments.

In the matter of taste.s, the last of Phillips' impellin g motives, the writer points to the number of schools that were available to the young people of that time. Here we see a desire on the part of the people to learn of the world about them and therefore enjoy life to a greater extent. Also we can point to the great production of literature at this time -- plays, poems, essays -- that reflected a desire on the part of the people to satisfy their want for the aesthetic.

In o sh rt , it is not difficult to see that any of these appeals -­

c self-preservation, property, power, reputation, affe t ions, sentiments, and tastes - - would be effective on an Elizabethan audience watching a play in which these human wants are part of public speaking situations. THE SPEECHES IN THE PLAYS

The writer, in selecting Shakespearean pub lic speeches, chose only thos e scenes in which an audience was present , thereby making certain that all situat ions involved actual public speaking. It must be remembered, of course, that these scenes are simulat ed or manufactured to move the plot as well as to portray human nature.

Naturally, there were a great number of public �peeches from wh ich to choose, and by no means did the writer try to include all of such

scenes in Shakespeareo In the main, he was guided in his select ion by the familiar ity of the speeches to most persons and by their appeal to him personal ly. Cons iderat ion was also given, within limits;: to whether

or not the speaker was, in his own right, one of the mos t colorful figures.

Then too, the wr iter consciously tended to select speeches that produced

significant results since, in addition to moral fact ors, the acid test

of successful speaking is whether or not it ach ieves its purpos e. Setting was also a factor in select ion becaus e of its influence upon both speaker

and audience. In other words, the study is represent at ive rather than

exhaustive. It should represent a fair sample of Shakespearean oratory.

The writ er took first, public speaking situations from Shakespeare 0 s

tragedies; second, the histories; and third, the comedies. These plays

are also taken in sequence, as to the years that they are thought to hav e

been written. (The traditional order of the First Folio, which clas sifies

the plays as comedies, histories and tragedies will not be followed.)

Attention is now directed to scenes in some of Shakepeare0s trage- ,

dies, using Phillips' "impelling mot ives" as a guide. 11

Probably one of the most direct uses of the drive of self-preserva-

tion is to be found in the tragedy of Romeo and Juliet. Act I, scene i, finds a deadly feud between the two great Veronese families of Montague and Capulet that even extends to the servants of the two houses. The

action of the drama begins with a street brawl started by four servants

of the two factions. As the fray mounts in size and fury, the Prince o-f

Verona comes to put a stop to it. There have been outbreaks before and he must deal strictly with the offenders.· First, the J.>rince calls to the battlers in an effort to stop them at once. This name-calling appeal, although it went unheard, could be said to be aimed at the.want for

reputation as he shouts:

Rebellious subjects, enemies to peace, Profaners of this neighbor-stained steel- l5 · · Will they not hear? .

Later, after the fs;ay has been halted, the Prince directs his appeal to

.the incentive dior self-preservation when he says:

If ever you disturb our streets again 16 your .lives will pay the forfeit of the peace.

This threat, heard during a lull in the riot, stopped it because of the human desire to live.

Antony's speech in Julius Caesar, Act III, scene ii, is filled with various references to human wants. The speech as Shakespeare envisioned

it opens quietly enough, even apologetically. Gradually, carefully,

15G. Harrison, B. Ed., Shakespeare, fu. Complete Works, Globe Edition (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1952), Romeo and Juliet, 87-89.

16 �., 105-106. 12

Antony senses out his audience, tries this and then that approach. His first task, certainly, is to refute Brutus' speech, and to do this he must overturn Brutus' reputation. Brutus' power with all classes of the

Republic lay in his reputation for high character, his ethical appeal.

Very little need be said of the variations upon the theme ''Brutus is an honorable man." Here by appealing to the want of reputation over and

over again, Antony was able to discredit Brutus by overdrawing. This

exaggeration was central to Antony' s attack, and therefore essential that it be phrased in terms of praise throughout. "T' were best he speak no harm of Brutus here!" Beneath the surface of his tributes he steadily

own built up the passions of his infectious grief and anger. He stirs

the crowd's memory with recollection of past favors, thus appealing to

their sentiments. Antony goes on to mention the will "which, pardon me,

I do not mean to read, " and the citizens cry for the will to be read and

Antony . .replies :

I fear I wrong the honorable men Whose daggers have stabb1d Caesar: 17 I do fear it.

Again Antony, by striking the reputation theme again, gains the opposite

result toward Brutus in the minds of his listeners. Finally Antony descends among the people to read the will. Yet he still holds this

desire for property in reserve for the final crowning proof, the final

incentive to action. There comes these powerful words:

You all do know this mantle: I remember The first time Caesar ever put it on;

17 Ibid., Julius Caesar, Act III, scene ii, 156-157. 13

''Twas on a sunnners evening, in his tent, that day he overcame the Nervii. 18 Look, in this place ran Cassius' dagger through:

What could be more masterly than the touch about the mantle? It is a certain appeal to sentiment and affection. The speech continues with a string of stirring allusions to a great national victory that plays upon reputation this time and a quietly flattering picture of a great hero.

Whereupon there follows a clashing contrast with the reference to wounds and blood, as Antony points out the individual cuts--first Cassius',

Cascas', and finally Brutus' --''§.is the most unkindest cut of all. ••it was

his ingratitude which burst that mighty heart." With these words,

Antony dangles the �ant of affections before the group. Then with a final appeal to affection and sentiments, Antony says:

I come not friends, to steal away your hearts: I am no orator, as Brutus is; But, as you know me all, a plain blunt man, That love my ftiend: and that they know full well that gave me public leave to speak of him: For I have neither wit, nor words, nor worth, action nor utterance, nor the power of speech, To stir mens blood, I only speak right on; I tell you that which you yourselves know; 19 do show you sweet Caesar's wounds••••

This last speech by Antony is strong in the motive of sentiments as he

talks humbly of himself and his love for the people to whom he speaks.

Shortly after this the mob sets out to find the conspirators, but

Antony calls them back to hear the will. The rest is inevitable.

18 Ibid., 174-178.

19 Ibid., 220-228. 14

In Hamlet, Prince of Denmark, Act I , scene ii, Claudius, King of

Denmark, when speaking to a gathering in the room of state in the castle, brings into play more than one reference to human wants. The king and queen are there with young Hamlet, Laertes, and others including Volti- mand and Cornelius, prospective ambassadors to Norway. The king has on his mind his hurried marriage with his brother's widow as well as the threatened invasion by Fortinbras. Claudius tells his audience:

Though yet of Hamlet our dear brothers death the m�mory be green, and that it us befitted to bear our hearts in grief and our whole kingdom 20 to be contracted in one brow of woe• •••

Thus far Claudius has made his appeal in terms of affection, showing his concern, for that matter, the whole kingdom's concern and woe, over the death of HamletBs father. He continues by saying:

yet so far hath discret ion fought with nature that we with wisest sorrow think on him, together with remembrance of ourselves. Th ere fore our sometimes sister, now our queen, n the imperial joint ess to this warlike state, have we, as twere with a defeated joy,-- with an auspicious and dropped eye, with mirth in funeral and dirge in marriage, in equal scale wei2hing delight and dole-- · taken to wife: •••• l

This appeal shifts to one of sentiments as Claudius indicates his desire to do what is wise and discreet. Even if this duty encompasses a moral and patriotic obligation, Claudius goes on to say:

Nor have we herein barr' d your better wisdoms, which have freely gone 22 with this affair along. For all, our thanks.

20 Ibi.·d. , ____.!:.Th Traged y 2._f Haml et, Pri.. nce £._f Denmark , Act I, scene ii, 1-4. 2 22 1�• • 5-15. Ibid., 17-19. 15

In this utterance the king touches upon the desire for reputation present in his audience by using compliments when he speaks of the

a "wisdoms " given by his friends that helped him arrive at so lut ion to his problem.

Later, Hamlet plans to "catch the conscience of the king" by having

a a company of strolling players present be fore him murder play contain- ing episodes which resemble those of the actual killing of his father .

That evening Hamlet is talking to the players before they present their play . He is giving them a parting word of advice upon their acting:

Speak the speech, I pray you as I pronounced it to you, trippingly on the tongue: but if you mouth it, as many of your players do , I had lief the towµ­ crier sp eak my lines.. Nor do not saw the air too much with your hand, thus, but use all gently: for, in the very torrent, tempest, and as I may say, whirlwind of your passion, you must acquire and beget a temperance that will give it smoothness. O, it offends me to the 'soul to 'hear a robustious periwig-pated fellow tear a passion to tatters, to vetyrags, to split the ears of the g�oundlings , who, for the most part, are capable of nothing but : inexplicable dumb -shows and noise I would have such a fellow whipped f or o'erdoing Termagant; it out-herods pray you avo d it . Z Herod; i 3

With this advice Hamlet taps the desire for the aesthetic by appealing to the players' tastes. He asks his listeners to do something which

will (if they are able to do it) satisfy their aesthetic sense in rela- tion to thei r acting of the play. Also he appeals to their desire for reputation, in terms of their professional pride. Hamlet resumes his instruction by stating :

23Ibid., 1-16. 16

Be not too tame neither, but let your own discretion be your tutor: suit the action to the word, the word to the action; with this specific obsel"Vance, that you o'erstep not the modesty of Nature; for anything so overdone is from the purpose of playing, whose end both at the first and now, was and is, to hold, as 1twere, the mirror up to nature; to show virtue her own feature, scorn her own image, and the age and body of his time the form and pressure. Now this overdone or come tardy of£, though it make the unskilled laugh, cannot but make the judicious grieve; the censure of the which one must in your allowance o'erweigh a whole theatre of others. O' there be players that I have seen play, and heard others praise, and that highly, not to speak. it profanely, that neither having the accent of Christians nor the gait of Christian, pagan nor man, have so strutted and bellowed, that I have thought some of nature's journeysmen had made men, and not 4 made them well, they imitated humanity so abominably.2

Not only are Hamlet's sentences packed with serviceable advice for the actors, but they are also steeped in their entreaty to the players' artistic tastes and reputation. There can be no wonder the Thespians presented a most memorable performance that night.

In the tragedy of Othello, the Moor of Venice, Othello has been accused by Brabantio of stealing his daughter and corrupting her by spells and medicines--witchcraft! When Othello and Brabantio appear before the

I Duke, Othello answers the charges in this manner:

Most patient, grave and reverend signor ' ZS my very noble and approved good masters

This was a direct appeal to the desire for reputation. Othel�o continues:

That I have ta'en away this old man°s daughter, it is most true: true I have married her;

24l...J:.... b.d ·, 18-38.

25Ibid., The Tragedy of Othello, the Moor of Venice, Act I, scene iii, 76-� 17

the very head and front of my offending am hath this e�tent, no more. Rude I in my speech, and little blesst with the so ft phrase of peace; for since these arm$ of mine have seven years pith, till now some nine moons wasted, they have used their dearest action in the tented field; and little of this great world can I speak, more than pertains to feats of boil and battle; and therefore little shall grace cause I · my in speaking for myself.26

_Here was Othello emphasizing the human needs of reputation as well as

affection in his concern for others rather than himself. He has spent

his time fighting--helping others--and, therefore, 'fhis speech is rude, n

he knows little of the world, and he will not speak ef himself. Othello

goes on to connnent:

yet, by your gracious patience27

This was an appeal to the motive of reputation; Othello continues:

I will a round unvarnisn'd tale deliver of my whole course of love: what drugs, what charms, what conju�ation and mighty magic-- am withal-­ for such proceeding I charged I won his daughter.28

Othello was drawing upon his audience's desire for affections and senti-

ments by a forthright statement that will be a fair, noble and honest

won confession as to how he Desdemona. His kindly concern for the

interests of his wife' are designed to fulfill empathic affection and

sentiments of justice.

Alcibades, a character in the tragedy Timon of Athens, comes before

the senators of Athens to plead for the life of a friend guilty of

26 7 · Ibid., 91-97. 2 Ibid. , 91-97.

28Ibid., 91-97. 18

·�illing a man in a brawl. Even though he thinks his service to the state

demands some consideration, the senators will have nothing of his pleas.

In fact, Alcibades, himself, is accused of treason and is banished.

Needless to say, Alcibades was anything but successful in the terms of

the intended end result of his speech. He did, however, employ three

different appeals in his effort to save his friend. Alcibades open s his

· rem,a,rks thus:

29 Honour, health and compassion to the senate!

Here Alcibades lumped together reputation, self-preservation and affections

in an all-out effort to get off to a good beginning with the senators .. ,

Later he says of his friend:

He is a man setting his. fate aside, of comely virtues, nor did he soil the fact with cowardice;­ an honour in him which buys out his faults, but with a noble fury and fair spirit, seeing his reputation touched to death, 30 he did oppose his foe;

Alcibades hopes by these words to foster the desire for .reputation.

It was his intention that through vicarious thinking, in light of reputa-

tion, on the part of the senate, they might look with compassion on his

' friend's .rash act. Later Alcibades takes the tack toward sentiments when

he tells the senate:

I say my lords he has done fair service, and slain in fight many of your enemies. of valor he bear himself How full did 31 m in the last conflict, and ade plenteous wounds!

9 t 2 1._bJ."d., T01mo n 2-f Ah ens, Act III, scene v, 3 - 17 •

30 3 1Ibid., 63-6 . Ibid., 3-17. 5 19

Even this appeal to sentiment toward one's country by brav.e defense and

valor in battle, falls on deaf ears.

Having examined a number of Shakespeare's tragedies, the reader

will now see that Shakespeare 1 s histories offer a number of public

speaking situations. Many of these plays contain examples of battle

orations, which freely make use of human needs.

Investigating the following address of Richmond to his soldiers,

from King Richard III, Act V, scene iii, we may construe the words "the

gain of my attempt the least you shall share his part thereof, rr as

implying opportunity to gratify tastes and power. We are able to see

further the use of sentiments, affections, property, self-preservation

and reputation all contained in Richmond's speech.

God,and our good cause, fight upon our side! The prayers of holy saints, and wronged souls, like high-rear'd bulwarks, stand before our faces. 32

This was an appeal to sentiments. Richmond continues:

Richard except, those whom we fight against had rather had us win than him they follow; for what is he they follow? truly, gentlemen, a bloody tyrant and a homicide, one raised in blood , and one in blood established; one that made means to come by what he hath, and slaughter6d those that were the means to help him; a base foul stone, made precious by the foil of Englands chair, where he is falsely set; one that hath ever been God's enemy: 3 3

then if you fight against God's enemy, 4 God, will in justice ward you as his soldiers; 3

The above is an appeal to reputation. Richmond goes on:

Th ' 321bi·d., ____.!:. Trage dy £._f King Ric. h ar d III, Act V, scene iii, 240-270.

4 ., . 33Ibid., 2 0-270. 34Ibid 240- 270 20

if you do sweat to put a tyrant down you sleep in.peace, the tyrant being slain; if you do fight against your countries foe's, 35 your countries fat shall pay your pains the hire;

This is an appeal to property. The speech continues with an appeal to affection and reputation.

if you do fight in safeguard of your wives, your wives shall welcome home the conquerors, if you do free your children from the sword, 36 your children's children quit it in your age.

Richmond next appeals to sentiments:

Then, in the name of God and all these rights, advance your standards, draw your willing swords. For me, the ransom of my bold attempt shall be this cold corpse on the.earth's cold face but if I thrive, the gain of my attempt the least of you shall share his part thereof; sound drums and trunpets boldly and cheerfully. 37 God and St. George! Richmond and victory.

This speech of Richmond's is, of course, unusual in that all of the human wants as distinguished by Phillips are included.

Again, in the play Richard fil, we find Richard at the deathbed of

King Edward, his brother. Many times during the play, Richard, Duke of

Gloucester, afterwards King of England, by his ability to speak convinc-

ingly wins his desires. Defonned and evil by nature, his intention is

to seize the throne by seeming a saint. He gains this end through his

knowledge of human nature and his br�lliant ability to use this knowledge

to gain the followers which he needs to succeed to the throne. In Act

II, scene i, he is at his brother's deathbed, because the king has called

35 36 37 Ibid., 240-270. 1bid., 240-270. Ibid., 240-270. 21

together the quarreling members of his household, hoping to make peace

a among them. After the king wishes the company happy time of day, he

tells Richard he has made peace between the fac tions of the group.

Richard then responds:

A b lessed labour, my sovereign leige . Among this princely heap, if any here, by false intelligence or wrong surmise, hoild me a foe ; if I unwittingly, or in my rage , have ought committed that is hardly borne by any d:n this presence, I desire to reconcile me to his friendly peace: tis death to me to be at enmity ; I hate it and desire all good men's love. am First, mad , I entre at true peace to you, which I will purchase with my dutious service; of you, my noble cousin Buckingham, if ever any grudge were lodged between us; of you, Lord Rivers, and Lord Grey, of you, that all without desert have frowne d on me; Dukes, earls, lords, gentlemen;--indeed, o f a.11. I do not know that Englishman alive with whom my soul is any jot at odds , a more than the infant th t is born to-nite ; 38 I thank my God for my humility.

' Richard s speech here is an appeal to affection, sentiments, and reputa-

tione He declares that he heartily approves of the king's efforts to

smooth relations within the court, for peace and harmony are right. He

does not directly apologiz e for any wrong he has committed ; instead , "if

any here by false intelligence or by wrong surmise, hold me a foe , if I

unwitt ingly or in my rage have ought connnitted that is hardly borne

by any in th is presence--! desire to reconcile me to his friendly peace."

it that has not been ma l ious He wishes to make clear he ic in his unkind

words.; the fault is not entirely his . He is of gentle spirit . "Tis

38 Ibid., 53-72. 22

death to me to be at enmit y , I hate it and desire all good men's love . "

Thu , wi th this_ re ference to the want of reputation , he puts his aud ience in a pos it ion that would be a reflection on their character to deny such a man as he p ro fe s s e s ·to be their good wil l. From this simple b eginning,

Richard has put the entire company on the de fens iv e and by the reference to their human wants--reputat ion, sent iment s , affections --gains the purpose for which he spoke .

Shakespeare 's King John , Act II, scene i, l ends itself to the use by the sp eaker of at least three different human desires . King John , because of his misuse of the Eng lish Barons and dishonest dealings with

King Phillip of France , has made h ims e l f thoroughly unpop ular in both countttes. In an effort to nn.s eat him, Ph illip, with the aid of a few

English noblemen, has agreed to back Arthur, the posthumous .son of

John 's elder brother, Geoffrey . Techndcally, the right to the English

crown is Arthur 's. The scene of th is speech is b e fore the city of Angiers ,

in an English pi:ovince of France . Both kings and their armie s have met there for battle , but the citizens have re fused ent rance to the c ity to

·both kings . Angi ers will acknowledge neither Ph illip nor Arthur as

their ruler. John 's speech is in the nature of a debat e , since both k ings wish to win the loyal_ty of the citizens. After a short argument

between the kings , John wins and speaks :

For our advant age , there fore hear us first . Those flags of France, that are advance d here before the eye and prosp ect of your town, have hither marched to your endamagement : the cannons have the ir bowels full of wrath, re dy e and a mounted are th y ready to spit for th the ir iron indignation against your wal ls : all preparation for a bloody siege and meredless proce eding by the French confronts your city's gyes, your winking gates; 23

and but for our approach , those sleeping stones, that as a wa ist cloth girdle you about, by the compulsion of their ordinance by this 't ime from their fixed beds of lime had been dishabited and wide havoc made for bloody power to rush upon your peace . But , on the s ight of us , your lawful king who painfully, with much expedient march , have brought a countercheck before your gates , ' to save unscratched your city s threatened ch eeks , Behold, the French , amazed, vouchsafe a parle , and now, instead of bullets wrapped in fire, to make a shaking fever of your wa lls , they shoot but calm wo rds fo lded up in smoke , to make a faithless error in your ears : which trus t accordingly citizens , and let us in , your king , whose labour ' d spirits ,

forwear ied in the act ion of swift speed � crave harborage withdm your city-walls • ..)9

The motive played on here by King John is that of self-preservat ion .

Angiers , according to John , has been caught sleeping and but for him might have been annih ilated by the treacherous French . Secondly, John appeals to their affections for him. Since the city owes him a debt of grat itude , the cit izens mus t do the decent thing and admit the ir king, who is weary from hav ing saved their lives . "· ••and let us in, your king , whose labour 'd spirts, forwearied in this act ion of swift speed, crave harborage with in your city walls ."

As for the success of John 's speech, the citizens are not so eas ily taken in as John had hoped.

The play King Henri y lends , through a speech by Henry , an examina-

' t ion of an appeal to man s des ire for power . At the beginn ing of Act

III, scene i, we find King Henry before the walls of Har fleur, wh ere me is busy ordering his soldiers with scaling ladders to the attack . It is

39 Ib id. , The Life and Death of King John , Act J;I, scene i, 205-233 . 24

here Henry exhibits his bravery as we ll as his ab i l ity to un ite all

factions under his banner. This spe ech to his men, in the form of a

11pep11 talk, no doubt is the envy of locker-room orators throughout the

world. Henry speaks as follows:

Once more . unto the breach , dear friends, once mo re or c lose the wall up with our English dead . a man In peace theres noth�ng so becomes as modest stillness and humi l ity; But when the blast of war blows in our ears , then imitate the action of the tiger ; stiffen the sinues , st.mUD.on up the blood, disguise fair nature with hard favoured rage ; then lend the eye a terrib le aspect ; let it pry thro ugh the portage of the head like the bass co*non, let the brow overwhelm it as fearfully as doth a ga l led rock o ' erhang and jutty h is confounded base, swilled with the wind and was teful oceano Now set the teeth and stretch the nostril wide , ho ld hard the breath and bend up every spir it to his fu ll height. On , on, you noblest English , who se blood is fet from fathers of war - proof ! fathers like so many Alexanders , have in these parts from morn till even fought, and sheathed their swords for lack o f argument ; dishonour not your mo thers ; now att est that those whom you called fathers did beget you. Be copy now to men of grosser blood, and te.ach them how to war . And you good yeomen , who se limbs were made in Eng land, show us here the mettle of your pasture ; let us swear . that you are worth your breeding, which I doubt not fot there is none of you so mean and base, that hath not noble luster in your eyes . I see you stand like greyhounds in the slips, s train ing µpon the start . The game 's afoot: Fo llow your spirit , and upon the charge cry ' God for Harry England , and Saint George !140

Of course a numb er of human motives are appealed to in this rousing

speech; however, the appeal to powe r stands out as the ma�n mot ivat ing

40 '·

I . bi·d. , �Th �.f 2-_f King Henry y, Act III, scene i, 1- 33. 25

e l factor . Henry s e eks to ins t ill in .his men the desir to · possess mora

and phys ical s t rength , "Then imitate the act ion of the t iger •• °"'' The king reminds his soldiers that they must assµm.e a ferocious expression and disguise "fair naturen if .they are to live up to wh at he expects of them. By so doing they will become an unb.eatable power. He appeals also to the desire for reputat ion wh en he reminds them that. they have a heritage as sons of fighting men . "On, on you noblest English , whose

! blood is fet from fathers of war-proof " What man could re sis t such a

e pronouncem nt? Therefore , this bat t le we.pt to Henry •.

Hav ing examined some public speak ing scenes in Shakespeare 's trage-

( l dies and histories , the reader will next be ed to the comedies . First

ub o f all, there are fewer p lic speak ing situations in the comedies than in the t rage dies and historie_s , so that Shakespeare found less need .for

a a c the collect ive ppeals . Then, too, the comedies contain l rge ly onver - sat ion and by nature deal with less pro found ideas .

i, Act I, scene o f the charming p lay Loves Labor's �. furnishes

to ' an examp le of the appeal the listener s tastes. In this p lay we find

the King of Navarre , Ferdinand, and three gent lemen of h is court, Longa- ville, Biron, and Dumain in the royal park discussi�g their plans to spend three years in the study of ph ilo sophy . The king , sp eaking, demands of each a solemn oath:

am l Let f e , that al hunt after in their lives, ' live register d upon our brazen tombs , and then grace us in the disgrace of death; r When, sp ite of cormorant devou ing Time , t the endeavour of this present brea h may buy, wh that honour ich shall bate his s cythe ' s keen edge , and make us heirs of all e t ernity . 26

Therefore, brave conquerors ,--for so you are , that war against your own affections and the huge army of the worlds desires , our lare edict shall strongly stand in fource: Navarre shall be the wonder of the world; our court shall be a little academe , St ill and cont emp lative in living art o you three Biron, Dumain,· and Longaville, have sworn for three years term to live 'with me my fellow-scholars , and to keep thos e statutes that are recorded in this schedual here: your oaths are pass'd, and now subscribe your name s that his own hand may strike his honour down that violates the smallest branch herein: If you are ann8 d to do as sworn to do, subscribe to your deep oaths, and keep it tooo41

Wh en out lining this amb it ious program, Ferdinand calls forth from his three listeners their desire for the aesthetic. If they follow him he can lead them to the higher pleasures of the senses (tastes) , and thus they shall become a p art of that "wonder of the world"j. "Our court shall be a little academe : Still and cont emp lative in living art ."

Ferdinand also plays up on the want for reputat ion in calling them "brave conquerors" and in asking for their oaths that they will not abandon the project . Happ ily, for the plat of the play, these good intent ions go by the board and the act ion resolves itself on a less aesthet ic note.

A hall in the Duke 's palace is the scene for the op ening of the brisk comedy , � Comedy of Errors. There is enmity between the cities of Ephesus and Syracuse and they have agreed that neither will allow merchants from either city to vis it the other city on pain of death. That

) is , a merchant will suffer death if he is unable to raise a ransom of a thousand marks . An old me rchant of Syracuse named Aegon has been arrested

41 . Lov e s Labor's �, �. , Act I, scene i, 1, 24 . 27 in Ephesus for in fr inging the law and is brought before Solinus , Duke of

Ephesus , in a hall of the ducal palace. The Duke tells Aegon of his fate:

Merchant of Syracuse, plead no more; I am not partial to in fringe our laws : the enmity and discord which of late sprunge from the rancorous out rage of, your duke to merchant s , our we ll- deal ing countrymen , who , want ing gi lde rs to redeem ,t;heir l ives , have sealed their rigorous statutes with their blood, excludes all pity from our threat ening looks . For since the mortal and intestine jars4 'twixt thy seditious countrymen and us , . 2

This was an appeal to reputat ion o The Duke continues:

it hath in solemn synods been decreed, both by the Syracus ians and ourselves , to admit no traffic to our adverse towns : nay , more, a If ny born at Ephesus be seen at any Syracus ian marts and fairs ; again: if any Syracus ian born 43 come to the bay of Ephesus , he dies

Here was an appeal to power and self-preservation., Th e Duke speaks on:

his goods .confiscated to the dukes disposal; unless a thousand marks be levied, to quit the penalty and to ransome him • . Thy substance, valued at the highes rate, �4 cannot amount unto a hundred marks ;

An appe al to property was given; and, finally, again self-preservat ion�

ou Th ere f ore b y 1 aw t h art cond emne d to d.ie . 45

Th is bad news wh ich the duke del ivers to the old man is c loaked in sinis- ter references to the needs of reputat ion , self-preservat ion, s ent iments , and property.

4 2Ib id . , The Comedy of Errors , Act I, scene i, 3-25 . 28

The comedy , Much � About Nothing, concerns itself with misunder-

standings and errors of judgment to the degree that a father, Lenato,

believes what is said about his daughter and wishes aloud for her death :

. oo Fate! take not away thy heavy hand. Death is the fairest cover for

her shame-- that may be wished for .11 As his daughter, who has fainted,

gradual ly revives, he breaks into further lamentat ions:

Wherefore ! wh y, doth not every earthly thing cry shame up on her?· Could she here deny the story that is · printed in her blood?' Do not live, Hero; do not ope thine eyes: • •• Why ever was te thou lovely in my eyes? Why had I not with charitable hand took up a beggars issue at my gates, who smirked thus and mired with infamy , 9no I might have said, part of it is mine ; this shame der ives itself from unknown loins '? But mine , and mine I loved, and mine I praised, and mine that I was proud on, mine so much that I mys elf was to myself not mine , valuing of her, --why zhe, o, she is fal len Into a pit of ink o •o• 6

· Leonat o cries to his listeners to have pity on him because of his daughterus

alleged actions . He appeals to the incent iv e for repµt at ion, since he

feels the loss of his own so keenly. Sent iments and affections are not

excluded-- nwhy ever was te thou lovely in my eyes?n In the main , Leonato

thinks mo re about himself than his prized off-spring, and th is seems some -

what obtuse in terms of our modern concept of fatherhood. At the end the

problem is solved, a merry dance is enjoyed, and the villain is to be

punished.

The Winter8s Tale is not one of the more popular of Shakespeare 9s

comedies ; however, it does harbor a number of public speeches that include

46�. , Much Ado About Nothing, Act IV , scene i, 121-142. 29

in them some of the human needs present in all people . In Act III, scene ii, the dr amat ic situation is briefly thus : Le onthes, King of

Sicilia, becomes jealous of Polixenes, King of Bohemia, because he sus- pects Polixenes of having an affair with his queen, Hermione. Polixenes flees and Leonthes has his wife jailed to await trial. Leonthes presides over the court of justice and after the indictment is read accusing

Hermione of high treason, Hermione makes her de fense :

Since what I am to say must be but that which contradicts my accusat ion, and the testimony on my part no other but wh at comes fr om myself, it shall scarce boot me to say 'not guility0 : mine integrity, being counted f lsehoo d, shall, as express it, t I be so received. 7

With th is opening remark, Hermione invokes an appeal to reputation and since her position is felt to be almost hopeless� she uses this appeal in a negative fash ion. The appeal to .the want of affections is also faintly felt . Hermione warms to her sub ject:

But thus, if powers divine behold our human act ions , as they do I doubt no t then but innocent shall make false accusation blush, and tyranny . tremble at patience. You, my lord, best know, who least will seem to do so, my past life hath been as content, as chaste, as true, as I am now unhappy; which is more, than history can pattern, though devised and play'd to take spectat ors .---48

With these words, the queen appeals to religious sent iment and once more, more forcefully, to the desire for reputation . Her npast life •••chaste • • •

47Ibid ., The Winter 's '.!'.!!!:., Act III, Scene ii, 23-29 .

48Ibid ., 29 -37. 30

to trueo e.happyo" The king himself is a witness that fact . Also Hermo ine plays upon the need for affect ion in life by recal ling the happ iness that was once in her life. Hermione goes on into her defense:

For Behold me a fel low of the royal bed, wh ich owe a mo iety of the throne , a great king's daughter, the mother to a popeful prince, here standing to prat and talk for life and honour 8fore who please to gome and hear . For life, I prize it , as I we igh gr ie f, which I would spare: for honour , 'Tis a derivative from me to mine , and only that I stand foro49

Once more the queen speaks in light of reputat ion- -''a fellow of the royal bed. oemo ther to a hopeful prince." She also speaks of life . 11 1 prize

it as I we igh grief, which I wo uld spare: 19 These words aime d at the dr ive of self-preservat ion, a mo st vital factor in her case. Th en honor, an app eal to sentiment, is mentioned. She speaks further:

I appeal To your own conscience, . sir, before Polixenes to came your co urt , how I was in your grace, how merited to be so; since he came , with what encounter so uncurrent I have strainvd to ap pear thus: if one jot beyond the bound of hono ur or in act or will that way inclining, harden 'd be the hearts me , of all that hear and my near'st of kin 5 cry fie upon my grave! 0

With th is statement , Hermione makes her final appeal to honor (sent iment) and reputat ion.

4 9Ibid. , 37-45 .

SOibid. , 46-54. CONCLUS ION

For this study of fourteen public speaking situat ions in selected

Shakespearean plays , the writer formulated a chart to be found at the end of th is paper. The study shows that Shakespeare used the appeal to reputat ion in thirteen spe eches; sent iments, in nine; affection, in eight ; self-preservation, in seven; power, in three; tastes , in three; and property, in two. It is clear that Shakespeare was we ll aware of the mo tives that move men, and that his reput ed genius for understand­

ing human nature is we ll deserved. · The writer does not mean that

Shakespeare consciously emp loyed these mot iv es any more than he con­ s cious ly used other techniques .that writers ascribe to him. It is , however , ev ident through this study . that he did make us e of des ires present in mankind; and that many public speaking situat ions in his plays can be classified under the seven "impelling motives" first categorized by Arthur Edward Phillips. 32

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Ar istotle, Rhetoric and Poetics, Trans ., W. Rhys Roberts and Ingram Bywat er. New York : Modern Library, 19 58.

Eisenson, Jon. The Psycho logy of Speech . New York: R. S. Cro ft s and Co ., 19 38 .

Harrison, G. B. (Ed.) Shakespeare, The Complete Works . (Globe Edit ion) New York: Harcourt Brace and Company, 19 52.

Higgins , Howard Hubert . Influencing Behavior Through Speech . Boston : Expression Company, 19 30.

Kennedy , Milton Boone. The Orat ion in Shakespeare. Chapel Hill: The Un iversity of North Carolina Press, 19 42.

Minnick, Wayne c. The Art of Persuas ion. Coll. Boston: Houghton Mi ffl in Company, 19 57:-- �- --

Monroe, Alan H. Princ iples and Types of Speech. Chicago : Scott , Fores­ man And Company (Fourth Edition) , 19 55.

Phillips, Arthur Edward. Effect ive Speaking. Chicago : The Newton Comp any, 19 24 .

Sandford, William and William Yeager. Principles of Effective Speaking . New York : Ronald Press Company (Fifth Edition) , 1950.

Thonssen, Le ster and A. Craig Baird. Speech Crit icism: The Development of Standards � Rhetorical Ap praisal. Coll. New York: Ronald Press Company, 1948.

Winans , James A . Public Speaking . New York : The Century Press Comp any , 19 17 . APPENDIX

TABLE OF SOURCES

Play Act Scene Setting Speaker Spoken To Purpose Appeals Used

R and J I i Verona Prince Street Fighters To halt fr ay Self-Preservat ion , Rep uta- , A of tion Street Verona

Jo Co III ii Forum Antony Plebe ians Funeral oration Reputation , Sentiments , Affections

Hamlet I ii Elsinore King Hamlet , Queen Explanations of Affections , Sentiments, Castle Claudius and Others his actions Reputation

Hamlet III ii Elsinore Hamle t Players Advice as to how Tastes , Reput ation Castle to act thjir parts

Othello I iii Council Othello Duke and Defense of himse lf Reputat ion , Affections , Chamber Coun cil Sentiments 1

T. of A. III v Senate Aleibiades Senators Defense of Friend Self-Preservation p Affec- House t ions, Reputa tion - R. III II i Palace Gloucester King , Queen ,Peers Allegiance speech Sentiments , Reputation

R. III v iii Bosworth Richmond Soldiers Battle Orat ion All seven of the Fie ld "Impel ling Mo tives"

K. Jo II i Before King John Cit izens of Winn ing Adm ission Self-Preservation , Angie rs Angiers to the Town Sentiment-a , Affections

H. V. III i Before Henry Soldiers Battle Oration Power, Reputation Harfleur

L.L.L. I i Navarre King Lords To Demand an Tastes , Reputat ion� Park Oath of Study Sentiment . Se lf-Preservatio1 w w APPENDIX (Cont 'd)

'

PLAY Act s'cene Setting Speaker Spoken To Purpose Appeals Used

x C. of E. I i Duke 's Duke A�geon and Others To e p lain local Reputat ion, Self- Palace laws Preservation, Power , Property, Sent iments

M.Ado A.N. IV i A Church Leona to Friar , Hero , Lament ing his _Reputat ion, Sent iments, At tendents Daughter's Act ions Af feet :Lons

T. W. T. III ii Palace of Hermione Leontes, Lords , Defense of Reputat ion, Affect ions , Jus t ice Officers Herself Self ..P reservat i.on

w �