WORLDVIEW A Multidisciplinary Report

Céline Benoit, Timothy Hutchings and Rachael Shillitoe Worldview: a multidisciplinary report

FOREWORD

Worldview is currently a topic of great interest in Religious Education (RE). This multidisciplinary literature review was commissioned by the RE Council of England and Wales (REC) working in partnership with TRS-UK. in order to provide clarity as to the historical and contemporary use of the term in a number of academic disciplines. It forms one element of a larger project that will provide a range of resources to support the use of the idea in school RE.

The REC and TRS-UK are very grateful to the three academics who compiled this independent literature review. It was a challenging project in its own right, but then undertaken just as the coronavirus pandemic took the world into lockdown. This document is a tribute to their professionalism and resilience. The literature review represents the authors’ findings and academic conclusions having undertaken an extensive search. It is offered as a resource to support further thinking on this important topic.

The document is open access and free to download from the RE Council website (www.religiouseducationcouncil.org). We provide it in the hope that it will be of great use to academics, RE teachers and other RE professionals as we all seek to provide our pupils and students with high quality RE.

Professor Trevor Cooling Chair, Religious Education Council of England and Wales

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The project and this publication were made possible through the support of grants from Templeton World Charity Foundation, Inc and from the Culham St. Gabriel’s Trust. The opinions expressed in this publication are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of Templeton World Charity Foundation, Inc nor of the Culham St. Gabriel’s Trust.

© 2020 Religious Education Council of England and Wales

1 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS CONTENTS

1. Introduction 4 AAR American Academy of Religion 2. Religion, Religions and the World Religions Paradigm 7 CoRE Commission for Religious Education

ERA Education Reform Act 3. The Concept of Worldview across Disciplines 9 3.1 Philosophy 9 NATRE National Association of Teachers of Religious Education 3.2 Anthropology 11 QCA Qualifications and Curriculum Authority 3.3 Sociology 13 3.4 Religious Studies 16 RE Religious Education 3.5 Christian Theology and Biblical Studies 18 REC The Religious Education Council of England and Wales 3.6 Worldview in Other Disciplines 21

R&W Religion and Worldviews 4. Religious Education 22 4.1 Worldview in Religious Education: Background 22 SORW Study of religion(s) and worldview(s) 4.2 Worldview as a secular alternative to religion 24 TRS-UK Theology and Religious Studies UK 4.3 Worldview as all-encompassing 25 4.4 Institutional vs. Personal Worldview 28 WP36 School Councils Working Paper 36

WRP World Religions Paradigm 5. Conclusions 30

Bibliography 32

2 Céline Benoit, Timothy Hutchings and Rachael Shillitoe Céline Benoit, Timothy Hutchings and Rachael Shillitoe 3 Worldview: a multidisciplinary report

Céline Benoit, Tim Hutchings and Rachael has been understood in the core disciplines Shillitoe submitted their proposal as a review most relevant for RE and most applicable to 1. team and were selected by the RE Council after the discussions and debates that will ensue. an application and interview process. They were The purpose of this report is not to ascertain INTRODUCTION chosen due to their expertise and experience what should be considered a “worldview” in the study of religion and non-religion in or how RE should be taught. Accordingly, it education and contemporary society, as well is recommended that readers, whether that as the range of disciplinary backgrounds they be academics, teachers or policy-makers, covered. contribute to this discussion by highlighting In 2018, after a two-year enquiry, the [A] person’s way of understanding, The review team were tasked with writing any further areas of work or literature that would Commission for Religious Education (CoRE) experiencing and responding to the their report across March and April 2020, with prove fruitful to enhancing conversations published its final report, Religion and world. It can be described as a philosophy the aim of disseminating this to an academic about the future of RE and the place and role of Worldviews: The way forward. The report argues of life or an approach to life. This advisory group consisting of thirteen leading “worldview” within those conversations. that Religious Education (RE), as well as the includes how a person understands the academics. The group held a series of five The concept of “worldview” has been used structures and systems that support the subject, nature of reality and their own place in consultation events in June 2020, and invited the extensively in many disciplines of academic have not kept pace with recent educational the world. A person’s worldview is likely authors of this report to attend on one occasion research, from the 18th century to the present changes, such as academisation and a move to influence and be influenced by their in order to provide feedback on the present day. In this report, we focus on Philosophy, towards a school-led system, or with societal beliefs, values, behaviours, experiences, document. The review team was also supported Anthropology, Sociology, Religious Studies, and demographic changes. The CoRE report identities and commitments (CoRE, by Rudi Eliott Lockhart from the RE Council, Christian Theology and Biblical Studies, and therefore suggests a new vision for the subject 2018: 4). and received helpful guidance and feedback Religious Education. These disciplines have in order to reflect children’s lived experience of from a steering group consisting of Professors been selected as having the greatest engagement religious and non-religious perspectives. The Commission on RE also acknowledges Trevor Cooling, Denise Cush, and Stephen with the concept of “worldview” and the This new vision for RE proposes three that “worldviews” can be more or less Pattison. Throughout March and April 2020, greatest relevance to contemporary RE. Other learning aims: ‘understanding the human quest formalised, and that there may be a difference drafts were regularly submitted to the steering disciplines, such as Linguistics, Psychology or for meaning, being prepared for life in a diverse between the “worldview” held by an institution group who provided literature suggestions and Politics, also employ the term “worldview”, but world and having space to reflect on one’s own and the “worldview” internalised by an identified areas for improvement. Ultimately, could not be addressed thoroughly within the worldview’ (CoRE, 2018: 73). Similarly, the individual. it was the responsibility of the review team scope of this brief report. Some introductory report of the Commission on Religion and Belief In response to this report, in February 2020 to gather relevant sources, synthesise and comments on the use of “worldview” in these in British Public Life, Living with Difference: the Religious Education Council for England summarise the literature, and decide upon on disciplines are nonetheless included in section Community, Diversity and the Common Good, and Wales (which established the Commission the content, areas of focus and overall structure 3.6, in order to invite readers to consider also recommends that the teaching of religion on RE) commissioned an independent team of of the review. The report produced remains engaging with other usages of the term. and belief in schools should reflect a variety of researchers to undertake a literature review on independent and was solely written by the The review team also invite readers religious and non-religious “worldviews” (The work engaging with the concept of “worldview”. review team members. to enhance and enrich the discussion of Woolf Institute, 2015). To reflect the new vision, The purpose was to summarise scholarly The scope of the literature review was focused “worldview” in RE by drawing attention to one of the recommendations made in the CoRE usages of the term “worldview” across different on exploring the concept of “worldview” across parallel and complementary concepts and report is to rename the subject Religion and disciplines, and to present these findings in a a variety of academic disciplines and, where critical discussions of “worldview” thinking Worldviews (R&W)1. short document. The aim of this literature review possible, exploring alternative concepts related that have developed outside the Western The proposal to teach “worldviews” has led would be to offer scholars, policy-makers, and to “worldview”, while keeping to the word limit academic and Christian theological traditions. 2 to robust discussions in the RE domain and teachers the opportunity to understand how and timescales set out by the RE Council . The review team stress the fact that the lack beyond (Everington, 2019; Jackson, 2014; van “worldview” has been constructed in academic This report does not provide an exhaustive of representation of non-Western scholars der Kooij et al., 2013). The CoRE report defines disciplines that have traditionally informed discussion of “worldview”, but rather a concise, within the literature cited in this report is a key “worldview” as: RE. An open call for applicants was circulated, yet detailed, overview of how the concept limitation. This reflects wider issues, as policies calling for researchers with an interest in RE.

2 The team were offered the work on 18/02/2020. The brief given to the authors required the report to be approx- imately 10,000 words to submitted by 01/05/2020. Excluding front page, contents, abbreviations, acknowl- 1 Note: Renaming the subject R&W is one of eleven recommendations made in the CoRE report (2018). edgements and bibliography and including footnotes, this report is 14,084 words.

4 Céline Benoit, Timothy Hutchings and Rachael Shillitoe Céline Benoit, Timothy Hutchings and Rachael Shillitoe 5 Worldview: a multidisciplinary report

and/or pedagogies in RE in England and Wales readers, include fiduciary framework (Polyani, have been dominated by Western-centric 1962); habitus (Bourdieu, 1977); plausibility voices. structure (Berger, 1992); ideology (Fairclough 2. While this report focuses on “worldview”, as 2012); social imaginary (Taylor, 2004); and this is the term used in the CoRE report (2018) existential culture (Lee, 2015). Some of these RELIGION, RELIGIONS and in the RE domain at large (van der Kooij et are discussed in more detail in section 3. al., 2013), it is useful to note that there are other One of the fundamental principles of the AND THE WORLD terms that are being used and proposed in concept of “worldview”, across disciplines, is debates around RE. Such terms include (non- that more than one view of the world is possible. religious) convictions (Council of Europe, Students of “worldviews” learn to appreciate that RELIGIONS PARADIGM 2008; Jackson, 2014); beliefs (Equality Act, inhabitants of historically and culturally distant 2010); belief system (Ofsted, 2010: 44); beliefs traditions understand, interpret, experience and values; ethics; forms of life and outlook and respond to the world in ways different from (Gearon, 2017: 363); outlook on life (Skolverket, their own. The word “worldview” is therefore 2018: 218); stances for living (Birmingham frequently pluralised. For the purpose of this Before turning to discuss the concept of pedagogies. City Council, 1975); life stance; ways of life; report, we will use “worldview” in the singular worldview, we must briefly acknowledge the The WRP also contributes to a hierarchical philosophy of life (van der Kooij et al., 2013; when considering the concept itself, and in challenge already posed for RE by the concept ordering of religions, based on Protestant Watson, 2008). When these terms have been the plural (“worldviews”) when referring to the of “religion”, which can itself be problematic. Christianity (Masuzawa, 2005). For example, used as synonyms to “worldview” in academic different views held by different people and The concept of “religion” is notoriously difficult certain traditions are labelled as “cults”, “primal”, literature, these have been included in the groups. This singular vs plural debate parallels to define, and is ‘grounded in ethnocentric “primitive”, or “pagan”, and are not recognised present report. It must be noted, however, a similar discussion over whether ‘religion’ assumptions that reflect the long hegemony of as legitimate forms of religion (Cotter and that these are rarely used interchangeably should be used in the singular or in the plural3. Christian theology’ (Hanegraaf, 2015: 102). To Robertson, 2016). As a result, movements such with “worldview”, and that some scholars who While we acknowledge the constructedness of be classified as a religion by Western societies, as New Age, new religious movements (NRMs), use alternative terminology argue against the the term “worldview” and its contested nature, a tradition has needed to share a number of or Scientology often therefore do not figure in use of the word “worldview”. Other related from now on, we will use the term without any aspects with Christianity, including scriptures, RE syllabuses. As J.Z. Smith has argued, the WRP concepts, that are not necessarily proposed quotation marks for stylistic reasons. a churchlike organisational structure with a is therefore both a reflection and an instrument as alternatives but may also be of interest to priesthood, a belief in a single divine power, and of Western power and politics: a doctrinal system (Smith, 1964; Dubuisson, 2003). As Dubuisson states, ‘[t]he West not [A] world religion is simply a religion like only conceived of the idea of religion, it has ours, and that is, above all, a tradition constrained other cultures to speak of their own that has achieved sufficient power and religions by inventing them for them’ (2003: 93). numbers to enter our history to form it, This ethnocentric, Christianity-centred interact with it, or thwart it. We recognise approach is the foundation of the World both the unity within and the diversity Religions Paradigm (WRP), which has been among the world religions because they influential in the teaching of RE (Cush, 2020). correspond to important geopolitical Wilfred Cantwell Smith (1964) was the first entries with which we must deal. All contemporary critic of this model, arguing ‘primitives’, by way of contrast, may that the WRP ignores the complexities and be lumped together, as may the ‘minor the diversity within traditions, as well as the religions’, because they do not confront permeability of their boundaries. By focusing our history in any direct fashion. From on lists of beliefs, the WRP ignores how religion the point of view of power, they are 3 In 2019, the Welsh Government announced that it was considering renaming RE ‘Religions and Worldviews’ is actually lived, as a fluid, ever-changing invisible (J.Z. Smith, 1998: 280). – therefore pluralising ‘religion’ and not following the CoRE report’s recommendation of using ‘religion’ in phenomenon. The WRP still shapes and the singular (CoRE, 2018). Although responses to the proposal were mostly supportive, many warned against determines how Western people think about Despite these criticisms, we must pluralising ‘religion’, as it implies discrete entities to be studied in silos, rather than a conceptual category with religion(s) today, and still largely informs RE acknowledge that “religion” does exist ‘out which to engage critically (NATRE, 2019. REC, 2019; TRS-UK, 2019).

6 Céline Benoit, Timothy Hutchings and Rachael Shillitoe Céline Benoit, Timothy Hutchings and Rachael Shillitoe 7 Worldview: a multidisciplinary report

there’, outside the classroom (Schilbrack, 2010: reader that the concept of “religion” is at least 1112). Many people across the world have equally contested and problematic. Scholars, assimilated the WRP, which remains a major policy-makers and teachers must bear this in 3. system of classification. Avoiding it, or the mind when discussing worldview in RE, in order concept of “religion” itself, is not the answer to critically reflect on questions pertaining THE CONCEPT because this would fail to recognise how real to epistemology. Codifying worldview along people actually construct their world. the same normative discourses as “religion” OF WORLDVIEW The purpose of this brief section has not risks anchoring worldview in similar colonial, been to reject the word “religion”, but to preface Western, Christianised constructions (see our discussion of worldview by reminding the section 4). ACROSS DISCIPLINES

3.1 PHILOSOPHY precedes all attempts to think about it: their own ‘comprehensive view of the world, of The concept of “worldview” or its meaning and purpose’ (Staiti, 2013: 797). Weltanschauung appears first in one passage This goal is shared by philosophy, art and of Kant’s Critique of Judgement in 1790 (2000, religion, three different attempts to express 1.2.26), and flourished particularly in German- a Weltanschauung. The distinctive task of language philosophy in the following centuries. the philosopher is to identify and categorise For Hegel (1975 [1835], 1.517), a worldview is different types of worldview, recognising that the shared perception of a nation at a particular their own worldview is not truth itself. point in time, and is revealed particularly by the According to Dilthey, ‘theoretically- artist: ‘ways of viewing the world are woven into oriented man’ chooses to focus on reason art and revealed by it’ (Naugle, 2002: 72). For alone, pursuing science at the expense of a Nietzsche (2008 [1885]), the death of God and more holistic understanding of the world, and any transcendent truth or reality revealed that cannot be a philosopher (Staiti, 2013: 797). For all human societies were engaged in building Dilthey, philosophy is possible only for ‘man as their own artificial worldviews, constantly a whole’ (ibid.: 797), a person who is willing to changing to try to make sense of the chaos of be their whole self, aware of living their life at a history and nature. particular moment in history, paying attention The connection forged by Hegel between to their emotions and desires. Dilthey’s ideas philosophy and art was shared by Dilthey (2019 were hugely influential, but were opposed by [1911]), who used the term Weltanschauung in a rival school of German philosophy led by a particularly influential way to contribute to Heinrich Rickert (ibid.: 800), who argued that 19th and 20th-century German debates about scientific philosophy (Wissenschaft) could the nature and task of philosophy in response achieve greater insight into the nature of the to the rise of modern scientific methods and world value despite its incompleteness. disciplines. For Dilthey, philosophy stood Dilthey’s emphasis on understanding alone as an attempt to understand the world (rather than scientific explanation) as the key as a whole, in contrast to the new sciences, task of the humanities was central to the field each of which analysed just one part of the of hermeneutics, the study of interpretation. world in one particular way. Dilthey argued Philosophical hermeneutics developed further that each philosopher tries to achieve a in the 20th century into a study of human conceptual expression of something that

8 Céline Benoit, Timothy Hutchings and Rachael Shillitoe Céline Benoit, Timothy Hutchings and Rachael Shillitoe 9 existence and the self, informed by the work and limiting, describing it in an early lecture as that cannot be proven empirically: uses the metaphor of sight, in keeping of Heidegger, Gadamer and Ricoeur. A key only ‘an objectification and immobilizing of life with the eye-centric Western tradition of principle of hermeneutics is the “hermeneutic at a certain point in the life of a culture’ (Kisiel, We must now recognise belief once epistemology. Philosophers from non-Western circle” (Schleiermacher 1977 [1805]): the whole 1993: 17). more as the source of all knowledge. and postcolonial traditions have challenged (of a text, a person or a worldview) can be Heidegger used the term “world-picture” Tacit assent and intellectual passions, the implications of this choice of metaphor, understood only through analysis of its parts, to refer to the idea that the entirety of the the sharing of an idiom and or a cultural which situates the knower/viewer at a distance but each part can be understood only through world, including its history and purpose, can heritage, affiliation to a like-minded from the world, monitoring it with an objective what we know of the whole. Gadamer (1992 be understood by human minds as a coherent community: such are the impulses that gaze. Argentinian philosopher Mignolo (2012: [1960]) developed a dynamic understanding of system. He argued that there could have been shape our vision of the nature of things xi) proposes replacing worldview with “world- interpretation as a dialogue between the reader no ancient or medieval world-picture, because on which we rely for our mastery of sense” or “cosmo-sense”, to better capture and the text, which is playful, transformative and ‘the fact that the world becomes picture at things. No intelligence, however critical the multiple ways in which we sense the open to new discoveries, and this approach has all is what distinguishes the essence of the or original, can operate outside such world instead of merely viewing it. Carribean become highly influential in RE (Aldridge, 2011; modern age’ (Heidegger, 1977 [1938]: 130). a fiduciary framework (Polanyi, 1962: philosopher Glissant extended and challenged Lewin, 2017; Aldridge, 2018). These circular This transformation of the world into a single 266). the metaphor of knowledge-by-sight to and dialogical approaches may be helpful to comprehensible picture was driven by modern propose a ‘right to opacity for everyone’ (1997: understanding the relationship between (and science and technology, in order to reduce the For theologians and philosophers of religion, 194), in resistance to the Western project of the study of) “personal” and “institutional” whole natural world into a set of resources for this approach proved enticing. Dulles observed understanding all people and ideas (ibid.: 190). worldviews, the two categories identified in the humans to exploit (Heidegger, 1977 [1954]). This that ‘If this thesis is true, theology, as the work of For Glissant, the world can only be understood CoRE report Religion and Worldviews (CoRE, scientific, modern worldview is dangerously faith seeking understanding, is not an anomaly poetically, in three different ways: the whole- 2018). inadequate, and fails to grasp reality as we among the cognitive disciplines. Religious ideas world, which is both the world itself and our Worldview and related concepts also really experience it. Instead, Heidegger argued are acquired, developed, tested, and reformed vision of it (ibid.: 91); the echo-world, the proved valuable to existential philosophers. the modern world-picture falsely presents itself by methods at least analogous to those pursued connections and feedback between things Kierkegaard emphasised the importance as the only truth, as uniquely certain, disguising in the natural and social sciences’ (Dulles, 1984: which help to illuminate the world (ibid.: 93); of achieving the “life-view”, the individual’s its presuppositions and suppressing alternative 537). and the chaos-world, obscure, unpredictable self-understanding and reflection on his or understandings of reality as “primitive” and Instead of accepting the notion and infinite ibid.( : 94). her own existence, which stood in contrast “superstitious”. (fundamental to the scientific worldview) that This brief outline presents some key to the abstract reasoning of philosophy and The debate between worldview-based science advances through steady progress questions for RE teachers and researchers the dehumanising ideas of mass society. and scientific understandings of philosophy towards perfect knowledge, Kuhn analysed interested in worldviews. For example, how Summarising Kierkegaard, McCarthy argues continued into the 20th century. Wittgenstein scientific thinking as a coherent system of can the worldview of a culture be recognised, that ‘each man must answer for himself about (1969) argued against scientism that our meaning, which resists change even in the understood and shared with others? How can the meaning of life, and thus he cannot take his knowledge relies on a Weltbild (or world- face of contradictory evidence until it is forced pupils inhabiting one worldview interpret a cue from the spirit of the age which will all too picture), which is built of ‘all the things we take to undergo dramatic and sudden change – a text written in another? How does our own readily answer on his behalf’ (McCarthy, 1978: for granted’ (Christensen, 2011: 141), including ‘paradigm shift’ (Kuhn, 1996: 2000). A paradigm worldview shape and give foundation to what 136). basic ethical convictions. These propositions shift is ‘a “revolution” that adjusts beliefs so as we taken as certain knowledge? Heidegger argued that philosophy should operate like mythology, held to be utterly to incorporate the new evidence in a way that investigate life or being itself (the science certain even if they are not subject to empirical allows the overall set of adjusted beliefs to come 3.2 ANTHROPOLOGY of phenomenology), in opposition to the testing. The Weltbild, which can never be back into coherence as a whole’ (Rousseau and philosophy of the worldview. For Heidegger, rationally justified in any non-circular way, is Billingham, 2018: 12). Kuhn’s paradigms are With anthropology exploring the nexus of a worldview includes ‘a view of life’, an the background against which we can judge the more limited in scope than worldviews, but society, culture, families, kinship and belonging, interpretation of human purpose and of history truth and falsity of ordinary statements (Coliva, his argument is relevant to understanding how it is a relevant discipline to consider when (Heidegger 1982 [1927]: 5). A worldview is 2017: 50). individuals find and maintain coherence in examining the concept of worldview. Religion not just theoretical knowledge but promises Polanyi’s “fiduciary framework” also shares religious and non-religious worldviews, where has always been a central and important ‘wisdom of the world’ (ibid.: 4), a set of firm similar concerns to the concept of worldview, scholars have also found that the emergence focus in anthropology with anthropologists’ convictions giving practical guidance for how and has been influential for scholars of theology of new evidence can lead either to change or to key questions circulating around issues of life is to be lived and interpreted. Heidegger and religion. For Polanyi, all knowledge, even resistance. diversity, symbols, meaning, morality, power argued that a worldview is always reductionist scientific knowledge, rests ultimately on beliefs The concept of worldview or Weltanschauung and coherence to name but a few. One of the

10 Céline Benoit, Timothy Hutchings and Rachael Shillitoe Céline Benoit, Timothy Hutchings and Rachael Shillitoe 11 greatest challenges for anthropology is the different aspects of their own self and that [T]he ethos is made intellectually permeates the discipline (Kearney, 1975: difficulty in both relativizing and scrutinising people can separate themselves from other reasonable by being shown to represent 247). Kearney defines worldview as ‘culturally social phenomena; being able to focus on human beings based on these different aspects a way of life implied by the actual state of organized macro thought: those dynamically the smallest of details but then also creating of the self. Redfield explains: affairs which the world-view describes, inter-related basic assumptions of a people or working with more general categories and the world-view is made emotionally that determine much of their behaviour and to allow for comparison across groups and [I]n every world view human beings, at acceptable by being presented as an decision making, as well as organizing much of societies (Lambek, 2008). There is a tension in least, are seen as grouped in classes or image of an actual state of affairs of their body of symbolic creations’ world’ (1984: anthropology in regards to both the casual and categories, and some of the properties of which such a way of life is an authentic 1). Worldviews in Kearney’s approach present analytical usage of the term worldview, and as these categories are universal… While, expression (ibid.: 422). the ‘basic assumptions and images that provide a concept, it is debated within anthropology. of course, the particular arrangement a more or less coherent, though not necessarily Beine (2010) in his research on The American of categories, as to kindred, neighbours, Ethos is, therefore, the values an individual accurate, way of thinking about the world’ Anthropological Association’s use of the nationals, or racial or religious groups, or group holds and the worldview is the way (ibid.: 41). Worldviews are therefore culturally concept, found that although there was a calling differs very greatly, the existence of things are, the natural order of things. In terms of dependent and implicitly interwoven within for the abandonment of the term, worldview as some such categories and some of the separating worldview and ethos, Geertz argues an individual’s everyday life and thinking. The a concept persists in anthropology and found qualities of attitude and sentiment that there is a tendency within scholarship actions and thoughts of individuals are based that there is both a casual and analytic usage which place every self in relation to to merge the two and claims that doing so on, in part, their worldview. In this way, linking of the term that permeates anthropological whatever categories exist in his society is ‘empirically coercive’ and philosophically back to Redfield, worldviews define the self, it literature. In terms of the more analytic and are among the elements which every unjustified ibid.( : 422). helps individuals to distinguish and define who detailed usage of the concept of worldview in world view has in common with every Geertz’s somewhat dichotomous and they are and their relationship to the human anthropology, the works of Redfield (1952), other (ibid.: 30-31). cognitive approach to worldview has drawn and non-human world. Drawing on Kearney’s Geertz (1957) and Kearney (1975; 1984) provide criticism due to the way this understanding thinking, Cobern argues that worldview ‘shapes key texts in the definition of worldview and how In relation to God(s), Redfield ibid.( ) of belief neglects the lived and embodied one’s views of the universe one’s conception of it has been used within the discipline. contends that something that is common in experiences. Asad criticises this and views time and space. It influences one’s norms and Redfield defines worldview as the ‘outlook ‘some sense’ in all worldviews, is the separation Geertz’s treatment of belief as a ‘modern, values’ (2000: 8-9). upon the universe that is characteristic of of man, God and nature but notes that the degree privatised Christian one because and to the Anthropology, therefore, raises a number of a people’ (1952: 30). Redfield’s usage of the to which these separations and classifications extent that it emphasised the priority of belief questions as to how we are to use and understand concept provides a way of describing a particular occur varies across societies. Redfield observes as a state of mind rather than constituting worldview. The literature shows that worldview way of life and allows for that comparison. that it is in ‘understanding and defining the activity in the world’ (Asad,1993: 47). Whereas is often used as a way to describe particular ways This might focus on customs, traditions or the ways in which these distinctions are made that Bell’s (1992) criticism of Geertz focuses on his of life, views, traditions and outlooks but that values of a community and their idea of the we shall come to some ordered comprehension distinction between ethos and worldview, with there is often confusion or tension between this good life. Worldview, for Redfield, differs from of the range of variety of world views and of the beliefs being subsumed within worldview and and other related concepts such as ethos and other rubrics such as ethos and values with types of world view’ (ibid.: 31). ritual within ethos and ritual activity being values. As highlighted by Geertz and as we shall worldview being ‘the picture the members of Geertz (1957) used the concept worldview the arena where worldview and ethos are also observe in the next section, there is also a a society have of the properties and characters and differentiated it from other related terms fused together (Hutt, 2009). Bell’s criticism of conflict between the cognitive and intellectual upon their stage of action’ (ibid.: 30). Unlike such as ethos and morality. Geertz considered Geertz is as much a methodological one as it approaches to worldview and those that focus national character which is about the way your worldview to denote the cognitive and existential is a theoretical one, but highlights the tensions on the lived and embodied realities. world would look to others on the outside, elements of life and in contrast, ethos being the within anthropology in terms of how to manage worldview describes ‘the way the world looks more moral and evaluative dimensions of a the relationship between worldview and other 3.3 SOCIOLOGY to [those] people [within the society] looking society. Ethos, for Geertz, means ‘the approved related concepts. out’ and the way individuals in a given society style of life’ while worldview is ‘the assumed Kearney (1975) strongly advocates for In sociology, again as with anthropology, see themselves in relation to everything else structure of reality’ (ibid.: 424). Although the use of worldviews but acknowledges the the concept worldview has a varied and (Redfield, 1952: 30). When defining worldview, creating a dichotomy here, Geertz explains prevailing inconsistent and varied usage of the often casual usage. Wallerstein (1974) used Redfield ibid.( ) claims certain universals, that these two elements need and support each concept. Kearney describes how worldview is the related term “world system” to refer to ‘a namely that all worldviews contain spatial and other, noting that worldview and ethos cannot not an established field of study itself within social unit that includes a complete range of temporal dimensions, that all people are aware exist without the other. Geertz argues that: anthropology or with its own recognised specialised activities in a division of labour’ of self, that people can distinguish between schools, but literature about worldview still (Fulcher and Scott, 2011: 836). This concept

12 Céline Benoit, Timothy Hutchings and Rachael Shillitoe Céline Benoit, Timothy Hutchings and Rachael Shillitoe 13 is more concerned with globalisation and the framework of a more general analysis of sense, the worldview is ‘confirmed and made to social reality and is often taken on by social sociology of development; however, it did ‘knowledge (ibid.: 26-27). seem objective by ethos’ (Roberts and Yamane, constructivists (Johnson et al., 2011; Koltko- not focus greatly on religion. World system 2015: 95). Rivera, 2004; Redfield, 1952). This second as with other theoretical approaches in the Wuthnow (1976) uses the concept worldview Weber also explored worldviews in his work. trend would read more closely with Berger, sociology of development often missed the synonymously with belief system. In this For Weber (1968), worldviews often suggest Luckmann’s and Taylor’s readings of worldview. importance of the role of religion and scholars work, Wuthnow uses worldview to mean the a coherent set of values which relate to each Both these trends highlight the emerging such as Robertson (2001) critiqued sociological ‘sum total of an individual’s beliefs about the other and offer answers to the ‘big questions’ dichotomy or tension in the approach to thinking on globalisation that did not attend world’ (Aidala, 1984: 44). In Aidala’s review of in society (Kalberg, 2004: 140). Weber also worldview in terms of either cognitive or social to religion in this way. Mannheim’s (1952) Wuthnow’s contribution, she distinguishes speaks to the variety of worldviews and their constructivist approaches. Sheikh argues conceptualisation of worldview came from between the existential and normative elements historical and cultural differences but noting that rather than these representing different reflections on methodology within sociology of culture and in doing so, utilises the concept that simply having a set of values does not in understandings of worldview, these varying and how worldviews can be observed and of worldview to refer to the ‘conceptions and and of itself attain the status of worldview. approaches actual reveal differences in ‘how studied by sociologists objectively (Naugle, images’ relating to the ‘empirical reality’, This is because, for Weber, only having a set of worldviews are applied with respect to varying 2002). For Mannheim, worldview is ‘social whether this be on a cultural or individual level values ‘lacks the comprehensiveness to address scientific aims’ (2019: 160). In terms of the totality’ and the ‘primary substance of thought’. (1984: 46). According to Roberts and Yamane, ultimate questions, and in doing so, to provide cognitive approach, worldview analysis is Berger and Luckmann’s (1966) focus worldview is the ‘intellectual framework direction, organisation and unity to the lives of focused on the differences in behaviour and on the lived experience, and their social within which one explains the meaning of life’ its adherents’ (ibid.: 141). This is not to suggest attitudes and comes from a natural science constructionist approach diminishes the (2015: 94). Drawing on Wuthnow (1981) and that worldviews, therefore, requires some perspective. From this perspective, worldviews importance of worldview due to the heavy differentiating between worldview and myths, sort of transcendent or other-worldly quality. are ‘relevant as a human ability to create order, theoretical and cognitive orientation of the Roberts and Yamane (2015) state that myths are Worldviews, for Weber, can be this worldly and meaning, and value in a chaotic world’ (ibid.: concept. For Berger and Luckmann, the focus stories or beliefs, which, when taken together, be located in the mundane rhythms of everyday 160). Social constructivists, on the other hand, on intellectual history should not be the central act to reinforce and reproduce worldviews. life. As Kalberg (2004) explains: approach worldview as ‘narratives to explain a focus of the sociology of knowledge. Berger and person’s place in the world, identify adversaries, Luckmann do not dispute that such pursuits Worldview is a more abstract concept Intellectual, social and political and link the person to a purpose-worldly or should add to the sociology of knowledge, than myth; it refers to one’s mode of movements, as well as religions, may transcendent’ (ibid.: 160). but it would be misguided and ill-chosen for perceiving the world and to one’s general offer broad ranging sets of values and Taylor (2004) speaks of the “Social ‘theoretical thought, ‘ideas’, Weltanschauung’ overview of life. In this sense, a worldview an “ordered meaningfulness” …their Imaginary” as a way to conceptualise or to to become the main focus as they ‘are not that is more than taken for granted and less “correctness” or “superiority” can think about modernity. Taylor defines the social important in society’, and that they are only questioned. Many individuals may not never be definitively proven; rather, the imaginary as the ‘common understanding part of the sum of what passes for knowledge’ be fully conscious of the alternative legitimacy of this meaningful totality is that makes possible common practices and a (Berger and Luckmann, 1966: 26). Everyone in types of worldviews, and many never acquired alone on the basis of belief in it widely shared sense of legitimacy’ (italics our society participates in the social construction of question the fact that their perception by adherents (ibid.: 141). emphasis) (ibid.: 23). Alongside writers such knowledge and reality, rather theorising is only is influenced by intellectual constructs as Appadurai (1997), Taylor also argues for the focus of a small few and, for this reason, it (ibid.: 94). Sheikh (2019) discusses the concept of modernity to be understood in terms of the way should not become the dominant focus within worldview in global studies and social sciences societies produce multiple modernities rather the sociology of knowledge. Linking to Geertz’s conceptualisation of and highlights two trends within the conceptual than one singular modernity. Taylor (2004) worldview, the authors also discuss how a work of worldview. The first takes worldview speaks of the ‘great disembedding’ of Western religious worldview is closely related to group Only a few are concerned with the within a cognitive framework and is ‘primarily societies and the influence of secularisation, ethos. Geertz distinguished between worldview theoretical interpretation of the interested in how people develop shared industrialisation and globalisation which and ethos and explained that ‘A people’s ethos world, but everybody lives in a world worldviews as cognitive structures, which they impacted the socio-economic, political and is the tone, character, and quality of their life, of some sort. Not only is the focus on apply you make sense of and come to terms religious landscapes of different societies to its moral and aesthetic style and mood; it is the theoretical thought unduly restrictive with the world (Cobern, 1996; Johnson, Hill produce this multitude of modernities. In underlying attitude toward themselves and their for the sociology of knowledge, it is also and Cohen, 2011; Kearney, 1984). The second conversation with Anderson’s (1983) “Imagined world’ (Geertz, 1957: 421). Ethos is therefore unsatisfactory because even this part of Sheikh (2019) identifies is an approach that is Communities”, Taylor describes how modern the attitudes about life and worldview denotes socially available ‘knowledge’ cannot be ‘interested in the socio-political consequences societies focus on the individual experience a more intellectual or cognitive process. In this fully understood if it is not placed in the of developing and sharing assumptions about and encounters as oppose to social theories.

14 Céline Benoit, Timothy Hutchings and Rachael Shillitoe Céline Benoit, Timothy Hutchings and Rachael Shillitoe 15 Taylor’s approach reflects on the deeply of ‘existential worldviews’. alongside secular views as part of ‘a larger field with the ideas of “existentiality” and “existential embedded nature of such social imaginaries Smart’s famous textbook The World’s in which people struggle for and with meaning’ culture” as well as worldview. Lee’s work also which intersects with Bourdieu’s (1977) Religions (1989, 1998) put his approach to (Droogers, 2014: 2) and that scholars should explores the characteristics and diversity of thinking on habitus. In relation to worldview, ‘worldview analysis’ into action, offering examine both formalized worldviews and non-religious worldviews. Lee (2018) argues although a different concept, Taylor’s work on ‘a history of the ideas and practices which ‘worldview dynamics’, the processes through that there are ‘different kinds of humanism, social imaginaries demonstrates the need for have moved human beings’ (1998: 10). The which worldviews are created and developed different kinds of materialism, different kinds conceptual tools to be reworked in light of the ideas considered included both religions and (ibid.: 24). of agnosticism’, and that they are varied and plural and diverse nature of societies and the ‘secular ideologies or worldviews such as Droogers and Taves both understand nuanced, shaped also by the diverse global importance of focusing on the sociality of our scientific humanism, Marxism, Existentialism, worldviews as comprising responses to certain contexts and communities in which they are everyday lives and how shared and common nationalism, and so on’ (1998: 22). Smart ‘big questions’. Following Vidal (2008), Taves found. Importantly, non-religious worldviews practices shape and inform our social lives. argued that this broader view would be able identifies six questions in particular: reality are rarely institutionalised, with Lee pointing The use of worldview in sociology raises to make better sense of the diversity of the (ontology: what is real?); origins (cosmology: out that although non-religious worldviews a number of questions including how we use world than a narrow focus on religion alone where did we come from, and where are we are typically grounded in and shared through worldview in relation to other concepts such because the division between what is religious going?); knowledge (epistemology: how do we common cultures, they do not have the same as ethos, values, morality and national identity. and what is secular is ‘a modern Western one’ know that?); situation (anthropology: who are kind of cultural histories or bodies of writing Sociological approaches also focus on the social that ‘does not represent the way in which other we, and what is our nature?); goal (axiology: and literature associated with religious cultures. construction of worldviews and the potential cultures categorize human values’ (ibid.: 10). what is good?); and path (praxeology: what The muddled and often inconsistent usage of tension that can arise between this and the Smart proposed that religion could be analysed should we do to achieve the good?) (Taves, non-religious categories (non-religious, anti- more cognitive approaches. This then raises according to a list of dimensions, originally 2018b; 2020: 138). Taves argues that the religious, irreligious) can lead to a flattening questions of how we account for and properly six but later expanded to seven (practical and answers to these questions can be more or of ‘distinctions between religious and non- attend to individual agency when we think of ritual; experiential and emotional; narrative less explicit. At the most personal level, every religious categories as ‘positive’ and ‘negative’ worldview. or mythic; doctrinal and philosophical; ethical creature has a ‘way of life’, which embodies at respectively’ (Lee, 2014: 467). and legal; social and institutional; and material least an implicit attitude to the six questions. Lee challenges this asymmetry and 3.4 RELIGIOUS STUDIES (ibid.: 13-21)), and then demonstrated that A worldview can be ‘enacted’ as a ‘way of life’, proposes that the aim for scholars of non- each of these dimensions could be identified to ‘articulated’ in language, or, at the most formal religion should be to develop a concept which In Religious Studies, the concept of some extent in secular worldviews as well (ibid.: level, ‘recounted’ as part of a mythology that is comparable to gender, race or class in that worldview has been used to break down 26). In a presidential address to the American might be written down in a sacred text (Taves, it is a concept that is inclusive of all positions. boundaries around what is and is not Academy of Religion near the end of his life, 2018b). Every living organism has a ‘way of life’, In search of such concepts, Lee (2015; 2019) appropriate to study. This not only relates to Smart argued that worldview analysis would at least implicitly, even though humans are explores “existentiality” as ‘conceptualisations the inclusion of non-religious worldviews, but be of benefit not just to academics but to the the only creatures to rationally reflect on the of existence’ and existential cultures (Lee, more broadly the study of religion itself and wider world as well, by defining ‘the outlines of big questions in order to construct an explicit 2015: 159-160), which ‘incarnate ideas about what should be included in the discipline. a global worldview and (hopefully) of tolerance’ worldview (Taves and Asprem, 2018: 301). the origins of life and human consciousness Smart accepted the actual word “worldview” (2001: 548) and helping ‘the pursuit of mutual One feature that marks out more recent and about how both are transformed or expire grudgingly, describing it as ‘the briefest, least dialogues’. This optimistic vision is the opposite work on worldview in Religious Studies is its after death’. Lee’s empirical work shows that bad’ English translation of Weltanschauung, of the dialogue-closing uses of worldview close engagement with ‘non-religious studies’ ‘people come to existential cultures, religious or and acknowledging that the word did not language discussed below in the section on or ‘secular studies’ (Bullivant, 2020), i.e. the otherwise, for non-intellectual reasons’ and that capture the ‘mix of theory and value, of belief Theology (3.5). empirically grounded study of individuals and they may participate in certain rituals or events and feel, of faith and rite’ (1981: 214), which is More recently, Droogers (2014) and Taves populations identified, by themselves or others, due to availability, or through sharing the tastes essential to religions and ideologies. Despite this (Taves and Asprem 2018; Taves 2020) have as non-religious or secular. Worldview is offered and preferences of family or friends (ibid.: 160). reluctance, Smart argued that Religious Studies revived Smart’s argument that a new focus as a way of describing the “religious-like” (Lee, In doing so ‘individuals ‘might only belong to should be reimagined as part of a broader field on worldview studies might help scholars to 2015) aspects of non-religious life (e.g. Taves, existential communities out of habit or out of of Worldview Studies and that the philosophy escape from the challenge of defining religion, 2018a). Other concepts, generally synonymous need’ but even though they may not join such of religion should become the philosophy of but have tried to base this on an explicit with worldview, have arisen in this work: communities due to intellectual reasoning, it is worldviews. Religions and secular ideologies definition of worldview rather than Smart’s list Ecklund (2010) explores ‘atheist spirituality’, still important to demarcate such communities that ‘guide men regarding the meaning of life’ of dimensions. Droogers argues that religion is Baker and Smith (2015) propose “cosmic according to their existential ideas (ibid.: 160). (1981: 213) should all be analysed as examples ‘a sub-category of the term worldview’, standing meaning systems”, and Lee (2015; 2019) works Although such work uses worldview and

16 Céline Benoit, Timothy Hutchings and Rachael Shillitoe Céline Benoit, Timothy Hutchings and Rachael Shillitoe 17 similar categories to transcend theoretical concerning the concept of worldview raises Albertz, 1994). Others analyse how texts have ultimate concern could also be non-religious: distinctions between religion and non-religion, questions about the binary constructions been interpreted, used and rewritten by readers the family, nation, social status, money and so “Non-religious Studies” also recognise the of religion and non-religion. Research with in different times and places (Gillingham, on. Faith, as ultimate concern, is connected prominence of non-religious identifications children in primary schools shows that children 2008), including the crucial differences to the whole of human personality, linking in societies, and it has become common to themselves disrupt and challenge these adult- between Jewish and Christian perspectives intellect, emotion and will. The chosen object distinguish between ‘religious worldview’ generated constructions, finding ways to create (Levenson, 1993; Frederiksen and Reinhartz, of faith acts as the central focus that unites and ‘non-religious worldview’. Some scholars their own meaning from encounters with 2002). Biblical scholars have also reflected on an individual’s personal worldview, bringing challenge or complicate distinctions between religion and non-religion in their everyday lives how the worldviews of scholars themselves, together all their conscious and unconscious religion and non-religion – and, by implication, (Strhan and Shillitoe, 2019; Shillitoe and Strhan including gender (Schussler-Fiorenza, 1984), assumptions and commitments. Tillich’s religious worldview and non-religious 2020). An approach to worldview that takes ethnicity (Junior, 2015) and colonial and existential theology explored how any person worldview. By making a clear distinction account of the dialectical relationship between postcolonial histories (Sugirtharajah, 2006) could have the courage to choose an object between religious and non-religious worldview, religion and non-religion and the everyday lived can shape, restrict or inform their reading of of ultimate concern, knowing that life will Nynäs (2018: 63) argues that the risk is to fail reality of this may help to foster an approach to the Bible. Christian theologians have engaged eventually end in death. to understand ‘how people combine spiritual the study of religion and non-religion which with the philosophical hermeneutics tradition Participation in a religious community is and religious positions with secular values into is not limited by such conceptual boundaries. discussed above in order to develop their just one of the sources of the practices, values authentic and meaningful subjective positions, Lee’s (2015) relational approach to non-religion own distinctively Christian forms of biblical and beliefs that shape a personal worldview and how these provide both public and private might prove a fruitful way to overcome this hermeneutics (Thistleton, 2009; Vanhoozer, and guide the choice of an ultimate concern. agencies’. Similarly, Nynäs ibid.( ) also points to and avoid reproducing conceptual boundaries 2008). The method of “scriptural reasoning” This insight has been explored extensively in the limitations of other concepts such as post between the two. (Ford 2006; Ochs 2019) invites members of much contemporary theology, particularly in secularity and the false dichotomy this can different faith traditions to read one another’s the discipline of practical theology. Pattison reproduce of the interrelation between religion 3.5 CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY AND sacred texts together, looking for new insights defines the practical theologian as ‘a critical and secularity in contemporary society. Arguing BIBLICAL STUDIES in the interfaith encounter between different inhabitant of an action-guiding worldview for a dialogical approach to religion, Nynäs worldviews and hermeneutical approaches. (Christianity)’ (2007: 20), one who – like suggests that scholars should use a concept This section will briefly consider four areas The word worldview is rarely used in Hauerwas – recognises Christianity as more that reveals the fluid and ‘unfolding’ nature in which concepts related to worldview are systematic and constructive theology, than an intellectual belief system. The practical of religion in social life (ibid: 67). Drawing on regularly used: biblical studies, systematic and some theologians have rejected it theologian therefore analyses elements of that Droogers, Nynäs suggests that ‘worldview theology, practical theology, and the Calvinist altogether. Hauerwas (2010: 10) declares tradition in dialogue with other perspectives studies’ might alleviate some of the issues tradition of worldview thinking descended that ‘Christianity is no “world view,” not a on human nature, values and experience. within the discipline and challenge taken-for- from Kuyper (1898). The word worldview itself form of primitive metaphysics, that can be Some practical theologians (e.g. Le Cornu, granted categories in the study of religion (ibid.: is not widely used or theorized in Christian assessed in comparison to alternative “world quoted in Bennett at al., 2018: 138) have used 67). Day (2011) demonstrates that people may theology or biblical studies, but these four views”.’ Instead, he understands Christianity the concept of worldviews to explore how choose specific religious identifications and examples demonstrate that ideas with at least as demanding a ‘transformation of the self’, individuals come to recognise contradictions may identify with selected religious worldviews some similarity to worldview have been highly proposing that ‘Christians are people who between formal religious teaching and real-life / religions to complement social and emotional influential. We encourage readers and future remain convinced that the truthfulness of their experience, forcing them to choose between experiences of belonging. For example, she contributors to the discussion of worldview and beliefs must be demonstrated in their lives’. different action-guiding perspectives. This gives examples of participants who identify the RE curriculum to consider how similar ideas This critique assumes that a worldview is kind of research demands the use of social- as Christians for kinship reasons but who do have been proposed and challenged in other just a set of propositions about the world, but scientific methods of empirical study, including not necessarily believe in God, or whose lives religious traditions, communities and contexts. a broader understanding of worldview can interviews, participant observation and are not informed by Christianity. Examples In biblical studies, the word worldview is rare, resonate much more closely with the concerns ethnography, to gather reliable data on people’s also included non-religious participants using but scholars use the methods of hermeneutics of Christian theologians. Tillich (1957) defines everyday experiences, values, commitments religious institutions on particular occasions (introduced above in 3.1) to engage with faith as “ultimate concern”, arguing that every and actions. Examples include Astley’s Ordinary (such as weddings or funerals, for example). To similar concerns. Some biblical scholars have person has something which is of the highest Theology (2002) and Ward’s (2012) more recent add a further layer of complexity, Cotter (2011) tried to reconstruct what texts meant for their possible value to them, for which they would be call for ethnographic ecclesiology – developing argues that different identities may be enacted original audiences, emphasising the difference prepared to sacrifice anything else. This might theology by studying Christians and their in different contexts. between modern-day and ancient perspectives be something found within a religious belief churches from the ground up, instead of from The debates found within religious studies (Wellhausen, 2014 [1883]; Sanders, 1993; system, like a God/god/gods, but the object of the top down.

18 Céline Benoit, Timothy Hutchings and Rachael Shillitoe Céline Benoit, Timothy Hutchings and Rachael Shillitoe 19 Theologians have also considered concepts modernism (Kuyper, 2009: 11). In self-defence, of Christian worship’ (Smith, 2009: 1). This distinction between “worldviews”, “beliefs”, that resonate with what the CoRE report refers Kuyper claimed, Christians must develop embodied understanding of how human beings and “values” (Koltko-Rivera, 2004). Rather to as an ‘institutional worldview’. Hauerwas their own distinctive ‘Christian worldview’, are formed presents a valuable challenge for RE than distinguishing between institutional and proposed that Christian social ethics must be which would shape every aspect of culture and teachers to consider: how can worldviews be personal worldview(s), the concept is divided based on a clear sense of the Christian narrative tolerate no debate or dialogue with secularist or taught without reducing them to sets of ideas? into three types of beliefs: i) descriptive/ about the history and future of the church and modernist ideologies. This call for a Christian existential (i.e. what is true and what is false), the world. ‘The church’, he claimed, must be ‘a worldview influenced Protestant thinkers 3.6 WORLDVIEW IN OTHER ii) evaluative (i.e. what is good and what is bad), people who have been formed by a story that throughout the 20th century, particularly in the DISCIPLINES and iii) prescriptive/proscriptive (i.e. values) provides them with the skills for negotiating United States, and remains popular today (see (ibid.). This demonstrates that worldview can the dangers of this existence’ (Hauerwas, 2001: for example Dockery and Wax, 2019; Gospel Given the limited length of this report, the be codified along different norms, rather than 113), and ‘the primary test of the truthfulness’ Project, 2013). This approach assumes that review team have chosen to focus in detail on the institutional/personal dichotomy used in of Christian ethics is ‘the ability to provide many, or even most, people in the world who a limited range of academic disciplines that the CoRE report (2018). an adequate account of our existence’ (ibid.: call themselves Christian do not accept the have traditionally informed contemporary In Linguistics, a distinction is made between 112). Despite Hauerwas’s dismissal of the proposed “Christian worldview”. Christians RE. However, alternative interpretations of the “language”/linguistic and “nonlanguage”/ word worldview, there is a clear parallel here must therefore be re-educated before the worldview can be found in other disciplines, nonlinguistic (Hill and Mannheim, 1992). to the broader understanding of institutional project of Christian cultural renewal can be such as Politics, Psychology and Linguistics. The purpose is to acknowledge the fact that worldview proposed by the CoRE report. victorious over its secular enemies. The very brief comments below are designed culture cannot always be represented in terms Any religion, including Christianity, is The understanding of worldview operating to encourage the readers’ interest in what these appropriate to language, and that culture diverse and changes over time (a key principle in these debates has sometimes been limited to other fields may have to offer to the worldview is shaped in ‘everyday practices below the of the American Academy of Religion’s recent the intellectual dimension of beliefs, ideas and debate, and to explore how these can contribute threshold of awareness’ (ibid.: 381). Fairclough statement on religious literacy, AAR 2019). doctrines. For example, when the evangelical to discussions about the use of worldview in RE (2012), in an attempt to uncover ideological However, the idea that Christianity has a survey organisation Barna tried to calculate / R&W. and power structures, proposes to study the single authentic worldview, shared by all true what percentage of American Christians hold The relevance of worldview to Politics has relationships between language, society, power, believers, has been extremely influential, as a “biblical worldview”, they did so by asking already been hinted at in the previous section identity, ideology, politics and culture. Rather Weir has demonstrated in his research on survey respondents to agree or disagree with (3.5). By categorising a population according to than solely focus on language, he includes Dutch, German and American Protestantism a list of statements (and reported that only a set of worldviews with defined characteristics, the study of discourse, which he defines as (Weir, 2017). The language of “worldviews” 17% met their criteria). This method, Barna political researchers try to predict behaviour “semiosis” (e.g. encompassing the verbal has been a powerful weapon in cultural explained, was designed ‘to gauge how much and explain conflict (for an example aimed at and non-verbal such as visual, gestural, etc.). (Zimmerman, 2002), political (Silk, 2015) and the tenets of other key worldviews – including a general audience, see De Witt 2016). Political Academic debates in Linguistics can inform even military conflicts (Weir, 2018), because new spirituality, secularism, postmodernism leaders have used the same technique to conversations as to whether worldview should it can be used to stereotype opponents as and Marxism – have influenced Christians’ motivate their followers (Weir 2018). be used to refer to consciously articulated representatives of a single alien mind, the beliefs about the way the world is and how In Psychology, the term worldview has approaches to life, or should also include un- ultimate “other”. By describing a conflict as a it ought to be’ (Barna, 2017). This reduces become the object of renewed attention in order reflected cultural habitus. battle between two “worldviews”, political and worldviews to sets of propositions. to understand human behaviour and the human religious leaders can persuade their followers This cognitive, ideas-focused approach has experience. Psychology researchers make a that their opponents are motivated not just by a been attacked by Christian philosopher JKA disagreement or a grievance but by an entirely Smith (2009), who argues that Christians are different perception of reality. If so, then there shaped not just by ideas but by their desires, can be no common ground, compromise or practices, stories and rituals (which can be dialogue with them (Weir, 2017). found inside the church, or in wider culture). Dutch politician Kuyper used this approach ‘Instead of focusing on what Christians think, in 1898 to call for Protestants to unite in distilling Christian faith into an intellectual opposition to secular forces that, he claimed, summary formula (a “worldview”)’, Smith calls shared an alien and hostile worldview. ‘Two for theologians to focus ‘on what Christians life systems are wrestling with one another, in do, articulating the shape of a Christian “social mortal combat’, he argued: Christianity and imaginary” as it is embedded in the practices

20 Céline Benoit, Timothy Hutchings and Rachael Shillitoe Céline Benoit, Timothy Hutchings and Rachael Shillitoe 21 Worldview: a multidisciplinary report

1988 ERA in only including “world religions”, More recently, the phrase was adapted by the term worldview was used by the members the Commission on Religious Education (2018), 4. of the Third Perspective critique of the model who recommended renaming RE ‘Religion syllabuses (Baumfield et al., 1994; 2014). and Worldviews’ (R&W). However, rather than RELIGIOUS EDUCATION Members of the Third Perspective used using worldview to designate (organised) non- worldview to include religious and Humanist/ religious institutions only, the Commission uses non-religious perspectives, as well as children’s it to include both religion and non-religion, perspectives (i.e. personal worldviews, rather together with both institutional and personal than solely institutional ones). worldviews, which ‘had been neglected in A distinction between personal and previous paradigms’ (Tharani, 2020: 20). The 4.1 WORLDVIEW IN RELIGIOUS RE included the study of non-religious ‘stances institutional worldviews is also made in the report distinguishes between ‘institutional EDUCATION: BACKGROUND for living’ (i.e. Humanism and Marxism) Errickers’ ‘Children and Worldviews’ project, worldview’ and ‘personal worldview’: alongside “world religions” (Birmingham City which started in 1993. The project focused The concept of worldview in RE has been Council, 1975; Cush, 2016). These inclusions, on the ‘small narratives’ of children and their We use […] ‘institutional worldview’ to used in various ways by different authors. The however, were controversial and led to syllabus own developing worldviews, rather than on describe organised worldviews shared account below gives a brief historical overview amendments (Cush, 2016; Freathy and Parker, the ‘grand narratives’ of institutional belief among particular groups and sometimes of its use in the discipline, and shows how there 2013). Although the syllabuses were amended, systems (Erricker and Erricker, 2000: 194). As embedded in institutions. These include has been a shift in how worldview (or world they raised the question of the place and role of the Errickers analysed children’s narratives, […] religions as well as non-religious view) has been interpreted over the years. non-religious worldviews in RE. In this context, they described the process as dynamic, ‘with worldviews such as Humanism, While worldview has often been used to equate worldview was used to refer to non-religious no end point envisaged where the “worldview” Secularism or Atheism. We use […] to non-religious worldviews (in opposition to worldviews. is a finished product, and with no sense of ‘personal worldview’ for an individual’s religion(s)), the term is now more commonly These proposals, together with the “development” except change’ (ibid.: 199). own way of understanding and living used to include religious and non-religious publication of the WP36, led to a public division “World view” was again mentioned in the in the world, which may or may not worldviews (e.g. CoRE, 2018). within the RE community. Some welcomed a 2004 national non-statutory framework for RE draw from one, or many, institutional In 1971, the publication of the School more “inclusive” approach to RE. Others feared (QCA, 2004). In a similar manner to the WP36, worldviews (CoRE, 2018: 4). Councils Working Paper 36 (WP36) and its this would lead to the secularisation of RE, and the concept was broken down into two words impact on RE in England and Wales, was viewed the proposals as a symbolic ‘attack upon (i.e. world view), and covered both religious The CoRE report defines worldview as: described as ‘a “game-changing” moment’ the Christian heritage, identity and morality and non-religious convictions in phrases such (Cush citing Cooling, 2020). It recommended of Britain’ (Freathy and Parker, 2013: 250). as ‘other world views’ (WP36: 7) (i.e. other than A person’s way of understanding, the study of non-religious worldviews and “Stance(s) for living” and “worldview(s)” were religious ones) or ‘a secular world view’ (ibid.: experiencing and responding to the supported a ‘sympathetic study’ of ‘alternatives excluded from the 1988 Education Reform Act 25)4. In contrast, ‘worldview’ (one word) was world. It can be described as a philosophy to religious faith such as secular Humanism, (ERA), which remains the latest legal framework adopted in the 2013 Curriculum Framework for of life or an approach to life. This Marxism and Maoism’ (WP36: 66, cited in for RE. The 1988 ERA stipulates that all agreed RE, but instead was used to refer to organised includes how a person understands the Cush, 2020). The document uses the actual syllabuses for RE must ‘reflect the fact that the non-religious institutions only: nature of reality and their own place in term ‘world view’ (two words) only once, in the religious traditions in Great Britain are in the the world. A person’s worldview is likely context of discussing Smart’s ‘dimensions of main Christian whilst taking account of the The phrase ‘religions and worldviews’ to influence and be influenced by their religion’ (see section 3.4). The phrase ‘general teaching and practices of the other principal is used in this document to refer to beliefs, values, behaviours, experiences, standpoint and world view of a religion’ is religions represented in Great Britain’ (ERA, Christianity, other principal religions identities and commitments (ibid.: 4). used to refer to the doctrinal, mythological and 1988). represented in Britain, smaller religious ethical dimensions of a religion (the theory) as In 1994, educationalists and faith groups communities and non-religious This definition is informed by the German opposed to the ritual, experiential and social produced two model syllabuses for RE (one worldviews such as Humanism (REC, philosophical concept of Weltanschauung (see dimensions (the lived practice). structured around six “world religions”, and 2013: 11). section 3.1). In 1970, the Bath Agreed Syllabus for RE one around key questions and ideas pertaining proposed to include non-religious worldviews to Christianity, Buddhism, Hinduism, Islam, (i.e. Humanism and Communism). Shortly Judaism and Sikhism) (SCAA, 1994a; 1994b). after, the 1975 Birmingham Agreed Syllabus for Although the Model Syllabuses followed the 4 While they did not use the term worldview, the Council of Europe also recommended the inclusion of religions and non-religious convictions in schools (CoE, 2008).

22 Céline Benoit, Timothy Hutchings and Rachael Shillitoe Céline Benoit, Timothy Hutchings and Rachael Shillitoe 23 Today, the usage of (non-religious) worldview has often been viewed as the secular Furthermore, by constructing worldview as position (Bråten and Everington, 2019). The CoRE worldview(s) remains contested. Some equivalent to religion. either religious or non-religious, there is the report indicates that the word religion is kept reject the conceptual framework, arguing Codifying worldview along the same added danger of ‘polarising’ worldview, and “both to provide continuity and to signify that that the aim of RE should be ‘provid[ing] an normative discourses as religion6 risks the (mis) ‘setting up an opposition between religious and young people need to understand the conceptual understanding of the nature and character of representation of religious and non-religious scientific perspectives or between theistic and category of ‘religion’” (CoRE, 2018: 7)7. religion’, and therefore object to including non- worldview(s), the reproduction of Western atheistic positions’ (Everington, 2019: 20). In response to some religious organisations’ religious worldviews (Barnes, 2015: 82). Others discourses, a narrow focus on institutional fears of seeing the scope of RE continuously worry about secularism further permeating non-religious worldviews, and the neglect of 4.3 WORLDVIEW AS ALL- expanding to the detriment of depth of the educational field (Barnes, 2015; Felderhof, personal ones. This is illustrated by current ENCOMPASSING knowledge, Chater (2020b: 122) recommends 2015), and argue that non-religious worldviews debates pertaining to which worldviews should a ‘shift away from a worldview-by-worldview in RE, rather than being studied ‘in their own or should not be taught in RE (Barnes, 2015; Rather than presenting worldview as a secular study’, to a study of how worldviews operate in rights’ (Felderhof, 2015: 125), should only be Bråten and Everington, 2019; Chater, 2020b; alternative to religion, more recent work views the world. Similarly, the CoRE report states that: mentioned in relation to religion, as ‘atheistic Felderhof, 2015). However, adding ‘a series of religion as a subcategory of worldview. In this critiques’ (ibid.: 125) and to ‘clarify what non-religious “isms” to a series of religious case, worldview is constructed as encompassing [T]here needs to be a greater constitutes the “religious”’ (Ipgrave, 2015). ones’ is not aligned with the objectives set out all religions, as well as a ‘more personal and understanding, at a conceptual level, of While the CoRE report has moved away in the CoRE report (2018), which aims to ‘move broader (i.e. secular) interpretation of views how worldviews operate, the accounts from the debate over the inclusion of the away from the World Religions Paradigm, and on life than “religion”’ (van der Kooij et al., they provide of the nature of reality, non-religious and reframes worldview as all- not towards a “Global Worldviews Paradigm”’ 2017: 172). The CoRE report, which states that and how they influence behaviour, encompassing, these criticisms demonstrate (Cush, 2020). ‘[e]veryone has a worldview’ (2018: 26), also institutions and forms of expression. It that worldview remains a contested concept, Drawing a binary opposition between interprets worldview as all-encompassing. This is this powerful, conceptual knowledge and its meaning interpreted differently. religious and non-religious worldviews risks interpretation is supported by a number of that all pupils need to have (2018: 6). reifying worldviews, especially in handling the scholars and practitioners, who embrace the 4.2 WORLDVIEW AS A SECULAR complexities within and between traditions (see new vision laid out in the CoRE report – some Fears about the possible dilution of the ALTERNATIVE TO RELIGION section 3.4). It also implies a clear separation of whom go beyond it in a more radical way subject seem anchored in the World Religions between the religious and the secular in which (Chater, 2020a). Paradigm8, and reflect a tendency to reify Worldview in RE is constructed in relation one ‘cannot be both or anything in between’ For instance, Chater queries why the religions/worldviews. Cush and Robinson to religion and non-religion5, and the concept (Holloway, 2016). Many have argued that the Commissioners did not choose to call the warn against the dangers of creating ‘a series is usually preceded by the adjectives “religious”, distinction between the religious and non- subject ‘Worldviews’ or ‘Worldviews Education’, of separate monolithic “isms”’ (in press: 56). “non-religious” or “secular” (Barnes, 2015; religious is a fake dichotomy, and call for a more instead of R&W, and compares their decision The pluralisation of worldview in the title R&W, Everington, 2019; Felderhof, 2015; Freathy inclusive system of representation: to include “religion” in the title to ‘illogical’ however, may lead to implicit interpretations and John, 2019, van der Kooij et al, 2017). titles such as ‘Jazz and Music’ (2020b: 125). whereby worldview is fragmented into a series Until recently, many scholars, policy-makers, Arguably the notion of ‘religion’ is a Heilbronn (in press) also argues that “religion” of discrete entities that can be studied in silos, and practitioners have used ‘the concept of Western construct (Asad 1993), and the becomes redundant, and proposes to make a making it difficult to avoid reductionism and worldview to reconcile RE with a secular and religious/non-religious binary, as well distinction between Worldviews Education and reification. Alternatively, Teece (2017) proposes religiously pluralistic societal environment’ as the fencing off of ‘religion’ from ‘non- RE – which could be maintained in schools with renaming RE ‘Worldview Studies’, preferring (Riegel and Delling, 2019: 412). Worldview in religious worldviews’, are of an artificial a religious character. Renaming the subject to not pluralise the term9. However, although Western discourse on RE has tended to be nature. It would be fair to question can be a political issue. Despite its inclusive, worldview is pluralised in R&W, the Commission constructed as a secular alternative to religion, whether indigenous traditions/cultures/ all-encompassing nature, worldview can be on RE does not recommend adopting a with non-religious worldviews taken as worldviews would fall into either or both associated with both a secular and secularist reductionist approach to worldview, and stresses additional categories to study alongside “world of these categories (Freathy and John, religions” (van der Kooij et al., 2013). As a result, 2019: 31).

7 It is interesting to note that in Norway, the subject was renamed ‘Christianity, Religions, Worldviews and Eth- ics’ (Bråten and Everington, 2019). In this model, worldviews equate to non-religion (as in 4.2.). Andreassen 5 While this division may be viewed as evident in the RE community, it is worth noting that the concept can be (2014) argues that although worldviews get equal treatment, the syllabus still constructs Christianity as culture approached differently. As mentioned in section 3.6, worldview can instead be constructed in relation to lan- and national heritage, therefore ‘othering’ non-Christian worldviews in Norwegian society. guage and “nonlanguage” for example. 8 See section 2 for a discussion of the World Religions Paradigm. 6 See section 2. 9 See section 1 for a discussion of the pluralisation of worldview/religion.

24 Céline Benoit, Timothy Hutchings and Rachael Shillitoe Céline Benoit, Timothy Hutchings and Rachael Shillitoe 25 that worldviews are ‘complex, diverse and plural’ framework that is anchored in existential provides ‘generalised summaries of what [they] and young people to engage in contemporary (2018: 4). questions is more inclusive, and ‘opens up want students to understand by the end of public and private affairs (ibid.: 34-36). To classify as a worldview, van der Kooij et possibilities for dialogue and discussion. It their RE in school’ (ibid.: 10), it remains useful al. state that ‘four elements are conceptually increases understanding of self and others’ as it focuses on ‘issues related to religions and necessary: existential questions, moral values, (2012: 453). In their work, they propose a non-religious worldviews in the complex world influence in people’s acting and thinking, and scheme of work for Islam based on five themes: which students inhabit today and will for the providing meaning in life’ (2013: 210). They also 1) Personal, Social, Cultural; 2) Ultimate and rest of their lives’ (ibid.: 9). The report thus distinguish six types of existential questions: Existential Questions; 3) Religious/Cultural provides an example of how content can be 1) Ontological questions, which refer to the Dimensions; 4) Ontological/Epistemological; selected when teaching worldview(s)11. nature of existence and the nature of human and 5) Universal/Particular Beliefs, Values and Although supportive of the Wintersgill beings; 2) Cosmological questions, which are Principles (ibid.). project, Freathy and John warn against the concerned with the origin of the universe and Moving away from thematic pedagogies danger of ‘establishing “Big Ideas” that apply the place of human beings in it; 3) Theological that have traditionally informed RE is also universally across religions and worldviews questions, which refer to the existence of a deity; recommended by the Wintersgill project without exception […], [as] it is difficult to 4) Teleological questions, which involve the (2017). Rather than adopting ‘cross-religion avoid potential charges of reductionism or meaning of the universe and human beings; 5) themes’ such as ‘worship, pilgrimage and oversimplification to the point of essentialism’ Eschatological questions, which concern the sacred texts’ (ibid.: 10), the Winstergill project (2019: 31). Constructing worldview along end of life; and 6) Ethical questions, which refer identifies the principle of six ‘Big Ideas’ in anthropological lines (see section 3.2), they to the broad themes of good and bad, and right order to prioritise content. These ideas are: argue that worldview(s) is/are unfixed, and wrong (Van der Kooij et al., 2017). 1) Continuity, Change and Diversity, which unbounded and heterogeneous, and that it is If adopting van der Kooij et al.’s model, is concerned with the fluidity of religious important not to give pupils the notion of fixed worldviews that answer existential questions and non-religious worldviews; 2) Words and ‘-isms’. Building on the six Big Ideas for RE, should be included in the RE curriculum, Beyond, which refer to language, emotions and they propose adding ‘four Big Ideas about the whereas worldviews that answer ‘other views on non-verbal communication; 3) A Good Life, study of religion(s) and worldview(s)’ (SORW) life, the world, and humanity’ (such as political which addresses moral behaviour; 4) Making (ibid.: 33, emphasis in original). These are: 1) parties) should be ignored (van der Kooij et Sense of Life’s Experiences, which emphasises Encountering religion(s) and worldview(s): al., 2017: 174). In this model, most of the non- the importance of the experiential, whether Contested definitions and contexts, in order to religious worldviews suggested by Barnes (2015) ordinary or profound, and including ceremony realise that terms like worldview are contested; or Felderhof (2015) would not be considered for and the sense of identity and belonging; 5) 2) Encountering Oneself: Reflexivity, Reflectivity inclusion in RE syllabuses10. These debates about Influence, Community, Culture and Power, and Positionality, which includes reflecting which religious or non-religious worldviews which deals with how worldviews interact with on our own worldviews and how this affects should be included or not highlight a tendency to societies and cultures, and issues of power our study; 3) Encountering Methodologies focus on institutional worldviews, as these types and authority; and 6) The Big Picture, which and Methods: Discernment and Diversity, to of categorisations fit organised institutional is concerned with “big questions”, including familiarise oneself with the different disciplines worldviews more comfortably than personal with the nature of reality, the universe, human and methods used to study worldviews and how ones (Chater, 2020b: 117). nature and destiny, and sources of knowledge. this affects our perceptions of worldviews; and According to Selçuk and Valk, a worldview While the Wintersgill project focuses on RE and 4) Encountering the ‘Real World’: Relevance and Transferability, which seeks to prepare children

10 Although explicit references to non-religious worldviews are rarely made, Humanism is the most common example of non-religious worldview across the literature and in RE classrooms (Everington, 2019; REC, 2013; Barnes, 2015; Felderhof, 2015).While Humanists UK (formerly the British Humanist Association) supports a 11 In the Wintersgill report, worldview is viewed as all-encompassing (i.e. as applying to the religious and the view whereby Humanism is constructed as the exemplar non-religious worldview (BHA, 2017), other exam- non-religious). It is useful to note that although the report uses the phrase religious and non-religious world- ples of non-religious worldviews have been proposed and include ‘atheism, agnosticism, secularism, rational- views, it remains critical of it because it is ‘lengthy and occasionally clumsy, interrupting the flow of the text, ism, existentialism, utilitarianism and ‘spiritual beliefs’ (Everington, 2019: 17). Felderhof (2015) also includes which is particularly apparent when reading the text aloud’ (2017: 4). The report also acknowledges that the Marxism, Environmentalism and Darwinism. Barnes (2015: 80) mentions ‘atheistic Existentialism, scientific phrase implies a dichotomy between the religious and the non-religious, whereas ‘the debate identified in the materialism; Marxism-Stalinist, Maoist or Marxist revisionary; National Socialism; atheism-nihilism, Freudian Big Ideas about the nature of religion not infrequently makes the boundaries between “religious” and “non-re- psychoanalytic atheism or Nietzschean ‘will to power’ atheism.’ ligious” fuzzy’ (ibid.: 4).

26 Céline Benoit, Timothy Hutchings and Rachael Shillitoe Céline Benoit, Timothy Hutchings and Rachael Shillitoe 27 In order to learn about SORW, Freathy and individual” worldview(s). By foregrounding Everington shows that only a small number of does not have to be framed along institutional John recommend adopting a pedagogical personal worldviews, there is scope to RE teachers appear to be able to distinguish or personal lines (see section 3.6). approach that reflects ‘a preference for acknowledge the eclectic and idiosyncratic ‘between organised and personal non-religious Additionally, constructing the world and critical, dialogical and methodologically/ nature of worldview (van der Kooij et al., 2013; worldviews’ (2019: 17). This may be explained identities in contrast to one another, or along hermeneutically-oriented RE’, such as the ‘RE- 2017). Personal worldviews consist of norms, by the fact that the personal/institutional binary opposites reflects a Western intellectual searchers approach’ (ibid.: 38) – an inquiry- values and ideals; they are fluid and ‘may dichotomy can be difficult to understand and tradition (Loseke, 2007). By organising based approach to the curriculum, whereby change based on the given situation’ (Riegel put in practice, especially as non-religious worldview as either institutional or personal, pupils become ‘nascent members of the and Delling, 2019: 404). They may or may worldviews are unlikely to be organised in a and by foregrounding personal/individual communities of academic inquiry’ (ibid.: 36). not be informed by organised (institutional) similar manner as “world religions” (Bullivant, worldviews, it privileges the importance of the The inclusion of philosophical hermeneutics12 worldview(s): 2008). individual, which is ‘in keeping with modern, in RE is not new, and has been at the heart of The personal/institutional dichotomy Western sensibilities’ (ibid., 2007: 676). Such a pedagogical discussions, and precedes the These views can be, but are not may also lead to an over-focus on institutional view may therefore reflect a liberal framing. publication of the CoRE report. Scholars such necessarily, based on or inspired by worldviews. While the CoRE report foregrounds Finally, Miller (in press: 122) also points out as Aldridge (2011; 2018), Bowie (2016), Panjwani (religious) organized views on life. If personal worldviews in order to be ‘fully another ‘false dichotomy, particularly in the and Revell (Biesta et al., in press) make a case for persons call themselves Christian, their inclusive of a wider range of worldviews, in western world, between body and mind and the role of interpretation, and of hermeneutics personal worldview will be more or less highlighting religions/worldviews as really between mind and heart’. With a tendency to in RE. Hannam and Biesta, however, criticise the based on the organized worldview of lived’ (Cush, 2020), Riegel and Delling, in their focus on the cognitive, worldview has tended to way in which ‘world views’13 are conceptualised Christianity (van der Kooij et al., 2017: research in German denominational education, be presented as consciously thought out, while in the CoRE report (2019: 61). According to 173-174). flag up a tendency ‘to predominantly address lived and embodied experiences have been them, world views in the report are ‘restricted religion at the level of organised worldview’ neglected. Debates in Linguistics, among other to the kinds of things that are believed or Institutional worldview is ‘a more or less (2019: 412). disciplines, show that such a dichotomy can be practiced [sic.] and therefore capable of coherent and established system with certain Furthermore, as the CoRE report limiting (see section 3.6). being studied objectively in some way’ (ibid.: (written and unwritten) sources, traditions, proposes a clear individual/institutional divide, This chapter has highlighted that although 60). They accuse the CoRE report of implicit values, rituals, ideals, or dogmas. An organized it risks ignoring the many levels on which the worldview can be interpreted differently within ‘hermeneuticism’, as it gives a prominent place worldview has a group of believers who adhere concept can work in between, and around the the RE community, there seems to be a shift to ‘understanding’, and neglects the existential to this view of life’ (van der Kooij et al., 2013: two realms. In Jackson’s (2009a, 1997; 2004) towards a construction of worldview as all- dimensions of education. Instead, they suggest 212). Such a definition shares many aspects with interpretive framework, there is a third category encompassing rather than equating to non- a non-hermeneutical alternative, whereby the concept of religion (see section 2). It risks between the personal and the institutional: the religious worldviews. It however raises a series ‘educational questions would be considered codifying worldview along the same normative community, or membership group. Current of questions that urgently need addressing, first and foremost, and questions about what it discourses as religion, which are entrenched models based on the institutional/organised such as the dichotomy between institutional/ means to live with a religious or non-religious in similar colonial, Western, Christianised and personal/individual dichotomy ignore this organised and personal/individual levels, and orientation considered in existential terms and constructions, and which misrepresent non- level. Kuusisto et al. also highlight a tendency about the constructedness of worldview as not only as beliefs or practices or objectified Abrahamic worldviews (Kueh, 2020)14. As not all to ‘neglect the global, societal, cultural and a Western liberal post-Enlightenment term. world views’ (ibid.: 60). worldviews have organisations, Chater (2020b: communal aspects’ (2019: 398). This raises Further questions are raised in the concluding 120) proposes to use the adjective ‘systematic’ questions about a twofold or even a threefold section, and we invite readers to engage with 4.4 INSTITUTIONAL VS. PERSONAL instead of institutional. construction of worldview, as it may be too those, as well as others that have emerged from WORLDVIEW The interplay between institutional/ limited and limiting. For example, academic reading this report. organised and personal/individual worldviews debates in Psychology show that worldview To acknowledge the diversity and is a complex one (Miller, in press). The CoRE complexities of worldview, the CoRE report recommends engaging with the interplay report (2018) makes a distinction between between these two levels, and with the diversity “institutional/organised” and “personal/ within worldviews. Yet, in her research,

12 See sections 3.1 and 3.5 for a discussion of hermeneutics. 13 Note that the concept has once again been split into two words. 14 See also section 2.

28 Céline Benoit, Timothy Hutchings and Rachael Shillitoe Céline Benoit, Timothy Hutchings and Rachael Shillitoe 29 Worldview: a multidisciplinary report

5. CONCLUSIONS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

In this report, we have engaged with six of • Is worldview used to refer to the cognitive/ the disciplines that have traditionally informed belief/truth claim side of things, or to the The authors would like to thank Rudi Eliott Lockhart and Professors Trevor Cooling, Denise Cush, RE debates and pedagogies. Our purpose has existential/experiential/emotional? Or both? and Stephen Pattison for their continual support and guidance throughout the drafting of this report, not been to define worldview or to determine • Is worldview used to refer to consciously as well as the academic advisory group for their helpful feedback and comments. what should be taught in RE classes, but to help thought out and articulated approaches to inform discussions by sharing something of the life? Or does it include un-reflected elements? rich intellectual history of the often-contested A shared understanding of what worldview concept of worldview in academic scholarship. means in RE and how that understanding can Emerging from this report are key questions be effectively taught to students is crucial if the that need addressing by researchers, policy- RE community is to move forward, as it will makers and RE teachers. These relate to allow them to decide how best to implement the how worldview is interpreted and how it is recommendations set out in the CoRE report operationalised in the classroom. For instance: (2018). The review team invite readers to engage • Is worldview used as inclusive of religion and with the questions above in order to advance non-religion, or is it used as an alternative meaningful discussions about the place and role term to religion and to refer to non-religion of worldview in RE/R&W. only? If the former, should RE indeed be The review team also invite readers to seek renamed Religion and Worldviews? out scholars who have not been included in this • Should a clear distinction between religious report, because their work may offer valuable and non-religious worldviews be made? How insights that have not yet influenced policies can we account for the dialectic relationship and/or pedagogies in RE in England and Wales between the two? today. This includes the work of minority-faith • To what extent is the concept of religion scholars, indigenous scholars, and scholars informing the concept of worldview? Which based outside Western contexts. Alternative discourses are reproduced in the process? approaches to worldview and complementary • To what extent is worldview a Western and concepts can only enhance this discussion, Christian construct? especially those reflecting less Western-centric • Are worldviews constructed as static, fixed, perspectives. unitary entities that can be studied in silos, or Finally, the review team also encourage as fluid, changing processes? scholars, policy-makers, and teachers to • Should worldview in R&W be pluralised or engage with children and young people as they not? work towards a new vision for RE. Too often, • Is worldview used to refer to institutional/ curriculum change happens without seeking to organised/systematic ‘-isms’, or is it used to actively include children’s and young people’s refer to the personal/individual? Or both? perspectives. Yet, research shows that their voices • Should worldview be split in two or three should be included to appropriately bring about levels? Should entirely different terms be used change in education (Smith, 2005; Shillitoe and on each level to avoid confusion? Strhan 2019; Shillitoe in press).

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