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Germany’s Children: Marriage and Reproductive Policies under National Socialism during World War II B S S U   V 

Introduction for women and to bring traditional Christian those policies and, as such, serve as a critical Th e Second World War and its eff ects values back into daily life, the National underpinning to the analysis. However, this on the German population were signifi cantly Socialist government of Germany redefi ned paper relies heavily on primary sources as well, aff ected by the policies concerningmarriage in a way that forbid so-called including speeches presented at Nazi rallies reproduction and marriage created by the deviants from participating in the institution. that touched on these reproductive policies Nazis. While Hitler planned from the Legitimate marriage in was and fi rsthand accounts of the conditions beginning to recreate Germany in the image defi ned as: of life for German women. Specifi cally, of the perfect race, World War II A long-term relationship based on the Alison Owings’ book Frauen collects and exacerbated the burden on women to have mutual trust, love, and respect between two documents the stories of women who lived children. Essentially, this burden was two genetically healthy and racially identical through the Th ird Reich and illustrated the pronged: On the one hand, the high death people, of opposite gender with the aim emotions women felt and the incentives toll on the battlefront required a near- of conceiving genetically healthy Aryan women had to reproduce. Ultimately these constant stream of new soldiers to fi ght on children and raising them to be able-bodied primary sources showed women’s reactions to behalf of Germany. For Hitler, this meant national comrades.3 Nazi reproductive policies and conveys how that women needed to have more children so All of these elements – marriage, the women perceived the impacts of those that they could replace those lost in battle.i In nationalism, and child bearing – are policies in their own lives. a speech given at the National Socialist Party important in understanding the politics of Germany’s (NSDAP) Congress, Hitler of gender under . Ultimately the Weimar Era proclaimed, “the goal of female education Nazis based their gender policies on the idea Th e Weimar Era identifi es the German must invariably be the mother.”1 Th e Nazis that motherhood was the only proper role state between the end of World War I in believed that a formal education for the sake for women in Germany. Th eir legislation 1918 and ’s appointment to of education, or with the hopes of one day regarding sex and sexuality, education, and Chancellor in 1933. Th is period is defi ned having a career, was unnecessary. Th e only the workforce was intended to encourage by a progressive German republic, replacing purpose women served was as mothers, reproduction and motherhood and acted its previously imperialist monarchy. More and education was only necessary to the as a disincentive for women to seek out specifi cally, the tension between the Social extent that women used it to raise a better alternative lifestyles. Democrats and the Communists, the two generation of Germans. Gender as an analytical category helps dominant parties in Weimar Germany, At the heart of many Nazi social policies, explain the life and culture of the average centered around how to best carry out these including those focused on regulating German person during the war. Th is paper progressive changes. Th e Communists, in reproduction and sex, was a desire to will explore Nazi gender policies and their true Marxist fashion, looked to Russia and incorporate traditional Christian values. attitudes towards sex, reproduction, and believed that violent revolution and combat Generally, these tenants of Christianity marriage as they existed between 1939 and were necessary and the only ways to truly included female subordination, evasion of 1945. Specifi cally, it will discuss the positive eliminate the monarchy.iii. premarital sex, and out-of-wedlock births, project instated by the Nazis that Th e Social Democrats, a more moderate which Christians and Nazis alike saw as encouraged reproduction. Th is will shed party, believed political reform, would be a symptoms of an immoral society. Especially light on constructions of femininity in Nazi more eff ective method. Despite their diff erent coming out of the progressive and liberal Germany, after which it will attempt to show approaches to enacting social change, both of Weimar Period, Hitler and the NSDAP how these policies defi ned the roles women these groups, as well as the that saw an absence of moral values in German played in society at large and how they emerged towards the end of the Weimar Era, society. However, the Nazis’ relationship with translated to their participation in the war dealt with gender ideals. those Christian ideas was complicated, and eff ort. In order to understand these impacts, Th e Communist Party of Germany as a result, they often cherry picked which however, the paper will begin by briefl y (KPD) – a large minority in the political aspects of Christianity to adopt in their own reviewing gender policies under previous sphere – made the physically powerful, platform, while criticizing the Church for German governments and then contrast militaristic male proletarian the center of others.ii, 2 In general, the Church and the Nazi those with the changes made under National its politics, while women were rendered the party were engaged in a power struggle over Socialism. passive objects of capitalist exploitation and creating a properly moral society according Most of the evidence used in this paper proletarian sympathy.4 Th e KPD is important to their own platforms (which was certainly to support the thesis comes from secondary because, despite their minority status, one root of the tension between them) but analyses of Nazi reproductive policies and they still exerted quite a bit of infl uence in ultimately had similar visions for German of German culture and society under the terms of enacting progressive legislation; society. Th ird Reich. Th ey proved to be the most more importantly, they challenged the To encourage motherhood as an ideal effi cient sources for conveying the eff ects of conceptions of gender later presented by

Journal of Undergraduate Research – Volume IX Social Sciences

the National Socialists. Among many social important role for women was reproductive. The Nazi eugenics movement was twofold: reforms carried out during Weimar, several One major way by which the Nazi Party it had both a so-called negative and positive important policies specifically affectedtook steps to create a racially homogenous track. The negative track, simply, is the one gender and sexuality, namely an increased state was through its views and policies on we would most associate with access to and legal , sex and reproduction. The Nazis took a and eugenics in general. It was the forced which emphasized women’s sexual freedom.5 hostile approach to sex, denouncing it as a sterilization and murder of people perceived Despite the significant taboos that stillpleasureless act.5 By taking away the idea to be inferior. Essentially anyone who was existed regarding sex for pleasure at the time, that sex could be enjoyable at all, the Nazis gay, black, Jewish, mentally ill, a criminal, 72 million condoms were sold in Germany hoped that men and women would only or did not support the Nazi regime was to in 1938.5 Furthermore, the KPD equated engage in sex with the end goal of be forcibly sterilized or sent to their deaths marriage with prostitution and defended so that promiscuity would disappear and the in concentration camps. The purpose was to single women’s rights to a sexual life.4 They need for birth control would be eliminated. end the continuation of these “degenerate” emphasized the importance of the full and Through propaganda campaigns, the Nazis races, prevent people with contagious diseases active participation of women in all realms were sure to emphasize sex’s utilitarianism; it and inherited disabilities from passing those of life and worked to integrate them into the had a specific purpose – reproduction – and problems onto a future generation, and, in the proletarian class struggle.4 This emancipatory engaging in sex for any other reason would be case of gays and lesbians, who could not have message, however, would not last long. shameful. Moreover, they greatly restricted children, to punish them for not breeding.6 While the Communists “asserted the access to birth control and completely Between 1934 and 1939, approximately full equality of men and women,” which forbade abortions, which removed the so- 320,000 people were forcibly sterilized, appeared in many of the policies passed called safety net for individuals practicing a figure which includes 5,000 “eugenic” during the Weimar Era, the Nazis would unsafe sex.iv, 1 As a result, Hitler hoped to abortions.1 Furthermore, from 1939 to come to reverse these changes. The Nazi eliminate non-reproductive sex. While that 1941 over 70,000 mentally and physically Party saw this as a problem leading to the is a difficult metric to gauge, the propaganda handicapped adults were murdered as so- corruption of German society They argued campaigns were at least highly successful in called “useless eaters” and “lives unworthy of that this corruption was a continuation of pushing this type of behavior underground life”.1 that perpetuated by the Jews.6 In order to so that it was no longer a cultural marker, the undo the changes made during the Weimar way it was during the Weimar Era. This would Positive Eugenics Era, the Nazis believed they must return to eventually reinstate traditional Christian The second track is what is often referred or reinvent the societal values that existed values of modesty while simultaneously to as positive eugenics, which means that under Germany’s monarchy. Part of this increasing the population. Furthermore, certain people were encouraged to reproduce. revolved around the roles men and women it was the belief of several important Nazis Through increased propaganda campaigns, were expected to occupy, which were based that the Jewish community had led Germany the Nazis promoted the continuation of in Christian values and morality. Thus, they astray in this regard. More specifically, a the by painting their version of asserted that the unequivocal role of women Nazi-identified doctor named Ferdinandsexuality as natural, as the beauty of the race was procreation. Hoffman believed that Jewish doctors during itself. Within the positive eugenics project, the Weimar era promoted birth control and the Nazis created laws and campaigns that Reproduction under the National Socialist contributed to its popularity and widespread served either as incentives to have children or Party use.1 He thought that sex for pleasure was as challenging hurdles to pass if one did not. Once the National Socialist Party of an “attack on Christian values”.1 Hitler also During the war, almost half of the 20 million Germany came to power in 1933, public repudiated the idea of women’s emancipation, men who served in Germany’s military had attitudes towards reproduction began to again blaming the Jewish community.6 As a left civilian life, which made marriage and change. From his first day in office, Hitler result, the Nazis developed a eugenics project having children more difficult for women claimed that the country’s survival depended to try to repair traditional morals and erase on the home front.3 Since marriage and – among many things – on the reversal of the groups the Nazis deemed inferior. Here childbearing were the pinnacle of success, as the devastating demographic decline. He we see evidence of how Nazi anti-Semitism the Nazi definition of marriage implied, this attributed this to the lenient views held came to affect its reproductive politics during shortage of men became a serious problem during the Weimar era that birth control and World War II. for ordinary German women. Not only had abortions were acceptable, both of which While the eugenics project in Germany they found an immediate need for more worked to bring down the birth rate in started before the breakout of the war soldiers, but, more importantly, they saw a Germany. Thus, Hitler and his party crafted in 1939, the conditions brought about long term need to have people to whom they a plan for the restoration of German society; by World War II drastically changed the could teach their ideas and doctrines once at the center of this plan was the creation of program and made it more important. Hitler the war was over. Thus they took desperate an indivisible and racially pure community. pledged to rejuvenate German families by steps to ensure that babies were being born. Hitler saw this idealized population as a eliminating immorality and restoring the Most of their steps towards punishing solution to the social ills resulting from the traditional patriarchal family and moral women who did not have children were well- Weimar era, a period that the Nazis attempted order. He insisted that new family policies enforced laws.v, 3 They also criminalized birth to erase from German history altogether, echoing traditional German values would control and abortions for genetically healthy denouncing it as “a historical aberration.”3 create jobs for men, restore the patriarchal ; in fact, a common saying about Hitler and the Nazis encouraged members of family, and strengthen the Aryan race. during the war was “better ten on the supposedly superior Aryan race to create Hitler promised that in the Third Reich, the pillow than one on your conscience,” this new population by cultivating a “cult of every woman would be able to marry and which reinforced the importance of motherhood” that emphasized that the most answer her natural calling to bear children.3 reproducing.7 From 1943 onwards, women

Journal of Undergraduate Research – Volume IX Social Sciences

who sought an illegal abortion, as well as task [a woman] can perform is to give the gift German mothers. One woman recounted those who helped them, could face the death of children to her people and the nation”.16 that women were entitled to be “bursting penalty.1,6 The Nazis went to extreme lengths In order to promote this motherly ideal, with pride” when they had given birth to to ensure that women carried their healthy Hitler began to close off opportunities for as many children as possible. In fact, it was children to term, but there were nevertheless women to pursue degrees in universities and only then that women had fulfilled their contradictions and problems inherent in jobs in professional settings, outside of social “greatest purpose in life”.viii, 11 According to their abortion policies. work, which was deemed “properly suited” one German newspaper from the time, Das The Nazis’ view of abortion was a for women.vii, 9 For example he announced in Schwarze Korps, these efforts worked to bring double-edged sword: On one hand, healthy 1936 that women could no longer be hired back “the beauty of the German mother” births were never to be interfered with, as judges or lawyers.9 For the next several and such prolific childbearing reflected the but, on the other hand, the modified Law years all legal careers, such as medicine “immortality of the German Volk”. ix, 12 for the Prevention of Inherited Diseases and teaching, were closed to women. As a Another policy the Nazis created to of 1935 legalized abortion under certain result, they had to resign themselves to their further incentivize among young circumstances.6 This law essentially gave the motherly duties because it was the only thing women was the Mother’s Cross. As the name Nazis the right to forcibly abort the fetuses of they could do.9 implies, the Nazis honored women who gave “genetically inferior” parents under the guise In 1943, however, there was a massive birth to many children and was popular even of preventing the spread of certain illnesses shift in employment policy. The Germans before the war; by 1939, over three million and conditions, which often included race. were losing the war on the Eastern front mothers had already been honored with the Beyond this, the NSDAP also created an and needed bodies to replace the men who cross.6,10,12 One woman featured in Alison experimental breeding project in 1940, had been drafted and became war casualties. Owning’s book Frauen, named Wilhelmine led by , known as the Hitler had always worried that conscripting Haferkamp, spoke in depth about her Program. This program involved women would contradict their biological role, Mother’s Cross. At first, she got the bronze the establishment of special maternity homes but in January 1943, the pressures from the Cross after having four children. She gave for the “racially valuable” wives of young war were too great, so the state began drafting birth to two more children and was awarded SS men, but also for unmarried mothers of women between the ages of seventeen and the silver Cross. After having a total of nine “good blood” who had fallen pregnant by forty-five into war-related work. However, babies, Haferkamp was awarded the longed- soldiers serving at the front.1 This project this still consisted mostly of “racially for gold Cross. She recalls being “really proud essentially served two functions. First, it unworthy” women and young, unmarried of it”.7 She even describes a celebration provided government-funded housing for Aryan women.9 The Nazis subsequently party for her thrown by other mothers at women who already had “racially valuable” reopened the fields of medicine and teaching a local school and how she was unable to children and needed financial assistance to women as well, but not because of a shift in go because she had nine young children to raising them. These houses also served as a ideology; instead, it was because the German care for. Clearly this cross was not only a brothel of sorts, where soldiers on leave could Army had drafted and lost so many doctors sign of personal achievement but also of a serve as “conception assistants” to women and teachers that women needed to adjust to strong standing in one’s community. It was, hoping to get pregnant.1 Once impregnated, real world demands and fill those important essentially, a way for women to become war these women would remain in the houses to professional vacancies.9 Regardless, because heroes. give birth. Additionally, since the homes were they lacked the necessary formal education Women who earned the Cross later owned and operated by the Nazis, children due to restricted educational opportunities, received additional benefits as well, some grew up in an environment which exposed only forty-five percent of women over as trivial as priority seating on the trams. them to National Socialist rhetoric from fourteen were qualified to be employed by Haferkamp also remembers how the NSDAP day one. The Lebensborn homes also served spring of 1944.9 It is important to note that rewarded Cross recipients. When parents as an illustration of the Nazi anxiety about the integration of women into the wartime with lots of children were members of the producing healthy children because of how workforce was not intended to challenge Nazi party, their children had a greater visibly deformed children were handled.6 If the fundamental belief that after the war, chance to advance because they were exposed a woman gave birth to a child with genetic women’s primary focus would return to to special opportunities. Haferkamp said she imperfections, the Nazis took that child family and household. got fifty marks per child per month. When away. vi, 8 The NSDAP created many more she multiplied that by nine children, she Another way in which Hitler encouraged incentives for men and women to have ended up making a lot of money. In fact, procreation was by closing off professional children. Economically, there were tax she sometimes got more “child money” opportunities to women. The purpose was to breaks for large families and state sponsored than her husband earned at his job. What’s ensure that women had no other option than marriage loans contingent upon women more, because Wilhelmine’s husband was a to bear children. In other words, Nazi policy leaving the workforce.3 There was also an Party member, his children also got more was meant to control women’s careers and increase in the number of health clinics schooling than they would have otherwise lives.9 It was said that the German mother to advise and support mothers. In 1941, because the Party paid for their education.7 had the most important job for “the future of a Führer’s decree also made “postmortem The Nazis paid careful attention to rewarding [the] Volk” and many Nazis believed that the marriages” possible. During the war, around the women who were compliant with their mother of multiple children was worth more 18,000 pregnant women married the corpses policies and ensured the success of their than one educated woman.10 Furthermore, of their child’s father, who was killed in children. After all, they were Germany’s women’s employment, especially for married battle, in order to become eligible for widows’ children, too. women, “was generally full of disadvantages,” benefits and to legitimize their children.3 which could only be escaped by fulfilling her The Nazis also worked to revamp Mother’s Conclusions role in the family.10 , the Nazi Day, which would hopefully inspire young Ultimately, while Nazi reproductive Minister of Propaganda and Hitler’s right- women to want to bear children, and created policies during World War II did not have hand man, once said that “the most glorious the Mother’s Cross to publicly honor worthy a significant effect on the battlefield, they

Journal of Undergraduate Research – Volume IX # Social Sciences

absolutely changed – and even destroyed projects. Thus, we also see the impacts of criminals, the mentally ill, and gypsies. For – the worlds of German citizens on the nationwide sexual repression, in terms of more, see: Stibbe, Women in the Third Reich, home front. These policies put women in both aggressive behavior towards children 72. a sociopolitical straightjacket, where their and those in concentration camps, as well as v. The NSDAP also implemented a mobility in society was defined by the the creation of new sexual scripts that people, bachelor’s tax on single men who remained number of children they bore. Only the especially women, were required to follow. on the home front to incentivize men to “best” Aryans could continue the German These scripts were carried into postwar have children as well. However, these policies population and reinstate traditional family period until the sexual revolution of the were less likely to affect men or infringe upon and religious values. For both men and 1960s, by which point the German people their ways of lives. For more, see: Mouton, women, raising the future of Germany and worked to completely reverse them. Women From Nurturing the Nation to Purifying the the Aryan race was the most patriotic and were tired of assuming a maternal role, so Volk, 18. important job a person could have, even they worked to create a nation in which they vi. I could not find any sources in though the actual child-rearing often fell on could be sexual beings and participate in the English that documented specifically what the shoulders of the mother. Unfortunately, professional sphere. The new gender policies happened to these children in the Lebensborn the legacy of Nazism in West Germany after that emerged from these social movements homes. However, for more information the war was manifested in the documentation worked to give back to women what they on Lebensborn, see: Larry V. Thompson, of widespread child abuse. This behavior was had lost just 20 years earlier. Gender will “Lebensborn and the Eugenics Policy of the so harsh it is sometimes described as being always be political, even today, but this Reichsführer-SS,” Central European History 4 similar to private concentration camps; one was especially true during World War II in no. 1 (March 1971): 54-77. interpretation of this is that aggression can be Germany. vii. Moreover, many Nazi supporters a result of sexual repression.13 As one author observed that, from the perspective of put it, “It would be wrong to hold the view Footnotes racial biology, women’s employment was that all of what happened in Auschwitz was i. In part, this mindset was a result “full of disadvantages.” To further justify typically German. It was typical for a society of Hitler’s ego; he believed not only that shutting women out of the workplace, they that suppresses sexuality”.14 Additionally, Germany would win the war, but that it emphasized that a woman’s “truest calling” women in Germany in the postwar period would be a short fight. Thus, in this sense, was never in an office, factory, or laboratory, continued to face hardship because all of his push for women to have children was a but rather “in the family and in the family the Nazi policies rewarding motherhood short-term solution to a short-term problem. alone!” For more, see: Otto Steche, Erich were overturned. Savings accounts filled ii. Some top Nazi officials such as Stengel, and Maxim Wagner, “Womb Wars” with “child money” were dissolved and Joseph Goebbels and Heinrich Himmler (1942), in The Third Reich Sourcebook,edited government-owned homes were shut down.7 were outspoken in their anti-Church views. by Anson Rabinbach and Sander L. Gilman From 1945 onward, German women were Himmler, for example, claimed that a main (Berkeley: University of Press. forced to care for many children without goal of the SS was to overcome Christianity 2013): 334. a husband or financial support from the and restore a purely Germanic way of life. viii. Gertrud Altmann-Gädke, “The government. iii. The establishment of Weimar Maternal Instinct Must Be Reinforced” The irony in all of this is that in the Germany came shortly after the Russian (1941), in The Third Reich Sourcebook,edited 1960s, West Germany became a hotbed Revolution of 1917, so the German by Anson Rabinbach and Sander L. Gilman for the transatlantic sexual revolution, the Communists recently saw what a successful (Berkeley: University of California Press, complete opposite of what the Nazis wanted. revolution could look like. The Russians 2013): 325. Children born during the war as results of took one of Marx’s central tenants, which ix. “Fashion: A Matter for Our Women!” these reproductive policies were maturing and states that mild political reforms are not Das Schwarze Korps (July 26, 1939), in The rebelling against their conservative, former- enough to enact the communal, property- Third Reich Sourcebook,edited by Anson Nazi parents. In conjunction with second- less society that Communists strive for, to Rabinbach and Sander L. Gilman (Berkeley: wave feminism, men and women in Germany overthrow the Tsar. Therefore, it is important University of California Press, 2013): 322. sought to create a sex-positive environment in this context to note the contrast between which would liberate themselves from their the violent battle the Communists believed References nation’s horrific past. This youth rebellion would bring about progressive change in 1Stibbe, M. (2003) Women in the Third Reich. Hodder Headline Group. was fueled by the hypocrisy of parents, Germany and the political reforms for which 2Longerich, P. (2012) Heinrich Himmler. Oxford teachers, and public officials who had helped the Social Democrats advocated. University Press. carry out the discriminatory policies of the iv. Condoms were distributed to soldiers 3Mouton, M. (2007) From Nurturing the Nation to Nazi regime, yet hid “behind properness” in during World War II as a means of protecting Purifying the Volk: Weimar and Nazi 13 Family Policy, 1918-1945. Cambridge University the post-war period. them from STDs when engaging in sexual Press. The significance of understanding the activities with prostitutes. While reversing 4Weitz, E. (1996) “The Heroic Man and the Ever- roles sexuality and gender played during the changes made during the Weimar Era for Changing Woman: Gender and Politics in European the war in German society is that we are gender roles was an important goal for Hitler Communism, 1917-1950.” In Gender and Class in Modern Europe. Edited by Frader, L. and Rose, S., eds. Cornell able to comprehend the vast appeal of and the Nazis, winning the war was their University Press. Pg 311-352. Nazism to people who, like Hitler, sought highest priority. In order to ensure that the 5Herzog, D. (2002) “Hubris and Hypocrisy, a resurgence in traditional family values. soldiers were able to fight, then, they allowed Incitement and Disavowal: Sexuality and German After all, bringing back the patriarchal those men to have sex with prostitutes and .” Journal of the History of Sexuality.11. Pg 3-21. system destroyed during Weimar was one distributed condoms to make sure that no 6Rabinbach, A., and Gilman, S. eds. (2013) The of the Nazi party’s goals. Conservatives who diseases were spread. Moreover, abortions Third Reich Sourcebook. University of California Press. wished to restore Germany latched onto were illegal for healthy Aryan couples; often, 7Owings, A. (1993) Frauen: German Women Recall the Third Reich. Rutgers University Press. Hitler’s ideology without understanding the the Nazis would forcefully abort the fetuses 8 consequences of a state-sponsored eugenics of “deviant” populations, namely, the Jews, Thompson, L. (1971) “Lebensborn and the

# Journal of Undergraduate Research – Volume IX Social Sciences

Eugenics Policy of the Reichsführer-SS.” Central European History.4.1. Pg 54-77. 9Mouton, M. (2010) “From Adventure and Advancement to Derailment and Demotion: Effects of Nazi Gender Policy on Women’s Careers and Lives.” Journal of Social History.43.4 Pg 945-971. 10Steche, O., Stengel, E., and Wagner, M. (1942) “Womb Wars.” In The Third Reich Sourcebook, Rabinbach, A. and Gilman, S. eds. University of California Press. Pg 334. 11Altmann-Gädke, G. (1941) “The Maternal Instinct Must Be Reinforced.” In The Third Reich Sourcebook, Rabinbach, A. and Gilman, S. eds. University of California Press. Pg 325. 12 Das Schwarze Korps. “Fashion: A Matter for Our Women!” (1939). In The Third Reich Sourcebook, Rabinbach, A. and Gilman, S. eds. University of California Press. Pg 316-319. 13Herzog, Dagmar. (1998) “’Pleasure, Sex, and Politics Belong Together’: Post-Holocaust Memory and the Sexual Revolution in West Germany.” Critical Inquiry.24. Pg 393-444. 14Herzog, Dagmar. (2005) Sex after Fascism: Memory and Morality in Twentieth-Century Germany. Princeton University Press. 16Goebbels, Joseph. (1933) “German Women.” In The Third Reich Sourcebook, Rabinbach, A. and Gilman, S. eds. University of California Press. Pg 316-319.

Journal of Undergraduate Research – Volume IX #